The Persians very gradually converted to Islam from the mid 7th century and later adopted the Arabic alphabet. The artistic,

architectural, literary and other strands of Persian culture flowered again and again despite periodic waves of invaders and internal

rivalries.

The Safavid and Qajar dynasties preserved Iran from Ottoman expansion. Although it never became part of any European empire, Iran suffered the

effects of foreign imperialism which contributed to the rise of nationalism in the later 19th century. Iran is now a country of 66 million people, 99%

Muslim, with three main ethnic groups and three main languages.

Dress HistoryDress History

“… elements from a dress code practised in past centuries are pronounced ‘Islamic’ and people are forced to adopt them as a symbol of their ‘Islamic identity’. Present-day Iran provides numerous examples of ‘Islamic traditions’ whose origin, Islamic or otherwise, cannot easily be traced – they must be seen as traditions invented in the service of re-Islamisation.”

Feminism and Islamic Fundamentalism, Haideh Moghissi, 1999

““When they leave the house, they are wrapped from head to When they leave the house, they are wrapped from head to foot in a large white veil, covering everything except their foot in a large white veil, covering everything except their

eyes. This veil is usually made from a single piece of cloth. eyes. This veil is usually made from a single piece of cloth. They also wear bracelets of precious stones, and their fingers They also wear bracelets of precious stones, and their fingers are ornamented with rings. The women of the lower status are ornamented with rings. The women of the lower status

clothe themselves as well as they can.”clothe themselves as well as they can.”

Cornelius Le Brun, in Persia 1702-4Cornelius Le Brun, in Persia 1702-4

These women sitting in their separate area of a mosque in their white wraps have covered up their beautiful indoor clothes they wear for their picnic in a private garden.

Women in a mosque, 16th century.

Bodleian Library, Oxford

Ibn Battuta, in the Ibn Battuta, in the 14th century, wrote 14th century, wrote of the women of of the women of Shiraz,Shiraz,

““These wear boots, These wear boots, and when out of and when out of doors are swathed in doors are swathed in mantles and head-mantles and head-veils, so that no part veils, so that no part of them is to be of them is to be seen, and they are seen, and they are [noted for] their [noted for] their charitable alms and charitable alms and their liberality.”their liberality.”

The Travels of Ibn Battuta The Travels of Ibn Battuta 1325-13541325-1354

Life in Karbala would have been as restricted, if not more so, than in cities in Iran but as Life in Karbala would have been as restricted, if not more so, than in cities in Iran but as we can see there are still women in the streets.we can see there are still women in the streets.

Square of Karbala, Iraq.

Mirza-Mohammad-Khan Ghaffari, Golestan Palace, Tehran

Women preparing a picnic, 16th century.

Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris

Women and children in a park in Tehran,

1860s-90s. Middle East Centre, St

Anthony’s College, Oxford

Women at home in Isfahan, 1873-97.

Ernst Hoeltzer, Isfahan in Camera, 1976

“They had their own quarters at home and maintained their segregation when out of doors by dressing themselves in

voluminous trousers and an all-enveloping dark cloak or chadar over which a white veil – rouband – pierced

with an embroidered lattice for the eyes was fastened. This photograph shows

them at home in indoor dress consisting of a pirahan or long-sleeved shirt over a tumban or series of knee-length skirts.

The hair is modestly covered by a chargat – a square shawl folded in half

diagonally and fastened under the chin.”Isfahan in Camera, Jennifer Scarce, 1976

Ladies round a samovar, Isma’il Jala’ir, c 1865. This painting shows a wealth of royal harem court dress of that period. Victoria and Albert Museum, London

“While one of the late Shahs was visiting Europe he saw the ballet dance and his fancy was so taken by the costume, that on his return he ordered all the inmates of the royal harem to adopt the same dress; and as royalty always sets the fashion for the country, in a short time all the Muslim women of Persia had adopted this hideous fashion.The ladies do not like the fashion of the short skirts … So ashamed were some of the women of their short skirts, that they would often take their long, flowing chuddars from their heads and wrap them around their waists, giving the appearance of a draped skirt.”

