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PraiseforTheGlobalBrain
“TheGlobalBrainprovokesinnovationpractitionerswithfreshconceptualandpracticalinsightsasitexplorestherapidlyevolvinglandscapeofnetwork-centricinnovationthatpromisestoachievehigher
innovationproductivity.Amustreadforglobalcorporationsseekingto
differentiatethemselvesthroughinnovationinahighlycompetitive
marketplace.”
—UmaChowdhry,SeniorVicePresidentand
ChiefScienceandTechnologyOfficer,DuPont
“Youcannotgetcomfortableintoday’sworld.You
continuallyneedtothinkofwhatisnextandhowyoucanimproveuponwhereyouare
today.TheGlobalBrainwillnotgiveyoutheanswers—nobookwill.
Whatthisbookdoes,backedbythoroughresearch,ishelpyoutoopenupthebroadrangeofoptionsandopportunitiesavailabletosuccessfullyinnovatewithin
yourspecificenvironment—thisiswhereIseeTheGlobalBrainasacompetitiveadvantage.”
—JeffJansma,Director,NewProductCommercialization,
HermanMiller
“YouwillfindyourselfreferringoftentoTheGlobalBrainasyouchartyourcourseforwardonnetwork-
centricinnovationapproaches.A
mustreadbookonthistopic.”
—VijayGovindarajan,EarlC.DaumProfessorofInternational
Business,TuckSchool,Dartmouth,Co-author,
TenRulesforStrategic
Innovators
“Innovationinthe21stcenturyrequiresafundamentalshiftinthinkingandapproach.NambisanandSawhneyofferasystematicandinci-
siveanalysisofthediverseopportunitiesavailabletocompaniestotapintotheGlobalBrain.Youwillcomeawaywithaclear
understandingofthebestoptionsforyourcompany,andthemosteffectivemeanstopursuethem.Asuperbbook!”
—DenisBrowne,SeniorVicePresident,Imagineering,SAPLabs
“Thisbookprovidesanengagingandinsightfulaccountofaphenome-
nonthatisofinteresttopractitionersandtheoristsalike.Innovationisnolongerconfinedwithinfirmboundariesandtheincreasinglydistributedmodelofinnovationisamplyevidenttomostobservers.Readerswillfindasuccinctandpowerfulsetofideasonthisnovelphenomenon.Amustreadformanagersandresearchers.”
—RanjayGulati,MichaelL.NemmersDistinguishedProfessor
ofStrategyandOrganizations,KelloggSchoolofManagement
“Successfulinnovationisadifficult,oftenconfusing,wilderness-likejourney.Thisbookgivesyouthemapandthetoolstomasterthechallengesandforgeahigh
speedpathtoinnovativesuccess.”
—TobyRedshaw,CorporateVicePresident,Innovation,DataEnabling
PlatformsandArchitecture,Motorola
“TheGlobalBraincapturesthemindandimaginationinstantly!Itsfocusonprofitablegrowth,lessonon
“howthemightycanstumble,”
insightson“Network-Centricity,”andaroadmapfornavigatingthe
landscapeforinnovation,makeitaverycompellingbooktoread.
Executivesatmiddletoseniorlevels,whowanttogobeyondcompanywallsto
innovate,compete,andgrowmustreadNambisanand
Sawhney’sTheGlobalBrain.”
—HaritTalwar,ExecutiveVicePresident,DiscoverFinancialServices
“Theworldinwhichwedevelopproductsandserviceshasforever
changedandTheGlobalBrainisagreataidinunderstandinghow.
Thisbookhastherightcombinationoftheory,practicalexamplesandframeworkstohelpadvancethewaycompaniesthinkaboutinnovation.Itshouldberequiredreadingformanagersinbothlargeandsmallenterprises.”
—RodNelson,VicePresident,
InnovationandCollaboration,Schlumberger
THE
GLOBAL
BRAIN
Thispageintentionallyleftblank
THE
GLOBAL
BRAIN
YourRoadmapforInnovating
FasterandSmarter
inaNetworkedWorld
SATISHNAMBISAN
MOHANBIRSAWHNEY
VicePresident,Publisher:TimMoore
AssociatePublisherandDirectorofMarketing:AmyNeidlinger
WhartonEditor:Yoram(Jerry)Wind
AcquisitionsEditor:MarthaCooley
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DevelopmentEditor:RussHall
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Compositor:NonieRatcliff
ManufacturingBuyer:DanUhrig
©2008byPearsonEducation,Inc.
PublishingasWhartonSchoolPublishing
UpperSaddleRiver,NewJersey07458
WhartonSchoolPublishingoffersexcellentdiscountsonthisbookwhenorderedinquantityforbulkpurchasesorspecialsales.Formoreinformation,pleasecontactU.S.CorporateandGovernmentSales,1-800-382-3419,[email protected].,[email protected].
Companyandproductnamesmentionedhereinarethetrademarksorregisteredtrademarksoftheirrespectiveowners.
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproduced,inanyformorbyanymeans,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.
PrintedintheUnitedStates
ofAmerica
FirstPrintingOctober2007
ISBN-100-13-233951-X
ISBN-13978-0-13-233951-3
PearsonEducationLTD.
PearsonEducationAustraliaPTY,Limited.
PearsonEducation
Singapore,Pte.Ltd.
PearsonEducationNorthAsia,Ltd.
PearsonEducationCanada,Ltd.
PearsonEducatióndeMexico,S.A.deC.V.
PearsonEducation—Japan
PearsonEducationMalaysia,
Pte.Ltd.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Nambisan,Satish
Theglobalbrain:yourroadmapforinnovatingfasterandsmarterinanetworkedworld/SatishNambisan,MohanbirSawhney.
p.cm.
ISBN0-13-233951-X(hardback:alk.paper)1.Technologicalinnovations—Management.
2.Businessenterprises—Technologicalinnovations.3.Businessnetworks.I.Sawhney,MohanbirS.II.Title.
HD45.S3242008
658.4’063—dc22
2007026100
ToPriyaandParminder
Thispageintentionallyleftblank
CONTENTS
Foreword...............................xvii
Introduction..............................1
PartIFromFirm-CentrictoNetwork-Centric
Innovation...................................9
Chapter1
ThePowerofNetwork-Centricity..............11
Chapter2
UnderstandingNetwork-CentricInnovation.....29
PartIITheLandscapeofNetwork-CentricInnovation......49
Chapter3
TheFourModelsofNetwork-Centric
Innovation..............................51
Chapter4
InnovationNetworks:ThePlayersand
thePlays...............................67
PartIIITheFourModelsofNetwork-CentricInnovation.....83
Chapter5
TheOrchestraModel.......................85
Chapter6
TheCreativeBazaarModel.................113
Chapter7
TheJamCentralModel....................139
Chapter8
TheMOD(“MODification”)StationModel......157
ix
x
THEGLOBALBRAIN
PartIVExecutingNetwork-CentricInnovation...........175
Chapter9
DecidingWhereandHowtoPlay............177
Chapter10PreparingtheOrganization................197
PartVGlobalizationandNetwork-CentricInnovation.....217
Chapter11Globalizing
Network-CentricInnovation:
TheDragonandtheTiger..................219
Chapter12ConcludingThoughts&Actionsfor
“Monday”Morning…....................237
References............................253
Index..................................267
Acknowledgments
Writingthisbookhasbeenalaborofloveforbothofus,butithasbeenalaborthathasbeengenerouslyencouragedandsupportedbyalargenumberofpeoplewhocontributedtheirtimeandthoughtsandto
whomweacknowledgeourdeepgratitude.
OurinteractionswithUmaChowdhryofDuPont,IrvingWladawsky-
BergerandDanMcGrathofIBM,TomCripeofP&G,andDebraParkofDialCorporationwereinstrumentalinshapingourearlyideasandtheframeworkspresentedinthis
book.Wealsobenefitedtremendously
fromourconversationswiththefollowingpeople,eachofwhomgenerouslygavetheirtimeandsharedtheirinsightsonvarioustopics:DaveBayless,HenryChesbrough,SteveCugine,DavidDuncan,JevinEagle,
GaryEinhaus,RobertFinnochiaro,JohnFunk,
HarveyGideon,Sharon
Grosh,AdamGross,LaurieKien-Kotcher,BillLazaroff,Stephen
Mallenbaum,RichardMarken,StephenMaurer,GreggMcPherson,Kim
Pugliese,ArtiRai,AndrejSali,CatherineStrader,ScottStrode,GingerTaylor,DaveWeaver,BrandonWilliams,
DavidYlitalo,andDavidYuan.
Therearemanyothers—bothinacademiaandintheindustry—who
critiquedourideasandofferedthoughtfulcommentsandsuggestions
andtowhomwearemuchindebted.
Severalpeoplehelpedusinorganizingourinterviewsandmanagingourschedulesrelatedtothisbook.WewouldliketothankJeffHornforassistingusinourresearch,andwewouldalsoliketothankGordonEvans,JeffLeroy,AnnSchmidt,andseveralotherswhohelpedusin
identifyingtheappropriatepersoninthevarious
organizationsand
schedulingourinterviews.RahiGurungprovidedvaluableadministra-
tiveassistanceatKellogg.
SatishwouldliketoacknowledgehisgratitudetotheKelloggSchoolofManagementandtotheCenterforResearchinTechnology&
Innovation(CRTI)atNorthwesternUniversityforgenerouslyhosting
xi
xii
THEGLOBALBRAIN
hissabbaticalandfacilitatingtheinitialresearchworkthatledtothisbook.HewouldliketothankDeanDipakJain
ofKelloggforhisencouragementandinterestinthisproject.HewouldalsoliketothankRanjayGulati,JimConley,MarkJeffrey,RobWolcott,andotherfriendsandcolleaguesatKelloggandCRTIforbeingveryhelpfulandformakinghisstaybothenjoyableandintellectuallystimulating.
SatishalsothanksRobertBaron—hisfriend,mentor,
andcolleagueatRensselaerPolytechnicInstitute(RPI)—forhisintellectualpartnershipandpatienceasaco-authorinhisotherresearchprojectsduringthewritingofthisbook.HewouldalsoliketoexpresshisappreciationtoPresidentShirleyJacksonandotheracademicleadersatRPIforpromotingresearchoninnovationmanagementandforbringingavibrant,inter-
disciplinaryfocustothisimportanttopic.
SatishwouldliketoexpresshisdeepgratitudetohiswifePriyaforherboundlessenthusiasm,constantencouragement,andforbelievingin
thisbookfromthefirstdayonward.Shefoundthetime—amidherownhecticscheduleasafirst-year
assistantprofessor—toreadtheindividualchaptersandgivecommentsandsuggestionsandtoserveatvari-
oustimesasasoundingboard,cheerleader,critic,editor,andadvisor.
Herunwaveringloveandfriendshipandheradventurousmindcontin-
uetobethesourceofjoy,inspiration,andstrengthforSatishinhisworkandlife.
MohanwouldliketothankalltheparticipantsoftheKelloggInnovationNetworkwhohavesupportedourresearchandhaveservedasavaluablesoundingboardforourideas.HewouldparticularlyliketothankBlytheMcGarveyforherincisivecommentsonthe
manuscript,Rob
Wolcottforhisintellectualpartnership,TobyRedshawforhisintellectualprovocation,andMarkKarasekforhisunwaveringsupportoftheKIN.MohanwouldalsoliketothankDeanDipakJainforbelievinginhimandtheCenter’smission,aswellasallhiscolleaguesintheCenter,includingJamesConley,
MarkJeffery,RobWolcott,andBobCooper.
MohanwouldalsoliketoexpresshisprofoundgratitudetohisnewwifeParminderforbeingpatientwithhimashewasworkingonthebook
whilemanagingalong-distancerelationship.Herloveandsupportwastheguidinglightthatkept
Mohangoing.AndMohanwouldliketothankhiskidsAshaandBundevforthejoytheybringtohislife,andforstayingoutofthewaywhileDadworkedonthebook!
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
xiii
WewouldliketothankJerryWindofWhartonforbelievinginourideasforthis
bookanddrivingustoactuallystartwritingit.WewouldalsoliketothankTimMoore,RussHall,MarthaCooley,ChelseyMarti,andtherestoftheWhartonSchoolPublishingteamfortheircommitment
andenthusiasticsupport.ThanksarealsoduetoTomStewartandPaulHempofHarvardBusinessReviewfortheirsupportand
encouragementofourideas.
Thispageintentionallyleftblank
AbouttheAuthors
SatishNambisanisaprofessoroftechnologymanagementandstrategyattheLallySchoolofManagement,RensselaerPolytechnicInstituteinTroy,NewYork.Heisaglobally
recognizedresearcherandthought-leaderintheareasofinnovationmanagementandtechnologystrategy,andhisrecentresearchworkhasfocusedoncustomerco-innovation,
network-centricinnovation,andIT-enabledproductdevelopment.His
researchhasbeenpublishedinpremiermanagement
journalssuchas
HarvardBusinessReview,MITSloanManagementReview,ManagementScience,andAcademyofManagementReview.Throughhisconsultingworkandexecutivelectures,Satishhashelpedmany
companiesintheUnitedStates,Singapore,andIndiainmanaginginnovationand
productdevelopment.Priortojoiningtheacademia,Satishheldexecutivepositionsattheconsumer-productsgiantUnileverPlc.
inMumbai,India.Moredetailsabouthisresearchandconsultingare
availableatwww.satish-nambisan.com.
MohanbirSawhneyisthe
McCormickTribuneProfessorofTechnology
andtheDirectoroftheCenterforResearchinTechnology&
InnovationattheKelloggSchoolofManagement,Northwestern
University.Heisawidelypublishedexpertintheareasofinnovation,marketing,and
strategy.HehasauthoredseveralinfluentialarticlesinpublicationsliketheHarvardBusinessReviewandtheMITSloanManagementReview.Hiscontributionstotheliteratureoninnovationincludeconceptslikemediatedinnovation,community-centricinnovation,andcollaborativeinnovationwithcustomersinanetworked
world.HeconsultswithandadvisesdozensofGlobal2000companies
aroundtheworld.Thisishisfourthbook.
xv
Thispageintentionallyleftblank
Foreword
WhenSatishandMohanaskedmetowritetheforewordtothisbook,Icouldhardlycontainmyenthusiasm.NotonlywasIalreadyimmersed
inthesubjectmatterbyvirtueofmyjob,butIsawanopportunitytosummarizesomefouryearsofacuteobservationandlearningona
topicthatisdrivinganew
levelofglobal,socio-economictransformation.Weareinthemidstofoneofthoserareinflectionpointsthatwillforeverchangethewayworkisconducted,thewaynewopportunityiscreated,andhowvalueisextractedfromourendeavors.Ofcourse,wearetalkingabouttheuniquely21stcenturyphenomenaofcollaborativeinnovation.
Certainlyitisoneveryone’sminds.CEOs,governmentofficials,academicandcommunityleadersaroundtheworldareallcountingon“innovation”tobethefundamentaldriverofeconomicopportunity,jobcreation,businesscompetitivenessandadvancesineducation,healthcare,andavastrangeofotherdisciplines.Investingininnovation,theysay,isthe
surestwaytosurviveandthriveintoday’scomplex,connectedworld.
Butwhatdotheyreallymeanwhentheytalkaboutinnovation?Insidetheinformationtechnologyindustry,innovationhasbeendefinedhistoricallybytheprocessofinventionanddiscovery,anddrivenbyinvestmentsinResearchandDevelopment.BellLabs,
XeroxPARCandIBM
Research,alongwithbasicresearchprogramsattheworld’sleadinguniversities,epitomizedtheinnovationenginesofthe20thcentury.
Theyalsooperatedinclassic“ivorytower”mode—highlysecretiveandproprietaryintheirapproaches,sharinglittlewithothersand,asaresult,sometimessuffering
frompain-stakinglyslowpathstomarketfortheirbestideas.
Buttheworldhaschangeddramaticallyoverthepastdecade—and
evenmoreso,thebasicnatureofinnovationitself.Thisshiftfirstbecameevidentearlierthisdecade.
xvii
xviii
THEGLOBALBRAIN
Earlyin2004,Ihadthegreatprivilegeofparticipatingintwomajorinitiativestostudyhowandwhythenatureofinnovationischangingandtheimpactonbusiness,governments,andourglobalsociety.ThefirstwastheNationalInnovationInitiative(NII),aspecial
studygroupsponsoredbytheCouncilonCompetitiveness.TheNIIcomprisedsome200
CEOs,universitypresidentsandlaborleaderswhosecollectivemissionwastohelprestartAmerica’sinnovationengine.
Aroundthesametime,IBMlaunchedauniqueprojectcalledtheGlobalInnovationOutlook(GIO)—avastly
differentwayofidentifyingand
actingonemergingtrends,policymatters,andmarketopportunities,drivenbyinputfromhundredsofbigthinkersinadiverserangeofdisciplinesaroundtheworld.
Wealllearnedagreatdealfromthoseexercises.Itseemsobviousnow,butperhapsthemostvaluable
findingwasdeepnewinsightintothe
sweepingshiftinthewayinnovationiscreated,managedanddelivered.
Sowhyhasthenatureofinnovationchangedsodramatically?There
aremanyfactors,including:thedynamicsofaflatteningworld,themarchof
commoditization,therapidandglobaladoptionofnewtechnologies,andparticularly,theopenmovement.
Innovationhappensmuchfastertoday,anditdiffusesmuchmorerap-
idlyintooureverydaylives.Itnolongeristhedomainofasolitarygeniusseekingtotaketheworldbystorm.
Instead,innovationis
increasingly:
Global.Thewidespreadadoptionsofnetworkedtechnologiesandopenstandardshaveremovedbarriersofgeographyandaccessibility.
Billionsofpeople,eveninthemostremoteregionsoftheworld,haveready,
affordableaccesstoadvancedwirelesstechnologiesandthe
Internet.Hitchinghigh-speedridesontheseplatforms,ideasnowcir-cumnavigatetheglobeinamatterofminutes,ifnotseconds.Asa
result,almostanyonewithagoodideacannowparticipateintheinnovationeconomy.
Multidisciplinary.Becausetheglobalchallengeswefacetodayarefarmorecomplex,innovationnowrequiresadiversemixoftalentand
expertise.
Considerthemappingofthehumangenome.Untilrecently,thattype
ofresearchcouldonlybeconductedinwetlabs,inthe
physicalrealm.
FOREWORD
xix
Butnow,incredibleadvancesininformationtechnologymakeitprac-
ticaltomodelandprocessgeneticinformationinwaysneverbefore
possible.
LifeSciencesjustmayverywellbethedefiningscienceofthe21stcentury.Atitscoreistheapplicationofsiliconchips,databasesoftwareandpowerful,lightningquickcomputers.Tobealeaderinthisemergingfield,youneedtobeasknowledgeableandfacileinthesedomainsasyouareinbiologyand
relatedsciences.That’sadauntingand
unprecedentedchallenge,butalsoafruitfulapproachtounlockingnewideasandapproachestodiscoverythatmightnothaveotherwise
emerged.
CollaborativeandOpen.Justabouteverystudyoninnovationidentifiesthe
powerofcollaborationandcommunitiesasoneofthemajor
forcesdrivinginnovationintoday’senvironment.OurfirstGIOexercise,forexample,identifiedthe“powerofnetworks”asoneofitstopfindings.Participantstoldusthat,increasingly,theirpowercomeslargelyfromtheirabilitytotapinto—and
sometimestransform—alargernetworkofpeopleandideas.
Similarly,moreandmorebusinessesrecognizethattherearealot
morecapabilitiesforinnovationinthemarketplacethantheycouldtrytocreateontheirown,nomatterhowbigandpowerfulthecompany.
Oneofthekeythemesthatemergedfroma2006CEOstudywecon-
ductedwasthatexternalcollaborationisindispensableforinnovation.
Weinterviewednearly800CEOs,representingawideswathofgeo-
graphicareas,arangeofannualrevenues,and
everythingfromsmallandmediumbusinessestolarge,globalenterprises.Whenaskedwhichsourcestheircompaniesreliedonfortheirinnovativeideas,“businesspartners”wererightnearthetopofthelist,justbehindthegeneralemployeepopulation.
“Customers”roundedoutthetopofthelist,meaningthatthetopthreesignificantsourcesofinnovativeideas
arepredicatedonopen,collaborativeapproaches,includingreachingoutsidetheorganization.Infact,CEOssaidtheyaregettingabouttwiceasmanyinnovationinsightsfromcustomersastheyarefromtheirownsalesandserviceorganizations.
Perhapsmostsurprisingwasthat“InternalR&D”wassecond-to-lastonthelist.As
acareerengineerandscientist-turnedbusinessman,Iwouldxx
THEGLOBALBRAIN
arguethatthosewhodonotseevaluereturningfromtheirR&Dinvestmentsarenotmanagingtheirportfoliostoreflectthechangesunderwayinthemarketplace.Inotherwords,theystillarenotcollaboratingexternally
andworkingdirectlywiththeircustomers.IBMResearchisinthemidstofarenaissanceasaresultofembracingmarketinput.Butthat’sprobablyfodderforanotherbookentirely.
TheCEOsalsotoldusthatpartnering—whethercrossinginternalor
externalboundaries—iseasyinprinciple,butvery
difficultinpractice.
Thisisnotatallsurprising.Workingwithdifferentgroupstoachievecommonobjectivesusuallyrequiresachangeinthecultureofmost
organizations,andculturaltransformationsmaybethehardestofall.
Iamconvincedthattotrulyembraceacultureof
collaborationyou
mustacceptlimitationsinyourabilitytogetthingsdonewithouthelp.
Thisisparticularlyimportantforthosecompanies,likeIBM,whoareaddressingproblemsinbusiness,government,healthcare,technology,andsciencethatareverysophisticatedinnatureandpushingthelimits
ofwhatispossible.Wehavelearnedthatwecannotworkonproblemssuchasinformation-basedmedicine,integratedsupplychainsoradvancedengineeringdesignunlesswehaveestablishedaveryclose
relationshipwithclients,businesspartners,andevenothervendorswhomightverywellbecompetitors.
Insuchanenvironment,toboastaboutbeing“thebest”wouldfranklybeconsideredcrass,asignofcorporateinsecurityratherthanthe
strengthofaconfidentleader.Instead,youwanttobeknownasacompanythathelpsallthevariousmembersoftheteamsucceedinwhat-
everproblemsarebeing
addressed.Ratherthanclaimingthatyouarethemostinnovativeofcompanies,youwanttobeknownasacompanythathelpsthosewithwhomyouworkbecomemoreinnovative
themselves.
Theopenmovementmakesallofthatpossible.Itholdsthepotentialtospark
remarkableinnovation—andalsoturnhistoricalcoststructuresandinvestmentmodelsontheirears.TheLinuxoperatingsystem,forexample,isownedbynoone,yetownedbyeveryoneatthesametime.
Thousandsuponthousandsofprogrammersaroundtheworldcon-
tributetoitandmakeit
better,creatingachecksandbalancessystemthatwouldbeimpossiblewithproprietary,closedsystems.
FOREWORD
xxi
Historically,weknowittakesabout$1billiontobringanenterprise-readyoperatingsystemtothemarketplaceforone
computingplatform.
Byworkingwiththeopencommunity,weatIBMwereabletogetLinuxacrossourentireproductlinewithaboutone-fifththeinvestmentwewouldnormallymakeforjustoneplatform.WediditthroughacombinationofLinuxcodedevelopedbythecommunity,Linuxcodewecon-
tributedtotheopencommunity,andLinuxcodewedevelopedunique-
lytobettersupportitonourproducts.Asaresult,ourofferingsarebettertested,morerobustandaremarket-readymoreimmediately.
Theopenmovementcreatesacommonbaseforinfrastructure,sothat
thewheelneverhastobere-invented.Thebasicsarealreadythereandagreed-uponbytheglobalcommunity.Thatenablescreatorsto
leapfrogoverthemundane,andjumprighttotheinnovative—being
assuredthattheinfrastructureissoundandsecurebecauseithasbeen
refinedandtemperedbygreatthinkersaroundtheworld.
Whenmorepeoplehaveaccesstothebuildingblocksofinnovation,
richnewperspectivesanddiverseinfluencesareinjectedintothecreativeprocess.Peoplebegintothinkinaninterdependent,collaborativeway—across
disciplines,andcollaboratingattheintersectionsbetweenthem.
Trueinnovation,then,isdrivenbytheecosystem;bylisteningtoandlearningfromthevariousconstituentswithwhomyouexchangedialogandwhomayaddvaluetothediscussion.Byembracingyourecosystem,youteardowntheboundariesofculture,geographyand
organizationtorapidlygenerateideasandactonchanges.
Thefirststepismodelingyourorganization’sownecosystem—allthemajorconstituencygroupsthatarevitaltoyourbusinesssuccess.Iofferoneapproachhere(seethefollowingFigure)simplyasaframework.Therereallyisnorightorwrongmodel,unless
youchoosetogoitalone.
Second,youneedtocommittoatwo-waydialoguewitheachofthese
constituencies—andalsofosterinteractionbetweenthem,bothwith
youandwithoutyou.Youcannotcontrolthemanymore,orsimply
pumpone-waymessagesanddemandsouttothem.Theywillgoelse-
whereandcollaboratewithmorereceptivepartners.
xxii
THEGLOBALBRAIN
ISVs
Venture
Business
Capitalists
Partners
Community
Alumni
Leaders
Regulatory
Universities
Innovation
Bodies
Ecosystem
Standards
Policymakers
Bodies
Employees
Competitors
Clients
Investors
Networksarenotanewidea,ofcourse.Thebusinessworldhasalwayscomprisedconstellationsofpeopleworkingtogethertocreatevalue.
Butinthepast,those
relationshipshavegenerallybeenmorelimitedandexclusionaryinnature,boundbystrictlydefinedlegalagreementsandfinancialunderstandings.
Overthepastdecade,however,theproliferationofcommunication
networkshasnotonlyconnectedpeople,placesandideasinunprece-
dentedways,butalsocatalyzedtheevolutionofsocialstructures.Withthefreedomtotranscendphysicalandgeographicbordersmoreeasily,wearemorewillingtopartnerinsideandoutsideourtraditionalboundariesoforganizationsandcountries.
Becauseofthatshift,the20th-centurybusinessenterpriseasweknowit
couldbehistory.Increasingly,themotivatingforcethatbringspeopletogetherforworkisless“abusinessorganization”andmorethecollectiveenterprise—activitiesdrivenbyacommonsetofinterests,goalsorvalues.
Thetrendisaccelerating,anditwillhaveprofoundimplicationsonhowcompaniesthinkabout
everythingfromleadershiptomanaging
andmotivatingglobaltalent.Itwillchangethewaycompanies
approachinnovationitself.
FOREWORD
xxiii
Asboundariesdissolve,as
morefluidrelationshipsform,asecosystemsexpand,andasnetworksgetlarger,theverynatureofdecision-makingforindividuals,businesses,andtheworldtakesonanewshape.Localactionsnowhaveglobalconsequences,andthereverseistrueaswell.
Topursueopen,collaborativeinnovation,enterprisessimplymustfindwaystotap
intothepotentialoftheskill,talent,andcreativityofpeoplefromdifferentteamsindifferentorganizationsacrosstheglobe.Acompanycanonlybeasinnovativeasthecollectivecapacityofthe
peoplewhomakeupitsecosystem.Andtoattractandretaintalentedpeople,acompanymustenablethosepeopletofeelrespected,asindividuals,asprofessionals
andasmembersofateam.Thecompanymusttrustthosepeopleandencouragethemtocollaborateandinnovate
withcolleaguesinsideandoutsidethebusiness,drivenasmuchby
prideofcontributionasbyloyaltytothecompany.
Thesenewmodelsfor
collaborationofferafinancialpayoffaswell.
Studiesshowthatcompaniesthatoutperformtheirpeergroupsare
muchmorelikelytohaveadoptedbusinessmodelsthatfocusoncore
expertiseandcollaborationwithpartners,ratherthanbystrengtheningtheircommand
andcontrolposture.
ConsiderBhartiTele-Ventures,thelargestprivatetelephonecompanyinIndia.Itrecentlyoutsourcedandintegrateditscorefunctions—suchasnetworkandprogrammanagement,helpdesksupport,disasterrecovery,IT,andbilling—whichfreedittofocusexclusivelyonmarketingandcustomerservicestrategies.
Asaresult,Bhartitripleditssubscriberbase—from6millionto18millionsubscribers—injust20months.
Butsuccessstorieslikethatdonotcomeeasy.Asfewercompanies
directlycontrolallaspectsoftheiroperations,itbecomeshardertoensurethatbrandexperienceconsistentlylives
uptobrandpromise.
Howcanacompanyensurethattheindividualsandbusinesspartners
whopoweritsnetworkfullyunderstanditsbrandandaremotivatedtoprotectandupholdit?
DuringtheGlobalInnovationOutlooksessions,severalparticipants
advancedaconceptbuiltaroundtheterm“ReputationCapital.”It
describesakindofcurrencyforbuildingtrustinaprospectiveworker’spersonalandprofessionalqualifications.TheycitedexamplessuchasWikipediaandeBay,bothofwhichbuiltsuccessfulbrandsbasedonthecontributionsofhundredsofthousandsofnon-affiliated
individuals.
xxiv
THEGLOBALBRAIN
Ineachcase,therearestandardsinplaceenablingpeopletoseeandratetheintegrityandcredibilityofcontributors.Themoreacontributorconsistentlydemonstratesahighlevelofaccountabilityandquality,
themorevaluethecontributorgarners.Evenforbusinessesnot
builtaroundthecontributionsofindividuals,reputationcapitalhasintriguingpossibilities—especiallyforemergingglobalplayerswho
haveonlyavirtualpresenceandnovisiblebrandoftheirown.
Iamconvincedthattheartofcollaborationwillbethemostdistinguish-ingleadershipcharacteristicofthe21stcentury.Universitiesneedtoteachit.Governmentpoliciesandregulationsneedtofacilitateit.
ForcollaborativeinnovationtobecomepartofourcollectiveDNA,wemustacceptthenotionthatthesurestwaytomakeprogress
andsolveproblemsistotapintothecollectiveknowledgeoftheteam.Networkedenterprisesarethefuture.Noindividualenterprise,nomatterhow
largeandtalented,canaffordtogoitaloneintoday’shighlycompetitive,globallyintegratedmarketplace.
Successintappingintosuchaglobalmarketplaceof
innovatorsand
experts—the“GlobalBrain”asSatishandMohancallit—requirescom-
paniestofirstdevelopasoundunderstandingofthecollaborativelandscapeandthendecideonanapproachthatsuitsthemthebest.One
sizedoesnotfitallinthisregard.
Inthisbook,SatishandMohanprovidearichdescriptionofthedifferentmodelsofnetworkedinnovationandofferasetofguidelinesforcompaniestoidentifyandprepareforthemostpromisingcollaborativeinnovationopportunities.Astheyemphasize,successalsorequiresustorethinktheverynatureofourrelationshipswithinnovationpartners
–whatweneedtocontrolandwhatweneedtoletgo.
Ithinkwewillfindthatthesacrifices,andthebenefits,arewellworththejourney.
˜NickDonofrio
ExecutiveVicePresidentforInnovationandTechnologyatIBM
Corporation
Introduction
Innovationiscriticalforprofitablegrowth.Intheirsearchforinnovativeideasandtechnologies,companiesarerealizingtheimpor-
tanceofreachingouttocustomers,partners,suppliers,amateur
inventors,academicresearchers,scientists,
innovationbrokers,andahostofotherexternalentitiesthattogetherconstitutetheGlobalBrain—thevastcreativepotentialthatliesbeyondtheboundariesofthefirm.Termssuchascommunitiesofcreation,innovationnetworks,openmarketinnovation,andcrowdsourcingarebeingused
torefertothefutureofinnovationinaconnected
world.Theprom-
iseofsuchnetwork-centricinnovationapproachesisresonatingintheexecutivesuitesoflargecorporations.ArecentsurveyofCEOs
foundthattheneedtoexpandtheinnovationhorizonbylooking
beyondthefourwallsofthecompanyisatthetopofthe
CEO
agenda.1However,mostexecutivesfeelthattheydon’tknowhowto
reachthePromisedLand.Ourconversationswithseniorexecutives
chargedwithinnovationinitiativessuggestthattheystrugglewithaquestionofsingularimportance,“How
shouldwereallygoaboutharnessingthecreativepoweroftheGlobalBraintoenhanceour
growthandperformance?”
RecentexamplesfromcompaniessuchasP&G,IBM,Boeing,and
Appleillustratethatexternallyfocusedinnovationcantakemany
forms.Therearemanydifferententitiesthatcompaniescanreach
1
2
THEGLOBALBRAIN
outtoandmanydifferenttypesofrelationshipsandnetworkstheycancreatetoharnessinnovativeideas.
Questionsabound:Whatarethedifferentapproachestoharnessingexternalnetworksforinnovation?Whichapproachisbestforourfirm?Whatkindsofinnovationprojectslendthemselveswellfortheseapproaches?Whatroleshouldourfirmplayinourinnovationnetwork?
Toanswerthesequestions,managersneedagoodunderstandingofthe
emerginglandscapeofnetwork-centricinnovation.Onlywithagoodviewofthelandscapewilltheybeabletoidentifytheopportunitiesthatnetwork-centricinnovationpresents.
Beyondtheidentificationofopportunitieslieadditionalquestionsmanagersneedtoaskinexploitingtheopportunities.Whatorganizationalcapabilitiesdo
weneed?Howshouldourinnovationnetworkbedesigned?Whatbenefitscanweexpectandhowdowemeasurethesebenefits?Whatarethepotentialrisksofopeningupinnovation?Isthereadangerthatwecouldlosecontroloverourinnovationinitiatives?Howshouldweprotectourintellectualproperty?Howshouldwedefinesuccess?
Wewrotethisbooktoanswerthesetwosetsofquestionsinapracticalanddirectwaysothatcompanies—bothlargeandsmall—canexploreaswellasexploitthepoweroftheGlobalBrain.Wehopetotakeyouonajourneythatbeginswithanawarenessofthenatureandpotentialofnetwork-centricinnovationtoadestinationwhereyouwillbeabletoimplementanetwork-centricinnovation
strategyforyourfirm.
Throughoutthisbookwewilluseboththeseterms:GlobalBraintodescribethediversesetofexternalplayersthatconstitutetheinnovationnetworkforthecompanies;Network-centricinnovationtodescribetheunderlyingprinciplesofcollaborativeinnovationinsuchacontext.
HOWTHISBOOKCAME
ABOUT
Bothoftheauthorshavebeenstudentsofinnovationforseveralyears.EversincetheInternetgainedcriticalmassandfirmsstartedtorealizethepowerofnetworksandcommunities,wehavebeenparticularlyinterestedinunderstandingthenatureandtheimplicationsofdistributedinnovation,community-based
innovation,andinnovationnetworks.
Satishhadstudied“VirtualCustomerEnvironments”andtherolecustomersplayinsupportingandenhancingcompanies’innovationefforts.2Mohanhadwrittenabouttheemergingphenomenonof“CommunitiesofCreation”indifferentcontextsandexaminedtheirpromiseasa
wayoforganizingcommercialINTRODUCTION
3
innovationinitiatives.3Ourworkhadalsofocusedonnewtypesofinnovationintermediaries—or“Innomediaries”asMohancallsthem4—thatlinkcompanieswithexternalnetworksandcommunities.
Acommonthemeinourresearchwasourinterestintheconceptofdistributedinnovation—innovationinitiativesthatarespreadacrossadiversenetworkofpartners.Inthesummerof2005,weparticipatedinaresearchsymposiumondistributedinnovationorganizedaspartoftheAnnualAcademyof
ManagementMeetingheldin
Hawaii.Whileenjoyingthesunandthebeaches,webeganaconversationonthegrowingimportanceofinnovationnetworksandcommunitiesofcreation.Bothofuswereconvincedaboutthepromiseandthepotentialofinnovationinitiativescenteredonsuchnetworksofindividualinventors,customers,andpartners.Webelieved,basedonearlyevidencefromthe
softwareandautomotiveindustries,thatinnovationcouldbemadefarmoreefficient,effective,andspeedyiffirmscouldharnessallthetalentandideasthatlieoutsidetheirboundaries.Butwesuspectedthat,despiteallthehypeabouttheinnovativepowerofexternalnetworks,managershadverylimitedguidanceforimplementingsuchnetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives.
Wedecidedtoexplorethishunchfurther,toseewhetherwecouldmakeacontributioninthisarea.
OurvehicleforthisexplorationwastheKelloggInnovationNetwork(KIN)—aforumforseniorinnovationmanagersoflargecompanies—affiliatedwiththeCenterforResearchinInnovationandTechnologythatMohandirectsattheKelloggSchool
ofManagement.TheKINisanexcellentexampleofthepoweroftheGlobalBraininaction.Itconsistsofseniorexecutivesfromahand-selectedgroupofleadingcompanieswhocometogetherinacollaborativeforumtoexchangeideasandbestpracticesrelatedtoinnovation.TheresearchagendafortheKINemergesfromdialogue,discussion,anddebateamongthe
members.
WeinitiatedconversationswithseniormanagersfromKINmembercompaniessuchasMotorola,DuPont,IBM,Kraft,andCargill.Wepresentedourideasonnetwork-centricinnovationinKINseminars,andourdiscussionsrevealedthatourhunchwasaccurate.Mostmanagersindicatedthattheywereveryexcitedand
enthusiasticabouttheopportunitiesposedbyexternalinnovationnetworksandcommunities,butwerelessconvincedabouttheirowncapabilitiestoimplementsuchinitiativesthatinvolvereachingouttoexternalnetworkssuccessfully.Andallthemediahypeandbuzzaboutopeninnovation,opensourcesoftware,socialnetworking,andInternet-based
innovationwasn’thelping.Therewasalotofheatanddust,butverylittleenlightenmentwhenitcametoexecution-relatedissues.
4
THEGLOBALBRAIN
Asurveyofseniormanagersconductedbythemanagementconsultingcompany,Bain&Co.,in
2005supportsourobservation.Amajority(73%)ofthesurveyrespondentsagreedthatcompanies“candramaticallyboosttheirinnovationbycollaboratingwithoutsiders,”buttheysimultaneouslyexpressed
“deepdissatisfactionwith(their)knowledgeaboutappropriatestrategies,practices,andtools”for
executingsuchnetwork-centricinnovation.5
Forcompaniestobesuccessfulinmakingtheshiftfromfirm-centricinnovationtonetwork-centricinnovation,managersneedtoprogressbeyondabasicawarenessofthepotential.Theyneedtounderstandthelandscapeofnetworkcentricinnovation.Next,theyneedtoknowthestrategiesand
bestpracticesthatarerelevanttotheirbusinesscontext.Wefeltthattherewasaneedforabookthatwouldhelpmanagerstotakethesetwoimportantstepssotheycouldharnesstheunboundedcreativepotentialthatliesoutsidetheirfourwalls.
Afterwedecidedtoembarkonthebookproject,webeganwithanextensive
reviewoftheacademicliteratureaswellaspractitioner-orientedarticlesandbooksintheareaofinnovationmanagementandnetworks.Thisreviewprovidedthebackgroundmaterialfordevelopingourframeworksandconcepts.
Next,weidentifiedanumberofcompaniesthatwereleadersinexternallyfocusedinnovation.Thesecompanies
rangedfromconsumerproductcompaniessuchasDial,P&G,Staples,andUnilevertotechnologycompaniessuchasIBM,DuPont,Boeing,3M,andCisco.Wedecidedtolearnfromtheleadersbyconductingin-depthinterviewswithmanagersleadinginnovationinitiativesatthesefirms.Overaperiodofoneyear,wetalkedwithmorethan50managersfrom
awidevarietyoffirmstodevelopandvalidateourframeworksandconcepts.Wealsotalkedwithandanalyzedthebusinessmodelsofboutiquefirmsthatareplayingspecialistintermediaryrolesinnetwork-centricinnovation.
ThesecompaniesincludedinnovationfacilitatorslikeIgniteIP,EurekaRanch,EvergreenIP,and
InnoCentive.WealsointerviewedseveralindividualswhohaveplayedleadershiprolesintheOpenSourceSoftwaremovementandothernetwork-centricinnovationcontextssuchasonlinecustomercommunities.
Thediverseexperiencesandperspectivesthatwegleanedfromtheseinterviewshelpedustodeveloptheframeworks
andinsightsrelatedtonetwork-centricinnovationthatformthecorecontentofthisbook.
WHOSHOULDREADTHISBOOK
Wehavewrittenthisbookfortwoprimaryaudienceswithadeepinterestininnovationmanagement.
INTRODUCTION
5
ThefirstaudienceisaCEOorseniorbusinessexecutivewhohastheprimaryresponsibilityforgrowthandinnovationofabusinessunitoramajorcorporation.Forthisaudience,weprovideanunderstandingofthenatureofexternallyfocusedinnovationmechanismsthatyoucanexploitforyourfirm,aswellasyourroadmapfor
implementinganetwork-centricinnovationstrategy.
Thesecondaudienceforthebookisamanagertaskedwithleadingtheinnovationinitiativesatalargecorporation.Foryou,webringclaritytothetypeofinnovationnetworksyoushouldbuild;therolesthatyourcompanyshouldplaywithintheseinnovationnetworks,andthe
competenciesthatyouwillneedtodevelopatyourfirmtoexecutetheseroles.
