Chapter 8 - Bureaucracy

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman


Bureaucracy

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The Federal BureaucracyTrace the development of specific federal departments and agencies.

Departments and Independent AgenciesAnalyze the debate over whether the heads of federal agencies should be policy experts or loyal political appointees.

The Nature of BureaucracyDescribe the image people have of the federal bureaucracy, and evaluate the bureaucracy’s advantages and disadvantages.

The Lobbying Pathway and PolicymakingAssess the mechanisms and processes that influence and oversee the federal bureaucracy.

Key Objectives

8.1

12.8.4

8.3

8.2

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The Federal BureaucracyTrace the development of specific federal departments and agencies. 8.1

Back to Learning Objectives


Development of the Federal Bureaucracy

8.1


• Article I– Makes reference to congressional authority to “make

all laws necessary and proper for carrying into Execution . . . all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

• Thus the founding document explicitly acknowledged that government agencies, called “departments,” would be established to carry out laws and programs.


• Article II – Discusses the president and executive power,

and the need to create governmental departments that will execute the laws under the president’s supervision and control

– Specifically states that the president “may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices”

Development of the Federal Bureaucracy (cont’d)

8.1



The First Departments

• During the nation’s first century, the federal government was involved in only a limited range of policy areas.– Department of State—responsible for diplomacy and

foreign affairs– Department of War—responsible for military matters

and national defense– Department of Justice—responsible for legal matters

under federal law – Department of the Treasury—responsible for tax

revenues and government expenditures

8.1



The First Departments (cont’d)

• America began growing as the first wave of immigrants entered

• The economy transitioned from primarily agricultural as industrialization caused cities to grow

• Americans began leaving the farms and moving to the cities to find work– Departments of Labor and Commerce are

created

8.1



The New Deal and its Aftermath

• Franklin Roosevelt (1933–45) – Contributed enormously to the growth in the

federal bureaucracy– Created governmental programs in response

to the Great Depression and World War II• Public Works Administration (1933)• Tennessee Valley Authority (1933)• Federal Housing Administration (1934)• Securities and Exchange Commission (1934)• Social Security Administration (1935)• National Labor Relations Board (1935)

8.1



Growth in the Size of the Federal Bureaucracy

The Roosevelt administration’s programs to address the Depression and World War II dramatically increased the size of the federal bureaucracy.

8.1



Departments and Independent Agencies

• Departments– Commerce– Treasury

Analyze the debate over whether the heads of federal agencies should be policy experts or loyal political appointees.

8.2

• Independent agencies– Environmental Protection Agency– Food and Drug Agency

• Independent regulatory commission– Securities and Exchange Commission– Federal Communications Commission

• Government corporations– Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation– Pension Benefit Guarantee Corporation



Departments• Department of Energy

– Response to the crisis of the 1970s

• Department of Veterans Affairs– Made stand-alone because of the large numbers of

veterans needing care

• Department of Homeland Security– Created the TSA and consolidated several other

independent agencies in response to 9/11

8.2



Political Appointees in the Bureaucracy

• Cabinet meetings inform the president on the activities of each department

• Cabinet heads are appointed by the president and are expected to be loyal to the executive

• Appointments are often made as a reward for loyalty to the party or the president

• Appointments are also used as a meansto diversify staff

8.2



Independent Agencies, Independent Regulatory Commissions, and Government Corporations

• Often serve staggered terms so that no new president can replace the entire commission or board upon taking office– Federal Reserve Board

• Sometimes, appointees must contain a mix of Republicans and Democrats– Federal Communications Agency, Federal Trade

Commission• Some independent agencies are government corporations

with their own boards of directors– Smithsonian, Peace Corps or NASA

8.2



The Nature of Bureaucracy

• The negative image of the bureaucracy may be enhanced by Americans’ expectations that the government ought to operate for the benefit of the people

• Public frustration can be compounded by the fact that many government employees enjoy job protections that make them very difficult to fire

• Image is directly related to function

Describe the image people have of the federal bureaucracy, and evaluate the bureaucracy’s advantages and disadvantages.

8.3



The Advantages of Government Bureaucracy

• Bureaucracies provide a number of advantages for implementing laws and public policies– Standardization– Expertise and competence– Accountability– Coordination

• Merit–based hiring, as opposed to patronage allows for professionalization

8.3



The Advantages of Government Bureaucracy (cont’d)

Problematic for a number of reasons– High turnover– Lack of competence and professionalism– Inequitable distribution of service with rampant

corruption• Pendleton Act (1883)• Hatch Act (1939)

8.3



The Problems of Government Bureaucracy

• While the attempt to professionalize the bureaucracy has produced improvements, there are still problems– Proximity of decision-makers to delivery of

service– Resistance to change and innovation– Difficulties in implementing and monitoring

programs

8.3



Reform of the Bureaucracy• Some critics argue that alternative approaches to

implementation could reduce the problems of government bureaucracy– Decentralization