Behind the Veil in Persia and Turkish Arabia, ME Hume-Griffith, 1909

Women in political Women in political strugglestruggle

“Veiling has become perhaps the central symbol of the Islamic Republic; the veil and “proper veiling” have become definitional symbols of a woman’s faith and loyalty. Although in traditional Islamic discourse the veil is related to modesty and morality, its transformation into a central symbolism of power has imbued it with a total religiopolitical significance as well.”

Women in Iran since 1979, Nikkie Keddie, Social Research, Vol. 67 No 2 Summer 2000

“They have a saying in Tehran that when the women take part in chuluk (riot) against a cabinet of the government, the situation has become serious.”

The Strangling of Persia, Morgan Shuster, (US financial adviser brought in to help with reforms)

1912

STOP PRESS – Nov. 30 1911 – TEHRAN

A demonstration in celebration of Iranian women getting the vote, 1963.

Mehr Iran, 1995

Pro-Khomeini meeting, Tabriz, December 1979-January 1980.

Telex Iran, Gilles Peress, 1997

“The “freedoms” and “rights” women had gained during the shah’s regime did not apply to everyone. Upper- and middle-class women, most of whom were educated and could afford a few dresses, enjoyed this apparent freedom, but most Iranian women, either because of poverty or religion, were still behind the veil. During the revolution these homebound women, suddenly given permission by their husbands to leave the house, poured into the streets.”

Gholam-Hossein Sa’edi, 1983, Telex Iran, Gilles Peress, 1997

The body is the instrument of the The body is the instrument of the soul , and the soul is divine air. This soul , and the soul is divine air. This sacred instrument must not become a sacred instrument must not become a plaything of the desires, passions, and plaything of the desires, passions, and debauchery of anyone. Attention: debauchery of anyone. Attention: Working sisters must observe the Working sisters must observe the following: a) At the place of work, they following: a) At the place of work, they must appear in full cover in conformity must appear in full cover in conformity with the presented models without any with the presented models without any sort of adornments; b) The color of the sort of adornments; b) The color of the manteau [the outer gown] should, manteau [the outer gown] should, preferably, be black, dark blue, brown, preferably, be black, dark blue, brown, or dark grey; c)The use of flat shoes in or dark grey; c)The use of flat shoes in the workplace is mandatory; d)The use the workplace is mandatory; d)The use of tight and fashionable clothing and of tight and fashionable clothing and any sort of makeup is prohibited. any sort of makeup is prohibited. Committed brothers and sisters, we Committed brothers and sisters, we are ready to receive your constructive are ready to receive your constructive opinions and suggestions with regard opinions and suggestions with regard to fighting social corruption.to fighting social corruption.

Pattern of Islamic hijab.Pattern of Islamic hijab.Decree of Imam Khomeini on the Decree of Imam Khomeini on the subject of Islamic coverage.subject of Islamic coverage.

Wall slogan – Tehran, The Veil Unveiled – Faeghal Shirazi

“The Iranian parliament has more women members than the US Senate. … What doesn’t penetrate Western consciousness, however, is that forced uncovering is also

a tool of oppression. During the reign of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in Iran, wearing the veil was prohibited. As an expression of their opposition to his

repressive regime, women who supported the 1979 Islamic Revolution marched in the street clothed in chadors. Many of them did not expect to have this “dress

code” institutionalised by those who led the revolution and then took power in the new government.”

An Identity Reduced to a Burka, Laila al-Marayati and Semeen Issa, 2002

Regarding Reza Shah’s unveiling policy of 1936:

“…where local authorities could not achieve central government orders through persuasion , they resorted to daily violence. This violence ranged

from dismissing women who refused to unveil from their jobs, to pressuring local bath attendants to report on women who went to public baths veiled (sometimes through roof hopping), to instructing shopkeepers to refuse

business and services to veiled customers, to tearing women’s veils in public. The similarities between these measures and those undertaken by the Islamic

Republic in the early 1980s to achieve reimposition of veiling are truly astounding.”

(Un)Veiling Feminism, Afsaneh Najmabadi, Social Text, 2000

The first women MPs.The first women MPs.

Pioneering Women of Iran, Mehr Iran, 1995Pioneering Women of Iran, Mehr Iran, 1995

Tehran, March 9, 2000

Women MPs Question Dress Codes

Four Iranian women newly elected to parliament are questioning the need to wear the chador, the black head-to-toe wrap which has been standard garb for female MPs since the 1979 revolution, a Tehran daily reported Thursday.