Whatindustriesormarketsisthisbookparticularlyrelevantfor?Clearly,theframeworksandconceptsthatwepresentareapplicabletoabroadarrayofindustries;ourbookisparticularlyrelevantforfirmsinthetechnologysector(computers,software,
telecommunications,chemicals,andsoon)andtheconsumerpackagedgoodssector.Inadditiontothesesectors,theconceptswepresentarealsorelevanttootherindustriesorfieldssuchashealthcareservices,medicaldevices,automobiles,consumerdurables,andtheentertainmentindustry,wherenetwork-centricinnovationopportunitiesare
rapidlyemerging.
HOWTHEBOOKISORGANIZED
Wehaveorganizedthisbook,consistingof12chapters,intofiveparts.Eachpartaddressesasetoffundamentalquestionsrelatedtonetwork-centricinnovation:
PartI:FromFirm-Centricto
Network-CentricInnovation(Chapters1and2)PartII:TheLandscapeofNetwork-CentricInnovation(Chapters3and4)PartIII:TheFourModelsofNetwork-CentricInnovation(Chapters5to8)PartIV:ExecutingNetwork-CentricInnovation(Chapters9and10)
PartV:GlobalizationandNetwork-CentricInnovation(Chapters11and12)We
beginPartIbyansweringsomebasicquestions,suchas,“Whyshouldfirms
‘innovatebeyondboundaries’?”And,“Whatdoyoumeanbyadoptinga‘network-centricinnovation’approach?”Putmoresimply,“WhyshouldIcareaboutthis?”Wedescribetheneedforcompaniestolookoutsideforinnovationandmaketheshiftfromfirm-centricto
network-centricinnovation.Then,wedefinetheconceptof“network-centricity”anddescribetheprinciplesofnetworkcentricinnovation.Usinganumberofexamples,weemphasizethatdifferent6
THEGLOBALBRAIN
“flavors”ofnetwork-centricinnovationexist,andcompaniesneedtocarefullymaptheirindustryand
organizationalcontexttoidentifytheappropriateinnovationapproach.
InPartII,Chapters3and4,weaddressthequestion,“Whatdoesthenetworkcentricinnovationlandscapelooklike?”Wepresentaconceptualframeworktostructuretheemerginglandscapeofnetwork-centricinnovation.Ourframeworkisbasedon
twocentraldimensionsofnetwork-centricinnovation—thenatureoftheinnovationspaceandthestructureofthenetworkleadership.
Basedonthesedimensions,weoutlinefourbasicmodelsofnetwork-centricinnovation.Wealsoidentifyotherkeyelementsofourconceptualframework—
thedifferenttypesofplayers
innetwork-centricinnovation(thatis,ataxon-omyofinnovationroles)andthedifferenttypesofinnovationmanagementactivitiesandnetworkinfrastructure(forexample,governancesystems,IP
rightsmanagementsystems,andsoon).
InPartIII,Chapters5to8,wedescribeindetailthefour
modelsofnetworkcentricinnovation.Ineachchapter,weapplytheconceptualframeworkthatwedevelopinSectionIItoanalyzethenatureoftheinnovationroles,innovationmanagementactivities,andnetworkinfrastructurethatapplytothatparticularmodel.Weuseone“anchor”casestudytogroundourdiscussionoftheimportantissues.
InPartIV,weaddressexecution-relatedissues.Westartwiththequestion,
“Wheredoesmycompanyfitinthislandscape?”InChapter9,wedevelopacontingentframeworkthatmapsthecontextforinnovation—industryandbusinessenvironmentconditions,technologyandmarketfactors,acompany’sinnovationgoalsandinternal
resources—toalternatenetwork-centricopportunities.Thiscontingentframeworkprovidesguidelinesformanagerstoevaluatethedifferenttypesofopportunitiesandtoidentifytheopportunitiesthatwillbestalignwiththefirm’sresources,capabilities,andstrategy.
InChapter10,weaddress
questionssuchas,“NowthatIknowtheopportunitiesformyfirm,howexactlyshouldIpreparemycompanytoexploittheseopportunities?”“Whattypesofcapabilitiesarerequired?”And,“Whattypesofmetricsshouldbeusedtoevaluatemycompany’sperformanceintheseinitiatives?”Wedescribedifferentaspectsrelatedtopreparingtheorganizationfornetwork-
centricinnovation—culturalreadiness,strategicreadiness,operationalreadiness,andsoon.
InPartV,Chapters11and12,webroadenourhorizonandconsidertheimplicationsofnetwork-centricinnovationfortheemergingeconomies.Weask,INTRODUCTION
7
“Whatopportunitiesdothedifferenttypesofnetwork-centricinnovationinitiativespresenttocompaniesincountriessuchasIndia,China,Russia,andBrazil?”Weidentifysomeofthecommontrendsintheemergingeconomiesandanalyzethepotentialforcompaniesinthesecountriestoplugintotheglobalbrain.Weofferourfinalthoughtsinthelastchapterandleave
thereaderwithasetofbestpracticesand“nextpractices”thatwehaveidentifiedfromourstudyofleadersinnetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives.
JoinusaswebeginthisjourneybyfocusingonaquestionthatisonthelipsofeveryCEO:“Howcanwesustainprofitablegrowth,andwhyisinnovationsoimportantfororganic
growth?”
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ThePowerof
Network-Centricity
“Thekeyistobeabletocollaborate—acrosstown,across
countries,eventothenextcube.…Globalinnovation
networkshelpmakethishappen.”
—TonyAffuso,UGSChairman,CEO,andPresident.1
Innovationusedtobesomethingcompaniesdidwithintheirfour
walls.StoriedorganizationslikeAT&T’sBellLaboratories,IBM’sWatsonResearchCenterandXerox’sPaloAltoResearchCenter
werethetemplesofinnovation.2Thousandsofresearchersandsci-
entiststoileddeepwithinthebowelsoflargecorporationstocreatethenextbigthing.Corporationsviewedtheirinnovationinitiativesasproprietaryandsecret.Andtheyattemptedtohirethebestand
thebrightestresearchersand
managerstodrivebasicresearchand
newproductdevelopment.Infact,anyself-respectingorganization
wasafflictedwiththe“NotInventedHere”(NIH)syndrome—believ-
ingthatithadthebestideasandthebestpeople,soifitdidnotinventacertain
something,thatthingwasn’tworthlookingat.
ThentheInternethappened.WithitcamephenomenaliketheOpen
SourceSoftwaremovement,electronicR&Dmarketplaces,online
communities,andawholenewsetofpossibilitiestoreachoutand
connectwithinnovativeideasandtalentbeyondtheboundariesof
thecorporation.Eventhelexiconassociatedwithinnovationis
changing,withnewadjectivesthatdescribeaverydifferentviewofinnovation—open,democratic,distributed,outside,external,
community-led.Thechangesinvocabularyandmetaphorssuggestthat
theshiftinthenatureandtheprocessofinnovationisbroadand
11
12
THEGLOBALBRAIN
deep.Consultants,academicians,andmainstreambusinessmediahavealljoinedthechorustoliberateinnovationfromorganizationalboundaries.
Specialissuesandarticlesinbusinessmagazineswithtitlessuchas“ThePowerofUs,”“OpenSourceInnovation,”“and“TheInnovationEconomy”imploremanagerstoreorient
andamplifytheirinnovationinitiativesbytappingexternalnetworksandcommunities.
But,inthewordsoftheminersintheCaliforniaGoldRushinthenineteenthcentury,istherereal“goldinthemtharhills”?Or,whatexactlycansuchexternallyfocusedinnovationdeliver?Toanswerthisquestion,wefirstneedtolookatthe
problemscompaniesarefacingincontinuingtogrowtheirrevenuesandprofits.
THEQUESTFORPROFITABLEGROWTH
Howthemightycanstumble.ConsiderDellInc.,theleadingsellerofpersonalcomputersandaccessories.From1995to2005,Dellwasaparagonofprofitablegrowth,fueledbyits
innovativebuild-to-ordermanufacturinganddirect-to-customersalesbusinessmodel.Duringthefive-yearperiodfrom2000to2005,Dell’srevenuesgrewat16%peryearanditsearningsincreased21%peryear.
Thecompanywaswidelyadmiredforitsabilitytodrivegrowthandincreaseitsmarketsharebyexecutingflawlesslyonitsbusiness
model,andstayingfocusedonprocessinnovation.Whenothercompaniesstartedimitatingitsbusinessmodel,Dellmaintaineditsedgebyfurtherrefiningitsbusinessprocessestobecomeevenmoreefficientinitsoperations.However,Dell’sgrowthenginestalledbadlyin2005.In2006,itmissedinvestorexpectationsforseveralquartersinarow,anditsstocklostalmosthalfof
itsvaluefromJuly2005toJune2006.OnereasonbehindthedownfallofDellisthatitbecametoomuchofaone-trickpony—usingthesamedirectbusinessmodelformorethantwodecades,andnotinnovatingenoughintermsofnewproductsandnewmarkets.
Meanwhile,Dell’scompetitors,includingAppleComputerandHewlett-
Packard,whoplacedmoreemphasisoninnovativeproductsandnewbusinessmodels,grewfasterandincreasedtheirmarketshareattheexpenseofDell.Dell’sgrowthwoesarelikelytopersistfortheforeseeablefuture,anditsseniormanagementwillbeunderintensepressuretoreignitethegrowthengine.
Dellisnottheonlylarge
companyfacingsuchgrowthchallenges.CompaniessuchasKraft,3M,Sony,Ford,andIBMareallfindingitdifficulttodrivegrowth.
InvestorscloselymonitortheCEOsandseniormanagementoflargepubliccompaniesontheirabilitytogrowthefirmstheylead.NowonderthenthataCHAPTER1•THEPOWEROFNETWORK-
CENTRICITY
13
majorityoftheCEOsconsidergrowthtobetheirhighestpriority—evenmorethanprofits.AlthoughgrowthhasalwaysbeenontheCEOagenda,theperen-nialquestforgrowthhasbecomemorechallengingintheeraofglobalcompetitionandshrinkingproductlifecycles.
Intheirattempttojumpstartgrowth,companiesoftenturntoinorganicgrowththroughmergersandacquisitions(M&A).M&Adealsareveryappealingtoseniormanagers—theygenerateanimmediateboostinrevenues;thehardsynergies(mostlyfinancial)areveryapparent;andtheinternalstakeholders(thatis,seniormanagers)havealottogainfrommakingthedeals.Asaresult,
M&Aactivityhasincreasedtoafeverpitch.In2005,therewere10,511mergersandacquisitionsinvolvingU.S.companiesalone,withanaggregatevalueofmorethan$1trillion—a28%increaseover2004’s$781billion.3
However,thereistroublein“M&Aland.”Simplyput,mergersandacquisitionsdon’tworkasadvertised.
Moststudiesandsurveyspaintagloomypictureoftheafter-dealscenario.Between70%and80%oftheM&Ainitiativesendupinfailures—mostofthemwithinthefirst18months.4Companiesgenerallydowellatrealizingthehardsynergies;forexample,consolidatingtheborrowing,restructuringthetaxation,poolingtheworkingcapital,purchasingathighervolumes,andsoon.Thesoft
synergies—operationalconsolidation,processimprovement,channelmerging,technologysharing,stafflayoffs,extensionofcustomerbase,andsoon—arewhatrarelymaterialize.AlthoughmostM&Afailuresareblamedon“people”and“cultural”issues,theendresultisthatsuchinitiativesfailtoenhance(and,oftencontributetodeclinein)shareholdervalue.Afterthe
failure,theCEOoftenexitsandanewCEOarriveswhostartsdivestingthosepreviouslyacquireddivisions—andthenpromptlystartacquiringnewones!Likeagerbilinatreadmill,thecycleofacquisitionsanddivesti-turesgoeson,withtheonlysurewinnersbeingtheconsultants,lawyers,andinvestmentbankers.
Giventhehighvisibilityof
manyrecentM&Afailures(rememberTimeWarnerandAOLorChryslerandDaimler-Benz),manyCEOshavechangedtheirtuneandnowproclaiminnovationasthepreferredpathwaytogrowth.InarecentCEOsurvey,86%ofrespondentsindicatedthatinnovationisdefinitelymoreimportantthanM&Asandcost-cuttingstrategiesforlong-termgrowth.Infact,manyCEOs
andseniormanagershavecometoviewinnovationastheironlyalternativetoachievesustainedgrowth.5
AsHowardStringer,ChairmanandCEOofSony,recentlynoted,“Wewillfightourbattlesnotonthelowroadtocommoditization,butonthehighroadofinnovation.”6
14
THEGLOBALBRAIN
However,despitesuchpublicstatementsabouttheimportanceofinnovation,whenitcomestoactualdecisionsandactions,manycompaniesstilltaketheeasywayout—focusingeitheroncost-reductioninitiativesthatpromiseshort-termprofitincreasesoronmergersandacquisitionsthatcreateanillusionofrapidrevenue
growth,eveniftheformerisoftennotsustainableandthelattermostlyturnouttobefailures.Inshort,asignificantgulfseemstoexistbetweenthedesiretoinnovateandtheabilitytoinnovate.
ANINNOVATIONCRISIS?
Theabilityoffirmstoinnovateisstymiedbytwofactors—thepaceof
innovationrequiredtomaintainandgrowprofitsisincreasing,andtheproductivityofinternallydriveninnovationeffortsisdecreasing.Thesetwofactorsarecon-spiringtocreateaninnovationcrisisinlargefirms.
THE“REDQUEEN”EFFECTININNOVATION
“Well,inourcountry,”said
Alice,stillpantingalittle,“you’dgenerallygettosomewhereelse—ifyourunveryfastforalongtime,as
we’vebeendoing.”“Aslowsortofcountry!”saidtheQueen.“Now,
here,yousee,ittakesalltherunningyoucando,tokeepinthesameplace.Ifyouwanttogetsomewhereelse,youmustrunatleasttwiceas
fastasthat!”7
Despitehavinghundredsofin-housescientistsandengineersworkingtirelesslyoninnovationprojects,managersarediscoveringthattheirinnovationpipelinesarenotdeliveringtheresultstheyneedtosustaingrowth.Innovationproductivityisdecliningwhilethecostofnewproductdevelopmentisincreasing
daybyday.InvestingmoredollarsintointernalR&Deffortsdoesnotseemtoproducethedesiredpayoffs.Forexample,Kraftinvestscloseto$400millionannuallyandhas2,100employeesinitsinternalR&Dunit.Despitesuchlargeinvestments,thecompanyhasbeendiscoveringitsR&Dpipelinetobelessandlesseffectiveinfuelingfirmgrowth.8Thestoryisnot
muchdifferentinmanyotherlargefirmsinboththetechnologyandtheconsumerproductsectors.
Ontheotherhand,theindustrycycletimescontinuetoshrinkrapidlyacrosstheboard.Forexample,intheautomobileindustry,48-monthdevelopmentcyclesandsix-yearmodellifecycleswerethenorm.Buttoday,concept-to-production
timesaredowntolessthan24months,andindustryleaderslikeCHAPTER1•THEPOWEROFNETWORK-CENTRICITY
15
Toyotaaretalkingabout12-monthdevelopmentcycles.Inconsumerelectronicsmarkets(forexample,cellphone,digitalaudioplayer,andsoon),productlife
cyclesareoftenmeasuredinweeks,notmonths.
Addedtothisaccelerationistheimpactofglobalization—globalmarketsbreedglobalcompetitors.CompaniessuchasSamsungfromKorea(inmobilephonesandtelevisions),TatafromIndia(inautomotive),andLenovofromChina(incomputers)haveuppedtheantebyproducinginnovative
productsatsignificantlylowercosts,drivingtherapidcommoditizationinmanyproductcategories.
Theseforces—rapidlydecreasingproductlifecycles,decreasinginternalinnovationproductivity,andglobalcompetition—togetherarecreatingaRedQueeneffect9ininnovation:Companieshavetoinvestmoreandmorejustto
maintaintheirmarketposition.
ConsiderasimplesimulationdonebyDaveBayless,anentrepreneurandourfriend,tounderstandthecripplingeffectofshrinkingproductlifecyclesongrowth.Assumingacompanyhasbaserevenuesof$500millionperyear,thesimulationillustrateshowa10%annualincreasein
industryclockspeedwouldnecessitateanimmediateandsustainedincreaseintherateofnewproductintroductionsof50%justtomaintainthataveragelevelofrevenueovertenyears.10Andthissimulationdidnotevenconsiderthepotentialnegativeimpactofreducedinnovationproductivityortheincreasingmarketriskofnewproductsandservices—bothclearlyevidentinmany
industries.Thus,justonefactoralone,shrinkingproductlifecycle,posesacriticalinnovationchallenge.
Ontopofthat,ifthecompanywantstogrowevenatamodest4%or5%annualrate,theinnovationchallengebecomesalmostinsurmountable.
THELIMITSOFINTERNALLYFOCUSED
INNOVATION
ItisnotjusttheRedQueeneffectthatdefinesthelimitsofinternallyfocusedinnovationinitiatives.Thereisalsothepotentiallydebilitatingeffectofamyopic
“world-view”thatcompaniesoftencometopossess—particularlywhentheir
“successful”innovationandgrowthstrategieshavebeenaroundforawhile.
Dell’sdirect-to-consumerbusinessmodelisagoodexampleinthiscontext.Asmarketpressurescontinuetoclimbinthepersonalcomputermarket,Dell’sinabilitytocomeupwithnewbusinessmodelsiswhatcontinuestodragdownitsgrowth.Dell,toitscredit,has
startedconsideringnewwaysofdoingbusinessandenteringintonewproductcategoriesandmarkets—buttheseeffortshaven’tbeenmetwithmuchsuccess.Granted,businessmodelinnovationis16
THEGLOBALBRAIN
noteasy.ButitisDell’singrainedperspectivesderivedfromoperatingits
currentbusinessmodelforalongtimethatmakessuchbusinessmodelinnovationdoublydifficult.Overtime,organizationsbecomeprisonersofwhattheyknow,especiallywhentheyhavemetwithsustainedsuccess.Theyfailtoseebeyondtheirlimitedviewoftheworld.
Thislimitedworld-viewisbecomingmoredangerousintheturbulentanddynamic
businessenvironmentthatwefindourselvesin.Inmanyindustriessuchasconsumerelectronics,automobilesandsoftware,productshavebecomemorecomplexintermsoftheirfeatures,theirunderlyingtechnologies,andtheirdesign.Therefore,theknowledgeandskillsrequiredtodesignanddevelopnewproductsandserviceshavebecomemuchmorediverseandmore
demanding.Innovatingsuchnewproductsandservicesthuscallsfornotonlyacommandofdiversesetsofknowledgeandexpertisebutalsotheabilitytomakenon-obviousconnectionsbetweensuchdiverseknowledgebases.Thisfeatisverydifficulttopulloffinsidethefourwallsofanyfirm,nomatterhowlarge.
Clearly,throwingmoreand
moremoneyattheinternalinnovationengineisnotthemostefficientwaytoaddresstheinnovationcrisis.Doingmoreofthesamecanonlyresultinincrementalimprovementininnovativeoutput.Whatisreallyneededtoovercomethiscrisisisasignificantincreaseinthecompany’sinnovationreachandproductivity—onlysuchanincreasewilltranslateintoadramaticshiftininnovation
outputofoneormoreordersofmagnitude.
Andtogainsuchincreasesinreachandrangeofinnovativeideas,companiesneedtobroadentheirinnovationhorizonsbylookingoutsideforinnovativeideasandtechnologies.
ConsiderthecaseofKraft.Profitsfell24%inthetimeperiodfrom2003to2005.
Top-linegrowthstalled,andnetincomein2005was$2.63billion,downfrom$3.48billionin2003.ThecompanythatcameupwithblockbusterproductssuchasOreocookies,MiracleWhipdressing,andDiGiornopizzaishungryforideas.ItisnotlackinganyinternalR&Dinfrastructure.KrafthasanextensiveinternalR&Dsetup,withthousandsoftalentedresearchersonstaff.
However,internallyfocusedinnovationeffortsarenotdeliveringthegoods.SoKrafthasturnedoutwardsinitsquestforideas:ThecompanyisinvitingunsolicitedideasfromitscustomersorforthatmatterfromanybodywhovisitsitsWebsiteandsubmitsideas.WhetherputtingsuchaninvitationforideasonthecompanyWebsiteistherightapproachisdebatable,
butwhatislessarguableistheneedtostartlookingoutside.Indeed,thelimitsofinternallyfocusedinnovationarewellillustratedbyKraft’sradicaldeparturefrompastpractice.AsMaryKayHaben,seniorvicepresidentatKraft,noted,“Inthepastwewouldhavesaid,
‘Thankyou,butwearenotacceptingideas.’”11
CHAPTER1•THEPOWEROFNETWORK-CENTRICITY
17
Theimperativetolookoutsideisnotlimitedtotheconsumerproductsector.
ConsiderMerck,agiantinthepharmaceuticalindustry.Merckhastraditionallybeenaninternallyfocused
innovationorganization.However,afterastringoffailuresandaverylacklusterR&Dpipeline,itmadeastrategicshifttowardlookingoutsideforinnovation—specifically,topartnerwithsmallerfirmswithinnovativeideas.Merck’sR&Dchief,PeterKim,madeitclearthatthecompany’sownlabsareinsufficienttoreplenishitspipelineforthefuture,andthreeyearsorsoback
embarkeduponamorecollaborativeandopeninnovationagenda.Althoughtheresultsofthisapproachwilllikelytakeyearstobecomeevident,theinitiativeiswellunderway.Comparedto10outsidealliancesin1999,Merckhasenteredinto141suchdealsbetweentheyears2002and2004—anaverageof47eachyear.Andin2005,Merckreviewedmorethan5,000such
externalcollaborationopportunities.12
OVERCOMINGTHECRISIS:“LOOKINGOUTSIDE”
Theopportunitiesforcompaniesto“lookoutside”forinnovationareincreasingdaybyday.Aswenotedpreviously,theGlobalBrainisrichanddiverse—alargenumberofinnovativefirms
aswellasalargepoolofinnovativepeopleexistindifferentpartsoftheworldwhoseknowledgeandcreativitycanbeleveragedbycompanies.Moreover,newtypesofinnovationintermediariesandnewtechnologicalinfrastructure(forexample,theInternet)havemadetappingintosuchglobalnetworksofinventors,scientists,andinnovativefirmseasierthaneverbefore.
Thus,theimperativeforsourcingexternalinnovationismatchedbytherapidlyexpandinghorizonofinnovationopportunities.
FormerSunChiefScientist,BillJoy,notedseveralyearsbackthat“mostofthesmartpeopleintheworlddon’tworkforyourcompany.”Trueenough,butincreasinglythosesmartpeopleinotherpartsofthe
worldrepresentaglobalinnovationopportunitywaitingtobetapped.
Thisismirroredincompanies,suchasbyP&G’srecentinnovationinitiatives.
AsTomCripe,AssociateDirectorofP&G’sExternalBusinessDevelopmentgroup,recentlynoted:
“Wewanttogrow
efficiently.Andatthesizeweare,it’sjustnotpossibletodoitallyourself.Andevenifitwasit’dbelunacytoattemptit.Therearejusttoomanysmartpeopleoutthere.Ifwehavetogrowattheratewewantto,wehavetoaddincrementalbusinessofbillionsofdollars…Ittookus100yearstogethereandwenowhaveto18
THEGLOBALBRAIN
doinafewyearswhatwedidin100years.Evenifwecould,itwouldbeexpensive.Andsowe’vebeenabletoincreaseourinnovativeoutputwhilereducingourspendingasapercentofsalesbecausewe’re
multiplyingitbyallthepeoplewe’repartneringwith.Sothereasonfor‘lookingoutside’istogrowmosteffectivelybydrawingonthe
verybestideasoutthere,ratherthantryingtocompetewitheverybody.”13
Thismessagehascomethroughinseveralotherforums,too.Forexample,theCouncilofCompetitivenesspublishedtheNationalInnovationInitiativereportin2004.Thisreportfocusedontheimplicationsofglobalizationforthenationalinnovationagendaforthe
UnitedStates.Amongothertrends,thecommitteeidentifiedtheeffectivepursuitofhighlycollaborativeinnovationasofutmostimportancefortheU.S.economy.Asthereportnotes,“Innovationitself—whereitcomesfromandhowitcreatesvalue—ischanging:
■
Itisdiffusingatever
increasingrates.
■
Itismultidisciplinaryandtechnologicallycomplexandwillarisefromtheintersectionofdifferentfields.
■
Itiscollaborative,requiringactivecooperationand
communication
amongthescientistsandengineeringandbetweencreatorsandusers.
■
Workersandconsumersareembracingnewideas,technologies,and
content,anddemandingmorecreativityfromtheircreators.
■
Itisbecomingglobalinscope—withadvancescomingfromcentersof
excellencearoundtheworldandthedemandsofbillionsofnewcon-
sumers.”14
Thekeyfindingsofthecommitteealsoreflectedhow
theglobalconnectednessandthescaleofcollaborativeinnovationwilldemandthedevelopmentofamorediverseworkforcethatisabletocommunicateandcoordinateinnovationactivitiesacrossorganizationalandgeographicboundaries.
Similarly,IBMhasbeenconductingaglobalconversationoninnovation
thatitcallstheGlobalInnovationOutlook(GIO).ThemostimportantfindingfromIBM’sGIOconductedin2005and2006wasthatinnovationismoreglobal(anyoneandeveryonecanparticipatewithoutgeographicalbarriers),moremultidisciplinary(innovationrequiresadiversemixofexpertise),andmorecollaborative(innovationresultsfromentitiesworking
togetherinnewways).15
Toenjoythebenefitsofsucharapidlyexpandinghorizonofinnovationopportunities,companieswouldneedtomakeagradualshiftfrominnovationinitiativesthatarecenteredoninternalresourcestothosethatarecenteredonCHAPTER1•THEPOWEROFNETWORK-CENTRICITY
19
externalnetworksandcommunities—thatis,ashiftfromfirm-centricinnovationtonetwork-centricinnovation.However,thequestionremains:Willsuchashiftaddresstheinnovationcrisisoutlinedearlier?Inotherwords,willanetwork-centeredinnovationstrategydelivergainsthatareordersofmagnitudehigherin
innovationreach,range,andeffectiveness?
Tounderstandthepromiseofnetwork-centricinnovation,weneedtoconsideritsfoundationalthemeorpremise—namely,theconceptofnetwork-centricity.
Theconceptofnetwork-centricityhasverydeeprootsandverybroadapplicability.
Beforewediscusshownetworkscanenhanceinnovation,letusexaminehownetwork-centriccapabilitiesaretransformingseveralotherdomains.
THEPOWEROFNETWORK-CENTRICITY
Theuniversitythatoneofusworksathasalibrarywithcloseto500,000booksonitsshelves.Consideringthe
numberofstudents—around7,500—itisnotalargeacquisition.However,thelibraryispartofanetworkof13otheruniversitylibrariesinthearea—asystemcalledConnectNY.ThetotalnumberofbooksintheConnectNYnetworkis10million.EachmemberoftheConnectNY
networkcanrequestbooksfromanyothermember
library,andifthebookisavailable,itisdeliveredbyaprivatecourier(whotravelsbetweenthedifferentmemberlibraries)withinthreetofourbusinessdays.Thus,ineffect,bybecomingamemberoftheConnectNYnetwork,thelibraryhasincreaseditsacquisitionbytwentyfold—from0.5millionto10million.
Consideranothersimple
example—thetaskofreplenishingavendingmachine.
Aservicetruckcanvisiteachandeveryvendingmachineandthenfindoutwhetheritneedsanyservicingornot.Thismethodcreatesinefficiencybecausethereisnowayforthepersonmakingtheroundstoknowwhetherheneedstoreplenishaspecificmachineandwhat
exactlythemachineisshortof.Imagineifthevendingmachinecould“talk”totheservicepersonoveraninformationnetworkandinformhiminadvanceifitwasrunningoutofaspecificfoodorbeverageitem.ThisiswhatVendlinkLLP,aN.J.-basedvendingservicecompany,hasdoneinPhiladelphia.Itcreatedawirelessnetworkthatintegratesinformationfrom
allthevendingmachinesintheareaandproducesaservicingplanthatoptimizesthelogisticsinvolved.
Eventoyscanbemadesmarteraftertheyareconnectedtoanetwork.In1997,FisherPriceandMicrosoftcreatedtheActiMatesInteractiveBarney.Byitself,ActiMatesInteractiveBarneyisacute,purplestuffedanimal.But
therealfun20
THEGLOBALBRAIN
beginswhenthetoyisusedwitheitheroftwoadd-ondevices:aTVPack,whichaddsaradiotransmittertotheuser’sTV/VCR;andaPCPack,whichdoesthesametoacomputer.Thetoyenableschildrentoimprovetheirvocabularyorlanguageskills.Thecompanyalso
createdanetworkfromwhichthe“lessons”
canbedownloadedintothetoy.Asthechildgetsolder,parentscanconnectthetoytothenetwork,downloadtheappropriatecomponents,andtherebyextenditsuse.
Thesesimpleexamplesreflecttheessenceofnetwork-centricity:theemphasisonthenetworkas
thefocalpointandtheassociatedopportunitytoextend,optimize,and/orenhancethevalueofastand-aloneentityoractivitybymakingitmoreintelligent,adaptive,andpersonalized.Itshouldbenosurprise,therefore,thattheconceptofnetwork-centricityhaspermeatedmanyaspectsofourcontemporaryworldanddaily-life—rangingfromwarfareandmilitary
operationstosocialadvocacymovements.Letusstartwithnetwork-centriccomputing.
Network-CentricComputing
Inthefieldofcomputerscience,theshiftfromhost-centriccomputingtodistributedornetwork-centriccomputinghasrelativelyoldroots.Theconceptofdistributedcomputing,pioneeredby
DavidFarberinthe1970sattheUniversityofCalifornia,16evolvedintowhatisnowcallednetwork-centriccomputingorgridcomputing.
Gridcomputingrelatestotheabilitytopursuelarge-scalecomputationalproblemsbyleveragingthepowerandunusedresourcesofalargenumberofdisparatecomputers(includingdesktop
computers)belongingtodifferentadministrativedomainsbutconnectedthroughanetworkinfrastructure.17Theessentialideabehindgridcomputingistosolvecomputing-intensiveproblemsbybreakingthemdownintomanysmallerproblemsandsolvingthesesmallerproblemssimultaneouslyonasetofconnectedcomputers.The
paralleldivisionoflaborapproachcanresultinveryhighcomputingthroughput,oftenmorethanasupercomputer.Further,thisthroughputcanbeachievedatacostthatissignificantlylowerbyexploitingtherelativelyinexpensivecomputingresourcesavailableatremotelocations.Andthenetwork-centriccomputingarchitecturealsoisfarmoreflexible,because
remoteuserscandecidemoment-to-momenthowmuchcomputingpowertheyneed.Thepromiseofgridcomputing—highcomputingpowercombinedwithlowcostandhighoperationalCHAPTER1•THEPOWEROFNETWORK-CENTRICITY
21
flexibility—isspurringmany
applicationsincommercialaswellasnon-commercialcontexts,includingfinancialmodeling,weathermodeling,proteinfolding,andspaceexploration.18
Network-CentricWarfare
Network-centricwarfare(NCW)isarelativelynewtheoryordoctrineofwardevelopedprimarilybytheUnitedStatesDepartmentof
Defense.19Thisemergingtheoryindicatesaradicalshiftfromaplatform-centricapproachtoanetwork-centricapproachtowarfare.
ThebasicpremiseofNCWisthatrobustnetworkingofgeographicallydispersedmilitaryforcesmakesitpossibletotranslateinformationaladvantageintowarfareadvantage.20Higherlevelsofinformationsharing
amongtheunitsenhancetheextentof“sharedsituationalawareness.”Inotherwords,throughinformationsharing,everyunit—frominfantryunitstoaircrafttonavalvesselstocommandcenters—“sees”thesumofwhatallotherunits“see.”Thissharedawarenessfacilitatesself-synchronizingforces,virtualcollaboration,andotherformsofflexibleoperations.Thevaluepropositionforthe
militaryisasignificantreductionofcombatrisks,higherordercombateffectiveness,andlow-costoperations.21AlthoughthereisstillsignificantdebateabouthowsoonandtowhatextentthebenefitsofNCWcanberealized,severalcountries,includingAustraliaandtheUK,haveembracedthebasictenetsofnetwork-centricwarfare.
Network-CentricOperations
Thetermnetwork-centricoperations(NCO)wasoriginallyappliedtothefieldoflogisticsandsupplychainmanagementinbusinessenterprises.Theterm
“valuenets”or“valuenetworks”hasalsobeenusedinthiscontext.However,morerecently,NCOhasgainedabroader
interpretationandisoftenusedinter-changeablywithNCWinthedefenseandmilitaryareas.
Inthesupplychainmanagementcontext,NCOsignifiesestablishingdynamicconnectionsbetweentheenterprise,suppliers,customers,andotherpartnerstodelivermaximumvaluetoalltheentitiesconcerned.22It
involvesintegratingenterpriseinformationsystems(forexample,ERPandCRMsystems)withexternalpartners’systemsandprocessestoenhancetheinformationflowand22
THEGLOBALBRAIN
“senseandrespond”capabilities.Whereastraditionalsupplychainsemphasizelinearandoften
inflexibleconnections,network-centricoperationsorvaluenetsfocusonestablishingvaried,dynamicconnectionsthatdeliverbothefficiencyandagilitytotheenterprise.Supplychain–focusedsoftwarecompaniessuchasSAP,i2Technologies,andIBMhaveadaptedtheseconceptstocreateapplicationsthatsupportsuchnetwork-centricsupplychainoperations.
Network-CentricEnterprise
Theconceptofnetwork-centricenterprise(NCE)owesitsorigintotheconceptofbusinessecosystemsandvirtualorganizations.Itinvolvesestablishingan
“infostructure”thatconnectsthedifferentpartnersinacompany’sbusinessecosystemandsupportsthedifferentvaluecreation
processes.Assuch,theconceptofNCEisalsocloselyrelatedtoNCO.
CompaniessuchasWal-Mart,Cisco,andToyotahaveconsiderableexperienceindeployingandoperatingsuchanetwork-centricenterprise.Forexample,Ciscohasevolveditsorganizationintowhatitcallsthe“NetworkedVirtualOrganization”(NVO)initsmanufacturing
operations.23Similarly,ToyotahasusedtheNCEmodeltoimproveitsjust-in-timeinventorymanagement.TheNCE(orNVO)modelhasthreecoretenets.24First,itputsthecustomeratthecenterofthevaluechainandemphasizestheneedtorespondrapidlytocustomers’needs.Second,itcallsfortheenterprisetofocusonthosecoreoperationsorprocesses
whereitaddsmostvalueandtooutsourceorturnoverallotheroperationstomultiplepartners.Finally,themodelrequiressignificantprocess,data,andtechnologystandardizationtoenablereal-timecommunicationandsynchronizationacrossorganizationalboundaries.Overall,thenetwork-centricenterprisemodelimpliessignificantstrategicandoperationalagilityforan
enterprise,therebyenhancingitsabilitytothriveinhighlydynamicmarkets.
Network-CentricAdvocacy
Theconceptofnetwork-centricityisalsobecomingevidentinthedomainofsocialadvocacymovements.Socialadvocacygroupshaverealizedthatthebasictenetsofnetwork-centricitycanbeadoptedtoenhancethereach,
speed,andoveralleffectivenessofsocialmovements.25
Network-centricadvocacy(NCA)signifiesacriticalshiftfromthedirectengagementandthegrassrootsengagementmodelsofsocialadvocacytoaCHAPTER1•THEPOWEROFNETWORK-CENTRICITY
23
morenetwork-centeredmodelwhereintheindividualparticipatesaspartofacoordinatednetwork.26InNCA,individualsandgroupsthatarepartofthenetworkrapidlyshareinformationonemergingtopicsandidentify“ripecampaignopportunities.”Theabilityofthenetworktoscaleupintermsofresources,expertise,
andoveralllevelofpublicsupportbringssharpenedfocusandenhancedvisibilitytothecampaign.Network-centricadvocacyprovidesseveraladvantages:speedofcampaign,abilitytopursuemultiplecampaignswithfewresources,andabilitytorapidlyabandonlosingefforts.Allthisbringsanelementofunpredictabilitythatlowerstheabilitytocountersuchsocial
campaignseffectively.
Wesummarizethepromiseofnetwork-centricconceptsinTable1.1.Theseexamplessuggestthat,althoughtheconceptofnetwork-centricityhasfoundconsiderableapplicationindiversedomains,alltheseapplicationshaveacommonthreadintermsofoutcomes—greaterpower,speed,flexibility,andoperational
capabilitiesdeliveredatalowercostusingdiverseresourcesthatarespreadoutgeographically.Thesebenefitsaretheveryonesweseekasweexaminetheappealofnetwork-centricityinthedomainofinnovation.
Table1.1EvidenceofNetwork-CentricityinDifferentDomainsDomain
From
To
Implications
Computing
Host-centric
Distributedorgrid
Morecomputingthroughputat
computing
lowercost
Warfare
Platform-centricNetwork-centric
Morecombatpowerwithfewer,
lower-costunits
Supplychain
Linearchains
Valuenets
Higher“sense-and-respond”
mgmt.
capabilities
Business
Stand-alone
Virtualornetworked
Morestrategicandoperational
enterprise
organization
organization
agility
Social
Direct
Network-coordinatedMoreeffectivecampaigns
advocacy
engagement
engagement
withfewerresources
NETWORK-CENTRICITY
ANDINNOVATION
Toapplyanetwork-centricperspectivetoinnovation,weformallydefinenetwork-centricinnovation(NCI)asanexternallyfocusedapproachtoinnovationthatreliesonharnessingtheresourcesandcapabilitiesofexternalnetworksandcommunitiestoamplifyorenhanceinnovationreach,innovationspeed,andthe
qualityofinnovationoutcomes.
24
THEGLOBALBRAIN
Network-centricinnovationfeaturesprinciplesthatareanalogoustotheexampleswementionfromotherdomains.Wedefinetheseprinciplesinthenextchapter.Butfirst,letuslookatthe
evidenceofthepowerofnetworkstoenhanceinnovationinavarietyofindustriesandmarkets.
PerhapsthemostcelebratedexampleofnetworkedinnovationistheOpenSourceSoftware(OSS)movement,anditsmostfamousproductisLinux,thefast-growingopensourceoperatingsystemthatwasdevelopedandiscontinually
enhancedbyanetworkedcommunityofsoftwaredevelopers.ThefirstreleaseofLinuxKernel,version0.01,wasinSeptember1991,anditconsistedof10,239linesofcode.ByApril2006,version2.6.16.11hadbeenreleasedwithawhopping6,981,110linesofcode.Inthis15-yearperiod,thousandsofprogrammersspreadacrosstheworldcontributedtothe
developmentandreleaseofmorethanahundredversionsoftheLinuxKernel.Infact,withinoneyear—
fromearly1993toearly1994—15developmentversionsoftheLinuxKernelwerereleased.Sucharapidreleasescheduleisunheardofinthecommercialsoftwareworld,anditreflectstheinnovativepoweroftheglobalLinux
community.
AmoreformalcomparisonofthedevelopmenteffortbetweenRedHatLinuxversion7.1(adistributionversion)andasimilarproprietaryproductwasdonein2001.27RedHatLinux7.1containedmorethan30millionsourcelinesofcodeandreflectsapproximately8,000person-yearsofdevelopmenttime.Ifthis
versionweredevelopedinaproprietarymanner(thatis,insideanorganizationsuchasMicrosoftorOracle)intheUnitedStates,itwouldhavecostapproximately$1.08billion(inyear2000U.S.dollars).
Toprovidefurtherevidenceoftheawesomepowerofsuchinnovativecommunities,considerRedHatLinuxversion6.2,which
wasreleasedjustayearearlierin2000—ithadonly17millionlinesofcodeandrepresents4,500person-yearsofdevelopmenteffort($600millionincomparativecost).Thus,version7.1wasapproximately60%moreintermsofsizeanddevelopmenteffort.
Inoneyear,theopensourcecommunity’sinnovativecontributionsincreasedtwo
ordersofmagnitude—animpossiblefeatinaconventionalproprietarysoftwaredevelopmentinitiative.
Thecreativepowerofnetworksandcommunitiesisbeingfeltinotherdomains,too.Considerthecommunity-basedencyclopediacalledWikipedia.Thisonlineencyclopediawaslaunchedin
January2001,andthroughthecollaborativeeffortsoftensofthousandsofcontributors,itswiftlybecamethelargestreferencesiteontheInternet.AsofJuly2007,Wikipediahadmorethan75,000
activecontributorsworkingonmorethan7,704,000articlesinmorethanCHAPTER1•THEPOWEROFNETWORK-
CENTRICITY
25
250languages.DebateisongoingregardingthereliabilityandaccuracyofWikipedia(forexample,apeer-reviewedstudypublishedbytheprestigiousjournalNaturefoundthatWikipediaiscomparabletothehallowedEncyclopediaBritannicaintermsof
accuracy,28whileotherstudieshaveshownjusttheopposite).Whatisundeniable,however,isthecreativepowerofthecommunitythatfeedsWikipedia’sexponentialgrowth.
Anotherexampleistheworldofopensourceorcitizenjournalism.ThefirstopensourcenewspaperisOhmyNews—aSouthKorean
onlinenewspaper
establishedinFebruary2000.Themajorityofthearticlesinthenewspaperarewrittenbyitsreaders—acommunityofapproximately41,000citizenreporters.