• Risk of inconsistent implementation– Privatization

• Controversial as cost-savings are often not seen and service delivery is inconsistent

• Inability to hold private companies accountable

– Creation of the SES

8.3



The Lobbying Pathway and Policymaking

• Regulations– The bureaucracy will promulgate rules and regulations

to implement policy• Oversight

– The bureaucracy works with the legislature on implementation

• Quasi-judicial role– The bureaucracy has an ‘administrative hearing”

process

Assess the mechanisms and processes that influence and oversee the federal bureaucracy8.4



The Bureaucracy and Legislation

• Iron triangle, issue networks or policy communities

• The “revolving door”

8.4



The Bureaucracy and Information

• Opposition to the president’s agenda• Testimony or reports to oversight committees• Whistleblowers

8.4



8.4


Regulations• Federal agencies may receive rule-making

authority within the law.• General statutory language can become the

basis for the bureaucracy’s development of its own precise rules

• Statutes written by Congress also specify the procedures that agencies must use in developing regulations and provides another pathway for participation

8.4



Quasi-Judicial Processes

• The bureaucracy affects policy in some agencies through hearings that look similar to the duties of courts in examining evidence and issuing decisions

• These administrative hearings are presided over by administrative law judges.

8.4



Oversight and Accountability 8.4


Members of the president’s cabinet heads get their jobs

A. like federal judicial appointments, they are nominated and confirmed by the Senate, for a lifetime appointment.

B. like ambassadors, they are nominated and confirmed by the Senate, serving at the leisure of the president.

C. because they are experts in their fields and are hired through the civil service.

D. after serving in the bureaucracy for many years and working their way up.



Members of the president’s cabinet heads get their jobs

A. like federal judicial appointments, they are nominated and confirmed by the Senate, for a lifetime appointment.

B. like ambassadors, they are nominated and confirmed by the Senate, serving at the leisure of the president.

C. because they are experts in their fields and are hired through the civil service.

D. after serving in the bureaucracy for many years and working their way up.



The reform giving greater independence to regional offices, allowing a closer connection to local issues and client populations is

A. decentralization.B. privatization.C. discretion.D. deregulation.



The reform giving greater independence to regional offices, allowing a closer connection to local issues and client populations is

A. decentralization.B. privatization.C. discretion.D. deregulation.



The earliest presidential cabinets contained which of the following?

A. Department of Public WorksB. Department of InteriorC. Department of CommerceD. Department of Treasury



The earliest presidential cabinets contained which of the following?

A. Department of Public WorksB. Department of InteriorC. Department of CommerceD. Department of Treasury



The largest expansion of the federal government occurred in what period?

A. Immediately following the Civil War as a part of Reconstruction

B. The early 1900s, as the economic and social structure of the country was changing

C. As a part of the Great Society, with the creation of programs to counter poverty

D. After 9/11, in response to terrorism and external threats



The largest expansion of the federal government occurred in what period?

A. Immediately following the Civil War as a part of Reconstruction

B. The early 1900s, as the economic and social structure of the country was changing

C. As a part of the Great Society, with the creation of programs to counter poverty

D. After 9/11, in response to terrorism and external threats



What do you think? Should nominees for Cabinet Secretaries

be experts in their respective fields?

YES. Americans have come to expect professionalism in the implementation of policies and as the head of an agency, a secretary should have more than a passing understanding of what that agency does.

NO. Heads of departments need not have expertise because they do not directly deliver services and rely upon the professional staff of their respective organizations to be the experts.



What do you think?When government corporations fail to

make a profit, should Congress ‘shut them down?

YES. Just like a failed business, government corporations which fail to earn a profit should be closed; otherwise, tax dollars are wasted.

NO. Government corporations are providing a service that the private sector would not because there isn’t enough profit margin to warrant it or ensure against monopolies.



Credits

250 U.S. Coast Guard photo by Petty Officer 3rd Class Ann Marie Gorden; 252 TongRo/Beateworks/Corbis; 255 Bettmann/ Corbis; 256 Cecil Stoughton/Bettmann/Corbis; 257 AP Images/Jakub Moser; 263 Carol T. Powers/Bloomberg/Getty Images; 264 Mario Tama/Getty Images; 268 Michael Fein/Bloomberg/Getty Images; 271 Luke Frazza/AFP/Getty Images; 275 Joshua Roberts/Bloomberg/Getty Images; 277, top to bottom: Kevin Lamargue/Reuters/Landov; Susan

Gaaghil/Reuters/Landov; AP Images/Gerard Herbert; Patrick Baz/

AFP/Getty Images


Career

Chapter 8 - Bureaucracy