The four women, who won election on the reform ticket in last month’s polls, say a scarf concealing their hair and a long coat is sufficient to meet the requirements of Iran’s Islamic dress code.

“We are the revolution’s first generation, and we carried out this revolution wearing a coat,” said Tahereh Rezazadeh, who represents the southern city of Shiraz.

1936 Reza Shah

abolished the veil – police

removed women’s veils in the street.

1941 Reza Shah ousted –

clerics tried to bring back the

veil.

1979

Feb 11 Revolution

1979 March 8 International

Women’s Day celebration turns into

protest against veiling of women and

banning of Family Protect Law.

1980 Women required to wear hijab in all Government

offices

1984

street patrols to deal with violations of

hijab. No lipstick

1986 Revolutionary

Guards Corps – military training for women. 500

volunteer women

2000 Several liberal

women elected to Majlis. Debate about proper hijab. Should

women representatives wear chador or is proper

Islamic dress enough?

post 1979: Chronology of Events Regarding Women in Iran since the Revolution of 1979, Elfiam Gheytanchi, Social Research, Summer 2000

1983 Islamic

Punishment Law stating 74 lashes

required for not wearing

the strict hijab

Women continue to be arrested for Women continue to be arrested for improper veiling. improper veiling.

In November 1997, an Agence France Presse correspondent in Tehran witnessed approximately ten young women being arrested and placed into a patrol car for improper veiling or wearing clothing that did not conform to Islamic regulations. The women were wearing colorful headscarves and light make-up. In June Ayatollah Ali Khamenei told senior official that it was time "to crack down on wanton behavior by women." By mid-August 1,800 women and men had been arrested for "mal-veiling and lewd conduct." Most of the women were wearing makeup or in the company of young males who were not related to them. Women who fail to conform to the strict dress code are boarded on minibuses and taken to a center for fighting "social corruption."

Z Magazine, October 1998

Here and There, a Burst of Color Is Now Islamic

Under new guidelines issued by the ministry of Education, schoolgirls through fifth grade will

be allowed to wear “gay, light colors,” including light blue, beige, pink, light green

and yellow. Until now, only black, brown and navy blue were allowed.

“The use of light colors helps to create a cheerful atmosphere” and to “safeguard the

mental health of students,” the ministry directive stated. But “loud and gaudy colors”

that are “not in harmony with the spirit of education” will not be allowed. Although the all-encompassing black chador remains the favoured Islamic dress, it “in no way can be imposed upon students,” the directive said.

July 23, 2000 – New York Times

Iranian women Iranian women vote for vote for reform, reform,

February February 2000.2000.

Vahid Salemi/AP/AAP

Codes, Modes and Codes, Modes and CustomsCustoms

“Modern Iranian history may best exemplify the many possible alterations in the meaning of the veil: in 1936, Reza

Shah abolished the veil because he saw it as a sign of backwardness; in 1979, the Islamic Republic of Iran forced

women to adopt the veil because the Iranian clergy regards it as a sign of progress along the ideological path of Islam.

In a period of less than 50 years, the rulers of Iran have allotted the veil diametrically opposed meanings.”

The Veil Unveiled – The Hijab in Modern Culture, Faeghah Shirazi, 2001

“The Iranian woman was forced to unveil to fit Reza Shah’s delusions of grandeur and forced to reveil to fit Ayatollah Khomeini’s visions of true religion. She was told that by donning the veil, she would

fend off the assault of Western culture. She was told that by sending her son to martyrdom, she would help save the Islamic

Republic of Iran and support the defence of Islam. Ten years after the war with Iraq, she was told that by not veiling according to the

guidelines of the clergy, she would cause the downfall of the Islamic Republic. In Iranian politics, the veil has proved to be the

most effective weapon of the rulers, secular and clerical.”

Shirazi, 2001

These two young These two young women display women display very similar very similar characteristics of characteristics of strength, self-strength, self-confidence and confidence and attitude despite attitude despite their different their different styles of dress.styles of dress.

Young woman near Isfahan, 1938.