Asacitizennewspaper,OhmyNewsexercisedconsiderableinfluenceduringtheSouthKoreanpresidentialelectionsin2002.29An
Internationaledition(inEnglish)ofOhmyNewswaslaunchedinFebruary2004with1,500citizenreportersfrommorethan100countries.
Globalnetworksarealsoturbo-chargingscientificresearchinthelifesciencesandmaterialscienceindustries.Awell-knownexampleofanelectronicR&D
networkisInnoCentive,aglobalcommunityofscientiststhathelpslargecompaniesseeksolutionstotheirR&Dproblemsbysourcingsolutionsfromscientistsaroundtheworld.InnoCentivemaintainsacommunityofscientists,infieldsasdiverseaspetrochemicalsandplasticstobiotechnologyandagribusi-ness,fromapproximately170countries.
Tounderstandthepowerofthisnetwork,considerthecaseofEliLilly,whichhadanR&DproblemintheareaofsmallmoleculesthatitsinternalR&Dorganizationhadspentmorethan12person-monthsofworkandfailedtosolve.EliLillyposedtheproblemontheInnoCentiveWebsiteinJune2003.InlessthanfivemonthsafterpostingitonInnoCentive,EliLillyhada
solutioninhand—aretiredscientistbasedinGermanyhadfoundasolutionthathadeludedEliLilly’sinternalteamofresearchers.30ThroughInnoCentive,EliLillyhadeffectivelyincreaseditsreachtoapproximately30,000scientistsandresearcherswhoweremembersoftheInnoCentiveforum.OtherexamplesfromInnoCentiveandsimilar
“Innomediaries”suggestthattheinnovativepowerofcommunitiescantranslateintoordersofmagnitudeimprovementsininnovationspeed,cost,andquality.
Perhapsnoothercompanyillustratesthepowerofnetwork-centricityaswellasP&G.Thecompany’saggressivepartnershipwithexternalinnovationnetworkshastranslatedintohighly
commendableresults.R&Dproductivityhasincreasedbynearly60%,innovationsuccessratehasmorethandoubled,andthecostofinnovationhasfallensignificantly.31
26
THEGLOBALBRAIN
Theseandotherscatteredexamplesofthecreative
poweroftheGlobalBrainhaveencouragedmoreandmorecompaniestoreorienttheirinnovationinitiativestoamorecollaborative,network-centeredapproach.However,asmostCEOsandseniormanagerswouldreadilyadmit,harnessingthisinnovativepowerissomethingthatis“theoreticallyeasy”but“practicallyhardtodo.”32
Letusbrieflyexaminethesebroadchallengesnow.
CHALLENGESIN“LOOKINGOUTSIDE”
Organizationsembarkingonanetwork-centeredinnovationstrategyarelikelytobefacedwithdifferenttypesofnetworksandcommunitieswithdifferenttypesofinnovationopportunities.Thethree
broadsetsofchallengesthatcompanieswilllikelyfacearemindsetandculturalchallenges,contextualizationchallenges,andexecutionchallenges.
MINDSETANDCULTURALCHALLENGES
Mostlargecompanieshaveconsiderableexperienceinpartneringwitharelativelysmallsetofcarefully
identifiedfirms—jointventures,technologicalagreements,licensingagreements,andsoon.However,whenitcomestoinnovationcollaborationonagreaterscale—forexample,alargernumberandgeographicallymorewidelydispersedsetofpartners—mostcompanieshavelimitedexperience.Thefirstcriticalissuethatseniormanagerswillneedtoaddressrelatesto
thebroaderimplicationsofadoptingsuchanetwork-centeredapproachtoinnovation.Howshouldtheorganizationviewsuchcollaborationopportunities?Howcanseniormanagersensureacoherentsetofinnovationstrategiesthatcapturebothexternalopportunitiesandinternalcapabilities?
Whattypeofbroad
frameworkormindsetshouldbedevelopedthatreflectstheorganization’sintenttocollaboratewithoutsidersanddefinesthebroadparametersforsuchcollaboration?Andhowshouldseniormanagerscommunicateandencourageothermembersoftheorganizationtoadoptsuchamindset?
Forcompaniessuchas3M,
DuPont,andKodakwithahistoryofsignificantinternalachievementsandwithavastarrayofresidentscientistsandtechnicalspecialists,thedominantthreatisthefeelingof“Weknoweverythingandeveryone.”This“NotInventedHere”(NIH)syndromeisaseriousbarriertoacceptanceofnewideasfromoutsidethecompany.TheculturalshiftneededtoovercometheNIHsyndrome
andtoadoptacollaborativemindsetissignificant.
CHAPTER1•THEPOWEROFNETWORK-CENTRICITY
27
IBMhasacknowledgedthesimplefactthattopartnerwithopensourcecommunitiesandothersuchcommunitiesofcreation,it
needstoletgoofsomeofthecontrolithastraditionallyexercisedinallofitsinnovationinitiatives.
Indeed,arecentbookbyLindaSanford,oneofIBM’sseniorexecutives,succinctlycapturesthisspiritthroughitstitle,LetGotoGrow.33Althoughsuchaculturalshiftmightbeeasytoidentify,achievingitinanorganization—especiallya
largeorganizationwithalonghistoryofsuccess—isverychallenging.
CONTEXTUALIZATIONCHALLENGES
Thesecondsetofissuesinvolvesunderstandingthelandscapeofnetwork-centricinnovationandrelatingittothefirm’sownuniqueinnovationcontext.
ItisevidentthatcompaniessuchasIBMandP&Ghavesucceededtodifferentextentsinleveraginginnovationnetworks.Forexample,IBMhassubscribedtotheopensourcemodelandhasinvestedsignificantresourcestoalignitsinnovationinitiativesinmanyofitsproductandserviceareaswiththeopensourcemodel.Similarly,P&Ghasgarneredsignificant
visibilitythroughitsConnect+DevelopinitiativetopartnerwithexternalinnovationnetworkssuchasthoseofferedbyInnoCentiveandNineSigma.
Althoughtheseexamplesindicatespecificapproachestoanetwork-centeredinnovation,theyarenottheonlyapproaches.Themultiplicityofapproachesraisesmanyquestions:Is
thereasystematicwaytoidentifyandanalyzethedifferentapproaches(ormodels)ofnetwork-centricinnovation?Whatarethesedifferentapproaches?Howshouldanorganizationevaluateandselectthemostappropriateapproachvis-à-visitsparticularcontext?Further,shouldanorganizationassumealeadroleoranon-leadroleinsuchacollaborative
arrangement?Whattypesofinternalprojectswouldberipeforsuchacollaborativeapproach?Alltheseissuesrelatetocontextualizingtheopportunityofferedbytheexternalinnovationnetworkorsituatingtheopportunityinthecompany’sparticularmarketandorganizationalcontext.
EXECUTIONCHALLENGES
Finally,thethirdsetofissuesrelatestotheactualimplementationofcollaborativeinnovationprojects.Whenanappropriatenetwork-centricinnovationopportunityhasbeenidentified,howshouldtheorganizationgoaboutexecutingit?Howshouldtheorganizationprepareitselffornetwork-centricinnovation?Whatarethetypesofcapabilitiesand
competenciesthattheorganization28
THEGLOBALBRAIN
wouldrequire?Howshouldtheorganizationintegrateitsinternalandexternalinnovationprocesses?Whattypesoflicensingandothervalueappropriationsystemsshoulditemploy?Whatistheappropriatesetofmetricsthatitshouldusetoevaluate
itsperformanceinsuchcollaborativeinnovationprojects?
Theprecedingthreesetsofissues—mindsetandcultural,contextualization,andexecution—representthetypeofpracticalissuesthatmostCEOsandseniormanagersneedtoaddressinordertobesuccessfulinchampioningandexecutingtheirexternalnetwork-
centeredinnovationinitiatives.Becausethesechallengesoriginatefromtherichnessandvariationthatispresentinthenetwork-centricinnovationlandscape,wecontinueourdiscussionbyexaminingthedifferent“flavors”ofnetwork-centricinnovation.
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
2
UnderstandingNetwork-
CentricInnovation
TheHumanGenomeproject(HGP)isaclassicexampleoftheawe-
someinnovativepowerofnetworkedcommunities.TheHGPwasan
internationalresearchinitiativethataimedtoidentifyandsequencetheapproximately20,000to25,000genesthatmakeup
thehuman
DNA.Theprojectwasuniqueinthatitbroughttogetheralargenum-
berofresearchandscientificorganizationsacrosstheglobeinacollaborativeinitiative.TheHGP,begunin1990,wascompletedin
2003,atleastthreeyearsaheadofschedule.1
TheHGPisremarkablenotonlyfromascientificpointofview,in
thatitproducedamapofthehumanDNA,itisalsoremarkablein
termsofhowtheinnovationeffortwasorganized.HGPshowcased
twodistinctthemesthatunderpinnetwork-centric
innovation.First,anetworkofcontributorswhopoolresourcesandcapabilitiescan
produceextraordinaryresults.Second,thesociologicalperspective
ofknowledgecreation—thatis,thenotionof“buildingoneach
other’sideas”through
interactions—isfundamentaltocontempo-
raryinnovationcontexts,whichofteninvolvehighlycomplexand
diversesetsofknowledge.2
Theconfluenceofthesetwothemesistransformingthenatureof
innovation.Ontheonehand,
businessesarebecomingmorenet-
workedintheiroperations.Ontheotherhand,OpenSource
29
30
THEGLOBALBRAIN
Softwareandothersimilar
initiativesexemplifythebenefitsof“social”knowledgecreation.Inthischapter,wetakeadeeperlookatthesethemesandtracethephilosophicalandhistoricalrootsofnetwork-centricinnovation.
Likeanyothernewandemergingphenomenon,theevolutionofnetworkcentricinnovationisalsocharacterizedbyrapid
speciation.Companiesexperimentbyadoptingdifferenttypesofnetwork-centricinnovationmodels.Asaresult,weareseeingawiderangeofapproachestonetwork-centricinnovation.
Weexaminethesevarying“flavors”ofnetwork-centricinnovationtohighlighttherichnessanddiversityoftheemerginglandscape.Thislandscape,whilepresenting
manyopportunities,alsoposesadifficultquestionforcompanies—
whichamongtheseisthebestapproach?Toanswerthisquestion,westructurethenetwork-centricinnovationlandscapeintoasystematicframeworkinthechaptersthatfollow.
THEHISTORICALANDPHILOSOPHICALROOTS
OF
NETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
MODESOFPRODUCTION(OFIDEAS)
Atitsheart,network-centricinnovationisanapproachtoorganizingfortheproductionofnewideas.Assuch,thephilosophicalrootsofnetwork-centricinnovation
canbetracedtotheliteratureonthealternatemodesofproductionofgoods.
Economistshavelongmaintainedthattherearetwoprimarymodesofproducingnewideasornewproducts:marketsandhierarchies.RonaldCoase,inhisclassicwork,TheNatureoftheFirm,setouttherationalefortheexistenceofthefirm(the“hierarchy”modeof
production)usingtheconceptoftransactioncosts.Transactioncostsarecostsassociatedwithconductingamarkettransaction.Theyincludethecostofidentifyingamarketpartnerandthecostofdefiningandenforcingpropertyandcontractrights.Coase(andlater,inamorerigorousfashion,OliverWilliamson)arguedwhenthetransactioncostsincreasebeyonda
certainlevel,itbecomesmoreprofitabletoconductandcoordinatetheproductionactivitiesinsideafirminsteadofusingamarket-basedmodeofproduction.Inotherwords,byconsideringtheoverallcostofCHAPTER2•UNDERSTANDINGNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
31
production,whichincludesthemarketexchangecostortheorganizationcost,onecandecidewhetheramarketorafirmwouldbemostappropriate.UntiltheOpenSourceSoftwarecommunitiescamealong,marketsandfirmswerethetwodominantmodesofproduction.
However,thesuccessfuldevelopmentofLinuxand
otherOpenSourceSoftwareproductsinthe1990simpliedtheexistenceofathirdmodeofproductionfornewideasornewproducts—onethatwasnotjustahybridofmarketsandfirms.YochaiBenkler,alawprofessoratYaleUniversity,wroteaseriesofarticlessuggestingthatOpenSourceSoftware(andothersimilaropensourcecommunities)presentathirdmodelofproduction
thathetermedthecommons-basedpeerproductionmodel.Usingthesametransactioncostlogic,Benklerarguedthatwhenthe“costoforganizinganactivityonapeeredbasisislowerthanthecostofusingthemarket,andthecostofpeeringislowerthanthecostofhierarchicalorganization”thecommons-basedpeermodelofproductionwillemerge,asitdidinthecase
ofsoftware.3
Thecommons-basedpeerproductionmodelisparticularlyrelevantincontextswheretheobjectofproductionisinformation-based(suchassoftware,music,movies,andsoon),andwhenthephysicalcapitalnecessaryforthatproduction(forexample,computers)iswidelydistributed,andthecostofpeeringislowered
throughinexpensivecommunicationfacilities(forexample,theInternet).
Onesuchcontextisbookpublishing.Forexample,thepublisherofthisbook,WhartonSchoolPublishing,embarkedonaninnovativeprojectthatemploystheprinciplesofthecommons-basedpeerproductionmodeltocreateanewbookonbusinessmanagement.The
book,WeAreSmarterThanMe,involvescollaborationamongthousandsofbusinessprofessionalsandscholars,includingfaculty,students,andalumnioftheMITSloanSchoolofManagementandtheWhartonSchool.4Theoutputfromthiscollaborativeeffortwillbepublishedinbookforminthefallof2007byWhartonSchoolPublishing,withallcontributorsgettingequal
credit.
WesummarizethekeydifferencesamongthethreemodesofproductioninTable2.1.
32
THEGLOBALBRAIN
Table2.1TheThreeModesofProductionofIdeas
Hierarchy-Based
Market-Based
Commons-Based
Production
Production
PeerProduction
Producersorganizedas
Producersorganizedas
Producersorganizedas
employeesinfirms
individualentitiesinmarkets
membersofacommunity
Flowofmaterialsand
Marketscoordinatetheflow
Collaborativeactivitiesare
activitiescoordinatedby
throughsupplyanddemand
coordinatedfollowinga
controllinganddirecting
forcesandpricesignals
diverseclusterofmotiva-
itatahigherlevelinthe
tiondriversandsocial
managerialhierarchy
signals
Example:Ford’sfamous
Example:Marketsinfinancial
Example:OpenSource
RougeRiverPlant
instrumentsandother
Softwaredevelopment
intangibles
Itisclearthatmarkets,hierarchies,andcommonsformthreealternatemodesofproductionofinnovation,too.ThedevelopmentofWindowsbyMicrosoftisanexampleofinnovationorganizedinsideafirm(that
is,usingmanagerialhierarchies).Similarly,innovationcanalsobeorganizedthroughopenmarkets—companiesroutinelybuyinnovativestartupfirmstoaccessinnovativeideasandtechnologies.Andfinally,thedevelopmentofLinux,Apache,andotherOpenSourceSoftwareproductsareexamplesofthecommonsmodeloforganizing
innovation.
Theemergingmodelsinthenetwork-centricinnovationlandscape,however,reflectnotjustthemarketorthecommonsapproachtoinnovationbutinsteadthemixortheintersectionsofthesethreemodesofproduction—forexample,themixofthecommons-basedmodelwiththemanagerialhierarchy-basedmodel,or
themarket-basedmodelintersectingwiththecommons-basedmodel.Tounderstandtheoriginsofsuchhybridmodesofproduction,weneedtounderstandthehistoryofnetwork-centricinnovation.
THEHISTORYOFNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
Thereal-worldmanifestation
ofnetwork-centricinnovationcanbetracedbacktotwodistinctmovementsthattookrootinthe1990s:theOpenSourcemovement(socialknowledgecreation)andtheconceptofbusinessnetworksorecosystems.
CHAPTER2•UNDERSTANDINGNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
33
TheOpenSourceMovement
TheOpenSourceconcept,ingeneral,relatestothedevelopmentandproductionofideas,artifacts,andsystemsinamannerthatprovidesfreeaccesstotheendproduct’ssourcesandenablesfreedistributionthroughappropriatelicenses.5Itisbasedonthe
fundamentalprinciplethatuserscanbeco-developersandthatknowledgeiscreatedthrough“asynergisticinterplaybetweenindividualcontributionsandsocialinteractions.”6Whiletheessentialphilosophybehindopensourceexistedinsomeformortheotherinthe1980s(forexample,theFreeSoftwareFoundation),theemergenceoftheInternetandthewayitenables
communitiestocometogetherandpursuecollaborativedevelopmentandproductionprovidedtheOpenSourcemovementitsmomentumintheearly1990s.
ThesoftwareindustryisthemostprominentamongthedifferentfieldsanddomainsthattheOpenSourcemovementisevident.OpenSourceSoftware(OSS)can
bedefinedsimplyascomputersoftwarewhosesourcecodeisavailabletoeverybodyforuse,enhancementandmodification,anddistribution.7
SeveraltypesofOSScopyrightlicensesexistthatvaryinthetypeandextentofrightsgrantedforusing,altering,and/ordistributingthesoftwareproduct.
TheOpenSourceInitiative(anon-profitentityformedin1998byOSSvision-ariesEricRaymondandBrucePerens)hasassumedtheroleofpromotingtheOpenSourceSoftwaremovementbycertifyingproductsasopensourceproductsbasedonwhethertheyaredistributedunderanyofthealternatelicensingschemeslistedwiththeOSI.8ThenumberofsuchOSI-certified
productshasincreasedconsiderablyoverthepastfewyearsandrunsintoseveralhundredsnow.9ThesteadyincreaseinthenumberofOSproductsindicatestheoverallhealthofthismovementanditswideracceptancebythesoftwarebusinesscommunity.
Theopensourcemovementisnowvisibleinseveralotherdomains,too.For
example,theconceptofopensourceintelligence(OSINT)—whichrelatestogatheringinformationfromopenorpublicsources(suchas,blogs,Websites,andsoon)andanalyzingittoproduceusableintelligence—hasgainedmuchprominenceinrecentyears.Opensourcejournalism(alsoreferredtoascitizenjournalism)isanotherprimeexample.Otherareaswherethe
principlesoftheOpenSourcemovementhavestartedtotakeholdincludepharmaceuticalsorresearchanddiscoveryofdrugs(forexample,theTropicalDiseaseInitiative),computerhardware(opensourcehardware),education(opensourcecurriculum),andopensourcefilmmaking.10
34
THEGLOBALBRAIN
BusinessEcosystems
Theconceptofbusinessecosystemsderivesitsrootsfromthefieldsofbiologyandsocialsystems.InanarticlepublishedintheHarvardBusinessReviewin1993,JamesMooredescribedabusinessecosystemas“aneconomiccommunitysupportedbyafoundationof
interactingorganizations…the‘organisms’
ofthebusinessworld.Thememberorganizationsalsoincludesuppliers,leadproducers,competitors,andotherstakeholders.Overtime,theyco-evolvetheircapabilitiesandroles,andtendtoalignthemselveswiththedirectionssetbyoneormorecentralcompanies.”11
Acloselyrelatedconceptistheallianceconstellation.Itdescribesafirm’ssetofalliancepartnerswhocometogethertoformanetworkorconstellation.Insuchanallianceconstellation,membercompaniesjointlypursueanumberofstrategicgoalsincludinglinkingmarkets,reducingoperationalcosts,sharingrisk,andcombiningcomplementaryskills.12A
goodexampleofanallianceconstellationistheStarAllianceintheairlineindustry.Suchgroupsenablemembercompaniestocompeteandwinintheirmarketsbydrawingonthe
resourcesandcapabilitiesoftheirnetworkofpartners.
Thekeycontributionofthebusinessecosystemandallianceconstellation
conceptshasbeentoforcecompaniestobroadentheirperspectiveswhiledevisingtheircorporateandbusinessstrategies.Morespecifically,theapplicationoftheecologyperspectivehelpedlargecompaniessuchasWal-Mart,Intel,Microsoft,andSAPtorealizetheimportanceofbuildingrobustbusinessecosystemstofurthertheirownfutureprospects.Theecosystemperspectivealso
highlightedthechangednatureofcompetition—fromcompetitionamongindividualcompaniestocompetitionamongbusinessecosystemsorallianceconstellations.13
Althoughbusinessecosystemsandallianceconstellationsarenowfamiliartermstomostmanagers,theseconceptshavemostlybeenappliedto
analyzeanddevisemarketandoperationalstrategies.However,theseconceptsalsoservetoillustratehowcompaniescanchampionandorchestrateinnovationactivitiesintheirindustriesbyestablishingandleadinganetworkofpartners.
Forexample,Intel’sdominanceinthesemiconductorindustryinthe1980sand1990scanbe
explainedtoagreatextentbyitsabilitytoestablish,nurture,andleadanetworkofpartnerswhocollectivelycontributetoandenhancethevalueofIntel’stechnologyplatform.14Morerecently,thebattleforHigh-DefinitionDVDplayersbetweentheSony-ledBlu-RayconsortiumandtheToshiba-ledHD-DVDconsortiumwillalsobewonorlostbasedontheshareoftheGlobalBrain
thatSonyorToshibacanattracttotheirecosystem,includingcontentproviders,hardwaremanufacturers,andretailers.
CHAPTER2•UNDERSTANDINGNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
35
TheConfluenceofOpen
SourceInnovationandBusinessEcosystems
Inrecentyears,theboundariesbetweenthesetwomovements—opensourcecommunitiesandbusinessnetworks(orecosystems)—havebeguntoblur.Ontheonehand,companiesareseekingoutopensourcecommunitiesandothercommunitiesofcreation(forexample,
customercommunitiesandinventorcommunities)aspartnersininnovation.Ontheotherhand,innovationsthathaveemergedfromtheopensourcecommunitiesaretransitioningintothecommercialworld(forexample,commercialopensource).Sotheneatdistinctionbetween“purelyopen”and“purelyproprietary”formsoforganizingforinnovationis
givingwaytoamorecomplexandnuancedlandscape.Awidevarietyofnetworks,players,androlesareemerging:businessecosystems,allianceconstellations,opensourcecommunities,inventorcommunities,customercommunities,expertcommunities,andothersuchcommunitiesofcreation.
Theconceptofnetwork-
centricinnovationembracesthesedifferenttypesofinnovationnetworksandplayers.Butitdoesmore.Italsocapturestheuniqueapproachestoorganizinginnovationthatarisefromthecombinationsofdifferenttypesofnetworksandtheinteractionsofcompanieswithdifferenttypesofinnovationnetworks.
Thesenewapproachesto
organizinginnovationarealsocharacterizedbythehybridmodesofproductionmentionedearlier.Inotherwords,markets,hierarchies,andcommonscollideinthenetwork-centricinnovationlandscapeandgiverisetohybridmodesofproductionofinnovationthatunderliethealternateapproachestonetwork-centricinnovation.Wedescribethesehybridmodesofproductioninmore
detailinsubsequentchaptersintermsofarchetypesormodelsofnetwork-centricinnovation.
Withthisunderstandingofthehistoricalandphilosophicalrootsofnetworkcentricinnovation,wenowturntothecoreprinciplesthatunderliethedifferentapproachestonetwork-centricinnovation.
PRINCIPLESOFNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
Theconceptofnetwork-centricinnovationhasfourdefiningprinciples:sharedgoals,shared“world-view,”socialknowledgecreation,andanarchitectureofparticipation.Theseprinciplesareconsistentwiththehistoricalrootsofnetwork-centricinnovationin
theOpenSourcemovementandbusinessecosystems.WebrieflydescribethesefourprinciplesandsummarizetheminTable2.2.Laterinthebook,wereturntotheseprinciplesaswedescribethedifferentmodelsofnetwork-centricinnovation.
36
THEGLOBALBRAIN
Table2.2PrinciplesofNetwork-CentricInnovation
Principlesof
Network-Centric
Innovation
Description
Examples
Sharedgoalsand
Oneormoregoalsthathelp
Customercommunity:Identify
objectives
bringthenetworkmembers
productflawsandcontributeto
togetherandchanneltheir
productenhancement
diverseresourcesand
activities
Shared“world
Commonassumptions,and
Opensourcecommunity:Shared
view”
mentalmodelsrelated
understandingaboutthesoftware
totheinnovationandits
product’stieswithothertech-
externalenvironment
nologiesandproducts
“Social”knowledge
Placestheemphasisoninter-
Inventornetworks:Interactions
creation
actionsamongthenetwork
amongindividualinventor,
membersasthebasisfor
innomediary,andlargefirmforthe
valuecreationandonthe
developmentofnewproduct
cumulativenatureof
concepts
knowledgecreation
Architectureof
Definesasetofsystems,
Opensourcesoftwarecommunity:
participation
mechanisms,andprocesses
Modularproductarchitectureand
tofacilitateparticipationin
GNUGeneralPublicLicense
valuecreationandvalue
scheme
appropriation
SHAREDGOALSANDOBJECTIVES
Forasetofplayerstocometogethertocontributetoaninnovationinitiative,itis
essentialthattheyhaveacommonsetofgoalsandobjectives.Thesesharedgoalsandobjectivesactasthegluethatkeepsthecommunitytogether—givingdirection,enablingcoordinationofactivities,andfacilitatingthedevelopmentofacommonsetofnormsandvalues.Forexample,thesharedgoalofacommunityofcustomersmightrelatetoproviding
innovativeideasandinputstotheproductdeveloper(vendor)toimprovethequalityandvalueoftheproductfeatures.Thesesharedgoalsandobjectivesmightdevelopindifferentways—insomenetworks,acentralentitymightdeviseandpromotethosegoals,whereasinothernetworks,thesharedgoalsmightemergethroughinteractionsamongtheplayers.
CHAPTER2•UNDERSTANDINGNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
37
SHAREDAWARENESSAND“WORLDVIEW”
Thenetworkmembersalsoneedtoshareacommon“world-view”orsharedawarenessoftheexternal
environment.Thesemightincludebusinessassumptions,evaluationmethods,andframeworks.Asharedawarenessiscriticalforthenetworktocapitalizeonthesynergiesamongthediversesetofexpertiseandcapabilitiesinthenetwork.Forexample,inthecaseofanOpenSourceSoftwaredevelopmentcommunity,thesharedworld-viewmightincludeknowledgeabout
competingandcomplementaryproductsandtechnologies,andhowtheproductsbeingdevelopedshouldrelatetoorintegratewithexistingproductsandtechnologies.
Theworld-viewinaninnovationnetworkisdynamic.Itcontinuallyevolvesinresponsetochangesintheenvironment.Theconnectednessofthe
networkfacilitatesrapidinformationsharingthatinturnfacilitatesthemaintenanceofasharedawarenessoftheenvironmentinwhichthenetworkoperates.
“SOCIAL”KNOWLEDGECREATION
Newknowledgeisincreasinglycreatedthroughinteractionsamongthe
differenttypesofplayersormembersinanetwork.Forexample,opensourcecommunitiesrelyonthethemethatalluserscanbeco-developersandthatinnovativeconceptsevolvefrombuildingononeanother’sideasorcontributions.Suchaconceptof“social”knowledgecreationisevidentincustomercommunities,too,wheredialoguesamongpeer
customersbecomethecontextforproductimprovementideasandnewproductconcepts.
Althoughweusetheterm“social”here,itisnotnecessarilylimitedtoopensourcecommunities.Instead,thisprinciplereflectsthecollaborativeandcumulativeaspectofknowledgecreationthatisevidentinmanyothertypesofinnovationnetworks.
Eveninamarket-basedmodel,innovativeideasevolvethroughinteractionsamongthenetworkmembers.Forexample,evenininventornetworks,interactionsamongtheindividualinventor,theinnovationintermediary,andthelargerfirmprovidethecontextfornewproductideastobubbleupandgettransformedintocommerciallyfeasible
productconcepts.
Thekeyideaissimple—knowledgeiscreatedandenhancedsociallyaspeoplebuildoneachothers’contributions,andasocialornetworkinfrastructureneedstobeinplacetofacilitatesocialknowledgecreation.
38
THEGLOBALBRAIN
ARCHITECTUREOFPARTICIPATION
Thefourthprincipleofnetwork-centricinnovationrelatestothewayinnovationworkisdistributedamongthenetworkparticipantsandtheway“rights”
fromtheinnovationaresharedbytheparticipants.Thisprinciplegoesbeyondjustidentifyingthecoreand
non-coretasksasinoutsourcinginnovation.
Instead,itrelatestothedevelopmentofanarchitectureofparticipation—atermcoinedbyTimO’Reilly15—thatprovidesaroadmapforthedifferentplayerstocometogethertoinnovate.Thearchitectureofparticipationprovidesthemechanismsandmethodsforthecontributions
ofparticipantstobecoordinated,integrated,andsynchronizedinacoherentmanner.
Twokeyaspectsofsucharchitectureofparticipationarethemodularityoftheinnovationsystemandthegranularity(sizeorscale)oftheinnovationtasks.
Whereasmodularityenablesdistributingandcoordinating
theinnovationprocesses,granularityassuresthatadiversesetofmembers(thatis,memberswithdiversetypesofresources,capabilities,andtimecommitments)cancontributetotheinnovation.Thearchitectureofparticipationalsohastodefinethemeansbywhichtheparticipantswillbe“rewarded”fortheircontributions.Thisrewardcouldrangefrom
establishingdifferenttypesofincentivesthatdriveparticipationincertainnetworks(forexample,customercommunities)tonewvalueappropriationmethodsforsharingtheinnovationproceedsamongtheparticipants(forexample,patentpools,CreativeCommonslicense,andsoon).
THEDIFFERENT
“FLAVORS”OFNETWORK-CENTRIC
INNOVATION
Ifwelookatthehistoryofautomobiles,itbecomesclearthattheperiodfromthemid-to-late1800swasthe“eraofferment”intheindustry—thestagebeforeoneormoredominantdesignsemerge.16Suchaneraoffermentis
characterizedbyprolificexperimentation.Intheautomobileindustry,inventorsexperimentedwithdifferenttypesoffuels(wood,alcohol,gasoline,andelectricity),differenttypesofengines,differenttypesofbodystructure,andsoon.Someoftheseinventionsworked,othersdidnot.Butallofthemcontributedtotheevolutionofthedesignthatbecamethedominantmodel
intheearly1900s.
Similarly,considerableexperimentationisgoingoninthenetwork-centricinnovationlandscape.Thenewmodelsandapproachesthatareemergingarecharacterizedbyawiderangeofstructuralarrangements,innovationactivities,andoutcomes.Let’slookatsomeoftheseformsofnetwork-centricinnovation,withan
exampleofacompanythatispursuingeachform.
CHAPTER2•UNDERSTANDINGNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
39
OPENSOURCESOFTWARECOMMUNITIESANDIBM
Intheearly1990s,atatimewhentheopensourcephenomenonwasstillinitsinfancy,IBMmadekeychangestoalignitselfmorecloselywiththeemergingOpenSourceSoftwaremovement.Anexcellentexampleofthatshiftwasthe1996AtlantaOlympicswhereIBMwasresponsibleforbuildinganddeployingthefirstOlympicsWebsite—theresultsfromallthe
competitionswereavailableinreal-timeontheIBM-designedWebsite.WhenitcametochoosingtheserverplatformfortheWebsite,IBMchoseApache,anopensourcesolution,despitethefactthatIBMhadacompetingproprietaryproductforservingWebsites.Inrecentyears,IBMhasmadeconsciousdecisionstopromoteandalignitsownstrategiestoleveragethe
poweroftheOpenSourceSoftwarecommunities—inmarketsrangingfromWebserversandoperatingsystemstoscriptinglanguagesanddevelopmenttools.
IBM’sapproachtoopensourceisnotaphilanthropicapproach;instead,itisaconsideredbusinessdecision.InthewordsofIrvingWladawsky-Berger,IBM’s
formerTechnicalVice-President,itisadecisionmade“afterconsiderableanalysisofthetechnologyandmarkettrends,theoverallqualityandcommitmentofthecommunity…andthequalityofitsofferings.”17
Inworkingwiththeopensourcecommunities,IBMispursuinganetworkcentricinnovationstrategythat
involvesitselfwithavastglobalnetworkofsoftwaredeveloperswhomakedifferenttypesofinnovativecontributions.IBM
doesnotsetouttheinnovationagendafortheopensourcecommunitynordoesitdirectlybenefitfromtheproductsdevelopedbythecommunity.Instead,IBM
playstheroleofasponsoror
patron,whoseinterestistosustaintheoverallenergyandhealthoftheopensourcemovement.Ofcourse,asDr.Wladawsky-Bergernotes,itisa“businessdecision”—IBMdoesindirectlybenefitfromtheofferingsoftheopensourcecommunities.Forexample,IBM’srevenuesfromLinux-relatedserviceshaveincreasedexponentiallyfrom2001whenitstartedinvestinginanopensource–
basedbusinessmodel.By2004,IBMrealizedmorethan$2billioninrevenuesfromOpenSource–relatedbusinesses.18
CUSTOMERCOMMUNITIESANDDUCATI
Ducati’sinvolvementandrelationshipwithitsinnovativecustomercommunityprovidesanother
flavorofnetwork-centricinnovationstrategy.DucatiMotorisaworld-renownedmotorcyclecompanybasedinItaly.Themotorcycleisalifestyle-intensiveproductandassuchmostsuccessfulmotorcyclecompaniesfocusonbuildingextensiverelationshipswiththeircustomerstofosterasenseofcommunitythatcomplementstheactualproduct.
40
THEGLOBALBRAIN
However,Ducativiewsitsrelationshipwithitscustomercommunitynotjustasacustomerrelationshipmanagementinitiativebutaspartofitsinnovationstrategy—Ducaticonsidersitscustomersaspartnersininnovation.Inearly2000,itsetupaseparateWeb
divisiontocoordinateitsInternet-basedcustomercollaborationinitiatives.19Ducatiemploysdifferenttypesofvirtualcustomerenvironments(allpartofitsWebsite)toinvolvecustomersinboththefront-endandtheback-endoftheinnovationprocess(seeFigure2.1).Ducati’scustomershavedeeptechnicalknowledgeandsomeofthecustomerseven
comeupwithcomplextechnicalandmechanicaldesignimprovementideas—
ideasthatcanbe(andhavebeen)translatedintorealproductfeatures.Inaddition,attheback-endofproductdevelopment,customersalsoparticipateinproducttestingthroughthevirtualcustomerenvironment.
ApplicabilitytoStageof
NewProductDevelopmentProcess
Front-end
Back-end
(IdeationandConcept)
(ProductDesignandTesting)
TechCafé
DesignYourDreamDucati
AdvisoryProgramsSupported
FocalizedContest
byProductEngineers
DucatiGarageChallenge
Deep/
ation
DucatiService
HighRichness
VirtualTeams
TechnicalForumandChat
OnlineSurveytoImprovethe
MassCustomizationofthe
Website
Product
PollsandFeedbackSessions
Web-BasedProductTesting
NatureofCollabor
Broad/
MyDucati
HighReach
VirtualScenarios
FromMohanbirSawhney,
GianmarioVerona,EmanuelaPrandelli,“COLLABORATINGTOCREATE:THEINTERNETASAPLATFORM
FORCUSTOMERENGAGEMENTINPRODUCTINNOVATION”;TheJournalofInteractiveMarketing,p.8,Vol.19,No.4,Autumn2005.©2005WileyPeriodicals,Inc.andDirectMarketing
EducationalFoundation,Inc.Reprintedbypermission.
Figure2.1Ducati’sCustomerCommunityInitiative
Ducatithuspursuesanetwork-centricinnovationstrategywhereinithosts,facilitates,andpromotesanactivecustomercommunity,andcoordinatestheinnovationactivitiesand
resources(customerideasandexpertise)toenhanceitsinnovationagenda.
CHAPTER2•UNDERSTANDINGNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
41
INVENTORNETWORKSANDSTAPLES
StaplesInc.,theleadingofficesuppliescompany,hasmarketedprivate-label,low-pricegenericproductswithStaple’snameonthepackagefromthe1990sonwards.Thisstrategyhasservedthemwellinthepast—revenuecontributionsfromStaples-brandedproductsaccountedfor18%ofitstotalsalesof$16billionin2005.20However,withmorecompetitionintheoffice
suppliesmarket,Stapleshasstartedchangingitsstrategyinthelastfewyears.ButStaplesdoesnotwanttolimititselftolow-cost,me-tooproducts.Instead,itwantstopursuethedevelopmentofmoreinnovativeproducts—productsthatwillpositionthefirmasaninnovatorwithnationalbrandrecognition.
Howcanacompanywithoutavastinternalproduct
developmentgrouppursuesuchanambitiousinnovationagenda?Staplesbelievesthatinnovativeideasareoutthereinthemarketplace.AsJevinEagle,theSeniorVicePresidentofStaplesbrands,notes,“Ourjobistoscourtheworldforideas.”21Tohuntforthoseideas,Staplesholdsan“idea”contestcalledInventionQuest—individualinventorsareinvitedtosubmittheirideastoStaples,
andwinningideasarecommercializedbyStaplesunderStaplesbrandnamewiththeinventorreceiv-ing8%ofrevenuesofroyalty(seeFigure2.2).StaplesalsoemploysthirdpartiessuchasPDGLLC.,toreachoutintotheinventorcommunityandbringbackpromisingideastoStaplesforpotentialcommercialization.
Inpursuingthisformof
network-centricinnovation,Staplessourcesideasfromthelargeinventorcommunity,significantlyincreasingitspotentialtogeneratevaluableideas.Inarecentcontest,about10,000individualinventorssubmittedideas.RonSargent,Staples’CEO,believesthatthisinnovationstrategy—
centeredonexternalinventor
networks—willformitsmainweapontofuelStaples’revenuegrowthinthefuture.IthasalreadyenabledStaplestosurpassitsmaincompetitor,OfficeDepot,inrevenuesandbecomethetopretailerintheofficesuperstoremarket.
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THEGLOBALBRAIN
©Staples,Inc.Reprintedbypermission.
Figure2.2Staplesandtheinventornetwork(fromTheWallStreetJournalOnline,July13,2006)DEVELOPERNETWORKSANDSALESFORCE.COM
Yetanotherflavorofnetwork-centricinnovationis
thecreationofanecosystemofdeveloperswhocaninnovateonacommonplatform.ConsiderhowSalesforce.com,aleadingvendorofcustomerrelationshipmanagement(CRM)solutions,hasleveragedthepowerofindependentsoftwaredevelopers.
Foundedin1999byformerOracleexecutive,Marc
Benoiff,Salesforce.comoffersCRMsoftwarethatenablesbusinessestotrackandanalyzealloftheirCHAPTER2•UNDERSTANDINGNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
43
interactionswithcustomersinreal-time.TheuniqueaspectofSalesforce.comis
thatitprovidesthissolutionexclusively“ondemand”—inotherwords,clientfirmsaccesstheapplicationsoftwareasaservicethroughaWebbrowserovertheInternet.
Morerecently,Salesforce.comhascreatedauniqueapproachtotapintothecreativityofindependentsoftwaredeveloperstoenhanceitssoftware
offerings.In2005,itlaunchedAppExchange,aforumforexternaldeveloperstocreateadd-onapplicationsthatcanlinkintoorintegratewiththemainSalesforce.comsystem.Morethan600suchadd-onapplicationsareavailable,rangingfrome-mailmarketingtoolstosalesanalysistoolstofinancetools.
UnlikeotherlargesoftwarefirmssuchasMicrosoftandOracle,Salesforce.comdoesnotjustprovideaforumforexternaldeveloperstodevelopapplicationsontheplatform.Instead,itactivelyparticipatesinitbymarketingthetoolsofferedontheAppExchangetoitsclientsandevenconductsthesalestransactionsandappropriatestheproceedsbacktotheexternal
developers.Inmanyinstances,italsoprovidesguidanceanddirectionforinnovationeffortsofitssoftwarepartnersbychannelingpotentialapplicationideasfromclientstotheexternaldevelopers.Thecompanyalsoplaystheroleofacommunitysponsorandpromoterbyfacilitatinginteractionsamongthedevelopersaswellasbyprovidingtheinfrastructure
forwritingandsharingcustomizedsolutions.
Thus,inestablishingAppExchange,Salesforce.compursuedanetwork-centricinnovationstrategywhereinitsprimaryrolewastoprovidethebroadvisionandthebasis(thatis,thetechnologyplatform)fortheinnovationandtoorchestratetheactivitiesandinteractionsamongitsglobal
partners.WhatdoesSalesforce.comgainfromdoingthis?Twothings—first,thetoolsandsolutionsofferedthroughtheAppExchangeclearlyaddvaluetothebasicsoftwareapplicationthatSalesforce.comofferstoitsclients.Secondandmoreimportantly,thecommunityofdevelopersinAppExchangeenhancestheoverallinnovationreachand
rangeofSalesforce.com.ThecompanydoesnotofferthefullandintegratedrangeofenterprisesolutionsthatfirmssuchasOracleandSAPoffer.
ButthroughAppExchange,Salesforce.comcannowextenditsservicestootherandmoreprofitableapplicationsareas,suchashumanresourcesandfinance,aswellastomarketssuchas
thehealthcareindustry.Byfollowinganetworkcentricinnovationstrategy,Salesforce.comisabletoderiveinnovationgainsthatareordersofmagnitudehigherthanwouldbepossiblewithitslimitedresources.
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THEGLOBALBRAIN
ELECTRONICR&DMARKETPLACESAND3M
Inrecentyears,anumberofelectronicR&DnetworkslikeInnoCentive
(www.innocentive.com)andNineSigma(www.ninesigma.com)havesprungup
asanotherinterestingflavorofanetwork-centric
innovationmechanism.Thesenetworksplayamatchmakingrolebetween“seekers”ofsolutionstoscientificproblems(typicallylargeR&D-intensivecorporations)and“solvers”oftheseproblems(typicallyindividualscientistsorsmallresearchlaboratoriesspreadacrosstheworld).LargecompaniesoftenhaveveryspecifictechnicalissuesandR&Dproblemsthattheyare
unabletosolveinternallyatanacceptablecostortimeframe.Whenpotentialsolutionsfrominsidethecompanydryup,theyuseelectronicR&Dnetworksasavehicletolookoutsideforthoseanswersbytappingintotheglobaltalentpoolofscientistsandengineers.
ConsidertheR&Dproblemthatthelargeindustrialmanufacturer3Mrecently
faced—itwantedanadhesivesystemthatwouldbecapableofdurablyadher-ingapolyesterfilmtoanoil-ladennaturalstoneorfiredclaysurface.22Theadhesiveneededtoberesistanttooils,cleaningchemicals,highpHdetergents,andstandingwater.Theadhesivesystemalsoneededtoremainbondedtotheoil-soakedsurfaceforatleast18months.Unabletofindanappropriateinternal
solutiontothisproblem,3MturnedtoNineSigma,anelectronicR&Dmarketplace.NineSigmahostsaglobalcommunityofscientistsandtechnologistswithdeepexpertiseindifferentfields.NineSigmapreparedaRequestforProposal(RFP)basedon3M’srequirements.ThousandsofrelevantscientistsviewedtheRFPandfivepotentialsolutionswereofferedthroughthe
NineSigmaWebsite.3Mevaluatedthesolutionsandselectedoneasthemostappropriate.
Inthisnetwork-centricinnovationscenario,therelevantpartoftheGlobalBrainconsistsofaglobalpoolofscientistsandtechnologistswith3MplayingtheroleofasolutionseekerandNineSigmaplayingtheroleofa
marketplaceoperator.
DIFFERENTNETWORKS,DIFFERENTAPPROACHES,
DIFFERENTOUTCOMES
Theearlierexamplesportraythedifferentformsthatnetwork-centricinnovationcanassume—differenttypesofnetworksordifferenttypesoftheGlobalBraininvolved,
differenttypesofrolesforcompaniestoplay,differenttypesofrelationshipsamongnetworkmembers,anddifferenttypesofinnovationoutcomesorreturns(seeTable2.3).
CHAPTER2•UNDERSTANDINGNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
45
Table2.3TheDifferentFlavorsofNetwork-CentricInnovationExampleof
Natureof
Network-Centric
Natureof
Firm’sRolein
InnovationReturns
Innovation
Network
theNetwork
fortheFirm
Opensourcesoftware
Globalnetwork
SponsorandpromoteSynergiesfromthe
communityandIBM
ofsoftware
theopensource
opensourceofferings
developers
movement
Customercommunity
Communityof
Facilitateand
Innovativeideas
andDucati
customerco-
coordinatecustomer
forproduct
innovators
participationin
enhancement
productinnovation
Inventornetwork
Networkof
Seekoutand
Newproductor
andStaples
individual
commercialize
serviceideas
inventors
promisingnew
productconcepts
AppExchange
Globalnetworkof
Orchestrateand
Extendthereachand
communityand
externalsoftware
marketexternal
rangeoftheinnova-
Salesforce.com
developers
developers’add-on
tion(software)
offerings
platform
NineSigmaand
Globalnetworkof
Buyerofsolutionsto
Solutionsto
3M
scientists
R&Dproblems
clearlydefined
technicalproblems
Thesedifferenceshold
importantimplicationsforcompaniespursingthenetwork-centricinnovationstrategy.Letusconsidersomeoftheseimplications.
IMPLICATIONSFORREACHANDRANGEOFINNOVATION
Thedifferentflavorsofnetwork-centricinnovationofferverydifferentlevelsofthefirm’sreachintothe
GlobalBrainandtherangeofinnovativeideasitcansourcefromit.Forexample,Ducatihasdirecttieswithitsnetworkofcustomerco-innovatorswhereasboth3MandStaplesinteractwithmuchlargernetworks(comprisedofscientistsandindividualinventors,respectively)throughintermediaryorganizations.
Similarly,therangeof
innovativeideasalsodiffersintheprecedingexamples.
Inthecaseof3M,thefocuswasonanichetechnicalproblemthatneededtobesolved.Thenatureoftheproblemspacewasclearlydefinedby3M—inotherwords,therewerefewuncertaintiesregardingwhatthesolutionshouldachieve.
46
THEGLOBALBRAIN
InthecaseofStaples,itwasamuchmoreambiguousinnovationspace.AllthatStapleshadinviewwasinnovativeproductconceptsthatwouldalignwellwithitsexistingbrandandchannel.Ontheotherhand,Salesforce.comhaddefinedthebasicinnovationplatformandthebroaddesignparameters(thatis,itsmain
CRMsoftwareapplication)andthenetworkpartnerswereresponsibleforcomingupwithinnovativeproductdesignsoradd-onsthatadheredtothesebroadparametersandextendedthevalueoftheplatform.
Thus,severalimportantquestionscanbeposed:Wherearetheinnovativeideassituated?Whattypeofnetworkshouldthefirm
“connectto”?Whatisthecompany’sreachintothatnetwork?And,whatistherangeofinnovationthatcanbesourcedandpursuedcollaboratively?
IMPLICATIONSFORORGANIZATIONALCAPABILITIES
Itisalsoevidentthatcompaniesplaydifferentrolesorparticipatein
differenttypesofinnovationactivitiesinnetwork-centricinnovation.Theyalsohavedifferenttypesofrelationshipswiththemembersofthenetwork.Thesedifferentrolesandrelationshipsimplytheneedfordifferenttypesoforganizationalcapabilities.
Forexample,whereasSalesforce.comhastoprovideleadershipforits
networkofglobalpartners,3Mplaystheroleofaninnovationseekerandleveragestheexpertiseavailableinthenetworkofscientists.Incontrast,IBMseekstopromoteandchampiontheopensourcesoftwaremovementandnotovertlycoordinatethesoftwaredevelopmentactivities.Similarly,considertherelationalcapabilities.Thecapabilitiesneededby
Salesforce.comtointeractwithasetofglobalpartnersaredifferentfromthoseneededbyStaplesorDucatitointeractwithalargernetworkofinventors(orcustomers,asthecasemaybe).
Insum,differenttypesofplayersinnetwork-centricinnovationrequiredifferenttypesofcapabilities.Understandingthenatureof
theroleyourcompanyplanstoplayinnetwork-centricinnovationisimportanttofigureoutthenatureoforganizationalcapabilitiesandcompetenciesthatneedtobedeveloped.
IMPLICATIONSFORINNOVATIONRISKSANDRETURNS
Thedifferentexamplesalsoimplydifferenttypesofrisks
andreturnsfromtheresultinginnovation.Forexample,certainapproachesseemtobedesignedtoreducethebusiness,market,ortechnologicalriskassumedbyacompany.
ConsiderSalesforce.com’sinitiative.BygettingexternalsoftwaredeveloperstoCHAPTER2•UNDERSTANDINGNETWORK-CENTRIC
INNOVATION
47
investcapitalintodevelopingcomplementaryproductsandcommittingtothebasicsoftwareplatform,thecompanyisabletosharesomeoftheinnovationriskwithitspartners.Ontheotherhand,someotherapproachesaredesignedtoseekoutreallycreativeand
newconcepts—forexample,Staplestakesrelatively“raw”ideasfromtheinventornetworktocommercializeandindoingsoittrades-offthehighermarketriskforamoreinnovativeproductportfolio.
Thus,clearly,differentformsofnetwork-centricinnovationimplydifferenttypesofinnovationrisksandreturnsandposesome
interestingquestionsforacompany.Whattypesofreturnsisitexpectingfromcollaborativeinnovation?
Whatisitsriskthreshold?Or,whattypesofrisksisthecompanywillingtoassume?
BRINGINGAMETHODTOTHEMADNESS
Asevidentfromourdiscussioninthischapter,the
variedapproachestonetwork-centricinnovationimplydifferentopportunitieswithdifferentimplications.Naturally,thequestionthenis,howshouldacompanygoaboutdecidingwhatisthemostappropriatenetwork-centricinnovationopportunity?
Toanswerthisquestion,firmsneedtogobeyondsimplytryingoutdifferent
approachesandseeingwhatworks,orcopyingwhatworksforothercompanies.
Instead,werecommendamoresystematicapproachthatstartswithagoodunderstandingofthebroadstructureofnetwork-centricinnovationopportunities.Withthisknowledgeinhand,managerscanthennarrowtheirfocustoselectaplaceinthelandscapethatismost
relevantforthefirm’sinnovationcontext.
Whatdowemeanbyacompany’s“innovationcontext”?Thecontextincludestheindustry,technology,market,andinternalorganizationalcharacteristicsthattogetherdefinetheframewithinwhichfirmsdefineandpursuetheirinnovationagenda.
Forexample,considertechnologyandmarket-relatedattributes.Howdynamicarethecompany’scoreproducttechnologies?Howdiversearetheproductandtechnologyknowledgebase?Whatisthenatureofthecustomerbase?Arecomplexandexpensiveinfrastructurerequiredforideationintheindustry?Howcapital-intensiveis(product)commercialization?
Similarly,considerorganizationalattributes.Whatisthenatureofinnovationthattheorganizationishop-ingtopursuecollaboratively?Whatistheexistinginnovationinfrastructureofthecompany?Whatisthecollaborationexperienceofthecompany?Whattypeofrelationalskillshasitdeveloped?Whattypeofinnovativecontributionsis
48
THEGLOBALBRAIN
thecompanyexpectingfromoutside?Whattypeofvalueappropriationmechanismsand“propertyrights”systemsisitcomfortablewith?
Theanswerstotheseandothersimilarcontextualquestionswillindicatewhat
typeofinnovationnetworkwouldbemostappropriateforthecompanytoparticipatein,whattypesofrolesthecompanycanplayinit,whattypesofcapabilitiesitshoulddevelopforthoseroles,andmoreimportantly,howthereturnsfromthosecollaborativeinnovationactivitieswillcontributetowardthecompany’sgoalsandobjectives.
However,beforewestartlookingatthecompany’sinnovationcontext,weneedtodevelopadeeperunderstandingofthebroadstructureofthenetwork-centricinnovationlandscape.Inthenextchapter,wedojustthatbydefiningthefourfundamentalmodelsorarchetypesofnetwork-centricinnovation.
P
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Chapter3TheFourModelsofNetwork-Centric
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Chapter4InnovationNetworks:ThePlayers
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TheFourModelsof
Network-CentricInnovation
WhenyoulastsawamovieoradocumentaryonyourTV,didyou
wonderhowitwasmade?Probablynot—becauseweassumethatall
moviesareproducedinmoreorlessthesameway.Hereisthetyp-
icalproductionprocess:A
filmproductionstudiolikeMiramaxFilmsacquirestherightstoamoviescriptanddecidestoproducethe
movie.Thenthestudiolooksforadirectorforthemovieaswellastheleadcastmembers.Afterthesekeypeoplearelinedup,other
castmembersareselected.Inparallel,thestudiosignsupotherspecialists,including
peoplewhodothelighting,catering,selectlocations,andsoon.Whentheproductionstarts,thesespecialistserviceprovidersarecalleduponasneeded.Thestudio’sroleistocoordinatetheactivitiesofalltheparticipants.Althoughthestudiousesthemoviescripttobroadlydefinethethemeandthebudgetofthe
film,ittendstoleavesufficientleewayforcreative
inputfromthemovieteam,includingthedirector,theactors,thecinematographer,themake-upartists,thespecialeffectsteam,andthefilmeditor.
Afterthemovieiscompleted,thestudiocontractswiththedistributor(forexample,SonyPictures)whointurnworkswithexhibitors
(forexample,AMCTheaters)todistributeandmarketthefilm.The
studioalsoensuresthatrevenuesthatthemovieproducesfromthe
theatrical,video,international,cable,andotherchannelsareshared51
52
THEGLOBALBRAIN
amongtheparticipantsintheproductionanddistribution,basedoncontrac-tualterms.
That’stheconventionalmodelformovieproduction—whereacentralplayer(thestudio)definesthecontextforthemovieandorchestratestheproductionactivities.However,thisisn’ttheonlymodelformovie
production.Inrecentyears,severalinterestingnewmovieproductionapproacheshavepoppedup.
Oneapproachistheantithesisofthetraditionalstudioproduction—amodeloffilmmakinginwhichthereisnosingle,dominantplayerlikeamoviestudio.
Instead,alltheparticipantsintheproductioncometogether
toprovidethedirectionandthecoordinationforproducingthemovie.Thescriptforthismodelcouldbe“OpenSourceMeetsHollywood!”ConsiderthecaseofaBritishfilmprojectcalledASwarmofAngels,whichhastheobjectiveofattracting50,000peopletocollaborativelycreatea£1millionfilm.1Apreliminarymoviescriptorastorysketchispostedonanonlineforum.
Allthemembersoftheonlineforumaretheninvitedtocontributetothefurtherscriptdevelopment,production,anddistribution.TheprojectdirectorisaBrighton-baseddigitalfilmpioneer,MattHanson,whoconceivedtheidea.Theprojecthasthreestages:Fund(collectinitialfundingfrommembers);Film(developthescriptandexecutepre-production/production/post-
production);andFlow(marketanddistributethefilm;createspin-offmaterials,andsoon).Throughadedicatedonlineforum(calledNineOrders),membersareinvitedtocontribute£25
eachandofficiallybecomecollaboratorsontheproject.Whyshouldanybodycontributemoneytosuchan“open”project?A
collaboratorcanbecomeinvolvedinthecreativeprocessofmakingthefeaturefilm—rightfromwritingthescripttomakingthemovietomarketinganddistribution.ThemovieismadeusingdigitaltechniquesandthefinishedfilmissharedordistributedworldwideonaCreativeCommonslicensethatallowsfreedownloadingandviewing,freesharing,andfreeremixing.Currently,
twosci-fi-basedscripts,titledUnfoldandGlitch,areunderproduction.
Yetanothermodelformovieproductionfeaturesacentralplayerlikeamoviestudio,butthecreativecontributionscomefromacommunityofcontributors.
Inthismodel,thecentralentitymarketsanddistributesthecontent,butthecontent
itselfemergesorganicallyfromthecommunity.Unlikethetraditionalmoviestudioproductionmodel,thereisnopredefinedtheme,script,ordirector.Infact,productionoccursinreverse—theaudienceproducesthemoviecontent,ratherthanthestudioproducingthemovieandmarketingittotheaudience.
CHAPTER3•THEFOUR
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53
Anexcellentexampleofthis“reverse”productionmodelisamediastartupfirm
calledCurrentTV(www.current.tv)thatisthebrainchildofformerU.S.VicePresidentAlGore.GoreandhisbusinesspartnerJoel
HyattfoundedamediacompanycalledINdTVwiththeobjectiveofofferinganindependentvoiceforatargetaudienceofpeoplebetween18and34—ahighlyprizedtargetaudienceintheentertainmentindustry.Theoriginalintentwastoprovidethisaudiencewithaforumto“learnabouttheworldinavoicetheyrecognizeandaviewtheyrecognizeastheirown.”2INdTVacquireda
channelfromtheCanadiannetworkNewsWorldInternational(apartofVivendiUniversal)forareported$70
million.3InApril2005,GoreandHyattchangedthenameofthenetworkfromINdTVtoCurrentTV.ProgrammingonCurrentTVwaslaunchedonAugust1,2005intheU.S.(asofJuly2007,itwasavailableinapproximately
30millionhomesnationwide)andonMarch12,2007inUKandIreland.
MostofCurrentTV’sprogrammingfeaturesshort-durationvideosor“pods”
thatareanywherefromthreetosevenminutes.Thevideosaresubmittedbytheviewersthemselves—CurrentTVcallsthisprogrammingViewerCreatedContentor
VC2.Viewersareinvitedtosubmittheirvideosforpotentialbroadcastandthecompanydecideswhichvideositwillbroadcastonitscablechannel.Afteravideoisselectedforbroadcast,CurrentTVbuysexclusiverightsforthevideousingatieredpricingstructure(paymentsrangefrom$500–$1,000).
CurrentTVengagesviewers
intheselectionprocessbyaskingthemtovoteonthevideos.Theseviewerratingsdecidewhetheravideoisshownagainornot.
Morerecently,CurrentTVextendeditsstrategytogetitsviewersinvolvedincreatingadvertisementsfortheCurrentTVprogramsponsorcompanies.Theseviewer-createdadsalsocarrycompensationupto$1,000.
Iftheadsaregoodenoughforuseelsewhere,creatorscangetupto$50,000fromthesponsorcompany.
IntheCurrentTVmodelofproduction,thecreativeoutput(pods)ofindependentcontributorsisacquiredandcommercialized(broadcast)usingaproprietaryinfrastructure(theCurrentTVnetworkchannel),andthecompanyownstherightsto
thecontent.Theincentivesforcontributors,accordingtothecompany,arethree-fold—cash,fame,andcreativefreedom.4
Yetanothermodeloffilmmakingtakesadifferentapproachtoboththeproductionprocessaswellastotheownershipoftheoutput.Inthismodel,theparticipantsaregiventhebuildingblockstomakea
movie,andarethenallowedtocreate,distribute,andviewtheresultingmoviesastheyseefit.
Toseehowthisinnovativemodelworksinpractice,considertheexampleofMODFilms,anew-generationfilmcompany.MODFilmswasfoundedby
54
THEGLOBALBRAIN
MichelaLedwidge,aBritish-basedmediaproducer,in2004.ThebusinessmodelofthecompanyinvolvesproducingaregularmovieandthenofferingittotheglobalaudienceovertheInternetinaformmalleableenoughtoallowthemtoedit,modify,orremixittosuittheirtaste.AsWiredmagazinenoted,MODFilms
offers“amassivelymultiplayeronlinemovie.”5ThefirstsuchfilmisSanctuary—aten-minutevirtualrealitysci-fifilmshotinAustraliain2005.
Thefilmisaboutagirl,hercomputer,andamysteriousmurder.Theoriginalfilm,releasedundertheCreativeCommonslicense,providesastoryframeworkthattheaudiencecanplaywith—they
candisassembleandreassemblematerialsthemselvestocreatetheirowninterpretationofthestory.6And,theresultingoutputwillalsobeavailableundertheCreativeCommonslicense.
SanctuaryisdistributedasDVD-VideoaswellasintheHDVideoformatalongwithavastlibrarymaterial.Specifically,morethannine
hoursofproductionfootageand90minutesofsoundeffectsanddialogalongwithstoryboards,stillphotos,andsoonareavailableforviewerswhohavesubscribedtotheonlineforummaintainedbyMODFilms.7Viewerscanplayaroundwiththesecine-maticelementsusingadownloadablesoftwaretoolcalledSwitchthatthecompanyprovides.Morefilmsareontheanvil
includingTheWatch(adrama)andExtraFox(acomedy).
Thesefourmodelsformovieproductionareverydifferentintermsofhowtheyareorganized,howtheprocessworks,andwhoownstheoutput.Buttheyhavesomethingincommon—collaborationamonganetworkofcontributorstocreateaninnovativeproduct.
Moreimportantly,thesemodelsfromtheentertainmentindustryareexamplesofemerginginnovationmodelsthatlieattheconfluenceofsocialorcommons-basedproductionmethodsandhierarchical/market-basedproductionmethods.Assuch,theyareharbingersofthenetwork-centricinnovationapproachesthatwearelikelytoseeinthemainstream
businessworld.
Indeed,theentertainmentindustryhasalwaysbeenatrendsetterinmanagingandorganizingcreativity.Inaclassicarticlepublishedin1977intheHarvardBusinessReview,EileenMorleyandAndrewSilverdescribedafilmdirector’sapproachtomanagingcreativityanddistilledasetofwonderfulinsightsforbusiness
managers.8Overthenextthreedecadesorso,severalofthoseconceptsandpracticesbasedonsuccessfulfilmprojectsfromHollywoodhavefoundtheirwayintothebusinessworld.9And,astheprecedingexamplesindicate,thefilmandtheTVindustrycontinuetopavethepathinmanaginginnovationandcreativity.
CHAPTER3•THEFOUR
MODELSOFNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
55
FRAMINGTHELANDSCAPEOFNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
Takinginspirationfromtheentertainmentindustry,letusconsidersomeofthecommonthemesthatemerge
fromthedifferentmodelsofmovieproduction,andhowthesethemeshelpustoframethelandscapeofnetwork-centricinnovationinthemovieindustryandbeyond.
WhenwecomparethetraditionalmodeloffilmmakingwiththeonefollowedbyCurrentTV,wenotethatthereisnopredefinedthemeorscriptforthemovie.Eventhough
thestudiostillcallstheshotsintermsofwhatgetsaired,thecontentofthemovieisnotcontrolledbythestudio.Instead,itemergesasaresultofthecollaborationamongthecontributors.Althoughscript-drivenmoviesanddocumentariesstillformthemajorityoftheoutputfromtheindustry,exampleslikeCurrentTVsuggesttheriseofaudience-definedcontent,whereconsumerstakeonthe
roleofproducers.
InitiativesliketheSwarmofAngelsgoevenfurther,inthatthestudioplaysanevenlesserrole—thatofanenablerandthefacilitatorofcollaborationamongindividualcontributors.Inthismodel,individualcontributorsexercisegreaterinfluenceonallorsomeaspectsoffilmmaking.Anotherexampleofthistype
ofinitiativeistheEchoChamberProject,anexperimentindocumentaryproduction.TheEchoChamberProjectisaninvestigativedocumentaryabout“howthetelevisionnewsmediabecameanuncriticalechochambertotheexecutivebranchleadinguptothewarinIraq.”10Theproject,ledbyKentBye,adocumentaryfilmmakerbasedinWinterport,Maine,
involvesacollaborativeeditingprocesswhereintheleadcreatorprovidesapreliminarysetofvideosegmentsandothercollaboratorshelpincategorizingthevideosegmentsintodifferentthematicclustersandcreatingthesequence(storyline).Theeditedsequencesarethenexportedforfinalproduction.
Theemergingmodelsandtrendsinthemovieindustryillustratetwokeydimensionsofcreativeendeavoralongwhichweseechangehappening.Thefirstdimensionrelatestothenatureofthemovieitself—thatis,howtheoverallstorylineandcontentofthemovieisdefinedandhowitevolves.Theseconddimensionrelatestothestructureofthenetworkof
contributorstotheproject;thatis,howthetalentcomestogetherandsharesinactivitiesrelatedtoproducing,marketing,anddistributingthemovie.
Generalizingthesedimensionstothebroaderinnovationcontext,wecanthinkoftwokeydimensionsinorganizinginnovativeefforts—thenatureoftheinnovationandthenatureof
thenetworkleadership.Thesetwodimensionshelp56
THEGLOBALBRAIN
ustostructurethelandscapeofnetwork-centricinnovation.Wenowexplorethesetwodimensionsinmoredetail.
THEDIMENSIONSOFNETWORK-CENTRIC
INNOVATION
StructureoftheInnovationSpace
Differenttypesofprojectscanbepursuedcollaborativelyininnovationnetworks.AsyousawinChapter2,“UnderstandingNetwork-CentricInnovation,”
someoftheprojectsinvolve
makingwell-definedmodificationsorenhance-mentstoexistingproducts,services,ortechnologyplatforms.Inotherprojects,theinnovationspacetendstobelessdefinedandtheoutcomesoftheinnovativeeffortarenotwellunderstoodattheoutset.
Basedonthis,wecanthinkabouttheinnovationspaceasacontinuumrangingfrom
“defined”ononeendto“emergent”attheotherend(seeFigure3.1).
Onthedefinedendofthecontinuum,thedefinitionmightoccuraroundatechnologyplatformoratechnologystandard.SuchisthecaseofAppExchange,thedevelopmentplatformcreatedbySalesforce.comtoharnessthecreativeeffortsofindependentsoftware
developers.Theinnovationspacecanalsobedefinedbydependenciescreatedbyexistingproductsorprocesses.Forexample,Ducatiengagesitscustomersininnovationprimarilytogenerateproductimprovementideasforitsexistingproducts.Similarly,3M’sengagementwithNineSigma.comwasdefinedintermsofthepropertiesoftheadhesivematerialthatthe
companywasseeking.Inalltheseexamples,theinnovativeeffortsaredefinedandlimitedbyexistingproducts,processes,ortechnologyplatforms.
Attheotherendofthecontinuum,thestructureoftheinnovationspacecanbelessdefinedandmoreuncertain.Althoughthebroadcontoursoftheinnovativespacemightbe
specifiedorknown—forexample,thetargetmarketforanewproductorserviceortheexistingcommercializationinfrastructure—theremightbefewerrestrictionsonthenatureorprocessoftheinnovation.Forexample,whenStapleslooksaroundforinnovativeideas,itisseekingnewproductconceptsfortheofficesuppliesmarket.Similarly,in
theOpenSourceSoftwarearena,manyoftheprojectsrelatetodevelopingtotallynewsoftwareapplications—whetheritbedevelopinganewdevelopmenttoolordevelopinganewoperatingsystem.
CHAPTER3•THEFOURMODELSOFNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
57
Emergent
•Lessdefined/unstructuredproblemspace
•Exploration,novelty
•Focusoncreatingnewknowledge/assets
•Emphasison‘unknownconnections’inknowledge-base
Centralized
Diffused
•Dominantplayerled
•Communityled
Network
•Moreformatstructures/linkages
•Moreinformal
structures/linkages
Leadership
•Hierarchical
•Etherarchical
•Lowdecisionalopenness
•Highdecisionalopenness
•Visiblecore/periphery
ation
•Lessvisiblecore/periphery
v
Inno
Space
Defined
•Clearlydefined/structuredproblemspace
•Exploitation,efficiency
•Focusonutilizingexistingknowledge/assets
•Emphasison‘knownconnections’inknowledge-base
Figure3.1Dimensionsofnetwork-centricinnovation
Anotherwaytounderstandthiscontinuumistothink
aboutitsimplicationsforcapabilitiesandknowledge.Themorewell-definedtheinnovationspaceis,themorethefocusonexploitinganexistingknowledge-baseorleveragingexistingtechnologies.Ontheotherhand,themoreemergenttheinnovationspace,themoretheemphasisonexplorationofopportunitiesintheinnovationspaceandonmakingcreativeconnections
amongdisparateknowledgedomains.
Now,considertheseconddimension—thestructureofthenetworkleadership.
StructureoftheNetworkLeadership
Aninnovationnetwork—whetheritisanopensourcecommunity,anelectronicR&Dmarketplacelike
NineSigma.com,oranecosystemoftechnologyfirmsasinthecaseofSalesforce.com—consistsofasetofindependentactorswithvaryinggoalsandaspirations,diverseresourcesandcapabilities,anddifferentbusinessmodels.
58
THEGLOBALBRAIN
Foralltheseentitiestoplaytogetherintheinnovationinitiative,therehastobeamechanismtoensuresomecoherenceamongtheiractivities,capabilities,andaspirations.Thismechanismcangobydifferentnames—networkleadership,governance,ormanagement.Whateverthepreciseterm,theessenceistheneedforamechanismthatcanprovidethevisionanddirectionfor
theinnovationandestablishtherhythmfortheinnovationactivities.
Thus,thenamewegivetotheseconddimension—theNetworkLeadership—
capturesthisgovernanceaspect.
Networkleadershipcanbethoughtofasacontinuumofcentralization,withthetwo
endsbeingcentralizedversusdiffused.Atthecentralizedendofthecontinuum,thenetworkisledbyadominantfirmthatleadsthenetwork.Leadershipmaybeexercisedindifferentways—envisioningandestablishingtheinnovationarchitecture,makingthecriticaldecisionsthataffectorshapethenatureandtheprocessofinnovation,anddefiningthenatureandmembershipof
thenetworkitself.Forexample,initstechnologyecosystem,Salesforce.comprovidestheleadershipbyestablishingandpromotingthetechnologyplatformandbyfacilitatingtheactivitiesofitsexternaldevelopers.
Atthe“diffused”endofthecontinuum,theleadershiptendstobelooselydistributedamongthemembersofthenetwork.All
membersofthenetworkshareresponsibilityforleadingthenetwork.Forexample,manyOpenSourceSoftwareprojectshaveademocraticleadershipstructurewhereinthedifferentmembersofthecommunitysharethedecision-makingpowers.
Tofurtherunderstandthedistinctionsbetweenthesetwoends,thinkaboutthe
conceptofthecoreandtheperipheryinnetworks.Thecoreofanetworkcanbethoughtofasoneormoremembersofthenetworkwhoareconnectedtooneanothermorecloselyandformthecentralpartofthenetwork.Theperipheryconsistsofthosemembersofthenetworkwhohavelimitedtieswithothermembersofthenetworkandaremoredistantfromthecenterofthe
network.11
Forexample,consideryourownsocialnetwork.Asmallsetofpeopleformsthecoreofyoursocialnetwork.Thesepeoplemightincludeyourimmediatefamily,yourclosefriends,andyourcolleagues.Thentherearemorecasualacquaintances,yourrelativesanddistantfamilymembers,thepeopleatyourworkplacewhointeractwithyou,andso
onwhoformtheperipheryofyoursocialnetwork.
Aswemovefromthelefttotherightonthecontinuumofnetworkleadership,wethinkaboutinnovationnetworksthathaveaclearlydefinedcorewithasingledominantfirmtonetworkswherethecoreandperipheryarelesswellCHAPTER3•THEFOURMODELSOFNETWORK-CENTRIC
INNOVATION
59
definedorwherethecoreconsistsofallormostofthemembers.Forexample,attheextremeleft,wemightconsidernetworkssuchasMicrosoft.NETorIntel’smicroprocessorplatformnetwork—contextswhereasinglefirmformsthecoreofthenetwork,providesthe
leadership,andmakesallthekeyinnovationdecisions.Aswemovetowardthecenter,wethinkofnetworkssuchasIBM’sPowerchipinnovationalliance(www.power.org)whereinIBMformsthe
coreofthenetworkbutsharesmoredecision-makingrightswithothermembersofthenetwork.Aswegofurthertotheright,thecoremightconsistofmorethanone
member,andattheextreme,thecoremightincludemostorevenallofthemembersofthenetwork.Forexample,OpenSourceSoftwareprojectshaveleadershipstructuresthatlieatdifferentpointsontherightpartofthiscontinuum.
INTRODUCINGTHEFOURMODELSOFNETWORK-CENTRIC
INNOVATION
Thetwodimensions—innovationspaceandnetworkleadership—whencrossedtogether,definefourarchetypicalmodelsthathelpstructurethelandscapeofnetwork-centricinnovation.Withabowtotheentertainmentindustry,wecallthesefourmodelstheOrchestramodel,theCreativeBazaarmodel,the
JamCentralmodel,andtheModStationmodel(seeFigure3.2).
Emergent
Creative
Jam
Bazaar
Central
vationSpace
Inno
MOD
Orchestra
Defined
Station
NetworkLeadership
Centralized
Diffused
Figure3.2Thefourmodelsofnetwork-centricinnovation
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THEGLOBALBRAIN
Wenowpaintapictureofthedefiningcharacteristicsofeachofthesemodels,
drawingparallelsfromthemusicandentertainmentworld.WewillexploreeachmodelingreaterdetailinChapters5through8ofthebook.
THEORCHESTRAMODEL
Whenwethinkaboutanorchestra,wevisualizeaconductorholdingswaywithhiswand,directingagroupofmusicians—eacha
specialistinaspecificmusicalinstrument.Themusicianscometogethertoplayscripted(often,classical)music.Thescriptedmusic—whetheritisBeethoven’sEroicaSymphonyorMozart’sSymphonyNo.40inGMinor—providesawell-definedstructurefortheperformancesofindividualmusicians.Althoughindividualmusiciansmight
havesomeleewayininterpretingthemusiccreatively,theyaregenerallysupposedtofollowthescript.Andtoalargeextent,theresponsibilityofcoordinatingthemusiciansfallswiththeconductor.Theconductorcommunicateswithindividualmusicians(usuallythroughgestures),andthiscommunicationdetermineswhetherthemusicthattheaudiencehearsisjusta
mechanicalrenditionofthescriptoramovingandelegantinterpretationofthescript.AsthecriticEduardHanslicknotedinthe1880s,thebestconductorsareabletocontrolandshape“everynoteandinflectionemanatingfromthemusiciansundertheircommand.”12
TheOrchestramodelfornetwork-centricinnovation
closelyresemblestheorganizationandthestructureofatypicalsymphonyorchestra(seeTable3.1).
Inthiscontext,thestructureoftheinnovationspaceisfairlywell-definedandthenetworkleadershipiscentralizedwithasingledominantfirm.Theinnovationcontextprovidesaclearbasisforstructuringthe
activitiesoftheindividualactorsintheinnovationnetwork.Andjustasthemusicalinstrumentsinanorchestraneedtoresonatewitheachother,theinnovativecontributionsofnetworkmembersintheOrchestramodelalsocomplementoneanother.
Justasanorchestraisledbyaconductorwhoorchestratesthemusicalperformancesof
individualmusicianstocreateacoherentsymphony,inthenetwork-centricinnovationcontext,theleadershipprovidedbythedominantfirmiscrucialtoensuringthattheinnovativecontributionsofindividualcontributorsadduptoavaluablewhole.
CHAPTER3•THEFOURMODELSOFNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
61
Table3.1TheOrchestraModelofNetwork-CentricInnovation
OrchestraModelof
SymphonyOrchestra
Network-CentricInnovation
Consistsofdifferenttypesof
Consistsofadiversesetofpartners,each
instrumentalists,eachplayinga
responsiblefordifferenttypesofinnovation
specificrole
activities(orcomponents)
Thecompositionorthescript
provides
Innovationarchitectureprovidesthe
thestructureforthemusical
structurefortheinnovativecontributionsof
performances
networkmembers
Conductorormaestroorchestratesthe
Dominantorleadfirmorchestratesthe
musicalperformanceofindividual
innovationactivitiesofnetworkmembers
musicians
Hierarchicalrelationshipsexistbetween
Formalrelationshipsortiesexistbetween
andacrosstheinstrumentsubgroups
networkmembers
Further,inanorchestra,oftenthereisahierarchyofleadershiporasetof
generallyaccepted(formal)relationshipsortiesbetweentheinstrumentalists.Forexample,eachinstrumentalgrouporsectionhasanassignedleader(principalorsoloist)whoisresponsibleforleadingthatgroup.Often,thereisalsoahierarchybetweentheinstrumentgroups.Forexample,theviolinsaredividedintotwogroups,firstviolinsandsecondviolins.Theleaderof
thefirstviolingroupisconsideredtheleaderoftheentirestringsection.Moreover,thisleaderisalsothesecond-in-commandoftheorchestra,andisresponsibleforconductingtheorchestraifthemaestroisnotpresent.Similarly,theprincipaltromboneisconsideredtheleaderofthelow-brass(trombone,tuba,andsoon)section,whereastheprincipaltrumpetis
generallyconsideredtheleaderoftheentirebrasssection.13Eventhoughsuchasetofhierarchicalrelationshipsmightnottranslatedirectlyintothenetwork-centricinnovationcontext,theanalogyliesintheformalrelationshipsortiesamongthemembersoftheinnovationnetwork.
TheOrchestramodelofnetwork-centricinnovation
describesasituationwhereinagroupoffirmscometogethertoexploitamarketopportunitybasedonanexplicitinnovationarchitecturethatisdefinedandshapedbyadominantfirm.Theinnovationarchitecturetypicallyemphasizesefficiencyovernovelty,sothereisaheavyemphasisonmodularityoftheinnovationarchitecture.
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THEGLOBALBRAIN
Innovationprocessestendtobehighlyorganizedandcoordinatedwithsignificantinvestmentsmadeininfrastructuretosupporttherolesandactivitiesofthemembersofthenetwork.
ExamplesoftheOrchestraModelrangefromMicrosoft
.NETinitiativeandSalesforce.com’sAppExchangenetworktoBoeing’sdevelopmentofthe
Dreamliner787.TheseexamplesrepresentseveralvariationsoftheOrchestramodel.InChapter5,“TheOrchestraModel,”wewillexaminetheOrchestramodelandthesevariationsinmoredetailthroughspecificexamples.
THECREATIVEBAZAARMODEL
Whenyoulistentoyourfavoritenewmusicartist,haveyouwonderedhowheorshegotnoticedfromamongthecrowdofstrugglingartists,andendeduplaunchinganalbumwithamajorrecordlabel?Recordlabelslookfor“diamondsintherough”inlotsofways.Theymightlookfor
promisingbutunknownartiststhroughtalentscoutsandtalentcontestsliketheAmericanIdol.Ortheymightoptfortriedandtrustedperformerswhohaveanewalbumorsingleandwhohaveaready-madeaudience.Inbothsituations,therecordcompanytypicallyonlyspecifiesthebroadcategoryofinterest—thegenreofmusicandthetargetcustomersegments—andnot
thelyricsorchoreographyofthemusic.However,thelabeldoeshavethefinalsayinselecting,developing,andmarketingthealbums.Inotherwords,whiletherecordlabelstillplaystheroleofadominantplayer,ittakesaflexibleandopenapproachtofindingtalentandlettingthemcomeupwithinnovativemusic.Ineffect,therecordlabelshopsaroundinthetalentbazaar.
Thismodelofmusicproductioniswhatwethinkofasananalogyinproposingthesecondmodelofnetwork-centricinnovation—theCreativeBazaarmodel(seeTable3.2).Thismodeldescribesacontextwhereinadominantfirmshopsforinnovationinaglobalbazaarofnewideas,products,andtechnologiesandusesitsproprietarycommercialization
infrastructuretobuildontheideasandmakethem“market-ready.”Thecommercializationinfrastructuremightincludedesigncapabilities,brands,capital,andaccesstodistributionchannels.
CHAPTER3•THEFOURMODELSOFNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
63
Table3.2TheCreativeBazaarModelofNetwork-CentricInnovationMusicRecordingStudio
CreativeBazaarModelof
orLabel
Network-CentricInnovation
Thestudioisthedominantplayerand
Thecompanyisthedominantmemberof
makesthecriticaltechnicalandmarket
theinnovationnetworkandmakesthe
decisions
criticaldecisionsregardingcommercialization
oftheinnovation
Musicofferingsacquiredfromawide
Innovativeideas(products,services,
rangeofsourcesandinvaried
technologies)sourcedfromadiversenetwork
forms—fromtalenttomarket-ready
ofinventorsandinvariedstagesofmaturity—
songs
fromrawideastomarket-validatedconcepts
Arangeofmechanismstosource
Arangeofinnomediariesusedtosource
music—fromtalentscoutstotalent
innovation
conteststomusicagents
Thespecificnatureofthemusicis
Thenatureoftheinnovation
isemergent—the
moreemergent—theonlyconstraintis
onlyconstraintisthatitshouldfitthe
thatitshouldfitthestudio’sbroad
company’soveralltargetmarketandbrand
marketstrategy
portfolio
Inmuchthesamewayasamusicstudiosourcesnewmusicalcompositionsfromawidevarietyofartists,companiesthatusetheCreativeBazaarmodeltosourcenewproduct/serviceuselotsofmechanismstosourcenewideasandtechnologiesfrominventors.
Forexample,productscoutsandlicensingagentsidentifypromisingnewproductandtechnologyideasandbringthemtolargecompaniesforfurtherdevelopmentandcommercialization.Companiescanalsoshopformoremarket-readyproducts(thatis,productortechnologyconceptsthathavebeenprototypedandmarketvalidated)andacquirethemfromincubators
andventurecapitalfirms.Regardlessofthesourcingapproach,thecompanyplaysthedominantroleintheinnovationnetworkbyofferingitsinfrastructurefordevelopingandcommercializingtheinnovation.However,thenatureoftheinnovationspaceisnotthatwell-defined,becausethetargetmarketsortechnologyarenasaredefinedrelatively
broadly,anditisn’tclearwheretheideawillcomefrom,orwhatitwilllooklike.
Insummary,theCreativeBazaarmodelaimstoseekoutandbringtofruitioninnovationopportunitiesthatmeetthebroadmarketandinnovationagendaofthedominantfirm.Thetermbazaarimpliesadizzyingarrayofwaresonoffer,
rangingfromrawideasandpatentstorelativelymatureor“market-ready”newproductconcepts,aswellasthepresenceofdifferenthawkersthatcompaniescandealwith,fromideascouts,patentbrokers,andelectronicinnovationmarketplacestoincubationagencies,venturecapitalists,andsoon.
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THEJAMCENTRALMODEL
Consideramusicaljamsession.Ittypicallyinvolvesagroupofmusiciansgettingtogethertoplayor“jam”withoutextensivepreparationandwithouttheintentiontofollowanyspecificmusicalpatternorarrangement.Improvisationisthekeytoa
goodjamsession.Musiciansoftenfollowa“callandresponse”
pattern—thatis,asuccessionoftwodistinctnotesorphrasesplayedbydifferentmusicians,where“thesecondphraseisheardasadirectcommentaryonorresponsetothefirst.”14
Thetermjamcanbetracedbackto1929whenitwas
usedtoreferto“short,freeimprovisedpassageperformedbythewholeband.”15Thetermsignifiestwokeythemes:Itisagroupactivityanditisimprovisational.Thedegreeofimprovisationmightvaryfrombeinglooselybasedonanagreedchordprogressiontobeingcompletelyimprovisational.Further,unlikeanorchestraorothermusicalcontexts,typically,
thereisnosingleleaderinajamsession.Allthemusiciansshareintheresponsibilitytokeepthetimeortherhythm.