A Brett, Images of

Women 1939

Young woman in Iran, 1998.Rex Features,

New Internationalis

t 1998

In contrast, these two In contrast, these two images both show images both show women together in women together in space and time, but space and time, but

their dress and their dress and gestures speak of great gestures speak of great

differences in differences in character, class and character, class and

wealth.wealth.

Women and children in a city street, c 1937.

De Lindt, Mondiale, Women of All Lands, 1939

Sattareh Farman-Farmaian and friend. Farman Farmaian helped to shape the social work school and the profession of social work in Iran.

Mehr Iran, 1995

photos: Tavoos, Iranian Art Quarterly, 2000 and 2001

While mullahs and politicians continue to be obsessed with items of dress, Iranian women become more creative and artistically productive in all art forms. What is important and relevant about these women - and all artists - is their creativity and not whether or how they wear a headcover.

"I view it as a kind of work uniform," claimed one female journalist. "I'm far more concerned

about press restrictions than about dress codes."

Iranian Women’s situation has

improved since the Islamic Republic, William Beeman, 2001

““The notion that The notion that hejabhejab fights consumerism and erases class fights consumerism and erases class distinctions is also wishful thinking at best. Class divisions in fact distinctions is also wishful thinking at best. Class divisions in fact

are deepening among women in the Middle East and North Africa. … are deepening among women in the Middle East and North Africa. … In Iran well-to-do women hide bold European fashions under the In Iran well-to-do women hide bold European fashions under the

chadorchador. It is a known fact that the ayatollahs’ wives and daughters . It is a known fact that the ayatollahs’ wives and daughters and nouveau-riche mullahs are regular customers in exclusive and nouveau-riche mullahs are regular customers in exclusive

boutiques selling brand-name imported clothing which other middle-boutiques selling brand-name imported clothing which other middle-class women cannot afford to buy. Even the material used for the class women cannot afford to buy. Even the material used for the

chadorchador itself varies considerably, signalling clear differences in class itself varies considerably, signalling clear differences in class and wealth.”and wealth.”

Feminism and Islamic Fundamentalism, Haideh Moghissi, 1999Feminism and Islamic Fundamentalism, Haideh Moghissi, 1999

Meanwhile nomadic and rural women continue to wear their traditional dress. Neither work nor dress has changed much over a century for these carpet weavers.

Girls weaving on a vertical loom,

c.1892.

Nikkie R Keddie 1999

Carpet weavers,

Ghashghaie tribe, Fars province.

Iran, a visual journey, 1995

The Kurds traditionally lived mainly in the mountains and uplands where Turkey, Iraq and Iran meet, in the area known as Kurdistan for hundreds of years. Although the Kurdish people are overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim, they embrace Jews, Christians, Yazidis and other sects. Of the 20 million Kurds in the late 1990s, half lived in Turkey and a quarter in Iran where they make up 10% of its people. Ethnically close to the Iranians they were traditionally nomadic herders but are now mostly semi-nomadic or sedentary. Dress is an important part of Kurdish culture.

“The style varies from one clan to another. Among the Banjanlu younger women tend to wear yellow or red velvet skirts decorated with bands of seven colours. They make the skirts from bought velvet, sew on the bands of seven colours, and sew patterned materials inside the hem. The hems of the skirts of older women, on the other hand, are decorated with striped or plain material. Amongst the Topkanlu, unmarried girls wear velvet skirts decorated with seven colours while the older women wear plain red skirts. Varanlu girls wear skirts of dark blue velvet with white flowers, and married women wear plain dark blue.”

Kurds of Khorasan, Mohammed-Hossein Papoli-Yazdi, The Nomadic Peoples of Iran, Tapper and Thompson, 2002

“All Qashqa’i women wear the same style of clothes, whatever their age or the event. What varies is the colour of the fabric from which the costume is sewn, and it does so according to the age of the wearer and nature of the occasion. Thus dress for ceremonial occasions is not marked by variation in style; instead, colour and a fixed combination of garments identify the costume’s function.”

The Qashqa’i, Yassaman Amir-Moez, The Nomadic Peoples of Iran, Tapper and Thompson, 2002

A woman of the Qahremanlu clan preparing to load the camels.Nasrollah Kasraian, The Nomadic Peoples of Iran, 2002

Two women of the Za’faranlu clan 1984Kasraian, 2002