Thejamsessionisourinspirationforthethirdmodelofnetwork-centricinnovation—theJamCentralmodel(seeTable3.3).Thismodelinvolvesindividualcontributorscomingtogethertocollaborateinenvisioning
anddevelopinganinnovation.Theinnovationspaceistypicallynotwellstructuredandtheobjectivesanddirectionoftheinnovationtendstoemergeorganicallyfromthecollaboration.Therearenodominantmembers,andtheresponsibilityforleadingandcoordinatingtheactivityisdiffusedamongthenetworkmembers.Eveniftheleadershipisnotequally
sharedbyallmembers,keydecisionsthatshapetheinnovationprocessesandoutcomestendtoevolvefromtheinteractionsofthenetworkmembers.
Table3.3TheJamCentralModelofNetwork-CentricInnovationJamCentralModelof
MusicalJamSession
Network-CentricInnovation
Groupofmusiciansgettogetherto
Membersofaninnovationnetworkget
performmusicinanimprovisational
togethertoinnovateinanimprovisational
manner
manner
Thenatureandformofthemusic
Thestructureoftheinnovation(goals,
evolvesoremergesfromthe“calland
architecture,processes,and
soon)are
response”amongthegroupmembers
emergent;thatis,itevolvesfromthe
continuedinteractionsofthemembers
Alltheparticipantsofthejamsession
Theleadershipoftheinnovationnetworkis
shareintheresponsibilityforcoordinating
diffusedamongalloragroupofthenetwork
themusic
members
CHAPTER3•THEFOUR
MODELSOFNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
65
Insum,theJamCentralmodelischaracterizedbyasharedexplorationofaninnovationarenabyapeergroupofcontributorswhoshareintheresponsibilityofdirectingandcoordinatingtheinnovationeffort.
THEMODSTATIONMODEL
ThetermmodoriginallystoodformodernismandwasusedtorefertoayouthlifestylebasedaroundfashionandmusicthatdevelopedinLondon,England,inthelate1950s.16Butthetermhadarebirthinthecomputergamingindustryintheearly2000s.Computer-basedgamesthat
weremodificationsofexistinggameswerereferredtoas“mods.”Inotherwords,modstoodformodification.
And,thisistheperspectivethatweadoptherewhenusingthetermmod.
Byofferingthesourceofavideogametoacommunityofgamers,acompanycanenablethecreationofvariationsofthegame.These
modificationscaninvolveaddingnewcharacters,newtextures,newstorylines,andsoon.
Dependingontheextentofmodifications,theycanbe“partialconversions”or
“totalconversions.”Totalconversionstypicallyturnouttobecompletelynewgamesthathappentousesomeofthebasiccontentor
structureoftheoriginalgame.Modsaremadebythegeneralgamingpublicormodders.Increasingly,thegamingcompanieshavestartedassistingmoddersbyprovidingextensivetoolsanddocumentation.ThemodsarethendistributedandusedovertheInternet.ThemostpopularmodisCounter-Strike,agamethatoriginatedasamodificationofanothergamecalledHalf-Life
producedbyValveCorporation,asoftwarefirmbasedinBellevue,Washington.
Basedonthemodidea,wedefinethefourthandfinalmodelfornetworkcentricinnovation—theModStationmodel(seeTable3.4).Thismodelhastwokeycharacteristics.First,itlargelyinvolvesmodifyingorleveraginganexisting
(product,process,orservice)innovation—thatis,activitiesthatoccurwithintheboundariesofapredefinedinnovationspace,andaimtoadd,enhance,oradaptexistingproductsorservices.Second,itoccursinacommunitywherethenormsandvaluesthatgoverntheinnovationareestablishedbythecommunityandnotbyanyonedominantfirm.
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THEGLOBALBRAIN
Table3.4TheModStationModelofNetwork-CentricInnovationModForumsinComputing
ModStationofNetwork-
GamingIndustry
CentricInnovation
Involvesmodificationofexisting
Innovationthatisbasedonanexisting,
computer-basedgamesbasedon
well-definedarchitecture—thenatureofthe
thesourceprovidedbytheoriginal
innovationisincremental
creator
Themodsarecreatedbythegeneral
Theinnovationiscarriedoutbyacommunity
gamingpublic
ofusersandexperts
Thecoordinationfortheinnovation
Theleadershipisdiffusedamongthemembers
isdiffusedwithinthecommunity
oftheinnovationnetwork
Insum,theModStationmodelisfocusedonexploitingexisting
innovationorknowledgetoaddressmarket/technologicalissuesbyacommunityofinnovators(innovationusers,customers,scientists,experts,andsoon).Examplesofsuchnetwork-centricinnovationrangefromcommercialopensourcecommunitiessuchasSugarCRMtoopensourceprojectssuchasOpenSPARCwhereinnetworksofscientistsandexperts
innovatewithintheboundariesdefinedbyanexistingproductorprocessarchitecture.
FROMTHEPLAYSTOTHEPLAYERS
Thesefourmodelshelpustostructurethelandscapeofnetwork-centricinnovation.Butourframeworkisnotyetcomplete.Ineachofthemodelsofnetwork-centric
innovation,firmscanplaydifferenttypesofroles.Whatisaninnovationrole?And,whatarethebroadcategoriesofsuchinnovationroles?
Further,allinnovationnetworksrequiresomebasicoperationalinfrastructureforcreatingaswellascapturingvalue.Thisincludesthemechanismsformanagingintellectualpropertyrightsandthesystemsforsharing
knowledge.Whatarethegeneralelementsofthenetworkoperationalinfrastructure?Inthenextchapter,weaddressthesequestions.
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
4
InnovationNetworks:The
PlayersandthePlays
Thinkaboutthelastbighomeremodelingprojectyou
undertook.
Theprojectprobablyinvolvedanumberofactors—thegeneralcon-
tractor,thesubcontractors,thearchitect,themortgagecompanyor
bank,theworkers,andthematerialsuppliers.Eachoftheseactors,includingyou,playedaclearlydefinedrole
intheproject.Andto
managetheproject,youneededtofigureouthowtocoordinateand
communicatewitheveryone.Thismighthaveincludeddefiningthe
contractterms,settingouttherulesofengagement,andmakingsuretheprojectstayedontrack.A
remodelingproject,likeanycollaborativeactivity,bringstogetherasetofindependentplayerswith
clearlydefinedroles,whooperatewithinasupportingsystemto
managetheproject.
Similarly,network-centricinnovationrequiresparticipantsinthe
networktoplayspecificroles.Theseinnovationrolesarecharacterizedbythetypesofactivitiesinvolvedorthetypeofinnovativecontributionsthatarerequired.Understandingthenatureofthese
differentinnovationrolesisimportantbecausetheydefinethecapabilitiesthatplayersneedtobringtotheinnovationproject.
Acollaborativeprojectalsorequiresasystemtofacilitateandcoordinatetheactivitiesinthenetwork.Someoneneedstodecidehow
theprojectwillbemanagedorgoverned.Andsomeoneneedsto
67
68
THEGLOBALBRAIN
managetheknowledgethatiscreatedanddecidewhoownswhatintellectualproperty.
Inthischapter,weconsiderthedifferenttypesofplayersinaninnovationnetwork,andthedifferenttypesofactivitiesthatneedtobeperformedtomanagethenetwork.Weidentifythreedistinctrolesthatnetwork
memberscanplay—
architects,agents,andadapters.Andwehighlightthethreekeyelementsofnetworkmanagement—networkgovernance,knowledgemanagement,andintellectualpropertymanagement.Wereflectuponthedifferencesintheserolesandactivitiesbasedonthetypeofnetwork-centricinnovationmodel.
PLAYERSINNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
Eventhoughaninnovationnetworkcanbecomplex,thereareonlythreekeycategoriesofrolesthatmembers(firms,individuals,andsoon)canplayinthenetwork:architects,adapters,andagents(seeTable4.1).
Table4.1Typesof
InnovationPlayers
Typeof
Innovation
Player
NatureofActivities
Example
Characteristics
Architect
Triggerandcatalyze
Platformleader,
Typicallysituatedatornear
innovation
innovationportal,
thecoreorcentralpart
innovationsteward
ofthenetwork;assumes
Envisionanddirect
higherriskandenjoysgreater
innovation
returnsfrominnovation
Tendtothe
innovationnetwork
Adapter
Providespecialized
Complementor,
Typicallysituatedawayfrom
knowledge/services
innovator,expert
thecentralpartofthe
andinfrastructure
network;exerciseslimited
services
directinfluenceonthe
innovation
Agent
Mediateinteractions,
Ideascout,patent
Tiedtodiversetypesof
knowledgetransfer,
broker,innovation
membersinthenetwork;
andinnovation
capitalist
typicallyassumeslowerrisks
andenjoyssmallerreturns
frominnovation
CHAPTER4•INNOVATIONNETWORKS:THEPLAYERSANDTHEPLAYS
69
ARCHITECTS
Toconstructahouse,thefirstpersonyouneedtohireisan
architect.Heenvisionstheblueprintforthehouseanddefinesthekeyelementsofhowtheroomsfittogetherintoalogicaldesign.Andsoitiswithinnovationnetworks.
Thearchitectisthecentralmember(orsetofmembers)whodesignsandinfluencestheevolutionofaninnovationnetwork.Thearchitecthasaring-sideseat
attheinnovationgamebecauseitcarriesoutorinfluencesactivitiesthatarecentraltotheinnovationagendaofthenetwork.Theseincludedefiningtheinnovationarchitectureandstandards,anddecidinghowtocommercializethecreativeoutputsoftheinnovationnetwork.Inotherwords,thearchitectenvisionsandimplementsthe“architectureofparticipation”inthe
network.
Themembersplayingtheroleofanarchitecttypicallytendtobepositionedinornearthecentralpartofthenetworkwithdirectlinkagestotheotherkeyplayersinthenetwork.Duetothenatureoftheiractivitiesandcontributions,typically,thearchitectsassumegreaterinnovationrisksthanothermembersinthenetworkand
alsoderivegreaterreturnsfromtheirparticipationthanothermembers.
Architectsperformthreesetsofactivities:triggerandcatalyzeinnovation,envisionanddirectinnovationactivity,and“tend”theinnovationnetwork.
Thefirstsetofactivities,“triggerandcatalyzeinnovation,”relatesto
providingtheinitialimpetustocreatetheinnovationnetworkandtodefinetheinnovationagenda.Italsoincludessupportingandplayingacatalyticroletobuildmomentumandensuresuccessoftheinnovationproject.Forexample,whentheHumanGenomeProject(HGP)waslaunched,apartfromtheinvolvementoftheU.S.governmentandscientificagenciessuchas
theDoEandtheNIH,akeyentitywastheU.K.-basedWellcomeTrust.Duringtheearly1990s,WelcomeTrustplayedacentralroleintriggeringthegenomicresearchactivitiesintheU.K.InOctober1993,theWelcomeTrustfundedandco-sponsoredtheSangerInstitute(atHinxton,southofCambridge,U.K.)—thecenterlaterbecameoneofthemajorsequencinglabsin
theinternationalconsortium.Astheprojectprogressed,WelcomeTrustcontinuedtoplayacatalyticroleintheprojectbyfunding,bringingtogether,andfacilitatingtheinteractionsofotherkeypartnersintheproject,particularlyintheU.K.
Thesecondsetofactivities,“envisionanddirectinnovation,”relatestoprovidingstructureand
bringingcoherencetotheactivitiesofparticipantsintheinnovationnetwork.Thismightrangefromestablishingandmaintainingtheinnovationarchitecturetomakingthecrucialdecisionsrelatedtotheevolution70
THEGLOBALBRAIN
orthecommercializationoftheinnovation.Forexample,IBMandMicrosoftplaythis
roleinmanyoftheinnovationnetworksthattheylead—whetheritisIBM’sPowerchiparchitectureorMicrosoft’s.NETarchitecture.Intheconsumerproductsector,companiessuchasP&GandJ&Jplayasimilarrolethroughtheircommercializationcapabilities—ineffect,offeringtheircommercializationinfrastructureasaportalfor
bringingtomarketexternalinnovativeideasandtechnologies.
Thethirdsetofactivities,“tendingtheinnovationnetwork,”involvesmaintainingandsupportingtheinnovationnetworkasawhole.Considertheactivitiesperformedbyagardener.Heorshedecideswhichplantstoseedinthegardenandwhatpositionorplacethey
shouldoccupyinthegarden.Thegardeneralsonurturesandfostersthegrowthoftheplantsandmakessurethattheweedsandotherplantsthatmightinhibittheoverallhealthofthegardenareidentifiedandpromptlyremoved.Further,agoodgardenerwillalsoknowthemeritsofcompanionplanting—plantsthatcomplementoneanothershouldbeplantedcloseto
eachother.Forexample,inavegetablegarden,basilandtomatoesshouldbeplantedtogether.Basilactsasafungicideandcanslowthegrowthoforrepelmilkweedbugs,aphids,mites,andsoon—therebyimprovingthegrowthandflavorofthetomatoes.
Similarly,the“gardening”roleplayedbyanarchitectinaninnovationnetwork
involvesmanagingthemembershipofthenetworkandprovidinganurturingenvironmentforthenetworktoflourish.Dutiesincludepromotingasharedsetofnormsandvalueinthenetwork,communicatingacommon“worldview”tonetworkmembers,weedingoutmemberswhoaredetrimentaltothehealthofthenetwork,andbringingtogethermemberswhose
capabilitiesandresourcescomplementoneanother.Thesegardeningactivitiesshapetheoverallsuccessoftheinnovationproject.
Someoftheactivitiesthatunderlietheprecedingthemesmightoverlapandsomeoftheactivitiesmightappearindifferentformsindifferentnetworks.
Furthermore,someofthe
playersmightcarryoutactivitiesthatrelatetomorethanoneoftheprecedingthemes.Thus,wecanidentifydifferenttypesofarchitectsbasedonthenatureofactivitiestheyassumeinagivenmodelofnetwork-centricinnovation.WhileweprovideafewexamplesoftheseplayersinTable4.1,wewillidentifyanddescribespecifictypesofarchitectslateroninthebook
(Chapters5to8)whenwediscusseachofthefourmodelsofnetworkcentricinnovationindetail.
CHAPTER4•INNOVATIONNETWORKS:THEPLAYERSANDTHEPLAYS
71
ADAPTERS
Everyqueenbeeneedsanumberofworkerbeeswhotakedirectionfromherandperformaspecifictaskinmakingabeecolonywork.Similarly,everyarchitectneedsasetoffirmswhotakedirectionandcontributetothenetwork.Wecalltheseplayersadaptersbecausetheyadapttothedirectionofthearchitectandplayasupportingrolethatislesscentral,butnonetheless
important,inthenetwork.Adaptersaretypicallylocatedawayfromthecoreofthenetworkandmaintainalimitednumberoftiesorrelationshipswithothermembersofthenetwork.
Theactivitiesofadapterscanbegroupedintotwobroadthemes:providespecializedknowledgeorservicesandprovideinfrastructureservices.
SomeadaptersbringhighlyspecializedknowledgeandexpertisetoinnovationprogramstosolveuniqueR&Dproblemsortocreatenovelcomponentsandservicesthatcomplement,extend,orenhancetheinnovation.Forexample,IntacctCorp.playssucharoleinSalesforce.com’sCRMplatformnetwork;ithasdevelopedandpublishedafinancialmanagementadd-
oncomponentthatworksontheCRMplatform.Similarly,ascientistwhotapsintohis/herspecializedknowledgetoprovideasolutiontoacriticalR&DproblemposedbyacompanyinanelectronicR&Dmarketplacealsoplayssucharole.Or,inanOpenSourceSoftwarecommunity,anindividualmightplaytheroleofadapterbywritingcodethataddressesaspecific
featureorrequirementofthesoftwareproduct.
Adapterscanalsoofferothersupportservicesinthenetwork.Considerinnovationnetworksinthesemiconductorindustry.Insuchnetworks,often,amemberfirmmightassembleandofferdesignandtestinglibrariesasinfrastructureservicestosupportthedesignanddevelopmentactivitiesof
othermemberfirms.Forexample,TSMC(TaiwanSemiconductorManufacturing
Company),theworld’slargestfoundryforsemiconductorcomponents,offerssuchaWeb-basedlibraryofthird-partycircuitdesignstotheotherfirms—thefablesschipdesignfirms—initsnetwork.1Similarly,inanetworkofindividual
inventors,companiessuchasEurekaRanchplaysuchasupportiverolebyofferingmarketvalidationservicesfornewproductconcepts.
Table4.1providesafewexamplesoftheadapterrole.WewilldescribetheseandothertypesofadapterrolesinmoredetailinChapters5to8.
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THEGLOBALBRAIN
AGENTS
Innovationnetworksrequireverydifferentsetsofactorstocometogether.
Insteadofrelyingonserendipityandchancetobringtheseactorstogether,hiringabrokeroranintermediarymakessense.Wecalltheseentitiesagents.
Anagentisaninnovation
intermediarythatmediatestheinteractionsandinnovationactivitiesinaninnovationnetwork.2Agentsserveasbrokers,bridges,orgo-betweensininnovationnetworks.However,theycanalsoplaymoresubtlerolesthatgobeyondsimplebrokering.
Agentsperformthreesetsofactivitiesinnetwork-centricinnovation:linkingmembers
ormediatinginteractions,technologybrokeringormediatingknowledgetransfer,andinnovationtransformationormediatingtheinnovation.
Thefirstsetofactivitiesrelatestothetraditionalroleofanintermediary—linkingtwonetworkmemberswhoarenototherwiseconnectedtooneanother.Asinthecaseofbrokeringarealestate
transactionorexecutiverecruiting,agentsalsohelpto“searchandfilter”intheinnovationlandscape.Forexample,ideascoutsareagentswhotrollinventorcommunitiestoseekoutandfilternewproductconceptsthatmightbeofinteresttoalargeclientfirm.Whentheyfindapromisingidea,theybringtogetherorconnecttheinventorandtheclientfirm.
Agentscanalsofacilitateormediatethetransferofinnovation-relatedknowledgefromonemembertoanother;thatis,theycanplaytheroleofaknowledgeortechnologybroker.Thisactivityinvolvesnotjustmakingconnectionsbetweentwomembersbutalsomakingconnectionsbetweenthedifferenttypesofknowledge(ortechnologies)heldbythosetwomembers,
andtherebypromotinganinnovationthatcapitalizesonthatconnection.
Awell-knownknowledgebrokerisIDEO,aleadingdesign-consultingfirm.
ConsiderIDEO’sworkasanagentintransferringa“smartfabric”technologydevelopedbyacompanycalledElekSentoanewapplicationarea.3ElekSenistheworldleader
intouch-sensitiveinteractivetextiles,whicharebuiltaroundthecombinationofconductivefabricandmicrochiptechnologies.Thecompany’scoretechnologyisElekTex,auniqueelectro-conductive,flexible,durable,andrugged“smart-fabric.”Whilethetechnologyhasdiverseapplications,itsentryintothecomputermarketwasbrokeredbyIDEO.IDEObroughttogetherElekSenand
Logitech(thedeveloperofcomputermice,keyboard,andotheraccessories)andfacilitatedthetransferoftheElekTextechnologytoLogitechforapplicationinthecomputeraccessorymarket.UsingElekTextechnology,LogitechdevelopedKeyCase,afabriccaseforPDAsthatunfoldsintoaCHAPTER4•INNOVATIONNETWORKS:THE
PLAYERSANDTHEPLAYS
73
keyboard.Thus,inthiscase,IDEO’sroleasanagentwasnotjusttobridgetwomembers,butalsotoserveasaconduitforthetechnologytransfer.
Thethirdsetofactivities,“mediatingtheinnovation,”
relatestotheinnomediarynotjustmediatingtheinteractionsormediatingtheknowledgetransfer,butmediatingtheinnovationitself.Forexample,consideranagentthatacquiresaninnovativeideafromonemember,buildsontheidea,andthenpassesthetransformedideatoanothermemberforfurtherdevelopment.Comparedtotheearlieractivities,in
carryingoutthisactivity,theagenttakesapositionthatismuchclosertotheinnovation—and,inpartbecomestheinnovator,too,ratherthanjustanintermediary.WewillidentifysuchanagentrolecalledtheinnovationcapitalistinChapter6,“TheCreativeBazaarModel.”
IMPLICATIONSOFINNOVATIONROLES
“What’sinarole?”youmightask.Or,“Whyisitimportanttounderstandthenatureofthedifferentinnovationrolesinnetwork-centricinnovation?”Aninnovationroleisanopportunitytoparticipateinnetwork-centricinnovation.
So,understandingdifferentinnovationrolesallowsfirmstoassesstwoquestions:First,dowehavewhatittakesto
playthisrole?Second,whatroleshouldweplaytomaximizeourgainsfromtheinnovationnetwork?
Toanswerthefirstquestion,firmsneedtounderstandtheimportantresourcesandcapabilitiesneededtoperformtherole.AswewilldiscussinChapter10,
“PreparingtheOrganization,”preparingthe
companyfornetwork-centricinnovationinvolvesidentifyinganddevelopingtheserole-relatedorganizationalcapabilitiesandcompetencies.
Toaddressthesecondquestion,firmsneedtoassesstherisksandreturnsassociatedwiththerole.Understandingthenatureofrisksandreturnsiscriticalforacompanytoevaluate
whetheranetwork-centricinnovationopportunityisworthpursuingevenifithastherequisitecapabilitiestobeaplayer.
Inadditiontothesequestions,thereisathirdreasonwhyfirmsneedtounderstandtheinnovationroles.Sometimes,firmsmightplaydifferentrolesindifferentnetworks.TaketheexampleofIBM.Inthe
Powerchipalliancenetwork(power.org)—anetworkthatisbasedonpromotingandenhancingPowerarchitecture—IBMplaysaleadingrole.Ontheotherhand,intheLinuxopensourcecommunity,IBMplaysamoresecondaryandsupportiverole.Suchmultiplerolesleadtothequestions,“Doweneedthesamesetoforganizationalcapabilitiesforthedifferent
roles?”“Aretheresynergiesbetweentherolesthatwecanexploit?”
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InChapters5through8,whenwediscusseachofthefourmodelsorarchetypesofnetwork-centricinnovation,wewillidentifythesetofrolesthatapplytoeachofthe
modelsanddiscusstheirimplications.ThisdiscussionallowsustoanalyzelaterinChapter9,“DecidingWhereandHowtoPlay,”anindividualfirm’snetwork-centricinnovationstrategyvis-à-visthetypesofrolespossibleinthatspace.
ELEMENTSOFNETWORKMANAGEMENT
Torunanetwork,theplayers
needasetofsystemsandmechanismstosupportandfacilitatecollaborativeinnovation.Thethreeelementsofnetworkmanagementarenetworkgovernance,knowledgemanagement,andIPrightsmanagement(seeTable4.2).
Table4.2ElementsofInnovationNetworkManagement
Elementsof
Innovation
Network
CriteriaforSelecting
Management
Objective
TypesofSystems
AppropriateSystems
Network
Ensurecommon
Formalmechanisms
Natureofinterdependen-
governance
patternsofbehavior
(contractsand
ciesbetweennetwork
amongmembers
agreements,rules
members;natureofthe
andcoordinate
andprocedures,
innovationspace
intermemberstandards)
exchangeof
knowledgeand
Informalorsocial
resources
mechanisms(restricted
accesstonetwork;
macroculture;collec-
tivesanctionsand
reputationalsystems)
Knowledge
Facilitatethe
Mechanismsthat
Degreeofoverlapof
management
generation,codifi-
facilitatemember
domainknowledge;
cation,andutilization
dialogue;provide
natureofinnovation;
ofknowledgeinthe
commonvocabulary;
technological/domain
network
facilitateknowledge
“distance”between
transfer,interpretation,networkmembers
andintegration
CHAPTER4•
INNOVATIONNETWORKS:THEPLAYERSANDTHEPLAYS
75
Elementsof
Innovation
Network
CriteriaforSelecting
Management
Objective
TypesofSystems
AppropriateSystems
IPrights
Enableinnovators
Traditionallegal
Natureofinnovation;
management
(orcreators)tocontrolinstrumentssuchas
natureofrelationships
theuseoftheir
patent,trademark,
amongnetwork
innovationandits
copyright,andsoon,
members;structureof
derivatives
andmoreflexible
thenetwork
licensingschemes
suchasCreative
Commons,General
PublicLicense,and
soon
NETWORKGOVERNANCE
Thewordgovernanceisoftenassociatedwithpolicingorcontrol.Networkgovernancedoesinvolvemonitoringandcontrollingpotentially
deceptiveoropportunisticbehaviorofindividualmembersthatmightbedetrimentaltotheothermembersandtheoverallnetworkagenda.Butgovernanceismorethanjustpolicing.Italsoinvolvescreatinganenvironmentthatisconducivetointeractingandexchanginginformationandresources.Thesystemsandmechanismsforgovernanceshapethepattern
ofinteractionsbetweenmembers,aswellastheflowofresourcesbetweenthemembers.4
Consideryourpersonalnetworkattheworkplace—thenetworkofcolleaguesandbusinesspartners.Yourrelationships,interactions,andexchangesinsuchanetworkaregovernedbothbyformalandinformalmechanisms.Forexample,
theorganizationalstructuremightspecifyorshapethenatureofyourrelationshipswithothermembersinyourorganization.Youremploymentcontract,anyconfidentialityagreementsthatyouhavesigned,andtherulesandproceduresinyourdepartmentmightalsogovernyourinteractionswithemployeesinthecompanyandbeyond.
Ontheotherhand,thewidelyacceptedbutimplicit“do’sanddon’ts”mightalsoshapeyourrelationshipsandexchangesinthenetwork.RememberthescenefromtheTVseriesSeinfeldwhenthecharacterGeorgeCostanzaiscaughthavingsexwiththeofficecleaninglady?Whenaskedabouthisques-tionabletête-à-tête,George’sreplywas,“Wasthatwrong?ShouldInot
have76
THEGLOBALBRAIN
donethat?Itellyou,Igottapleadignoranceonthisthing,becauseifanyonehadsaidanythingtomeatallwhenIfirststartedherethatthatsortofthingisfrownedupon....”Well,asGeorgesoonfoundoutwhenhegotfired,somethingsarenotwrittendownormadeexplicit,but
stillguidethenatureoftherelationshipsandexchangesamongmembersofanorganizationoranetwork.
Sowouldthepotentialthreatofsanctionsorlosingcredibilityforpursuingactivitiesthatarebeneficialtoyoubutnotnecessarilybeneficialfortheoverallorganization.Theseconstitutethemoreinformalorsocialmechanismsof
governance.
Ininnovationnetworks,bothformalandinformalmechanismsarerelevant,thoughtheirrelativeimportancedependsonthespecificmodelofnetwork-centricinnovation.Formalmechanismsforgovernanceincludelegalcontracts,partnershipagreements,agreementsonexchangerulesandprocedures,shared
setofstandards,andsoon.Forexample,innovationnetworksledbycompaniessuchasIntelandCiscooftenhaveacharterofmemberrightsandresponsibilitiesthatapotentialpartnerhastosignbeforebeingacceptedintothenetwork.Similarly,inthesoftwareindustry,thestandardsandmetricsspecifiedbytheCapabilityMaturityModel—developedandpromotedbythe
SoftwareEngineeringInstitute—hasbeenusedasamechanismtocoordinateandgovernlarge-scaleco-developmentprojects.Formalmechanismsnotonlydefinewhatisacceptablebutalsoprovideaframeworktocoordinateinteractionsandexchanges.
Whenitcomestoinformalorsocialmechanismsfornetworkgovernance,there
areseveralchoices.Theseincluderestrictingaccesstothenetwork,developingandestablishingamacro-culture,imposingcollectivesanctions,andusingotherreputationalmechanisms.Oneoptionistorestrictmembershiptoplayerswhohavedemonstratedtheircompetencethroughpastassociationswithexistingmembersortheirbroaderstatusintheindustryor
sector.Forexample,manycountryclubsusesucha“gatednetwork”approach.Theyrestrictclubmembershiptothosepeoplewhoarewell-knowntotheexistingmembersoftheclub(orwhoareinfluentialmembersofthebroadersociety).
Ifnetworkmembershipisbasedonsuchcriteria,typicallythememberswill
havemorecommonalitiesintheirexpectationsandattributes.Thus,monitoringand/orcoordinatingeachandeveryexchangeinthenetworkwillbemucheasierandlessfrequentlyrequired.Inotherwords,thenatureofmembershipitselfservesasagovernancemechanism.
Anotheralternativeistoestablishandpromoteaculturethatreflectsthe
overallinnovationagendaofthenetwork.Thismightrangefromshared
business/innovationassumptionstonormsandvaluesthatcanbringaboutaCHAPTER4•INNOVATIONNETWORKS:THEPLAYERSANDTHEPLAYS
77
levelofcoherenceintheactionsanddecisionsofindividualmembersinthenetwork.Forexample,howshouldmemberscritiqueoneanother’scontributionsinanopensourcecommunity?Thecultureofanetworkgetsdefinedovertimethroughrepeatedinteractionsamongthenetwork,leadingtoadefinitionof“acceptable”behaviorsandnormsintheinnovationnetwork.
Collectivesanctionsandreputationalsystemsformanothersetofgovernancemechanisms.ConsidereBay.TheabilityofeBaymerchants(thatis,members)torateoneanotherbasedonthenatureandthequalityoftheexchangestheyhavehadwithoneanotherserveasthemechanismtogovernfutureinteractionsinthenetwork.Ratingsthatlowerthecredibilityandreputationof
themembercanprovetobeverycostlyinthelongerrun.Further,sanctionsmightalsobeimposedoneBaymemberswhooperatecontradictorytothecommonlyacceptednormsandvalues.SuchcollectivesanctionscanrangefromtemporaryexclusionfromtheeBayboardstooutrightejectionandlossofprivilegestobuyandsellonthenetwork.
Thethreatofcollectivesanctionsencouragesmemberstoadheretoacceptablebehaviors.Themoreefficienttheinformationflowaboutmemberbehavior,themorecostlyitbecomesforindividualmemberstodestroytheirreputationinthenetworkthroughdeceptivebehavior.
Whichofthepreceding
possiblegovernancemechanismsareappropriateforaspecificinnovationnetwork?Thisdependsonthetypeofinterdependenciesbetweenmembersinthenetwork—inotherwords,onthenatureofthenetwork-centricinnovationmodel.Further,mostnetworksrequireaportfolioofformalandinformalmechanisms.InChapters5to8,weidentifytheappropriateportfolioof
governancemechanismsforeachofthefourmodelsofnetworkcentricinnovation.
KNOWLEDGEMANAGEMENT
ConsiderthecaseofDucatiMotoranditsinnovativecustomercommunity,whichwedescribedinChapter2.WhenDucatiengagesitscustomercommunitytoinnovateinthedesignand
developmentofnewmotorcycles,itdoessobyensuringthreebasicaspectsrelatedtoinnovationandknowledgecreation:
■
First,Ducatirealizesthatinteractionsanddialogueinthecustomercommunityformthebasisfornewknowledgecreation.Therefore,it
facilitatessuchdialogueamongthecustomersbyestablishingdifferenttypesofonlineandofflineforumsthatbringtogetherthecustomersandbyhostingtheirinteractions.
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■
Second,Ducatialsorealizesthatforsuchcustomerdialoguetobeeffective—forsuchdialoguetoleadtoacoherentsetofinnovativeideas—
customershaveto“understand”oneanother’sideas.Thisrequiresa
commonvocabulary.Toachievethiscoherence,Ducatiprovidesaset
ofdesigntemplatesandstandardsforthecustomercommunity.
■
Ducatialsounderstandsthat,inordertoconvertcustomerideasintoproducts,customerknowledgehastobetransferredintotheorganizationandinterpretedandintegratedwithotherdesignknowledge.Forthis,
Ducatihasestablishedneworganizationalrolesaswellascreatednewprogramsstaffedbyproductengineerstoenableeffectiveand
appropriateutilizationofcustomerinnovation.
ThreeknowledgemanagementthemesunderlieDucati’scustomer-based
network-centricinnovation
initiative:dialogue,commonvocabulary,andtransferandinterpretation.
Theprecedingthreethemesarenot,however,uniquetoDucati’sinnovationcontext.Theyapplyequallywelltoallothernetwork-centricinnovationcontexts.Infact,thethreethemesreflectthethreebroadknowledgemanagementactivitiesthatmustbesupportedinany
innovationnetwork:knowledgegeneration,knowledgecodification,andknowledgeutilization.5
Thesystemsandmechanismsestablishedintheinnovationnetworkformanagingknowledgehavetosupportthesethreeactivities.Forexample,asinteractionsamongnetworkmembersincreasinglyformtheavenueforknowledgegeneration,
systemsandmechanismsthat“connect”membersandfacilitaterapidandfrequentinteractionsassumeimportance.Theseneednotalwaysbeonlineorinformationtechnology–enabledcommunication.Forexample,Intelconductscomplianceworkshops(calledPlugFests)thatbringtogethervendorsofdifferenthardwareproductsandcomponentsthatarebasedon
Intel’stechnologyplatform.6Theseworkshopsprovidethecontextforthedialoguetooccuramongthesecompanies(thatis,Intel’snetworkmembers)toensurethatthedifferentproducts(orprototypes)arecompatiblewithoneanotherandinteroperable.Theknowledgegeneratedthroughtheseinteractionsistakenbacktoindividualcompaniesandincorporatedasdesign
modifications.
Similarly,theneedtocodify(ormakeexplicit)theknowledgethatisgeneratedallowssharingandbuildingonsuchknowledge.Suchcodificationisenabledbyacommonvocabularyrangingfromtechnologystandardsandtechnologyarchitecturetocommonmarketmetrics.
Finally,formembersto
utilizetheknowledgegenerated,systemsandmechanismsfortransferringsuchknowledgetoappropriatemembersinthenetworkCHAPTER4•INNOVATIONNETWORKS:THEPLAYERSANDTHEPLAYS
79
needtoexist—thatis,
membershavetoknowwheretheknowledgeislocatedandhowtoaccesssuchknowledge.Further,aftertheknowledgeistransferredbyamember,ithastobeinterpretedandintegratedwithinthemember’sowncontext.Forexample,inthecaseofStapleswediscussedinChapter2,thecompanyacquiresnewproductconceptsfromindividualinventorsthrougharangeof
mechanisms,includingproductscoutsandideacontests.Andaftertheideaisacquired,Stapleshastointerpretandintegrateitwithinitsowncontext—acontextthatisdefinedbyitstargetmarket,existingbrandportfolio,anditscommercializationinfrastructure.
Facilitatingthegenerationandflowofknowledgeisa
criticalroleinmanagingnetwork-centricinnovation.Asthenumberofmembersinthenetworkandthediversityoftheirexpertise(orknowledgebase)increase,sodoesthecomplexityandimportanceofthesystemsandmechanismstofacilitateknowledgemanagementinthenetwork.7
Therearedifferenttypesofknowledgemanagement
systemsandmechanisms,andtheirappropriatenessdependsonseveralfactors,includingthe“distance”
betweenmembers,thenatureandextentofoverlapoftheknowledgetransacted,andthenatureoftheinnovation.InChapters5to8,weidentifyanddiscussspecificknowledge-managementmechanismsthatapplytoeachofthefourmodelsof
network-centricinnovation.
IPRIGHTSMANAGEMENT
Thehistoryofintellectualproperty(IP)canbetracedbacktoancientGreecein700B.C.,whenthechefsinSybarites(aGreekcolonyinwhatisnowSicily)weregrantedone-yearmonopoliesonthepreparationofa“newordeliciousdish.”8OtherelementsofmodernIPrights
suchaspatents,trademarks,andtradesecretswereevidentinancientRomeaswellasduringtheRenaissanceperiod.Forexample,lawswereenactedinRomein100B.C.toprotecttrademarksoncloth,lamps,glass,andlivestock.Similarly,thefirstpatenteverforatechnicalinventionwasgrantedin1421toFilippoBrunelleschi,thearchitectofFlorence’s
cathedral,foranewandefficientwaytotransportmarblebyriver-boat.9Theseandotherexamplesindicatethattheeconomicandsocietalmotivestoprotectandmanagerightsassociatedwithcreativityandinventionhasalonghistory.
AlthoughthesesystemsandmechanismsformanagingIPrightshaveevolvedconsiderablyinformaswell
asformatoverthecenturies,theirfundamentalbasishasperhapsremainedlargelyunquestioned—thatis,untilveryrecently.
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THEGLOBALBRAIN
Withtheemergenceof“freesoftware”and“OpenSourceSoftware”inthe1980sand1990shavecomefreshand
radicallynewperspectivesandinterpretationsregardingIPrightsmanagement.Andtheprimarymotivationforthesenewperspectiveshasbeentheincreasinglevelofcollaborationininnovation.
Indeed,oneofthemostvexingissuesthatcompaniesfaceincollaborativeinnovationprojectsisthatofpartitioningtherightstotheinnovation.Inotherwords,
whowillownwhat?Orwhogetswhatshareoftheprofitsfromtheinnovation?Asthenumerouspatent-relatedandotherIPlawsuitsandcaseshaveshown,issuesrelatedtoIPrightsmanagementistrickyevenwithtwocollaborators.Ifwethrowinafewmorecollaborators,theissuebecomesmuchmorechallenging.Thus,systemsandmechanismstosupportandfacilitateIPrights
managementareofutmostimportanceforallparticipatingmembersinnetwork-centricinnovation.
Theextenttowhichacompany(ornetworkmember)cancapturethereturnsfromitsinnovativecontributionsisafunctionoftheappropriabilityregime—
thetermeconomistsusetoindicatethewaysandmeans
ofprotectingtheinnovationanditsprofitability.ThelegalIPregimeiscomprisedoffourinstruments:tradesecrets,patents,copyrights,andtrademarks.Patentsofferthelowestdurationofprotectionfortheinnovation,followedbycopyrights,tradesecrets,andtrademarks.Inaddition,IPcontractsformanotheravenueforcompaniestoderivereturns.Forexample,IPlicenses
specifythetermsofIPusebetweentwoormoreentities.
Incertaincontexts,suchlegalinstrumentsmighthavelimitedeffect;instead,thenatureofthetechnologyortheknowledgethatunderliestheinnovationmightserveasamorepracticalappropriabilityregime.Forexample,inthesurfingequipmentindustry,akeyknowledgeinthe
manufacturingofsurfboardsrelatestotherigidpolyurethanefoamcores,orthe“blanks”asitisknownintheindustry.ThedominantplayerinthismarketuntilveryrecentlywasClarkFoams.ThecompanywashighlyinnovativeandhadperfectedthecreationofblankstotheextentthatmostothersurfboardmakersdependedexclusivelyonClarkFoams.Indeed,Clark
Foamshad80%to90%oftheU.S.blanksbusinessforcustom-shapedsurfboards.ClarkFoamswasledbyGordon“Grubby”Clark,oftenreferredtoasthe“HowardHughesofsurfing.”ThesuccessofClarkFoamswasnotduetotheprotectionofitsintellectualassetsbylegalinstrumentssuchaspatentsortradesecrets;instead,itwasthehighlytacitknowledgeinvolvedin
theveryprocessofmakingtheblanks.Asonesurfingindustrycommentatornoted,“Blowingfoamisablackart.”10Inotherwords,inthecaseofClarkCHAPTER4•INNOVATIONNETWORKS:THEPLAYERSANDTHEPLAYS
81
Foams,thenatureofthe
technology(knowledgebase)servedasthemainelementofitsappropriabilityregime.Inshort,theavailability,strength,andeffectivenessoftheappropriabilitymechanisms—whetherlegalinstrumentsorotherwise—canvaryacrossindustriesandsectors.
AnotherlimitationofthetraditionalIPregimebecameobviouswiththeemergence
ofcollaborativeinnovationstructuresandtheemergenceofnewdigitaltechnologiestoacquire,access,modify,anddistributeinnovativeknowledge.
Suchradicalchangesininnovationcontextsbroughtaboutbynewtechnologiestendtoweakenthecontrolsthatcanbeexercisedthroughtraditionallegalinstruments.
TheOpenSourceSoftwarecommunitytooktheleadinaddressingthedemandfornewIPregimesandintroducedseveralinnovativelicensingschemesthatenablesoftwaredeveloperstopublishthesourceoftheirproductandallowotherstouseitormodifyitonflexibleterms.Forexample,theGNUGeneralPublicLicense(orGPL)isanearlyandperhapsthedominantlicensing
schemeintheOpenSourceSoftwarearena.AGPLlicensegrantstherecipienttherightstouse,modify,improve,andredistributetheproduct.And,importantly,GPLseekstoensurethattheaforementionedrightsarepreservedinthederivatives,too;thatis,itisa“copyleft”license.Unlikethislicense,themorepermissive“freesoftware”licensingschemessuchastheBSDlicensenot
onlygranttherightstouse,modify,and/ordistributethesoftwareproduct,italsoallowsderivativeworkstoberedistributedasproprietarysoftware(thatis,itisa“copycenter”license).Apartfromthesetwobroadlicensingschemes,numerousother“open”licenseshavebeendeveloped—forexample,MozillaPubliclicense,CommonPubliclicense,OpenSourcelicense,
OpenSSLlicense,andEclipsePubliclicense—eitherpertainingtoparticularproductsortoparticularpartsoftheopensourcecommunity.
ThesealternativelicensingschemeshavepavedthepathforthedevelopmentofinnovativeIPregimesindomainsoutsidethesoftwareindustry.MostnotableinthisregardaretheCreative
CommonsandtheScienceCommonsinitiativesthathaveextendedmanyoftheseIPrightsmanagementconceptstothedomainofarts,entertainment,sciences,andsoon.Forexample,CreativeCommonshastakenthenotionofcopyleftandintroducedsixdifferentlicensingschemesthatvaryonthenatureoftheattributionandtherightsgrantedtotherecipientfor
derivativeworksandcommercialuse.11
AstheapplicationoftheCreativeCommonslicenseandothersuchemerginglicensingschemesisrapidlyexpandingintootherdomains—frommusicand82
THEGLOBALBRAIN
artstojournalism,academiccurricula,andmedicine—the
optionsformanagingIPrightsindifferentnetwork-centricinnovationcontextsarealsoexpanding.Accordingly,inthisbook,weconsiderarangeofIPrightsmanagementsystems—fromtraditionallegalinstrumentstothenewerandmoreflexiblelicensingschemes—and,identifyanddescribetheappropriateportfolioofmechanismsforthedifferentmodelsofnetwork-centric
innovation.
CONCLUSION
Inthischapterandthepreviouschapter,wepresentedaframeworkforanalyzingthestructureandtheopportunitiesintheemergingnetwork-centricinnovationlandscape.Wefirstdefinedthetwodimensionsofnetwork-centricinnovationand
identifiedfourarchetypicalmodelsofnetwork-centricinnovation.Next,weofferedatypologyofinnovationrolesandalsoidentifiedthethreeelementsofthenetworkmanagementinfrastructure—networkgovernance,knowledgemanagement,andIPrightsmanagement.Insubsequentchapters,weapplythisframeworktodelvedeeperintothedifferentmodelsofnetwork-
centricinnovation.
P
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III
TheFourModelsofNetwork-
CentricInnovation
Chapter5TheOrchestraModel85
Chapter6TheCreativeBazaarModel113
Chapter7TheJamCentralModel139
Chapter8TheMOD(“MODification”)
StationModel157
Thispageintentionallyleftblank
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
5
TheOrchestraModel
Thinkaboutthelastpotluckdinneryouwereinvitedto.Thehost
probablydecidedthetheme—forexample,abarbequeor
anItalian
dinner—andrequestedthateachpersonbringadish,dessert,or
suppliesthatcontributetotheoveralltheme.Andthehostprobablycontributedamaindish,andotherpeople’scontributionswere
meanttocomplementthemaindish.
Nowconsiderthestoryofthe“stonesoup.”Legendhasitthatawanderingsoldiercameuponafamine-riddenvillage,andfoundthatallthepeoplewerejealouslyhoardingtheirfood.Atfirst,thesoldierthoughtofmovingonbecausetherewasnothingforhimtoeat,but
hedecidedtotryacreativestrategytogetameal.Heannounced
thathehadeverythingheneededtomakesoup,andproceededto
fillanironcauldronwithwater.Heplacedastoneinsidethecaul-
dron,andbuiltafireunderit.Acuriousvillagerapproachedthesoldierandaskedwhathewasdoing.Thesoldieransweredthathewas
makingstonesoup,whichwouldtastewonderful,althoughitstill
neededalittlebitofcabbagetoimprovethetaste.Soonanothervillagerapproachedandofferedhimcabbage.Thesoldieraddeditto
thesoupandmentionedthatitmightneedsomepotatoesand
onions.Anothervillagersoonofferedtheseforthesoup.Andsoit
went,fromvegetablestoseasoningtogarnishes.Finally,everyone
enjoyedadeliciouspotofsoup.
85
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THEGLOBALBRAIN
Thesescenarioshavesomesimilaritiesandsomedifferences.Bothinvolvedacentralentity(thehostfamilyorthetravelingsoldier)whodefinedtheprimarythemeforthedinner—athemethatwouldshapethecontributionsofothermembersofthecommunity.Inbothcases,thecontributors(theinviteesor
thevillagers)sharedthevaluederivedfromthefinaloutcome.However,inthecaseofthepotluckdinner,thehostcontributedthemaindishasthefoundationforthedinnerandthecontributionsfromothermembersbuiltonthefoundationandenhanceditwithcomplementarycontributions.Ontheotherhand,inthecaseofthestonesoup,thecontributionsofthevillagerswerecooked
together(orintegrated)toformonefinaldish(thesoup),whicheverybodyconsumed.
ThesesimilaritiesanddistinctionsareagoodanalogyforthetwotypesoftheOrchestramodelofnetwork-centricinnovation.Asyourecall,theOrchestramodelinvolvesagroupoffirmscomingtogethertoexploitamarketopportunity
basedonanexplicitinnovationarchitecturethatisdefinedandshapedbyadominantfirm.Therearethreeimportantconceptsinthisdefinition:dominantfirm,innovationarchitecture,andnetworkmembers.However,basedontheroleplayedbythedominantfirm,thefunctionsservedbytheinnovationarchitectureandthenatureofcontributionsmadebythenetwork
members,theOrchestramodeltakesontwodifferentforms:
■
TheOrchestra-Integratormodel.Thismodelresemblesthestonesoupscenario.Adominantfirm(ornetworkleader)definesthearchitectureforthecoreinnovationandthenetworkmemberscontribute
thedifferentcomponentsorelementsthatmakeupthiscoreinnova-
tion.Thenetworkleaderthenintegratesthedifferentcontributionsorcomponentstobuildthecoreinnovationandthenmarketit.
■
TheOrchestra-Platformmodel.Thismodelresembles
thepotluckdinnerscenario.Adominantfirmdefinesandoffersthebasicarchitecture,whichthenbecomestheplatformorthefoundationfortheothernetworkmemberstobuildonthroughtheirowncomplementaryinnovations.Thesecomplementaryinnovationsextendand/orenhancethe
reachandrangeofthebasicarchitectureorplatform.
Inthischapter,throughdetailedexampleswedescribethetwotypesoftheOrchestramodelincludingthedifferenttypesofplayers(orinnovationroles)andthenetworkmanagementsystems.WestartwiththeOrchestra-Integratormodel.AnexcellentillustrationofthismodelisthedevelopmentoftheBoeing787Dreamliner.
CHAPTER5•THEORCHESTRAMODEL
87
THEORCHESTRA-INTEGRATORMODEL:THECASEOFTHE
BOEING787DREAMLINER
The787Dreamlinerprojectwasofficiallylaunchedby
BoeingonApril26,2004.The787isdesignedasafamilyofairplanesinthe200to300seatclassandrepresentsBoeing’sentryintothemid-sized,long-rangecommercialjetmarket.1ThefirstdeliveryisscheduledforMay2008.The787isabigbetthatBoeingisplacingtowinbackdominanceofthe$60billionjetlinermarketfromAirbusSAS.2
Thenew787incorporatesseveralradicaladvancesintermsofbasicdesignandtechnologiesaswellasfacilitiesforpassengersandcrew.Itusesanewlightweightcarboncompositeasthematerialforbuildingmuchoftheplane.3Theuseofthelightweightmaterialissupposedtotranslateintoatleast20%reductioninfuelconsumptioncomparedtothatofjetsofsimilarsize.
The787willallowtheuseoftwotypesofengines—theGENextGeneration(GEnx)engineandtheRollsRoyceTrent1000engine.4Inotherwords,the787offersastandardengineinterfaceandanewplanecanbefittedwitheitherofthetwotypesofengineswithoutmakinganyotherchangeselsewhere,therebyprovidingmoreflexibilityforcarriers.
Theinteriordesignofthe787incorporatesseveralinnovativefeaturesforcrewandpassengers.Forexample,the787willbean“e-enabled”airplane—itwillhaveelectronicflightbags(EFB)todeliverelectroniccharts,manuals,andreferencedatatoflightcrews;asatellite-basedcommunicationssystemtoprovideInternetaccesstopassengers;andwireless
networksformaintenanceaccessaswellasforin-flightentertainment.Anotherinterestingfeaturerelatestocabinpressureandhumidity.Thecabinofthe787willbepressurizedto6,000feetaltitudeinsteadoftheconventionalpressurizationto8,000feetaltitude.Thehigherairpressureissupposedtotranslateintoamorecomfortableride,particularlyduringlong
flights.Similarly,thecabinhumiditywillbemaintainedatahigherlevel—between20%and30%ratherthanthe10%humiditythatistypicalofotherairplanes.The787canmaintainsuchhigherhumiditybecausethecarboncompositeusedtofabricatethestructuredoesnotcorrodewhenexposedtomoisture.Thehighercabinhumiditywillalsocontributetoamorecomfortableridefor
passengers.5
Boeing’sformerCEO,HarryStonecipher,remarkedin2004thatthenew787
willbe“agamechanger.”AlanMulally,theformerCEOofBoeingCommercial88
THEGLOBALBRAIN
Airplanes,notedthatthenew
787“willallowustocontinuetosetthestandardforcommercialaviationinthesecondcenturyofflight.”6WhilebothStonecipherandMulallywerereferringtotheaforementionednewtechnologiesandfeaturesoftheairplane,theircommentsalsocapturedtheinnovativewayinwhichBoeingwentaboutdesigningandbuildingthisnewaircraft.
Indeed,thestoryofthe787Dreamlinerisalsoverymuchastoryof“innovatinginnovation”inthecommercialaviationindustry—howBoeingredefinedtheveryprocessbywhichitdevelopednewairplanesandcollaboratedwithanetworkofglobalpartners.
ELEMENTSOFBOEING’SNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATIONSTRATEGY
Inbuildingthe787,Boeingmadearadicaldeparturefromitstraditionaldesignanddevelopmentstrategy.The787programstartedwiththeexpectationthatanyexternalpartnerthathadtheresponsibilitytobuildapartoftheairplanewouldalsoberesponsiblefordesigningit.Thiswasamajorpointofdeparturefrompreviousprograms,whereBoeingdidmostorallofthedesign
workandothercompaniesthenbuilttheairplane.7The787projectwasconceivedattheveryoutsetasahighlycollaborativeinnovationprogramconductedwithanetworkofpartners.
Boeingassembledasetofglobalpartnerswhomitcouldtrustwiththeprocessofcreatingentiresectionsoftheplane,fromconcepttoproduction.Theglobal
partnersconsistedofcompaniesfromallovertheworld,includingJapan,Australia,Italy,andCanada.Eachglobalpartnerwasselectedbasedonastrictsetofstandardsaseachcompanywouldbeassumingresponsibilityforahigherlevelofsystemsandstructure—andbringingintheirownsetofsub-contractorsandsuppliers.
Thedesignanddevelopmenttaskswerenotjustoutsourcedtothesepartners.
Instead,partnersmadefinancialinvestmentsinthosetasks.AsThomasPickering,Boeing’sseniorvicepresidentforinternationalrelationsnoted,“Wesaid,‘let’sspreadtheriskandspreadthebenefit’…theygettheadvantagesbuttheyalsocarrythe
burden.”8Specifically,eachpartnerwassupposedtoinvestintheprojectbypayingtheupfrontcostrelatedtodesignanddevelopment.Withapproximately$10billionrequiredforthedevelopmentofthenewjet,partnerswereresponsibleforinvestingcloseto$4billion—asignificantcommitment.
Theywereexpectedtoabsorb
thisnon-recurringcostofdevelopment—inotherwords,theywerenotpermittedtoincludethosecostsintheirpricing.And,thiswasbuiltintotheagreementswithindividualpartners.ContractshadcommonCHAPTER5•THEORCHESTRAMODEL
89
provisionsthatreflectedthe
centralthemeofBoeing’snetwork:“What’sgoodforoneisgoodforall.”
Boeing’snetworkalsoincludesitscustomers,althoughtheirroleislargelylimitedtoprovidingideasandsuggestionsintheproductdefinitionphase.Boeingconductsalarge-scalemeetingwithanumberofitscustomerpartners(airlinesfromalloverthe
world)calledtheProgressSummit,whichfeaturesopendiscussionsoncustomerrequirementsandconceptsforstandardizingandsimpli-fyingthe787design.9ThesummitisalsoavenueforBoeingtoupdateitscustomerpartnersontheprogressofthe787developmentproject.Eachpartner(ornetworkmember)inthe787projectisdirectlytiedtoBoeing,although
operationallyeachoneisalsolinkedtooneanother.Theinnovationnetworkforthe787projectishighlycentralized,withBoeinginthecenterandtheglobalpartnersaroundit.
Thedevelopmentofthe787followsathree-phaseprocess:conceptualization,jointdevelopment,anddetaileddesign.Theconceptualizationphase
startedinearly2003withtheappointmentofthecore787projectmanagementteamwithinBoeing.MichaelBlair,a24-yearBoeingveteran,wasappointedastheseniorvicepresidentandgeneralmanagerofthe787program.OthermembersoftheteamincludedWalterGillette,anotherBoeingveteranwhoisconsideredthetechnicalandintellectualinspirationforeveryBoeing
jetsincethemid-1970s.10GillettewastobethecreativeforcebehindDreamliner,too.Duringtheconceptualizationphase,theinternalBoeingteaminteractedwithanumberofexternalentitiesincludingcustomers(airlines),suppliers,technicalexperts,andmarketexpertstoidentifyanddefinethebasicnewproductconcept.Thebusinesscaseforthenew787
wasclarified.Boeingalsoentertainedinnovativeideasforthesystemsandthestructuresfromtheexternalentities.
Forexample,thepotentialforusingcompositesasthematerialfortheairplanestructurewasexploredandanumberofalternativematerialsweretested.Aftertheproductconceptualizationphasewasover,itwastime
todefinethebasicstructureofthe787.
Thesecondphase,thejointdevelopmentphase,wasthemostcrucialasitwoulddefineonceandforallthebasicconfigurationofthenewplane.AsMichaelBlair,generalmanagerofthe787projectnoted,“Firmconfigurationmeanstheairplane’sstructural,propulsion,andsystems
architecturesarefirmordefined.”11Forexample,specifyingthesweepandsizeofthewings,theexactsizeofthefuselage,tail,engines,andallothermajorcomponentsoftheairframe.Inotherwords,thisphasewaswhenthebasic(innovation)architecturewouldgetdefined.
90
THEGLOBALBRAIN
AlthoughBoeingwillhavethefinalsayinallaspectsrelatedtothefinalconfiguration,theinvolvementoftheglobal
partnersiscriticalastheyalongwithBoeingstartassumingrisks(relatedtotheproductdevelopment)rightfromthisstageonwards.Boeinganditspartnersspentthenextyearorsodefiningthe787architecture.
The787programreachedthefinalconfigurationonSeptember15,2005.
Thejointdevelopmentphase
notonlydefinedthe787configurationbutalsospecifiedthewayinwhichthedesignjobwouldbedividedamongtheglobalpartnersaswellasthestandardsormetricsbywhichthedesignwouldbeevaluated.Thedesignworkfortheentirestructureofthenewjetwasdividedintosix“integratedassemblies”orworkpackages.Eachoftheselargecomponentswas
designedfromthebottom-upbyoneormoreofthepartnerfirms.
Boeingtooktheresponsibilityforthedetaileddesignanddevelopmentofonlyaround35%oftheplane’sstructure.Thisincludedtheverticalfin,flightdeck,fixedandmovableleadingedgesofthewing,partsoftheforwardfuselage,andwing-to-body
fairing.TherestofthestructurewastheresponsibilityofasetofglobalpartnersthatincludedMitsubishiHeavyIndustries,FujiHeavyIndustries,AleniaAeronautica,VoughtAircraftIndustries,Goodrich,andKawasakiHeavyIndustries(seeFigure5.1).
Whomakesthepartsandwheretheengineeringjobsare
Numbersofengineersareprojectionsfortheendof2005madebyBoeing’sfirst-tierpartners,andmaynotincludeallengineeringspecialties.Productionworkersarenotincluded.
“Whomakesthepartsandwheretheengineeringjobsare,”ReportingbyDominicGates,GraphicsbyMarkNowlin.SeattleTimes,September11,2005.©2005
TheSeattleTimesCompany.Reprintedbypermission.
Figure5.1Thedistributionofthe787designanddevelopmentCHAPTER5•THEORCHESTRAMODEL
91
Forexample,MitsubishiHeavyIndustrieswasresponsibleforthemainwingboxwhereasFujiHeavy
Industriesdesignedanddevelopedthecenterwingboxandalsointegratedthewingboxwiththemainlandinggearwheelwell.
KawasakiHeavyIndustriesprovidedthefuselagesectionbetweenthewingandthecabin,themainlandinggearwheelwell,andthemainwingfixedtrailingedge.AleniainItalydesignedanddevelopedthe64-foot-wide
horizontalstabi-lizerandpartneredwithVoughtIndustriestobuildtheaftfuselage.
Theglobalpartnerswereaskedto“designandbuildtoperformance”—insteadofgivingeachexternalpartnerdetaileddesignsthattheyhadtoimplement,theywerenowgiventhebroadarchitectureandtheperformancestandards.
Theinnovationtasksneededtogettotheseperformancestandardswerenowthesoleresponsibilityofindividualglobalpartners.Thus,thefinalconfigurationandtheassociatedperformancestandardsbecamethesetofsharedgoalsandobjectivesofthenetworkofglobalpartners.
Afterthefirmconfigurationwasdefined,Boeingandits
partnersstartedonthethirdandfinalphaseofinnovation—thedetaileddesignofthemajorcomponents.Eachpartnerknewtheexpectationsregardingnotonlytheirowncontributions(thatis,thelargecomponents)butalsotheotherpartners’
contributions.Suchasharedunderstandingofthegoalsservedtobringcoherenceto
thedetaileddesignanddevelopmentactivitiesofthedifferentpartnerslocatedindifferentpartsoftheworld.
Theglobalpartnerswereresponsibleforthedetaileddesignaswellasthefinalproductionofthecomponents.Thedifferentcomponentsofthe787wouldthenbebroughttogetheratEverett,Washingtonforthefinalassembly.
Thetargetforthefinal787assemblyinEverettisthreedays.However,Boeingplanstobringdownthefinalassemblytimetotwodaysby2011:thatis,anew787willrollouteverytwodays!12
TheRoleofBoeingandItsPartnersinthe787Program
LetusnowexaminetherolesthatBoeingandtheotherpartnersplayinthe787
program.Boeingdevelopedamasterdesignthatdefinedthegeneralcontoursoftheplane,however,thespecificdesigntasksofthedifferentpartswerelefttoindividualpartners.Infact,networkpartnerswereresponsibleformorethan70%oftheoveralldesignwork.Moreimportantly,partnersweregiventheresponsibilitytodesignanddevelopsomeofthemostimportantstructures
oftheairplane.Forexample,theJapanesepartnersdevelopedtheentirewingsectionofthe787.AsBoeing’sThomasPickeringnoted,“Thisisthefirsttimewehaveeverputthefullwing…intothehandsofapartner.”13Indeed,noBoeing92
THEGLOBALBRAIN
planehaseverflownon
foreignwingsandthecompanyhasalwaysheldontosuchcriticalknowledge(the“crownjewels”)relatedtobuildingairplanes.14
Thus,inbuildingthe787,Boeingmadearadicalshiftinitsownrole—inthewordsofScottStrode,Boeing’svicepresidentofairplanedevelopmentandproduction,Boeingmadeashiftfrombeinga“manufacturer”to
beingan“integrator.”AsStrodenotes,Boeing’sroleasintegratorrequiresittoshoulder“abroaderrangeofresponsibilitiesthatincludeassemblingthepartnerteamandmakingworkassignments,establishingclearexpectations,decidingoncommontoolsandprocesses,andmakingthecriticaltechnologicaldecisions.”15
Suchashiftinrolesisapartofamasterplan—theBoeing2016Vision—tochangethecompanyfromamanufacturertoadesignerandassemblerofhigh-techairplanes.16AnditisachangethatBoeing’spartnersunderstandverywell.
VernBroomall,vicepresidentofqualityandengineeringatVoughtAircraftIndustries,oneof
Boeing’spartnersinthiseffort,notes,“Thereisarealdifferenceinthebusinessapproach—withBoeingtakingtheroleoftheintegratorandthepartnerstakingtheresponsibilityforthemajorpieces.”
Boeingwasalsothecentraldecisionmakerinthenetwork.Althougheachglobalpartnerhadalotofautonomywithregardtothe
designoftheirindividualcomponents,therewasstillaneedforasingledecisionmakeronimportantdesignanddevelopmentissues.ThosedecisionsweremadebyBoeingmanagement.Boeing’sleadershiproleissuccinctlycapturedbySteveShaffer,vicepresidentofGlobalPartnersforBoeingCommercialAirplanes:“Weshareinformationwithourpartners,welistentothem,
andweinfluenceeachother.Butattheendoftheday,there’snodoubtthatBoeingisleading.”17
Boeingalsomakessurethatotherpartners’rolesareclearlydefinedandmadeexplicit.AsVought’sBroomallnoted,“We’veneverdoneaprojectbeforewheretherolesandresponsibilitiesareasclearandconsistentastheyareon
thisone.”18Theyhadbetterbe.Voughtisdesigningtwolargesectionsofthefuselage,whichthenhastobeintegratedwiththecomponentsthatarebeingmadebyAleniaAeronautica,anotherpartner,inItaly.AsBroomallcontinues,“We(Vought)workdirectlywiththeItalian(company),andhaveanexcellentrelationshipwiththem,whileBoeingfacilitatesthework
forallofus.”Thus,whilethenetworkpartnersbuildoneachother’sdesignideas,Boeinghastonotonlyfacilitatesuchcumulativeknowledgecreation,butalsoorchestratethedistributedinnovationactivities.
Boeing’sroleastheintegratoranditslimitedinvolvementinthedetaileddesignanddevelopmentalsomeantplacingdifferent
emphasisonitsothertasks.ForCHAPTER5•THEORCHESTRAMODEL
93
example,asWaltGillette(787programvicepresidentofengineering,manufacturing,andpartneralignment)notes,assumingtheroleoftheintegratorallowedBoeingtoconcentratemoreon
attendingto“thevoiceofthecustomer”
throughtheproductdevelopmentphase.19Inthisrole,Boeingcouldfocusitseffortsonmaintainingtheintegrityoftheoverallproductvisionvis-à-visthedynamicexternalenvironmentandmarketneeds.
Whatwastheroleofthe
globalpartnersinthenetwork?Theirprimaryrolewasthatofaninnovator—tohelpBoeingdefinetheoverallconfigurationoftheairplaneandtoinnovateinthedesignanddevelopmentoftheindividualcomponents.Theywerealsoresponsibleforselectingandoverseeingthesecond-andthird-tierpartners(orsuppliers)inthenetwork—atasktraditionallycarriedout
withtheinvolvementofBoeing.Infact,the787projectwillbethefirsttimeanentityotherthanBoeingwillcontroltheselectionofthesecond-andthird-tiersuppliersinaBoeingcommercialaircraftprogram.20
ManagingCollaborationAmongPartners
Coordinatingtheworkon
threecontinentsofthepartnerfirmsraisessomecriticalchallengesrelatedtoinformationflowandcommunications.Thegloballydispersedpartnercompaniesneededtoconverseinreal-timeusingthesamevocabulary,interpretthedesigninformationgainedfromothers,andintegratethatknowledgewiththedesignofthecomponentsthatthey
themselveswereresponsiblefor.Inotherwords,whatwasneededwasasystemforcollaborativedesignthatfacilitatedthedialogueamongthecompanies,providedacommonvocabulary,andallowedrapidtransferandintegrationofdesignknowledge.Andastheleaderofthenetwork,Boeinghadtheresponsibilitytoprovidesuchaknowledge-managementinfrastructure.
BoeingaddressedthischallengebycreatingasophisticatedvirtualGlobalCollaborationEnvironmentforitspartnerstoshareinformationandcollaborateondesignonareal-timebasis.TheGlobalCollaborationCentersatBoeingandineachofthepartnerlocationswerelinkedtooneanotherforlivevideo-conferencing(withencryptedtransmissionforadditional
security).
Theendsolutionbroughttogetheravarietyoftechnologiesandtools.Forexample,BoeingpartneredwiththeDassaultSystems,theFrenchsoftwarecompany,toputtogetherasuiteofProductLifecycleManagementtoolstosupportthecollaborativedesignanddevelopmenttasks.ThisincludesCATIA(V5)the
computer-aideddesigntool;DELMIA,themanufacturingsolution;andENOVIA,theengineeringinterface.Theglobalpartnersalsomadeuseof94
THEGLOBALBRAIN
collaborationtoolsavailablethroughExostar,anonlinetradingexchangefortheaerospaceindustry.Similarly,databaseand
communicationtoolsfromRadianceTechnologieswereusedtotransmithighvolumesofdataamongpartners.Inaddition,avisualizationapplicationdevelopedbyBoeingallowedglobalpartnerstoconductreal-timedesignreviewswithoutanylagtimeforthemodelstoload.
Thesetoolshelpedcreateahighlycollaborative
environment.Thefacilitiesforreal-timeinteractionfacilitatedandpromotedcontinueddialogueamongthepartnerfirms.Further,theconfigurationorthearchitectureoftheairplaneandthedesigninterfaceswereembeddedincommondatabasesthatweresharedbyallpartners.Andmanyofthetoolsemployedastandardizedengineeringdesignlanguagetofacilitate
interpretationandintegrationofdesigndonebythedifferentmembers.
SteveShaffer,vicepresidentofGlobalPartnersforBoeingCommercialAirplanes,notedthatthe787projectemphasizeda“situationalawareness”
amongthepartners.21Eachpartnerwaskeptcontinuallyawareofthedesignactivities
underwayinotherpartnerfirmsaswellastheimpactoftheexternalenvironmentonthebusinessandtechnologicalassumptions.This“situationalawareness”orasharedworldviewisoneofthecornerstonesofnetwork-centricinnovation.Inthecaseofthe787program,theGlobalCollaborationEnvironmentfacilitatedbuildingandmaintainingsuchsituational
awarenessthroughoutthelifetimeoftheproject.
BuildingaTrust-BasedEnvironment
FormalcontractssignedbetweenBoeingandeachoneofthepartnersexplicitlyoutlinedthenatureofcollaborationandtheexpectationsregardingtheoutcomes.Inaddition,Boeingalsoinvestedheavily
indevelopingatrust-basedenvironmentinthenetwork.Astheglobalpartnerssoonrealized,itisaverycomplexundertakingtojustgeteverybodytocometogetherasateamandagreeontechnicalmatters,letalonetointegratethedifferentculturalmindsets.Akeyingredientofsuccessisthetrustandtheunderstandingofoneanother’sworkprocessesandculturethat
evolvesovertime.
Considerthedevelopmentofthewingbox,whichistheresponsibilityofJapan’sMitsubishiHeavyIndustries(MHI).Thewingforthe787willbethelargestcompositestructureeverbuiltforacommercialaircraft.Indevelopingandtestingthewingbox,MHIhadtointeractandcoordinatecloselynotonlywithBoeing
butalsowithotherpartnersinthenetwork.WhenthewingboxCHAPTER5•THEORCHESTRAMODEL
95
testingcameupduringdevelopment,MHIhadadifferentapproachforprototypingandmaterialtestingthanBoeing.Thewingboxtestarticlemeasuresroughly18feetat
itswidestpointandishalfthelength,approximately50feet,oftheentirewing.Theuseofnewmaterialscreatedtwochallenges:thechallengeofdesigninganewcomponentandthechallengeofunderstandingthenewmaterialthatwillbeusedtoproducethatcomponent.
AsDanSmith,Boeing’s787wingtestandtechnologyLCPTleadernoted,“Wetook
sometimeearlyinthe(designanddevelopment)processtobuildthetrustbetweenBoeingandMHI.”22Forexample,SmithcalleduponboththeMHIandBoeingteamstocompletetheinitialdevelopmentoftheequipmentprototypeinsixweeks—BoeinghadthejobofdevelopingtheprototypewhileMHIhadthetaskofbuildingthetoolingtosupportthetestingofthe
prototype—andsetupa“beer/sakechallenge.”IfMHImetthescheduleandBoeingdidnot,theBoeingteamwouldbuysakeforMHIteammembers,whereasifthereversewasthecase,MHIwouldbuybeerfortheBoeingteam.Suchteam-buildingchallengeshelptobuildaleveloftrustamongpartnerfirms.Asithappenedinthiscase,bothteamsmetthetimelineandso
everybodyhadbothbeerandsake.Andmoreimportantly,intheprocessbothteamsgainedbetterappreciationandtrustofeachother’scapabilitiesandexpertise.
Suchtrustandsharedunderstandingoftheuniqueworkandculturalcontextsofthepartnerfirmshavetobedevelopedacrossallmembersofthenetwork,notjustbetweentwopartners.
Thisrequiresadoptingnewperspectivesonrisksharingandinformationsharing.SteveHugginsisaseniorvicepresidentofstrategyandbusinessdevelopmentinGoodrichCorp,akeypartnerofBoeing.
Hugginsnotedthatcomponentprovidersusedtokeeptheirstrategiesandinformationtothemselves,likepokerplayersholding
cardsclosetothevest.
Butsuchanapproachwentagainstthegoalsandobjectivesofthe787program.
AsHugginscommented,“Thedegreetowhichourcompaniesshareforecastsandvisionsofthefuturetodayismoreliketalkingwithacolleaguethantellingthe‘boss’whatyouthink
theywanttohear.”23Suchopensharingofinformationandideascontributetothedevelopmentoftrustandhigherlevelofsharedworldviewthatisfundamentaltothesuccessofnetwork-centricinnovation.
Theflipsideofthetrustdevelopedinthenetworkisthelong-termriskthatBoeingmightbeassumingwithregardtothecritical
knowledgeandtechnologiesthatitwillbesharingwithitspartnersinthe787development.Forexample,technologicalknowledgerelatedtowingdesignisconsideredthecrownjewelofaircraftbuilding.Inthe787project,theJapanesecompaniesthatwillbeinvolvedinthewingdesignhavetheirownlong-termagendaintheaviationindustry.
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THEGLOBALBRAIN
Forexample,Kawasakihasfutureplanstoenterintothecommercialaviationindustryindependently.Similarly,MHIplanstousetheknowledgeitgainsfromthe787projectrelatedtothenewcompositetechnologytofuelitsownfutureplansinthisarea.JunichiMaesawa,
executivedirectorofMHI,notesthatthe787“isacornerstoneforJapantobecomeastand-aloneaircraftmanufacturerinproducinga30to50seateraircraftinafewyears.”24SowillBoeing’scollaborationwiththesecompaniesleadtoknowledgespilloverandcreatenewcompetitorsinthefuture?Thatremainstobeseen.
COMPARISONSWITHAIRBUSA380ANDBOEING777PROJECTS
Insum,the787DreamlinerexhibitsallthekeycharacteristicsoftheOrchestra-Integratormodelofnetwork-centricinnovation.Table5.1capturestheessenceofthemodelvis-à-visthenetwork-centricinnovationframeworkpresentedinearlierchapters.
Table5.1Boeing’s787DreamlinerNetwork
Elementsof
Network-CentricInnovation
Boeing’s787DreamlinerNetwork
Natureoftheinnovationspace
Productmarketfocusandthefirmconfigurationof
thenewairplanearedefinedbyBoeingwithassis-
tancefromexternalpartners.Thesespecifications
structurethenatureoftheinnovationspaceand
incorporatethemodularityneededforthecollabora-
tivedesignanddevelopmentofthejet.
Structureofthenetwork
Boeingistheleaderofthenetworkandallthekey
leadership
decisions,includingthefirmconfiguration,aremade
byBoeingalone.Inother
words,networkleadership
ishighlycentralizedinBoeing.
InnovationRoles
Architect
Boeingplaystheroleofintegrator—theonlyleader-
shiproleinthenetwork.
Adaptor
GlobalpartnerssuchasKawasakiandFujiplaythe
roleofinnovatorbyinnovatinglargecomponentsof
thenewairjet.
Agent
Therearenofirmsplaying
theroleofintermediaryor
agentasBoeingmaintainsformaldirecttieswithall
thekeyadaptors(innovators).
CHAPTER5•THEORCHESTRAMODEL
97
Elementsof
Network-CentricInnovation
Boeing’s787DreamlinerNetwork
NetworkManagement
Networkgovernance
FormalagreementsbetweenBoeingandeachofthe
globalpartners;trust-based
mechanismsalsoserveto
facilitatenetworkgovernanceandcoordination;restricted
networkaccessandreputation-basedsystemsarealso
used.
Knowledgemanagement
GlobalCollaborations
Centersatalllocations,including
partnerlocations,facilitateandenhancethequalityof
partnerdialogue,knowledgetransfer,andknowledge
integration.
IPrightsandvalue
Patentsandotherformal
instrumentsofIPrights
appropriation
managementareused.SomeoftheIPrelatedto787are
ownedbyBoeing,somebyindividualglobalpartners,
andsomearejointlyownedbyBoeingandthepartners.
Beforeconcludingthis
discussion,itmightalsobeusefultohighlightBoeing’suniqueapproachinthe787projectbycomparingandcontrastingitwiththedevelopmentstrategiesrelatedtotwootherprojects:thedevelopmentofBoeing777andthedevelopmentofacompetingaircraftbyAirbus—theAirbusA380
megajumbo.Table5.2comparesthesethree
projects.
Table5.2ComparisonofBoeing777,Boeing787,andAirbusA380DevelopmentApproaches
CharacteristicBoeing777
Boeing787
AirbusA380
Theproject
Launchedin1990;
Launchedin2004;
Launchedin2002;
costof$6–$7billion
costof$13–$14billion
costof$10–$12
billion
Broad
“BuildtoPrint”
“DesignandBuildto
Combinationof
approach
approach
Performance”approach
“BuildtoPrint”and
“DesignandBuildto
Performance”
continues
98
THEGLOBALBRAIN
Table5.2Continued
CharacteristicBoeing777
Boeing787
AirbusA380
Relationships
Boeingastheprime
Boeingdecidesonits
Airbusastheprime
contractorisincontrol
keyglobalpartners;
contractorselects
ofallsuppliers,includ-globalpartnerswillin
andcontrolsall
ingsecond-andthird-
turnselectandmonitor
suppliers
tiersuppliers
second-andthird-tier
suppliers
Risk/reward
Suppliersassume
Globalpartnersassume
Suppliersassume
sharing
limitedinnovationor
significanttechnological
considerablefinancial
financialrisk;
andfinancialrisk
risk(contributing
(suppliersbidon
(partnersinvestinand
$3.1billionto
fixed-pricecontracts
absorbcostof
development)
basis)development)
Leadership
Boeingdesigns,
BoeingastheOrchestra-
Airbuscorporate
role
develops,builds,and
Integratorenvisionsand
headquarters
assemblesfrom
coordinatesinnovation
(Toulouse,France,
groundup;suppliers
activity
supposedto
providecomponent-
coordinateactivities)
levelbuildservices
Natureof
Boeing’sshareof
Boeing’sshareofdesign
Airbusbearsmajority
design
designandbuild
andbuildis35%;even
ofthedesignrespon-
distribution
was76%;building
componentssuchas
sibility;buildingof
ofthemostcritical
wingsectionisgivento
criticalcomponents
componentsremain
globalpartners
remainwithAirbus
withBoeing
todesign
Indevelopingthewide-bodiedjetairliner777,Boeingfollowedthetraditional
“buildtoprint”approachwhereinsupplierswererequiredtomanufacturetofitthedetaileddesignrequirementsspecifiedbyBoeing.The777involvedsignificanttechnologicalachievements.However,manyoftheseadvancementscamefromBoeing.Externalsuppliersplayedaverylimitedroleinthedevelopmentofthe777.Forexample,theJapanese
companiescontributedtothebuildingoflessthan20%ofthe777components.Further,unlikeinthe787project,muchofthemostcloselyguardedtechnologiesanddesigncomponents(forexample,wingdesign)remainedwithBoeing.Also,inthe777project,thesuppliersassumedverylimitedrisk—relatedtothetechnologiesortotheinvestmentneededfornew
designandmanufacturingfacilities.
ThedevelopmentoftheA380reflectsamorenetwork-centricapproach,butitfallssignificantlyshortofBoeing’sapproachindevelopingthe787.WhydoweCHAPTER5•THEORCHESTRAMODEL
99
callitanetwork-centricapproach?Technically,AirbusS.A.S.isasinglecorporateentitybasedinToulouse,France.However,inreality,itsfourdivisionslocatedinBritain,France,Germany,andSpainstilloperateasfourdistinctcompaniesthattracetheirrootstothefourEuropeannationalaviationfirmsfromwhichAirbustookitsbirth.Indeed,inearly2006,former
AirbusCEO
ChristianStreiffnotedthat“(Airbus)isstillinpartajuxtapositionoffourcompanies.”Thecompanyis“terriblybalkanized”withthefourdivisionsoftenpronetonationalpoliticalforcesandharboringcross-borderjealousies.25
Themajordesignanddevelopmenttasksofthe
A380projectwerespreadacrossthesefourdistinctdivisionsofthecompany,withBritaininchargeofwingdesign,Germanyinchargeofcabinoutfitting,Spainresponsibleforthetail,andFranceresponsibleforthefinalassembly.Inaddition,anumberofexternalsupplierslocatedinEuropeandinotherpartsoftheworldwerealsoinvolvedinthedesignandbuildingof
smallerairframesubassemblies.Thus,theA380developmentfollowedanetwork-centricapproachalthoughthedesignresponsibilitiesofexternalsupplierswerelimitedcomparedtothe787
project.However,asinthecaseof787,thesuppliersofAirbusA380werealsorequiredtocontributetothedevelopmentcosts—tothe
tuneofapproximately$3.1billion.26
Whatdotheseexamplesshowabouttheimplicationsoffollowingthe
Orchestra-Integratormodeloninnovationoutcomes?Acomparisonofthe777
andthe787indicatesthesignificantreductionsintime,developmentof
innovativetechnologiesandmaterials,andreductionofoveralldevelopmentcost.
Vought’sBroomallnotes,“Wehaveprobablytakenmorethanone-thirdtoone-halfofthetimeoutandperhaps50percentoutofdevelopmentcostversushistoricalmethods(asfollowedin777).”27
Ontheotherhand,thecaseof
A380indicatesthecentralimportanceoftheleadershiproleplayedbythedominantfirm(thatis,theIntegratorrole).Forexample,inJuly2006,AirbusannouncedsignificantprojectdelaysthatwereattributedtoproblemswiththeinternalwiringdesignsoftheA380.Specifically,wiringthatwasdesignedandproducedinHamburgfailedtofitthefinalassemblyrequirements
inToulouse,France.Investigationsshowedthatthiswasduetotheuseofincompatibledesignsoftware.AdetailedanalysisoftheA380projectshowedthatwhilethedesignanddevelopmenttasksweredistributedacrossthedifferentdivisionsorentities,therewasnobodytoplaythecriticalleadershiproleoftheOrchestra-Integrator.Anotherissueinthecaseof
A380wasrelatedtothelackofacommonknowledge-managementsystem.ThePLMsoftwaretoolsusedforthedevelopmentofA380wereoutdatedandhadlimitedcapabilitiestosupportvirtualcollaborationamongthedifferentnetworkentities100
THEGLOBALBRAIN
(forexample,thetoolsdid
notsupportcreatingadigitalmockupoftheA380).
Suchlackofknowledge-managementcapabilitiesalongwithhighlydeficientnetworkorchestration(ornetworkleadership)ledtolimitedsharedawarenessorworldviewoftheprojectamongthedifferentpartnersandfailuretodetectdesignflawsearlyenoughtoavoidprojectdelaysandcost
overruns.
TheseandotherexamplesindicatetheimportanceofthreebroadthemesthatunderlinethesuccessoftheOrchestra-Integratormodel:
■
ThefirmplayingtheIntegratorrolehastoprovidestrongleadershiptotheinnovationactivities—
leadershipthatshouldbeevidentinenvisioningandclarifyingtheinnovationarchitecture,facilitatingandcoordinatingtheinnovationactivitiesofthenetworkpartners,and
integratingandbringingtomarkettheinnovation.
■
Thekeynetworkpartners
involvedinthedesignanddevelopment
shouldbesufficientlyinvestedintheproject—inotherwords,thedominantfirmshouldensurethatthepartnersshareintherisksaswellasintherewardsrelatedtotheinnovation.
■
Theleadfirmshouldalso
establishanenvironmentthatsupportsbuildingtrust-basedrelationshipsandtheabilitytorapidlyshare
knowledgetherebyensuringhigh“situationalawareness.”
LetusnowconsiderthesecondformoftheOrchestramodel—theOrchestra-Platformmodel.
THEORCHESTRA-
PLATFORMMODEL:THECASEOF
SALESFORCE.COMANDAPPEXCHANGE
InChapter2,“UnderstandingNetwork-CentricInnovation,”webrieflyintroducedSalesforce.com(thecustomerrelationshipmanagementsolution
provider)andits
AppExchangeforumasanexampleofanetwork-centricinnovationinitiative.Morespecifically,aswewillshowhere,Salesforce.comisagoodexampleoftheOrchestra-Platformmodelofnetwork-centricinnovation.
SALESFORCE.COM—JOURNEYFROMASOLUTIONPROVIDERTOA
PLATFORMPROVIDER
Foundedin1999andbasedinSanFrancisco,Salesforce.comisoneoftheleadingsoftwareprovidersintherapidlygrowingCustomerRelationship
CHAPTER5•THEORCHESTRAMODEL
101
Management(CRM)market.Thecompany’scoreofferingsfocusprimarilyonsalesforceautomation,marketingautomation,partnerrelationshipmanagement,andcustomerserviceandsupportautomation.Thesalesforceautomationserviceshelpcompaniestoestablishsystemsandprocessestomanagecustomeraccountsandtotracksalesleads,share
salesforecasts,andcoordinateothertaskswiththesalesforce.Themarketingautomationservicesenablecompaniestomanagemarketingcampaigns.Thecustomerserviceandsupportautomationservicesallowcompaniestotrack,manage,andcoordinatetheirinteractionwithexistingcustomersinvariousareas(forexample,requestsfor
repairs,adviceaboutproductsandservices,complaintsaboutfaultygoods,andsoon).
Theuniqueaspectofthecompany’scoreofferingsistheiravailabilityas“ondemand”servicesthatclientcompaniescanaccessthrougharegularWebbrowserovertheInternet.ThemarketforsuchondemandorWeb-delivered
software(alsoknownassoftwareasservice)isexpectedtogrowrapidlyinthenextdecadeorso—forexample,onereportestimatesthatby2011,25%oftheenterprisesoftwaremarketwillbeon-demand.28Intheeightyearssinceitsbirth,Salesforce.comhasgrownrapidly,ridingontheincreasingpopularityofitsparticularvisionofWeb-deliveredsoftware.Asof
July2007,thecompanyhadapproximately32,000customersusingitssoftwareandapproximately646,000payingsubscribersworldwide.
DespiteitssuccesswiththecoresetofCRMproducts,Salesforce.complanstobemorethanjustaCRMsolutionprovider.Startingin2003,itgraduallystartedevolvingintoaplatform
leader.Specifically,thecompanydefinedafoundationalon-demandarchitecturethatwillhelpexternaldeveloperstobuildapplicationsthatextendthescopeofthecompany’scoreofferings.Thisshifttoaplatformproviderisintendedtogreatlyexpandthecompany’sreachintoapplicationsareasbeyonditscustomerrelationshipmanagementroots.Insteadof
creatingandofferingallsuchapplicationsbyitself,theplatformstrategyenablesSalesforce.comtoharnesstheinnovativenessandthecapabilitiesofexternaldevelopersandtransformitselfintoanall-purposeenterprisecomputinginfrastructureprovider.29
Asthecompany’sfounderMarcBenioffnotes,“Thestrategyistolet1,000flow-
ersbloomandlookforinnovation.”30Thecompanyhopestogetexternalpartnerstobuildapplicationsthatareintegratedwiththecompany’sCRMsolutionsandmimictheembeddedexperienceoftheSalesforce.comuserinterface,therebymakingthemanapplicationwithinSalesforceasfarastheuserisconcerned,andallowingSalesforce’sproduct
portfoliotogrowwithoutthecompanybuildingallofthembythemselves.
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SALESFORCE.COM’STECHNOLOGYPLATFORM
Theon-demandtechnologyplatformthatthecompany
hasdevelopedandmadeavailabletoexternaldevelopersconstitutesseveralcomponents.Firstandforemost,itincludesthecoresalesandmarketingapplicationandthecustomerserviceandsupportapplication.Inaddition,theplatformalsoincludesanon-demandoperatingsystem,anon-demandprogramminglanguage,anintegrationplatform,andon-demand
applicationsharingservice.
ConsiderApex,animportantelementofSalesforce.com’stechnologyplatform.
ApexisanewJava-likeon-demandprogramminglanguagethatthecompanyhasmadeavailabletoexternaldevelopersandcustomers.ApplicationsbuiltusingthelanguagecanbemadeavailableasaWeb
serviceandaccessedusingXMLandSOAPstandards.ApexcoderunsnativelyontheSalesforce.comhostedserverinfrastructureandassuchitisfasterandmorepowerfulthanotherlanguages.Thisenhancedfunctionalityopensupnewpossibilitiesforexternaldevelopers.Further,applicationsdevelopedusingApexcaninteractwiththeaccessandmanipulatedata
throughthestandardapplicationprogramminginterfaces(APIs)thecompanyhasmadeavailabletoitscoreCRM
applications.
Salesforce.com’snetworkpartnerscanuseApextobuildentirelynewapplicationsorsolutionsandintegratethemwiththeflagshipCRMapplication
itself.
Apexisderivedfromthesametechnologiesthatthecompanyusesinitsinternaldevelopmentactivities.Assuch,thecompany’scurrentcustomerscanalsousetheApexlanguagetocustomizecorefeaturesandfunctionsofSalesforce’son-demandapplications.Apexenablesexternaldevelopersandclientstocreateormodify
applicationsinacontrolledmannerwithallcoderunningofftheSalesforceplatformitself.
Salesforce.com’stechnologyplatformalsoincludesotherelementsthatenhancetheoverallcapabilitiesandrangeofapplicationsthatcanbedeveloped.Forexample,itincludesadatarelationshipAPIforaccessingandmanagingcomplexdata
relationships,real-timemessagingandintegrationfornotifyingotherapplicationsormiddlewareofbusinesseventsinSalesforce,andanAjaxtoolkitforlinkingSalesforceapplicationsin“applicationmash-ups”
withothersystemssuchasGoogleMaps.
Thecompanyisclearabout
itsmotivesbehindopeningupandofferingsuchatechnologyplatform.“Wehaveavisionformillionsofapplicationsondemand,”
notesAdamGross,vicepresidentofdevelopermarketing,“butasacompanywechoosetobuildonlyoneclassofapplicationscalledCRMapplications.ApexCHAPTER5•THEORCHESTRAMODEL
103
andotherelementsofourplatformwillgiveourpartnersunburdenedfreedomandthecapabilitytodevelopanentireuniverseofon-demandapplications…
rangingfromHRandinventorymanagementtotransactionalapplicationslikeecommerce.”31Indeed,inreleasingApex,the
companywantstohaveamuchbroaderimpactontheenterprisesoftwarearena—specifically,itwantsApextohavethesameeffectontheballooningmarketforon-demandorWeb-deliveredbusinesssoftwareasJavadidontheconsumerWebinthe1990s.
Thus,unlikeinthecaseoftheOrchestra-Integratormodel,here,thedominant
firm’sobjectiveindefiningthetechnologyarchitectureisnottospecifytheinnovationcomponentsthatothernetworkmembersshoulddevelopandcontribute.Instead,the“on-demand”architectureservesasafoundationfornetworkpartnerstobuildcomplementaryapplicationsthatextendthereachandrangeofthecompany’ssuiteofproducts.
However,pursuingsuchaninnovationagendarequiresmorethanjustdefiningatechnologyplatform.Itrequiresplayingtheroleofaplatformleaderinthenetworktopromoteandfacilitatethecomplementaryinnovationactivitiesofitsnetworkpartners.InthecaseofSalesforce.com,thevehicleforexercisingsuchaleadershiproleistheAppExchangedevelopers’
networkorforum.
APPEXCHANGENETWORK
AppExchangeisaforumthatthecompanyhascreatedtoserveasacommongroundforallthedifferentmembersofitsnetworktocometogether.Thesemembersincludeindependentsoftwaredevelopers,customers,andothertechnologypartners.
TheAppExchangeforumservesmultipleobjectivesrangingfromprovidingamarketplaceforcomplementarysolutionsdevelopedbyexternaldeveloperstofacilitatingthesharingofknowledgerelatedtothetechnologyplatform.
TheprimaryparticipantsinSalesforce.com’sinnovationnetworkaretheindependentsoftwaredeveloperswho
createapplicationsbasedonthecompany’stechnologyplatform.Theirroleisthatofa“complementor”—buildingapplicationsthatcomplementthecoreCRMsolution.Thenatureoftheinnovationpursuedbythecomplementorsislimitedonlybythespecificationsofthetechnologyplatformandtheimaginationofthedevelopersandtheon-demandcommunity.
TogetasenseofthenatureanddiversityoftheapplicationsavailableonAppExchange,considerthefollowingtwoexamples.EnvoxWorldwide,a104
THEGLOBALBRAIN
providerofvoicesolutions,hascreatedanewapplicationcalledEnvoxPhoneLink.TheapplicationworksontopoftheCRMsolutionand
enablesbusinessestoaddscreenpop-upsandclick-to-dialcapabilitiestotheircustomercontactcenters.32Anotherexternaldeveloper,DreamFactorySoftware,makesadd-onapplicationcomponentsthatextendthebasicCRMfeaturesbyincludingteamworkautomationandmanagementcapabilities—specifically,projectmanagement,collaborativecalendaring,
anddocumentsharingcapabilities.
AppExchangehastwoobjectives:
■
Toenablethecompanytomakeavailabletheplatformtechnologiesaswellastheknowledgerequiredtousethosetechnologies.Asthe
platformleader,Salesforce.comhasthesoleresponsibilitytodefineandleadtheevolutionoftheplatform.AppExchangeallowsthecompanytomaintainitscommunicationwiththedevelopercommunity—educatingthemaboutnewdevelopmentsintheplatform,capturingthecom-
munity’semergingneedsand
issues,andfacilitatingtheoveralluseofthetechnologies.
■
Toserveasaforumfornetworkmemberstoshareordistributeapplicationsbuiltontheplatform,makingitamarketplaceforcomplementaryapplications.ItofferstheAppExchangedirectory
whereinexternaldeveloperscanlisttheirofferings.Othernetworkmembers
(forexample,existingusersoftheCRMsolution)canbrowsethedirectory,selectanapplicationthatintereststhem,andtestdriveorinstallthatapplicationfortheirownuse.
AsofJuly2007,theAppExchangedirectorylisted
about600suchon-demandcomplementaryapplicationsrangingfromfinancialsolutionstohumanresourcemanagementandinventorymanagementsolutions.And,7,400outofthecompany’s32,000customershadinstalledatleastoneapplicationfromtheAppExchangedirectory.33Whilesomeoftheseapplicationsareofferedfreeofcost,othersneedtobe
purchasedfromtheexternaldeveloper.Thedirectorymakesiteasyforfinding,testing,andinstallingtheapplications—inverymuchthesamewayyouwouldbrowsetheiTunesWebsitetosampleanddownloadorpurchasesongs.Thus,AppExchangeservesasanonlineserviceforsharingbusinessapplicationsbuiltonthecompany’stechnologyplatform.
ThecompanycallsitsAppExchangean“eBayforon-demandcomputing”34—acommunityforumthatgivesanopportunityforexternaldeveloperstocreateandofferan“ecosystemofservices”thatmergewellwiththecompany’sownCHAPTER5•THEORCHESTRAMODEL
105
coresolutions.And,extendingtheeBayanalogy,thecompanyexpectsviralgrowth—asAppExchangeaddsmoreproducts,morebuyersshowup,andinturn,moredevelopers.
GovernanceofAppExchange
AsisthecasewitheBay,offeringsuchaforumforexternaldevelopersandpartnersrequiresSalesforce
toprovidetheappropriatelevelofgovernanceandmonitoring.SeveralelementsmakeupthegovernanceontheAppExchangenetwork.ThecompanyusesthefollowingformalandinformalmechanismstogoverntheAppExchangenetwork:
■
Registration:Only
registeredexternaldevelopersorpartnersareallowedtoparticipateintheAppExchangedirectoryservice.Thus,
whileregistrationisfree,itenablesthecompanytomaintaina“gated”
networkthatprovidesthefirstlevelofgovernance.
■
Certification:AlltheapplicationsthatexternaldeveloperswanttoshareordistributethroughtheAppExchangeforumhavetoundergoanextensivereviewandcertificationprocessfromthecompany.Thecertificationensuresthattheapplicationmeetspredefinedstandards
regardingsecurity,reliability,andquality.The
certificationprocessincorporatesarigorous300-pointtestplanthatincludesasecurityaudit,integrationandfunctionaldesignreview,functionaltesting,andanauditofareferencecustomer.Thelastpart—customeraudit—aims
toincorporatecustomerfeedbackinthecertificationprocess.Afteranapplicationhassuccessfullypassedthe
certificationtests,thecompanyawardsan“AppExchangeCertifiedApplication”logotothedeveloper
forthatapplication.
■
QualityRatings:Salesforce.comusesitsusercommunitytoevaluatethequalityoftheapplications.
AsinthecaseofeBay,thecommunityactsasthejudgeofthequalityofitsmembers’performance.
AppExchangecommunitymemberscanrateanapplicationona
5-pointscaleandtheaverageratingsofallcustomersareshownontheAppExchangedirectory.Communitymemberscanalsoprovide
detailedcommentsandcritiqueonapplications.
■
PlatformMonitoring:Salesforce.comalsomonitorsthewayitstechnologyplatformisusedbyexternaldeveloperssothatitcanprotecttheintegrityoftheplatformandthesolutionsbasedonit.Solutionsfrom106
THEGLOBALBRAIN
externaldeveloperscanposetherisksofcomplexityandbrokenapplicationsandworkagainstthecompany’snormsandvaluesregarding
easeofuseandtrustworthiness.Toheadoffthisrisk,thecompanyhascreatedmeasurestoguardagainstdevelopersusingApextoinadver-tentlywreak
havocwithitsSalesforce.comdeployments.Forexample,whenApexcodeisbeingexecutedonitson-demandplatform,theapplicationisconstantlymonitoredforwhatitisdoingandwhatresourcesitisconsuming.Thecompany’smonitoringofhostedcomplementary
applicationsfromexternaldevelopersdoesnotstopwith
thecertificationprocess.Rather,itcontinuesduringtheexecutiontoo.35
SALESFORCE’SOTHERINITIATIVESASPLATFORMLEADER
Salesforce.comhasadoptedseveralotherinitiativesinrecentyearstoenhancethenatureandqualityoftheinnovationoutcomesinthenetwork.Letustakeabrief
lookatsomeofthese.
IdeaExchange
Salesforce.com’scustomersarealsoparticipantsintheinnovationnetwork.
Theyplaytheroleofan“ideator”byservingasthesourceofnewproductorproductimprovementideas.Thecompanyhascreatedaseparateforumcalledthe
IdeaExchangetofacilitatethedialoguebetweenactivesubscribers(customers)andthecompanyonproduct-andtechnology-relatedissues.
CustomerscanvisittheIdeaExchangeandsuggestproductimprovementideasaswellasnewproductconceptstothecompany.Commentsandsuggestionsontheforumarecontinuouslymonitoredby
thecompanytoidentifypromisingideasforimplementation.Customerscanalsoweighinonothercustomers’
ideasby“promoting”themontheIdeaExchangeforum—thatis,indicatingthattheideaisuseful,relevant,andimportant.Ideasthatarepromotedthemostgetthecompany’sattentionandareactivelyconsideredfor
implementation.Theforumalsoenablescustomerstointeractdirectlywiththecompany’sproductmanagers.Thus,theIdeaExchangeisamechanismforSalesforce’ssubscriberstoactivelyparticipateintheproductinnovationinawaythatwillbenefitthemthemost.
Mostimportantly,theforumalsoservesasanidea
“garden”fortheexternalapplicationdevelopers.Inotherwords,manyoftheideassuggestedintheforumrelatetocomplementaryfunctionsorproducts—functionsthatcustomerswouldliketohavebutarenotincludedinthecoresuiteofproductsCHAPTER5•THEORCHESTRAMODEL
107
fromthecompany.Andassuch,theyindicatethepotentialmarketforspecificcomplementaryapplications.ThecompanyalsousestheIdeaExchangetocommunicatewithitscustomersandotherstakeholdersaboutitstechnologyandproductdevelopmentplans.AsKendallCollins,seniorvicepresidentofthecompanynotes,theIdeaExchange
providesatransparentroadmapofthecompany’sdevelopmentpipelineandthecustomerdemandfornewapplicationsandcomponents.36
Co-MarketingandValueAppropriation
AppExchangeisamarketplaceforcomplementaryapplications.Externaldeveloperscan
marketandtradetheirapplicationstopotentialcustomers.Assuch,itservesasaworldwidemarketforon-demandapplications.However,AppExchangeisnottheonlyvalueappropriationvehicleforexternaldevelopers.Salesforce.comalsotakesamoreactiveroleinmarketingexternaldevelopers’applicationstoitscustomers.
Forexample,afteranapplicationhasgainedthecompany’scertification,theexternaldevelopercanpartnerwiththecompanyandmapoutco-marketingplans—eventsponsorship,paidplacementsonAppExchange,andsoon.Inaddition,Salesforce’sowninternalsalesteamwillactivelypromotespecificcomplementaryapplicationsbasedontheneedsofits
customers—inessence,externaldeveloperscanutilizethecompany’sinternalmarketingandsalesinfrastructuretopromoteandmarkettheircomplementaryapplications.Inmanyoftheseopportunities,thesynergybetweenSalesforce’sCRMsolutionandtheexternaldeveloper’scomplementaryapplicationisleveragedtoenhancetheoverall“value”appealtothe
customers.Ifasalegoesthrough,theexternaldevelopers’shareofthesalesproceedsischanneledthroughthecompany.
OtherPartnerAlliances
OthertechnologycompaniesarealsokeypartnersofSalesforce’sinnovationnetwork.Theyincludemajordevicemanufacturersandsecurity,integration,and
computertelephonyintegrationcompanies.Thesecompaniesoffercomplementarytechnologiesthatthecompanycanleveragetodevelopcustomizedsolutionsforitscustomersinspecificindustryniches.
Salesforcebringstogetherthesecompaniestosupportandpromotespecificaspectsofitstechnologyplatform.
Forexample,thecompanyhasformedtheApexAlliancetopromoteApex,theon-demandprogramminglanguage108
THEGLOBALBRAIN
componentofitstechnologyplatform.TheApexAllianceincorporatesseveralofSalesforce’stechnologypartnersincludingAccenture,Adobe,BusinessObjects,
CingularWireless,Dell,Deloitte,ExactTarget,Palm,ResearchInMotion,SatyamComputers,Siemens,andTataConsultancyServices.
Suchforumsandalliancesserveasamechanismforthecompanytoshareknowledgeaboutitstechnologyplatformandtoidentifyopportunitiesforitsexternaldevelopersandpartnerstoexploittheplatforminspecific
applicationareas.Thealliancesalsoenablethecompanytosignalthecommitmentofotherindustryleaderstoitstechnologyplatform,therebyenhancingitsoverallstatusinthemarketandinducingmoreexternaldeveloperstojointhenetwork.
AppExchangeCentralBusinessIncubator
WementionedearlierthatSalesforceplaysanactiveroleinpromotingandmarketingthecomplementaryapplicationsdevelopedbyitsexternalpartners.Inlate2006,thecompanyannouncedamuchmoreambitiousinitiative,calledtheAppExchangeCentralBusinessIncubator,tocultivate,nurture,andpromotetheinnovationactivitiesofits
complementaryapplicationdevelopers.
AppExchangeCentralisessentiallyanincubationprogramforpartnersbuildingapplicationsforAppExchange.Salesforcewillinvestincreatingaphysicalinfrastructuretohouseitsfledglingpartners.TheincubatorwillalsohouseSalesforcetechnicalstaffersreadytoassistin
AppExchangeapplicationdevelopment.ThefirstsuchAppExchangeCentralincubatoropenedinJanuary2007inSanMateo,California,nearthecompany’sSanFranciscoheadquarters.
Partnercompaniescanrentspaceinthefacilityforabout$20,000ayear,whichalsoincludesthecostofaccesstoSalesforce’stechnicaland
businessresourcestohelpbringproductstomarket.Thecompanyplanstosetupmoresuchincubatorsinotherlocations,includingTokyo,London,Bangalore,andSingapore.37
AppExchangeincubatorsaredesignedtoprovideentrepreneurs(orexternaldevelopers)withapackageofbusinessservicesaimedatcompressingthe
developmenttimelineandthego-to-marketcostsfortheincubatorcompanies.
TheseservicesincludeaccesstotheApexprogramminglanguageandothercomponentsofthetechnologyplatform,technologyinfrastructure,productdevelopment,salesandmarketingsupport,fundraising,andbusinessdevelopmentassistance.
CHAPTER5•THEORCHESTRAMODEL
109
TheAppExchangeincubatorrepresentstheveryactiverolethatSalesforceexpectstoplayingrowingitsinnovationnetwork.Itwillnotonlyidentifypotentialexternalpartnersbutalsoinvestresourcesinassistingthemtodevelopandget
productstothemarket.Inturn,thecompanyexpectsitsincubatorstrategytoenhancetheoveralldemandforitstechnologyplatformandthecoresuiteofCRMproducts.
Theincubationcentersalsorepresentanotheropportunityforthecompany—
itwouldlikelyprovideafunnelofacquisitioncandidates,orapplications
thatthecompanycancherry-pickforfutureacquisition.
Whileplatformleadersshouldbecarefulaboutshowinganappetiteforacquiringitscomplementarysolutionproviders,inmanycases,anacquisitioncanbeawin-winsituation.Forexample,in2006,SalesforceacquiredatinycompanycalledKiedenthathadcreatedanadd-ontoits
hostedservicesforpurchasingandmanagingGoogle-drivenWebadvertisingcampaigns.Theadd-onsolutionthatbecameapartofthecompany’scoreproductsuiteallowsmarketingandadvertisingmanagerstoanalyzeongoingcampaignsbyviewingwhichofthepeoplewhoclickonGoogleAdWordskeywordsbecomesalesleads.Kieden,whichwasaSanFrancisco-
basedfour-personcompany,wasabletodevelopapublicbetaversionoftheapplicationandlaunchitontheAppExchangewhereitclearlydemonstratedtheoverallmarketappealofthesolution.
TheexampleofKiedenthusshowsthatSalesforcecanharnesstheinnovativepowerofitscommunityofdevelopersinmorethanone
way—itcannurturethegrowthofsuchapplicationstherebyindirectlyenhancingitstechnologyplatformaswellasacquirehighlypromisingsolutionsandmakethempartofitscoreproduct.
CRITICALELEMENTSOFTHEORCHESTRA-PLATFORMMODEL
Insum,AppExchange
representsSalesforce.com’sbranchingoutfromapositionasaCRM-onlycompanytobeingaproviderofanapplicationplatformforalltypesofon-demandsolutions,addingvalueasaplatformcompanyandleveragingtheeffortsofnumerouspartnersintheAppExchangeinnovationnetwork.Table5.3capturesthecriticalelementsofSalesforce.com’sOrchestra-
Platformmodelofnetwork-centricinnovation.
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Table5.3Salesforce.comandtheAppExchangeInitiative
Elementsof
Network-Centric
Innovation
Salesforce.comandtheAppExchangeForum
Natureoftheinnovation
Salesforce.com’scoreoffering(theCRMsystem)andits
space
on-demandarchitecture
providestheplatformforexternal
developerstobuildapplicationson.Theplatformbothmodu-
larizestheoverallsolutionspaceandalsoenablesthedifferent
applicationsto“talktooneanother.”
Structureofthenetwork
Salesforce.comistheleaderofthenetwork;itowns
leadership
theunderlyingtechnologyplatformandmakesallthedeci-
sionsrelatedtotheevolutionoftheplatform.
InnovationRoles
Architect
Salesforce.complaystheroleoftheplatformleader,theonly
leadershiproleinthenetwork.
Adapter
Externalapplication
developersplaytheroleofcomplementor
bydevelopingsoftwareapplicationsthatcomplementand/or
augmentthefunctionalityofthecoreCRMoffering;customers
playtheroleofideatorbyprovidingideasfornewapplications
andratingtheperformanceofexistingsolutionsofexternal
developers.
Agent
Salesforce.comalsoplaystheroleofaninnomediarybymedi-
atingthetransferofsolutionsfromexternalpartners(inde-
pendentsoftwaredevelopers)toendcustomersthroughthe
AppExchangeDirectory(anapplicationlistingservice).
NetworkManagement
Networkgovernance
Salesforce.com’sPartnerProgramprovidesquasi-formalties
forexternalpartnerswiththecompanyandisbasedonspe-
cificselectioncriteria;theexternaldevelopercommunityis
moderatedbySalesforce.com;AppExchangeactsasamarket
mechanismfortransactionsbetweenmembers.
Knowledgemanagement
ADN(AppExchangeDeveloperNetwork)providestheforum
formemberdialogandknowledgesharing;italsoallows
Salesforce.comtodiffusenewdevelopmentsintheplatform.
Offlineforumssuchastheadn@dreamforcebringtogether
externaldeveloperstocritiquenewplatformdevelopments.
AppExchangeBusinessIncubatorhelpstechnologytransferto
partners.
CHAPTER5•THEORCHESTRAMODEL
111
Elementsof
Network-Centric
Innovation
Salesforce.comandtheAppExchangeForum
IPrightsandvalue
AppExchangeprovidestheprimarymarketmechanismfor
appropriation
externaldevelopers.Salesforce.comalsopromotesandmar-
ketscomplementaryapplicationsthroughitsown
salesinfra-
structureandchannelssaleproceedstoexternalpartners;all
rightsrelatedtocomplementarysolutionsaremanagedby
partnersthemselves.
ThecaseofSalesforce.comaswellasotherplatform
leaderslikeIBM,Microsoft,Intel,andCiscohighlightthecentralroleoftheplatformleaderinorchestrat-ingtheinnovationactivitiesofthedifferentplayersinthenetwork.38Byclearlyexplicatingthetechnologyplatform,theplatformleaderprovidesastructuretotheinnovationspacethatdirectsandbringscoherencetotheinnovationactivitiesofthediversepartners.And,aswe
sawinourcasestudies,theroleinvolvesthreeimportantsetsofactivities:“seeding”andnurturingcomplementorsandotherinnovationpartners,facilitatingandsupportinginnovation,andprovidingmarketdeliveryandothervalueappropriationmechanisms.WewillcomebacktothesethemeslateroninChapter10,“PreparingtheOrganization,”whenwediscusstheorganizational
capabilitiesneededtocarryouttheroleoftheplatformleader.
CONCLUSION
ThetwoformsoftheOrchestramodelthatwehavedescribedinthischapterrepresenttwosidesofthesamecoin.
InboththeIntegratorandthePlatformmodel,the
innovationarchitecturedefinedbythedominantfirmbecomesthecontextforthenetworkpartnerstoinnovate.However,whileintheIntegratormodel,theobjectiveistoconstrainpartners’activitiesandchanneltheirinnovativeeffortstosuitthedominantfirm’svisionofthefinalproductorserviceoffering,inthePlatformmodel,theobjectiveistoexpandthe
opportunitiesfornetworkpartnerstoinnovateandbuildontheplatformsoastoenhanceitsoverallreachandrange.
Inbothcases,thetrickypartistobringtogetheradiversesetofcapablepartnerswhoaresufficientlycommittedtotheinnovationarchitectureandtoorchestratetheiractivitiesinamannerthatleadstooutcomesthatare
beneficialtoallthenetworkmembers.Insum,thedominantfirmhastocreatetheimpressioninthenetworkthatitisgivingitspartnerstheopportunitytobepartofitssuccess.
Thispageintentionallyleftblank
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
6
TheCreativeBazaarModel
Sometimes,insteadof
creatinganinnovativeproductfromscratch,
firmsmightchooseto“shop”forinnovativeideasavailablefromtheGlobalBrain.Shoppinginthe“CreativeBazaar”—theglobalmarketplaceofideas,products,andtechnologies—isparticularlyusefulwhentimetomarketisanimportantconsideration,andwhenthe
firm’sexternalenvironmentisrichwithcreativepotential.
Shoppingforinnovationisnotunlikeshoppingforfoodtosatisfy
yourhunger.Youbasicallyhavetwoverydifferentoptionsbefore
you.Youcouldgotoagrocerystore,buythe
ingredients,andcook
amealyourself.Alternatively,youcouldorderafullycookedmealatarestaurant.Cookingamealyourselfwouldlikelycostless,butitwouldtakemoretimeandeffort.Moreover,thequalityofthemeal
wouldbealittleuncertainifyouaren’tanexpertcook.Ontheotherhand,orderinga
fullycookedmealfromarestaurantwouldbequick
andeasyandinmostcaseswouldensurereliablequality.However,
yourchoiceswillbelimitedtowhat’sonthemenu,andfurther,youwouldhavetopayahigherpricefortheconvenienceandthe
reducedrisk.
Likewise,whenacompanyshopsforinnovation,ithassimilar
options.Itcansource“raw”newproductandtechnologyideasfrom
inventorsandthengoabout“cooking”theseideasintocommercial
113
114
THEGLOBALBRAIN
productsandservices.Alternatively,itcanacquire“market-ready”products,technologies,orstartupfirms.Asinthefoodanalogy,theseoptionshaveverydifferentimplicationsforcost,reach,risk,andtimetomarket.
Regardlessoftheoptionthefirmchoosestoshopforinnovation,itneedstopartnerwithanetworkofinventorsandinnovationintermediaries.Inthischapter,wedescribethedifferentoptionsthatfirmshaveinshoppingforinnovationintheCreativeBazaar.AswenotedinChapter3,“TheFourModelsofNetwork-CentricInnovation,”theCreative
Bazaarmodelinvolvesalargefirmsourcinginnovativeproductideasandtechnologiesfromexternalsourcesandusingitsproprietarycommercializationinfrastructure(includingitsbrands,designcapabilities,andaccesstodistributionchannels)tobuildontheideasandmakethemmarket-ready.
THE“CREATIVEBAZAAR”CONTINUUM
Innovativeproductortechnologyideascanbeacquiredatdifferentlevelsofmaturity,rangingfrom“raw”ideasorconceptsto“market-ready”products.
Andcompaniescanusedifferentmechanismsordifferenttypesofintermediariesforsourcing
suchinnovation.Thesemechanismsdifferintermsofthecostofacquiringtheinnovativeideaandtheriskmitigationthatthemechanismallows.Inaddition,thereareadditionalconsiderationssuchasthereachofthemechanism(howmanyideascanbesourced)andthetimetomarket(howmuchtimeitwilltaketocommercializetheidea).Figure6.1depictsthe
continuumofinnovationsourcingmechanisms.ThesesourcingmechanismsrepresenttheCreativeBazaarcontinuum.
Lookingattheleftendofthecontinuum,companiescansourcerelativelyunde-velopedor“raw”productortechnologyideas.Theycandothisbyreachingoutdirectlytoindividualinventors,asProcter&
GamblehasdonethroughitsConnect+Developinitiative.1P&Ginvitesindividualinventorstosubmitpatentedproductortechnologyideasthatcanpotentiallybecommercializedbythecompany.2CompaniessuchasKraft,KimberlyClark,andsoonhavealsoannouncedsuchinitiativestoinviteideasfromexternalentitiesthroughtheirWebsite.
Such“raw”ideasorpatentedinventionscanalsobesourcedthroughasetofinnovationintermediariesthatincludepatentbrokersandelectronicR&Dmarketplaces(forexample,NineSigmaandYet2.com).Theseintermediarieslargelyfocusonconnectinglargefirmswithindividualinventors(ortheirpatents).
Theyarepurebrokers,inthat
theyplayamatchmakingrole,andhavelimitedinvolvementinthedevelopmentoftheinnovativeideas.3Similarly,anothertypeofintermediary,ideascouts—entitieswhotrawlforinnovativeideasintheCHAPTER6•THECREATIVEBAZAARMODEL
115
inventorcommunityonbehalfoflargefirms—utilizedomainormarketknowledgetolocatepromisingnewideaswithoutmuchinputintotheinnovationprocess.Whilesuchbrokersandmiddlemenbroadenthereachandrangeofideasourcingandlowerthecostofacquiringideas,theytypicallydealwithratherimmatureideasthatarealongwayfrombeingready
forprimetime.Assuch,thereisstillalotofmarketriskthatthefirmhastomitigatethroughfurtherdevelopmentandmarkettesting.
High
High
Risk
ost
C
andR
and
each
Speed
Low
Low
Market-
Market-
Raw
Ready
Ready
Ideas
Ideas
Products
–LicensingAgent
–InnovationCapitalist
–InternalBusinessIncubator
–PatentBroker
–ExternalBusinessIncubator
–ElectronicRandDMarketplace
–VentureCapitalist
–IdeaScout
–InventionCapitalist
InnovationIntermediaries
Adaptedfromfig.“TheExternalSourcingContinuum,”onpg.111of“ABuyer’sGuidetotheInnovationBazaar”bySatishNambisanandMohanbir
Sawhney.HarvardBusinessReview,June2007.©2007HarvardBusinessSchoolPublishingCorporation.Allrightsreserved.
Figure6.1TheCreativeBazaarContinuum
Now,considertheotherendofthecontinuum.Themechanismsatthisendforbuyinginnovationincludeinternalincubators(suchas
Salesforce.comAppExchangeCentralBusinessIncubator),externalincubators(forexample,university-basedincubators),andventurecapitalists—entitiesthatinvestinand/orincubatenewventureswiththepurposeofofferingtheseventuresasacquisitioncandidatesforlargefirms.Typically,theinnovativeideasunderlyingsuchnewventuresarefullydeveloped,
market-demonstrated,andmarriedwithmatchingorganizationalinfrastructure.
TheclassicexamplehereisP&G’sacquisitionoftheSpinBrushproduct(thenovel,low-costbattery-operatedtoothbrush).TheSpinBrushwasdevelopedandlaunchedin1999byastartup(Dr.JohnsProductsLtd.)ledbyentrepreneur116
THEGLOBALBRAIN
JohnOsherandtheprincipalsofNottingham-Spirk(aCleveland-basedindustrialdesignfirm)andtheirin-housepatentlawyer.BythetimeP&GacquiredSpinBrushin2001,theproducthadbeentest-marketedandproclaimedacommercialsuccessbasedonitsinitialsalesperformanceinWal-Martstores.
Thesourcingmechanismsatthisendofthecontinuumenablethedevelopmentoftheproductconcepttoastagewhereitcanbetakentothemarketdirectly,thatis,a“market-ready”product.Consequently,thelargefirmcanbenefitfromlowerinnovationriskandfastertimetomarket.However,thesebenefitscomeatacost.Acquisitioncostsarehigh(forexample,P&Ghadto
shellout$475millionfortheSpinBrush).Andthereachofthefirmislimitedbecausefewideasmakeitfarenoughintheinnovationpipelinetobemarket-ready.Further,theroutestomarket,thesalesorganization,andtheothercommercializationinfrastructurethatgetsaddedtotheproductconceptmightnotbeneededbytheacquiringfirms,andoftenmightneedtobediscardedat
acost.
THEINNOVATIONCAPITALIST—FILLINGTHEGAPINTHEMIDDLE
Havinglookedatbothendsofthecontinuum,wefindthatneitherextremeprovidesanappetizingsolutiontothetrade-offsinshoppingforinnovation.Ideascoutsandothersuchintermediariesattheleftendofthecontinuum
sell“rawideas”whereasventurecapitalistsandincubatorssell“market-readyproducts”
or“fullybaked”companies.Rawideasaretoorisky,whereasfullybakedcompaniesaretoocostly.Aseveryshrewdpoliticianlikestosay—therehastobeathirdway—amechanismthatrepresentsthebestofbothworlds.Indeed,thereissuch
anentitythatfillsthegapinthemiddleoftheCreativeBazaarcontinuumandallowsfirmstoachieveabalanceamongthereach,theinnovationcost,theinnovationrisk,andthetimetomarket.
Wecallthisentitythatrepresentsthis“thirdway”aninnovationcapitalist(IC).Aninnovationcapitalistisanorganizationthatseeksout
promisingnewideasfromindividualinventors,transformsthoseideasintomarket-readyconcepts,andsellstherelatedintellectualpropertytolargefirms.Ineffect,theIC
offersa“market-readyidea”asopposedtoa“rawidea”ora“market-readyproduct.”Insodoing,anICaddssignificantvaluebeyondthebrokeringfunctionprovided
byideascoutsandR&Dmarketplaces.Specifically,anICinvestsintheidea,assumesrisk,andsharesintherentsgeneratedfromsellingtheintellectualproperty.
ICsactastheextensionofthe“fuzzyfront-end”(thatistheinitial,unstructuredpart)oftheinnovationprocessoflargefirms,byallowingthemtomakeCHAPTER6•THE
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117
effectivetradeoffsbetweeninnovationreachandbusiness-readinessininnovationsourcing.Revisitingourcookinganalogy,ICssell“step-savermeals”—
ingredientsthathavebeen
assembledintoarecipethatlookspromising,andonlyneedsafewmorestepstomakeadeliciousmeal!
Beforewediscusstheinnovationcapitalists(andhowcompaniescanpartnerwiththem)inmoredetail,letusfirstconsiderthetwooptionsthatcompanieshavetosource“rawideas”attheleft-endofthecreativebazaarcontinuum:(a)
partneringwiththeinventorcommunityand(b)partneringwithideascouts(andothersuchintermediaries).Weomittheright-handextremeofthecontinuumbecausetheacquisitionofastartupfirmistraditionalM&A,andisoutsidethescopeofnetwork-centricinnovation.
PARTNERINGWITHTHEINVENTORCOMMUNITY:
DIAL
CORPORATIONANDTHE“PARTNERSININNOVATION”INITIATIVE
Partneringwithinventorsinvolvesgoingdirectlytothesource—toindividualswhohavecreativeideas.Tounderstandhowthisapproachworks,considerhowDialCorporation,alarge
consumerproductcompanybasedinScottsdale,Arizona,hassuccessfullyreachedouttoinventorsthroughits“PartnersinInnovation”initiative.Dialhasapresenceinthreecoremarkets:personalcare,laundrycare,andhomecare.Someofitswell-knownbrandsincludeDial,Purex,RightGuard,Pure&Natural,Borax,andSoftScrub.ItsproductshavebeenintheAmericanmarket
formorethan130years.In1953,Diallaunchedoneofthebest-knownmarketingslogansever—“Aren’tyougladyouuseDial?”—toestablishDialasthenation’sbestantibacterialsoap.
InMarch2004,DialbecameasubsidiaryofHenkelKGaA,aGermanconsumerproductsconglomeratebasedinDüsseldorf,Germany.Whiletheparentcompany
affordeditagreaterglobalreachandpresence,intheU.S.market,Dialremainedamid-sizedcompanycompetingagainstmuchlargerconsumercompaniessuchasP&GandJ&J.ThissizedisadvantagenecessitatedthatDialbeveryaggressiveininnovationtostaycompetitive.Inrecentyears,thisdriveforinnovationhasledtoamoreopenapproachtosourcing
innovationfromexternalsources,andmorespecificallytothelaunchofitspartnershipwiththeinventorcommunitycalledthe“PartnersinInnovation”initiative.
Dial’sstoryofitspartnershipwiththeexternalinventorsstartedwiththeestablishmentofaseparateorganizationalunitcalledtheTechnologyAcquisition
groupin2003.DebraParkwasappointedasthedirectorofthegroupwiththemandatetoseekoutnewproductandtechnologyideasfromexternalsources118
THEGLOBALBRAIN
andtofeedtheorganization’sR&Dpipelinewithcommerciallyfeasibleinnovativeideas.
The“PartnersinInnovation”initiativelaunchedin2004wasthefirststep.ItoriginatedasaWebsitewhereindividualinventorscouldgoandsubmitpatentedideasthatDialwouldthenevaluateforcommercializationpotential.Ifideaswerefoundtobecommerciallyattractive,Dialwouldpursuethoseideaswiththeindividualinventor—inmostcases,buying
outrightthepatentedideafromtheinventor.In2004,aspartofthisinitiative,Diallaunchedacontestforindividualinventorscalledthe“QuestfortheBest.”Inthiscontest,individualinventorswereinvitedtosubmitpatented(orpatentpending)ideastoDial.
Dialspecifiedtheproductcategoriesinwhichitwasseekinginnovativeideas.
Thenumberofsubmissionsranintothehundreds.ApanelofjudgeswithinDialthenscreenedthoseideasandnarrowedthelistdownto60inventions.Dialthenaskedtheseinventorstocreateafive-minutevideooftheirideasothatDialcouldgetafirst-handfeelfortheidea.Dialaskedinventorstoanswertwokeyquestions—“Howdoestheideawork?Andhowisitbetterthan
what’soutthere?”Basedonthesevideosubmissions,Dialfurthernarrowedthelistdowntothetopteninventors.TheseinventorsweretheninvitedtoDial’scorporatecampusinArizonatoshowcasetheirinventionstotopDialexecutives.
Eachinventorwasassignedaboothtoexhibittheprototypeoftheirinvention.
Judgesselectedthreeideasandtheinventorsweregivenawards.Dialagreedtopursuethesethreetopideasformoreformalmarketevaluationandfeasibilityanalysis.TheagreementwasthatifDialdecidedthatoneoftheseideaswascommerciallyattractive,itwouldbuythepatentedideafromtheinventor.
In2005,Dialrananother
versionoftheQuestfortheBestcontestandgarneredafreshsetofinnovativeproductideasforinternalevaluation.Inthesameyear,itaddedanotherelementtothePartnersinInnovationprogrambyestablishingthe“Submit&Win”sweepstakesforonlineideasubmissions.Allsubmissionsthatmetthebasiccriteria(forexample,patentedorpatentpendingidea)were
enteredintoasweepstakeandthreewinnersselectedatrandomwereawarded$1,000each.Theobjectivewastokeepinventorscomingtothecompany’sWebsiteandsubmittingtheirinnovativeideas.Sofar,thePartnersinInnovationprogramhasgeneratedatleastfivenewproductconceptsthathavemadeitintotheofficialDialproductdevelopmentpipeline.Thisfeatisquite
impressiveforaconsumerpackagedgoodscompanyinrelativelymaturemarkets.
Dial’sinitiativeembodiesseveralbestpracticesworthnoting.Thefirstrelatestothenatureoftheinnovationnetwork.ThemembersofDial’sinnovationnetworkprimarilyconsistofindividualinventors.Theyareadiverselot.AsDebraCHAPTER6•THE
CREATIVEBAZAARMODEL
119
Parknotes,“Someofthemareretireeswhohavemulledoverthesethingsandnowtheyhavetimetoworkonit.Butforsomeofthem,it’sasidepassion.OnegaveapresentationatthelocalinventorassociationhereinArizona.And,thesepeople
arefromallwalksoflife.”4
Dialwasabletoreachouttosuchadiverseandwidelydistributedsetofinventorsbypartneringwithlocalandnationalassociationsofinventors.Itdecidedearlyonthatestablishingcredibilitywiththeinventorcommunitywascritical.
PartneringwithinventorassociationssignalsthatDial
isacredibleandtrustworthypartner.Dialsoughtandgotthesupportoftwoinventorassociations—
theUnitedInventorAssociation(UIA),anationalbody,andtheInventorAssociationofArizona,thelocalassociation.UIAwasinstrumentalingettingthewordoutintheinventorcommunityaboutDial’s“QuestfortheBest”contest
andotherinitiatives.AccordingtoDebra,“UIAisamuchrespectedorganizationwithintheinventorcommunity.So,hearingitfromthemmadeinventorsfeelmorecomfortable…intheireyes,Dialisabigcorporateentity.”
Dialalsoprovidedthecommercializationplatformforgettingtheinnovative
ideastothemarket.Wecallthisroletheinnovationportal—arolethatinvolvesservingastheportaltothemarketfornewideasandconcepts.Asthedominantplayerinthenetwork,Dialmadethecrucialdecisionsregardingthecommercialfeasibilityoftheinnovationandtheapproachitshouldtaketodevelopandmarketthenewproduct.Andiftheideaorthepatentwas
licensed,Dialassumedtheresponsibilityforappropriatingthevaluefromtheinnovationandsharingitwiththeinventor.
AkeytothesuccessofDial’sinitiativewastoestablishitselfasthepreferredinnovationportalforindividualinventorswithneatideas.AsDebraParknotes,
“Tome,oneofthemantrasofthePartnersinInnovationprogramis—‘thinkofDialfirst.’Cometousfirstwithyouridea,nottoourcompetitors,andsetupDialasacompanythatyouwouldwanttodobusinesswith.”Toachievethisgoal,Dialhadtomaketheprocessastransparentaspossibleandalsobuildalong-term,trust-basedrelationshipwiththeinventorcommunity.For
example,itmadesurethatitcommunicatedtheoutcomesoftheideassubmittedpromptlyandinarespectfulmannertotheinventors.Suchactionsenabledthecompanytoestablishandmaintainanetworkofinventorswhoarelikelytobringtheirideastothecompanyinthefuture.
AlthoughDialdoesnotuseintermediaries,preferringto
interactdirectlywithindividualinventors,theinventorassociationsdoplayasupportingrolebyfacilitatingthoseinteractionsandpromotingDial’sinitiativesinthecommunity.Forexample,theyhelpedtocommunicatedetailsofDial’scontestand120
THEGLOBALBRAIN
otherinitiativestothe
differentchaptersoftheassociationacrossthecountry.
Inventorassociationshaveanincentivetoplaysuchafacilitatingroleastheyspendalotoftheirresourceseducatingtheirmembersonhownottogetrippedoffbyfraudulentpatentbrokersandagents.BypartneringwithareputedandestablishedcompanylikeDial,the
associationisabletoofferasafeandtrustedavenueforinventorstoshoptheirideas.Inreturn,Dialalsosponsoredsomeoftheassociations’educationalactivitiestocementitsperceptionasa“goodcitizen”oftheinventorcommunity.
Inpartneringwithindividualinventors,therearenoformallinkagesamongthemembersinthenetwork,so
governanceislargelybasedontrustandreputation.Mostindividualinventorshavelimitedknowledgeaboutpatentsorproductcommercialization.Thus,theirtrust-basedrelationshipwithDialiscrucialintheirdealingswiththecompany.Ontheotherhand,Dialhasacriticalneedtomaintainitscredibilityandreputationintheinventorcommunity.Anybadexperiencethatan
individualinventormighthavewiththecompanywouldlikelytravelfastwithintheinventorcommunityviawordofmouthanddamageDial’slong-termobjectiveofbecomingthepreferredportalofinnovativeideas.
Dialalsomadesurethataclearorganizationalmandateexistedtotakethepromisingexternalideasintotheformal
productdevelopmentchannelswithintheorganization.Forexample,DialinstitutedinternalsystemswherebyinnovativeideascouldbefundedfortheproofofprinciplestageevenifinitialevaluationsdidnotmatchwithDial’scurrentproductportfolio.Withoutsuchamandateandassociatedsystems,externallysourcedideaswouldlikelystagnatewithin
thecompanyandnotseethelightofthedayinthemarketplace—
therebydiscouraginginventorsfrombringingtheirideastoDialinthefuture.
Furthermore,withtheacquisitionofDialbyHenkel,thescopeofbothideacollectionaswellasideautilizationhasbecomemoreglobal.Forexample,in
early2007,HenkellaunchedtheHenkelInnovationTrophy,aglobalcontestforinnovativeproductideas.TheprogramwaslaunchedincollaborationwithU.S.
andinternationalinventorassociations,includingtheUnitedInventorAssociationintheU.S.andtheDeutscherErfinderverband,theGermaninventorsassociation.Further,innovativeideas
sourcedbyDialfromtheinventorcommunity(intheU.S.)thatdonothaveadirectfitwithDial’scurrentproductstrategyareshoppedaroundamongHenkel’sotherbusinessunitsworldwide.InthewordsofDebra,“WearenownotonlysourcingideasforDialbutforHenkel,too.”SuchaglobalreachenhancestheattractivenessofDialasthepreferredportalforindividualinventors.
CHAPTER6•THECREATIVEBAZAARMODEL
121
DialusesseveralmetricstoevaluatethesuccessofitsPartnershipinInnovationprogram.Forexample,thecompanytrackstheideasastheyprogressthroughthedevelopmentpipeline—howmanyideaswerebroughtin,
howmanyproceededtoconcepttest,howmanywereincorporatedintoaproject,andhowmanyactuallywentintothemarket.Ofcourse,theultimatesuccessmetriciswhethertheideagotintothemarket.AsDebranotes,“AllofthisboilsdowntothatsomethingwasputoutintothemarketundertheDialname—thattomeistheonlymeaningfulmeasureofwhetherIamdoingagood
jobhere.”
WhileDialisdefinitelyoneofthepioneersinemployingthisformoftheCreativeBazaarmodel,othercompaniessuchasP&G,KimberlyClark,andKraftFoodshavealsostartedsimilarinitiatives.ThecaseofDial,however,suggeststhatsuccessinthisapproachrequirespatientlybuildingtrust-based,long-term
relationshipswiththeinventorcommunityandseekingthehelpofinventorassociationsandothersuchentities.
PARTNERINGWITHIDEASCOUTS:THEBIGIDEAGROUP
AND“IDEAHUNTS”
AnotherformoftheCreativeBazaarmodeleschewsdirect
interactionswithinventors,relyinginsteadontheservicesofanintermediary,suchasanideascouttoseekoutinnovativeideasortechnologies.
TheBigIdeaGroup(BIG),locatedinManchester,NewHampshire,isafirmthatfocusesonidentifyinginnovativeproductconceptsforlargecompanies,particularlyintheareasof
consumerpackagedgoods,foodandbeverages,andpersonalmediaandtechnology.ThecompanywasfoundedbyMikeCollins,aformerventurecapitalistandtoyindustryentrepreneur,in2000.Overtheyears,thecompanyhasbuiltalargenetworkofindependentinventors,whichitminesfornewideasandconcepts.
Reminiscentofthepopularpublictelevisionshow,“AntiquesRoadshow,”
whereantiqueexpertsofferappraisalsforantiquesthatpeoplebringinfromtheirhomes,BIGconducts“roadshows”—eventsatdifferentlocationsofthecountrywhereinventorscanwalkinandpresenttheirideastoapanelofexpertswhoprovideaquickandfree
evaluationoftheidea.Therearenoobligationsonthepartofthecompanyortheinventorforthispreliminaryideaevaluation.Iftheinitialevaluationshowsthattheideamighthavepotential,thecompanyinvitestheinventortosubmittheideainamoreformalmanner122
THEGLOBALBRAIN
andsignarepresentation
agreementwithBIG,whereinittakestheresponsibilityforshoppingtheideatolargeclientcompanieswhomightbeinterestedincommercializingit.Ifacompanyisinterestedinlicensingtheidea,BIGsplitsroyaltieswiththeinventor(inmostcases,thesplitis50-50).
BIGachievesseveralobjectivesthroughthe
roadshows:
■
Itprovidesafreeservicetoindividualinventorsandestablishesitsreputationintheinventorcommunityasatrustworthypartner.
■
Eachinventorwhoparticipatesinaroadshow—
whetherornotthe
ideasgetpursuedfurther—becomespartofthe“inventornetwork”thatBIGmaintains.TheroadshowshelpbuildBIG’smostimportant
resource—itsinventornetwork.AsofJuly2007,BIG’sinventornet-
workwas12,000strong—animpressivepoolofcreative
talentforanyclientcompany.
■
Withinitsvastinventornetwork,BIGhasidentifiedamorefocusedsetofaround500“strong”inventors—individualsthatBIGhasevaluated
as“highlycreative”andwhosetalentisparticularly
relevantforthemorefocuseddiscoveryofinnovativeideasthatthecompanypursues
forclientfirms.
Suchfocuseddiscoveriesarecalledideahunts.BIGconductstheideahuntsonbehalfoflargeclientsfirmssuchasGillette,Staples,Sunbeam,andBellSports,aswellastoolmakerssuchasSkil-BoschandDremel.
These“ideahunts”areessentiallyanexerciseinminingBIG’sinventornetworkforpromisingideasrelatedtoaspecificthemeormarketneedthattheclientfirmhasexpressed.
Forexample,aclientfirmmightspecifyabroadmarketneedortheneedforaparticulartypeofproduct;BIGthencommunicatesthisneedtoitsinventornetwork,
seekingpotentialproductideas.Aftertheideasaresubmitted(usuallyonline),BIGdoesaninitialscreeningandthenforwardsthemtothesponsoringfirm.Suchideahuntsmightcostthesponsoringfirmanywherefrom$40,000andup.5Sofar,theseinitiativeshaveledtothecreationofmorethan60newproductsforcompanieslikeStaples,GeneralMills,eToys,
Sunbeam,andQVC.6
BIGisnottheonlyfirmplayingtheroleofsuchanintermediary.AnotherideascoutistheProductDevelopmentGroup(PDG)LLC.7PDGplaystheroleofanideascreener—itreceives,compiles,andreviewsnewproductideasonbehalfofcompaniessuchasStaples.Itsobjectiveistodeterminethelikelihoodofapotential
matchbetweentheproductideaandStaples’needs.PDGdoesnotdoanymarketresearchontheviabilityoftheideas.Itonlyscreensandaggregatestheideasthatitreceivesbeforeforwardingthemtoclientfirms.
CHAPTER6•THECREATIVEBAZAARMODEL
123
AsimilarroleisalsoplayedbyelectronicR&Dmarketplaces,suchasInnoCentiveandYet2.com.Independentinventorslisttheirpatentedtechnologiesonsuchsites,whichcompaniescanbrowsethroughandthenevaluateforpotentialcommercialization.Anumberofothernewtypesofentitieshaveenteredthisspace(seethefollowingsidebar,“Intellectual
Ventures:AnInventionCapitalist”).
INTELLECTUALVENTURES:ANINVENTIONCAPITALIST
IntellectualVenturesLLC(IV)isaninventioncapitalistfirmco-foundedin2000byformerMicrosoftCTO,NathanMyhrvold,andscientist,
EdwardJung.Thecompany’sgoalistoinvestinawiderangeofpatentswiththeobjectiveofsellingorlicensingthosepatentstoclientfirmsthatareinterestedincommercializingthem.MyhrvoldandJungbuiltthecompanybasedonthebeliefthatinventionorpatentsisthe“mostinterestingpartofthecommercialfoodchain.”8
However,ratherthanfocusingonmarketingindividualpatents,thecompanyaddsvaluebybringingtogetherpatentsrelatedtoacommonmarketproblem.9Thus,whilethecompany’sfocusisnotontraditional
productdevelopmentanditdoesnotinvestintransformingthepatents(invention)toproducts
(innovation),itdoeshelpclientfirmsbyofferingamorecompletesetofpatentsthatarerequiredinagivencommercializationcontext.
IntermediariessuchasIVoffertwopotentialbenefitsforclientfirms:
■Asinthecaseofideascouts,theygotrawlingforinnovativepatentedideasandtechnologies;thatis,theydo
themostdifficultjoboffindingthe“diamondsamongtherough.”
■Theymakecriticalconnectionsamongthedifferentpatentsvis-à-visacommercializationopportunityandthenmarketthatportfolioof
patentstoclientfirms,therebyacceleratingtheinnovationprocessand
enhancingitssuccess.
However,rememberthatcompaniesthatbuythesepatentsfroman
inventioncapitaliststillhavetodotheheavy-liftingofdevelopingandcommercializingthemintonewproducts(orservices).
124
THEGLOBALBRAIN
TheroleofinnovationintermediariessuchasBIGandPDGistomediatebetweentheinventornetworkandthelargecompanyseekingtheinnovation.
AsBIGfounderCollinssays,“Corporationsdon’twanttodealwithinventorsone-on-one.Wesawtheneedtobridgebetweenallthese
inventorsandclientswhowantedinnovation,”10Theseintermediariesdonotinvestanymoneyindevelopingorvalidatingtheinnovativeideas.Instead,theyaddvaluetotheprocessbyseekingoutandfilteringthepromisingideas.
Todothis,however,theyhavetofirstgetaccesstotheinventorcommunity.
Thus,thekeycapabilityforanintermediarysuchasBIGistheabilitytoestablishandmaintainanetworkofindependentinventorsfromwhichthecompanycansourceinnovativeideas.Thelargerthenetwork,themoresuccessfultheinnovationsourcingislikelytobe.However,becausenoformaltiesexistbetweenanyoftheentitiesinthisnetwork,socialmechanismsof
governance—
trustandreputation-basedsystems—formthegluethatholdsthenetworktogether.Informationtechnology—forexample,Web-basedforums—canbeusedtocommunicate,interact,andshareknowledgewithindividualinventors.
Finally,formalagreementsbasedonthesaleorlicensing
ofpatentsformtheprimarymechanismfortheappropriationandsharingofvaluefromtheinnovativeidea.
PARTNERINGWITHINNOVATIONCAPITALISTS
Aninnovationcapitalist(IC)isanorganizationthatseeksoutandevaluatesinnovativetechnologyandproduct
conceptsfromtheinventorcommunityandotherexternalsources,developsandrefinestheseideastoastagewheretheirmarketpotentialisvalidated,andthenmarketsthesetechnologyandproductconceptstolargeclientfirms.Inotherwords,anICfirmtransformstheideastoastagewherealargefirmcanmakeamuchbetterjudgmentoftheirmarketpotential(see
thefollowingsidebar,“ProfilesofInnovationCapitalistFirms”).
PROFILESOFINNOVATIONCAPITALISTFIRMS
EvergreenIPisafirmbasedinEvergreen,Colorado,thatfocusesontheinnovationoutsourcingmarketintheconsumerproductsector.
Specifically,itseeksoutpromisingideasandinventionsfromindividualinventorsandmakesselectiveinvestmentstoupgradethoseinventionsviamarketresearch,productdesign,andpatentwork.ItthensellsorCHAPTER6•THECREATIVEBAZAARMODEL
125
licensestheresultinginnovationandrelatedIPtolargeconsumerproductcompaniessuchasP&GandDial.Thecompanytargetsanumberofproductcategories,includinghealthandbeauty,householdproducts,petcareandpetaccessories,andlow-techgadgets.Thefoundersofthecompanyincludeanentrepreneur,afinancialspecialist,andaconsumer
productmarketer.Thecompanyhassofarreviewedmorethan1,600
productideas,hasmorethan15ongoingproductdevelopmentprojects,andisindiscussionswithprospectivelicenseeson6ofthoseprojects.
IgniteIP(IIP)isaU.S.-basedinvestmentfirmwithofficesinNewYorkandCalifornia
thatfocusesonIPplacementinthetechnologysector.ItseeksoutpromisingIPandinvestsinthem(intherangeof$500,000to$2million)toupgradetheIPandsecurelicensingopportunitiesinexistingmarketchannels.Forthistask,thecompanybringstogethera
diversesetofknowledgeandexpertiseincludingtechnical,industry,marketing,and
legalexpertise.Thecompanyhasestablishedanextensivenetworkamongseniormanagersintechnologycompaniesanduti-
lizesthenetworktomarketandplaceitscandidateIP.Giventhe
risks—largelytechnologicalanddevelopmentrisks—itassumesonthe
IP,thecompanysharestheIProyaltieswiththeinventor.WhileIIPdoesnotexplicitlyspecifyaparticulartechnologysector,thedominantareasincludechemicals,energy,environment,andsoftware.
ICshelpcompaniesoutsourcetheearlystageideationanddevelopmentprocesses,oftenthemostriskyandtime-consuming
stageofthedevelopmentcycle.Theirvaluepropositioncentersonfourthemes—greaterreach,lowerrisk,greaterspeed,andlowercost.ICsenablelargefirmstobroadentheirinnovationreach—therangeofideastheycanconsider—withoutrequiringdirectinteractionwiththeinventorcommunityandtheassociatedinvestmentinrelationshipmanagementor
risksrelatedtoIPrightsandknowledgespillover.Further,theyprovideclientfirmswithaccesstoinnovativeproductortechnologyideasthataremuchfartheralongonthematurityscale(thatis,more“market-ready”ideas),therebymitigatingearly-stageinnovationrisksaswellasloweringthetimetomarketwithoutsignificantlyincreasingtheinnovationacquisitioncost.By
selectivelyinvestinginandbuildingonpromisingideas,ICsallowlargefirmstolowertheoverallbusinessrisksrelatedtotheinnovation.Also,ICslowerthecostofacquiringtheinnovationbynotadding126
THEGLOBALBRAIN
anymanagementorothercommercializationinfrastructuretothe
innovation,relyinginsteadontheexistingbrandandoperationalinfrastructureoftheclientfirmformarketexploitation.Moreover,ICssourceinnovationatafairlyearlystage,allowingforcheaperacquisitionsthanbuyingafullybakedstartupfirm.Inreturnforthisuniquevalueproposition,ICsexpectashareoftheproceedsfromtheinnovationfromtheclientfirm.
HowdifferentisanICfromotherinnovationsourcingmechanismswehavediscussedinthischapter?InTable6.1,wesummarizethekeydifferencesbetweenaninnovationcapitalistandotherinnovationsourcingmechanisms.
Aswediscussedearlier,anICdiffersfromanideascoutorpatentbrokerinthatitinvestsinandaddsvalueto
theinnovation.AndalthoughanICsharessometraitswithventurecapitalistfirms,itisdifferentfromtheminthatitscapitalinvestmenttendstobeverylimitedandtheinvestmentfocusedonlyonrefiningtheproductideaandnotonbuildinganorganization(ormanagementinfrastructure)aroundthatidea.Further,mostoftheprojects(productconceptsortechnologyideas)thatICs
pursuetypicallydonotfitthe“businessmodel”ofVCs.Theydon’thavethe“size”tojustifyadditionalmanagementoverheadsorthecreationofnewmarketchannels.Also,theexpectedpayofftendstofallbelowthethresholdofmostVCs—thatis,theprojectsdon’texploitorwarrantthecorecompetenciesofVCsnordotheyprovidesufficientreturns.AsStephan
Mallenbaum,apartneratNewYork–basedJonesDay,notes,an“innovationcapitalistcanserveasanextensionofalargeclientcompany’sinnovationengine.Suchaserviceprovidedby(aninnovationcapitalist)isreallyuniqueandVCsarejustnotequippedtoservelargefirmsinthatmanner.”11
Table6.1Comparisonof
InnovationCapitalistwithOtherInnovationSourcingMechanisms
IdeaScout,
VentureCapitalist,
InventionCapitalist,
Innovation
BusinessIncubator,
Characteristics
andsoon
Capitalist
andsoon
Coreobjective
Toconnectcompanies
Toconnectcompanies
Toconnect
withindependent
with“market-ready”
companieswithnew
inventorsandpatents
innovativeconcepts
venturesthathave
“market-ready”
products
CHAPTER6•THECREATIVEBAZAARMODEL
127
IdeaScout,
VentureCapitalist,
InventionCapitalist,
Innovation
BusinessIncubator,
Characteristics
andsoon
Capitalist
andsoon
Keyfunction
Createsabrokering
Bringsindustryand
Bringsmarketand
infrastructureinthe
marketexpertiseto
financialexpertiseto
“rawidea”market
ideadevelopment
newventures
Valueaddition
Seeksoutandfilters
Buildsonand
Buildsanorganiza-
newideasthatfit
transforms“raw”
tionaroundanew
companies’innovation
ideasto“market-
idea
goals
ready”concepts
Core
Cost-effective
Front-endinnovation
Venturecreation
competencies
“sniff-testing”ofnew
management
ideas
Marketexpertise
Networkingin
Industryandmarket
Financialrisk
inventor
expertisemanagement
community
RelationshipNetworking
in
management
inventorcommunity
IPrights
management
Capital
Noinvestmentin
Limitedinvestments
Substantialinvest-
investment
concept/patent
inconcept
mentinbuilding
development(patent-
development
newventure
relatedinvestmentfor
inventioncapitalist)
Risksassumed
Noneorlittle(patent-
Considerableearly-
Considerablefinan-
relatedriskfor
stageideadevelop-
cialriskassociated
inventioncapitalist)
mentrisk
withnewventure
IPrights
Noneorfew(inventionOwnsashareofthe
Ownsashareofthe
ownership
capitalistowns
IPrights
newventure(includ-
patent-relatedrights)
ingassociatedIP)
Relationshipwith
Transactional
Long-termpartnership
Transactional
clientcompany
Adaptedfromtable“TheDifferingRolesofInnovativeIntermediaries,”onpg.114of“ABuyer’sGuidetotheInnovationBazaar,”by
SatishNambisanandMohanbirSawhney.HarvardBusinessReview,June2007.©2007HarvardBusinessSchoolPublishingCorporation.Allrightsreserved.
VALUECHAINANDCOMPETENCIESFORINNOVATIONCAPITALISTS
Todeliversuchavalue
proposition,aninnovationcapitalisthastoimplementavaluechainwiththreecomponents:SeekandEvaluate,DevelopandRefine,andMarketthenewproduct/technologyconcept.Figure6.2showsthevalue128
THEGLOBALBRAIN
chainofaninnovationcapitalistandTable6.2lists
thekeycompetenciesneeded.Letusexaminethesevaluechainactivitiesandassociatedcompetenciesinmoredetail.
Market-Ready
RawIdea
Idea
Seekand
Developand
Market
Evaluate
Refine
NewProduct/
Client
Inventor
NewProduct/
NewProduct/
Technology
Firm
Technology
Technology
Concept
Concept
Concept
InnovationCapitalist
Figure6.2Thevaluechainofaninnovationcapitalist
SeekandEvaluate
TheSeekandEvaluateactivityrelatestosourcinginnovativeideas(orpatents)fromtheinventorcommunityandselectingthosethathave
thebestpotentialtodevelopintoamarketableproductortechnology.
Thisactivityrequirestwocompetencies.OneisthattheIChastoestablishandmaintaindeeprootsindifferenttypesofinventorcommunitiestoallowittosourceideasfromawiderangeofplaces.SomeoftheICfirmsareactiveinattendingregionalandlocal
inventorclubmeetingsandsponsoringandparticipatingininventoreducationevents.ThisdirectoutreachtoinventorclubsbuildsawarenessoftheICfirmandestablishesalong-term,trust-basedrelationshipwiththeinventorcommunity.Trustiscrucialbecausehistorically,intermediarieslikepatentbrokershaveearnedanunsavoryreputationbyrippingoff
inventorswhohavelimitedknowledgeofthepatentingandcommercializationprocesses.Buildingtrustandofferingafairandjustideareviewprocessareessentialtoattractgoodideasfrominventors.AsBrandonWilliams,themanagingdirectorandco-founderofIgniteIPnotes,“Theoverallapproachshouldbe—wewinwhenyouwin.”
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129
Table6.2CompetenciesforInnovationCapitalist
NatureofCompetency
InnovationIndustry/Market-
Innovation
Project
Network/
CapitalistValue
Related
Management
Relational
ChainActivity
Competencies
Competencies
Competencies
SeekandEvaluate
EvaluatemarketriskEstablishtransparent
Buildandmaintain
reviewprocesses
inventornetworks
Identifycritical
marketneeds/gaps
Assessandmanage
Establishtrustin
ICportfoliorisk
inventorcommunity
Communicateclient
andmarketneeds
DevelopandRefine
Integratediverse
Manageidea
Buildandmanage
industryknowledge
developmentrisks
partnernetwork
Identifycritical
Coordinateidea
marketsuccess
development
factorsactivities
Market
Understandclient
Understandclient
Buildandmaintain
firm’sbrandand
firm’sinnovation
long-termrelation-
innovationportfolio
processesand
shipswithclient
prioritiesmetrics
firms
ManageIPrights
Structurevalue
appropriationdeals
Communicatemar-
ketpotentialofnew
ideaorconcept
Thesecondcompetencyrelatestotheabilitytoscreenoridentifyideasthatareworthfurtherconsiderationandinvestment.Typically,thefirstscreeningisaqualitativeanalysisofthekeyvaluepropositionoftheideaandthepotentialfor
buildingsufficientIP—afive-minute“snifftest.”Giventhevolumeofideastobescreened,itiscriticalthattheICfirmbeabletodothisascosteffectivelyaspossible.AsyousawearlierintheexampleoftheBIG,pre-scheduledevents(suchas“roadshows”)heldindifferentpartsofthecountrywhereindividualinventorscancomeandpresenttheirideastoapanelofexpertsfor
preliminaryscreeningisonesuchcost-effectivemechanism.EvergreenIP,ontheother130
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hand,pursuesamorecommunity-centricapproach—itsendsoutits“scouts”
toplacesthatinventorsfrequentandprovidesideaassessmentsthenandthere
itself.ThistechniqueallowsEIPtofindoutthroughwordofmouth“wheretheideasarelocated”andproviderapidassessments,whichmighthelptheinventortofurtherrefinetheideaandinducehim/hertocomebacktothecompanylateron.Theoverallobjectiveistoofferatransparentandfairprocessbywhichthebusinesspotentialofnewideascanbequicklyevaluated.
Theinitialevaluationisoftenfollowedbyamorerigorousquantitativebenchmarkingtestofthemarket/businessviabilityoftheproductortechnologyconcept.EIP,forexample,usesanideahandicappingtoolsuchasMerwin,abenchmarkingdatabasefromEurekaRanch,themarketresearchfirm,forthisscreening.Itevaluatesandprovidesascoreforanideathatreflectsitspotential
marketsuccess.JohnFunk,aco-founderofEIP,describesthisinitialscreening:
Theaveragemarketsuccessscoreis100onthatscale.TheCPGcom-
paniesthatuseMerwin,whichthere’safairnumberthatdo,theygetexcitedwhenthey’reatabout120.Sowe’vehandicappedourselvestosayit’sgottobereally
northofthat.We’relookingfor170.Andthat’sourfirstscreenforidentifying.Andthenweusea“spiralriskreduction”model.What’sthebigshowstopper?Isthereaprotectableassethere?Becauseifwedon’thaveaprotectableasset,wedon’thaveanythingtotransactaround,alicenseagreement.Sosometimeswe’llgotherefirst,dothepatentsearchtoseeifwe’vegotenough
green
space.
Isitabigenoughidea?Isthesizeofprizegoingtobemeaningfulenoughthatourroyaltystreamisgoingtobeworthahillofbeans?
Andthisiswheretheresearchtoolcomesintoplay.Sowecanboth
clarifytheproduct,enhancetheproductwithdesigninfiguringouthowtodoit,anditeratethatthrougharesearchloopthat’llmake
surethatwe’vegottherightpurchaseintenttomakeitmeaningful
andtogetsomebody’sattention.
Whenwegointoalarge
clientcompany,wecanhaveawonderful
relationshipwiththem.Everybodyknowsusandlikesusandwecan
getameeting.Butifwedon’thavesomethingthatisworthjumping
thequeue,nothingwillhappen….Theinertiafactorishugeintheselarge
companies.Sowe’vegottohavesomethingthattheysaythisisworthscrewingup,orcreatingchaosinternallyforme.12
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131
DevelopandRefine
Aftertheideasaresourced,theyneedtobedevelopedortransformedtoastagewherethereisgreaterclarityaboutthecommercializationpotential,andtheideascanbemarketedtoalargefirm.Typically,thisactivitystartswiththeIC
firmnegotiatingadealwiththeinventortoownpartoftheideaasaprerequi-siteformakingfurtherinvestments
init.Thus,atthisstage,theideabecomesaprojectintheICfirm’sportfolioandthefirm’sabilitytomanagethisprojectfromhereondeterminesitssuccessrate.
Whilemanyofthecapabilitiestodevelopandrefinetheproduct/technologyconceptcanbeacquiredfromoutside,anICfirmneedstwoin-housecompetencies:relevantdomainknowledge
andanexceptionalmarketfocus.Thetransformationprocessoftenprogressesiterativelybyidentifyingandresolvingthekeyriskareasintheinnovativeidea.Suchrisksmightrelatetomarketrisks(whichinturnwouldrequiremarketvalidation),manufacturingrisks(whichmightrequireprototypingandaddressingmanufacturabilityissues),assetprotectionrisks(which
mightrequireevaluatingthequalityofthepatent),andsoon.Thedegreeortheextentofideatransformationdependsonthenatureoftheproductconceptoridea,thenatureoftheindustryormarket,andthenatureoftheclientfirmforwhichtheideaistargeted.
ConsideraprojectthatEvergreenIPpursuedrecently.Aninventorbrought
anideaforacollapsibleplastictrashcollector—asasolutionfortemporarytrashsituationssuchasparties,picnics,andincommunityevents.Theinitialevaluationshowedthatwhiletheideawaspromising,theparticularsolutionthattheinventorcameupwithwasnoteconomicallyfeasible.EIPcheckedwithafewpotentialclientfirmsandrealizedthattheinventorhadindeed
identifiedaveryuniqueproblem—a$250millionproductopportunity—althoughtheproposedsolutionwasnotthebestwaytotapintotheopportunity.SoEIPinvestedcapitalintransformingthesolutiontomakeitcommerciallymorefeasible.Theresultingworkproducedaproductdesignandprototypethatattractedseriousattentionfromseverallargemanufacturers
inthatproductmarket.Inthiscase,thetransformationwascomprehensive—itinvolvedthedevelopmentofanewsolution.
Moreinterestingly,theprecedingexamplealsoshowsthatindividualinventorsmightnotalwayshavegreatproductinventionsfromtheoutset.However,theycanoftenbeexcellent“sensingmechanisms”for
productopportunities.Assuch,theICneedstoremainflexibleandadaptitsstrategytobuildonandtransformtheinventor’sinnovativecontribution,whateverbethestartingpoint—agreatworkingproductprototypeoranimportantmarketneed.
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Market
Thispartofthevaluechainrelatestoplacingtheproductortechnologyconcept(orrelatedIP)withinaclientfirm—inotherwords,appropriatingthevaluefromtheinnovationthroughlicensingagreementsorsaleofthepatentorothersuchmechanisms.Itcallsforseekingoutthefirmthatismostlikelytobeinterested
intheinnovativeideaandmarketingandnegotiatingtheIPsaleorplacement.
Thisactivityrequirestwocompetencies.Forone,theIChastohaveexcellentrelationalskills—theyhavetoestablishandmaintainlong-termrelationshipswithlargeclientfirms.AnICfirm’sunderstandingofaclientfirm’scompetitivecontextenablesittoconduct
betteranalysisofthepotentialfitofaninnovativeideavis-à-visthefirm’scommercializationinfrastructure.AsDaveBaylessofEvergreenIPnotes,“Itisallabouttheclient’sbrandwindow—gapsinthebrandportfolio—andtheirinternalhurdlerate.And,wespendconsiderableeffortingettingtoknowourpotentialclients…whataretheirprioritiesnow,whatare
theylookingoutfor,andwhatkindofmarketsizewilltheyaccept?”SuchanunderstandingcanalsoenableICfirmstocustomizetheirback-endprocessestointegratewellwiththeclientfirm’sopeninnovationprocesses.TheICfirmalsoneedstodevelopatrust-basedrelationshipthatcanhelpthenegotiationprocess.
Anothercompetencyrelates
tothemanagementofintellectualpropertyrightsrelatedtotheproductconcept.ICshavetopossessknowledgeandcapabilitiestonavigatetheIPplacementprocessandtoensurethatequitableshareoftheIPareappropriated.Forexample,IgniteIPrecentlyassessedanewtechnologyforremovingheavymetalsfromwater,whichcouldreducehazardouswasteinthe
miningindustry.Theinventorshadtriedunsuccessfullytocreateanewbusinessaroundthetechnology.WhenIgniteIPtookovertheproject,itevaluatedthemarketanddecidedthatthegreatestchallengelayinovercomingtheminingindustry’sinertiaaroundadoptinganewtechnologylikethis.So,inadditiontomodifyingthetechnologytoclarifyits
potential,IgniteconstructedaninnovativelicensingschemethatprovidedsufficientincentivesforaclientcompanytoacquirethenewtechnologyandalsoensuredthatIgniteandtheinventorswouldreceivesufficientreturnontheirinvestment.
ICfirmsneedtohaveappropriateskillstonegotiateeffectivelyin
asymmetri-calpowersituations(thatis,withlargeclientfirms)toappropriateafairshareofthereturnsfromtheinnovation.Giventhatonlyaround2%oftheideasthatanICfirmreviewsmakesittothecommercializationstage,itiscriticalthatthefirmhasexcellentcapabilitiestoappropriatevaluefromthoseideasthatdofinallygetplacedwithinalargefirm.
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133
Unlikeearly-stageinnomediaries,ICfirmsdonotoperateonservice-basedfees.
Instead,theysharethereturnsfromtheinnovationwiththeinventor.Whilethis
mightbestructuredindifferentways,thetypicalmethodistopre-specifytheproportionofthelicensingroyalties(orproceedsfromthesaleoftheIP)thattheICfirmwillretain.ICfirmsretainanywherefrom40%to70%oftherevenuestream.
ThescaleofcapitalinvestmentsthatICfirmsmakeintheirprojectsvarywidelybasedonthesizeof
thepotentialmarketfortheproductorthetechnology,buttheyrangeanywherefrom$50,000to$500,000.AccordingtoBrandonWilliamsofIgniteIP,“(our)objectiveisnottoaddvaluethroughcapitalinvestmentsasventurecapitaliststendtodo.Instead,weaddvaluethroughauniquecombinationofourdomain/market,networking,andinnovationmanagement
skills.”ItisalsoimportantforICfirmstoshapethisvalueadditionsoastocomplementtheinnovationstrategiesandinitiativesoflargefirms.Thus,theICfirm’sabilitytomeldtogetheritsvariedcompetenciesinawaythatcomplementstheinternalinnovationinfrastructureofthelargefirmisthemostimportantfactorindeterminingitslong-term
successasaninnovationpartneroftheclientfirms.
HavingexaminedtheIC’svaluepropositionandcompetenciesinsomedetail,wenowlookattheICfromtheperspectiveofthelargeclientfirmbyconsideringtheapproachesthatlargefirmssuchasP&G,J&J,andUnilevercanadopttopartnerwithICfirms.
BUILDINGWINNINGPARTNERSHIPSWITHINNOVATIONCAPITALISTS
AnICcanserveasaveryeffectivepartnertostrengthentheinnovationpipelineofalargefirm.However,forthesepartnershipstosucceed,theclientfirmhastoplayaneffectiveroleonitspartasapartner.
ThefirstimportanttaskthelargefirmhastoundertakeistobuildandnurtureaspecialrelationshipwithafewselectedICfirms(andtheirassociatedinventorcommunities).Anothertaskistodirectordrivetheinnovationinthenetwork—eitherbyseekingoutideasforspecificproductmarketsorbydrivingtheinnovativeideausingthefirm’sinternalcommercializationengine.
Letuslookatsomestrategiesrelatedtothesetwotasks.
Clientfirmsneedtoacknowledgethattherearenostandingformaltiesbetweenanyofthemembersintheinnovationnetwork—eitherbetweentheIC
firmandindividualinventorsorbetweentheICfirmandtheclientfirm.Theimportanceoftrustand
understandingintherelationshipbetweenalarge134
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clientfirmandanICthuscannotbeoverstated.Onewaytoachievethisgoalistoestablishlong-termrelationshipswithaselectedsetofICfirms.Thisstepensuresasmoothernegotiationprocessfor
productortechnologycommercializationdealsasbothpartnersareawareofeachother’sdecisioncriteriaandprocesses.Further,alargefirmcanalsobuildintoitsrelationshipaninformalagreementthatitwillgivealltheproposalsbroughtforwardbyanICfirmseriousconsideration,inreturnforgivingthecompanythefirstchancetoevaluatenewideas—inotherwords,becomethe
“preferredinnovationportal”fortheIC
firmanditsassociatedinventorcommunity.
AnotherwaytoenhancetrustintherelationshipisforalargefirmtoshareinformationmoreopenlywithICs.Forexample,thefirmcanprovideICswithawindowintoitsproductgaps,innovationpriorities,and
businessgoals.AsharedunderstandingoftheinnovationprioritiesenablestheICfirmtomatchpromisingideasandconceptsfromtheirinventornetworkswiththerequirementsofthelargecompany.ItalsoallowsICstomakebetterjudgmentsonwhetherornotapotentialideawouldmeettheinternalthresholdofthelargefirm(intermsofmarketsize,profitmargins,andsoon).
Theeventualgoalofinformationsharingistodevelopasharedworldviewofthelargefirm’sinnovationenvironment.
Itisalsoimportantforthelargefirmtoeducateitsinternalunits(particularlytheR&Dunit)ontheuniqueroleandvaluepropositionoftheICfirm.Suchinternalevangelism(orbuildingtheorganization’sfaithinthe
valueoftheinnovationcapitalist)helpstoovercomethe“NotInventedHere”syndromethattendstobiasinternalR&Dunitsagainstexternallysourcedideas.Anditpromotesbetteralignmentofthefirm’sinternalinnovationdecisionprocesseswiththeroleplayedbytheinnovationcapitalist.Byintegratingthefront-endworkdonebytheICwiththeback-end
developmentdonebythelargefirminternally,timetomarketcanbefurtherreducedandsuccessratescanbeenhanced.Forexample,oneoftheICswestudiedusedproductconceptevaluationsystemsandtools(forexample,theProductLifecycleManagementtool)thatwerealreadybeingusedbytheir“preferred”clientfirm.Thisallowedfasterprojecttransitionsfromthe
ICfirmtotheclientfirm.
LargefirmscanalsostrengthentheirpartnershipwithICfirmsbyadoptinga
“reverseflow”model—thatis,becomingthesourceofinnovativeideasfortheICfirm.Often,largecompanieshaveproductortechnologyconceptsthattheyhavedevelopedtodifferentstages(includingworking
prototypes),butforvariedstrategicormarketreasonsarenotconsideredhighpriorityandhencesitontheshelf.
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135
JohnFunkofEIPnotes,“Often,whenwehavegone
toourclientcompanies,theytellusthattheyhavesomethingwhichtheywouldlikeustotakealookat.Theseareideasthatthey(clientfirm)havelettheirpeopleincubatethatmightnotfitwiththeirbrandsatthetimeortheyhavesoldoffthebrandthattheyoriginallyincubateditunder.Sometimesas(theseideas)getfartheralongtheydon’tfit—strategicreasons,brand
fit,resource,sizeofprize,hurdlerates,whateveritmightbe.Theyputthemontheshelf.Andthere’snowhereforthosetogotoday.Wecomeonitandwesaywe’lltakethoseon.Wewilldevelopthemfurtherandmarkettootherfirms.”Inotherwords,thelargeclientfirmnowbecomesthe“inventor.”
Forexample,P&G’sExternal
BusinessDevelopment(EBD)grouprecentlyinitiatedsuchaprojectwithoneoftheICfirms.P&Ghaddevelopedaproductconceptbutfoundthatthetargetmarketwasonlyaround$35to$50millionworth(wellbelowP&G’sinternalthresholdandalsotheconceptdidn’thaveanaturalfitwithanyofitsexistingbrandportfolio).Becausetheconceptrequiredfurther
work,itnegotiatedadealwithanICfirmtodeveloptheconceptfurtherandmarketittootherlargefirmsinthatproductmarket.
AsTomCripe,associatedirectoroftheEBDgroupofP&Gnotes,“Wearedefinitelyinterestedinsuchdealsastheyallowustopotentiallyderiverevenuefromideasthataresittingonourshelvesbutrequiremore
conceptworkbeforetheyarebusiness-ready.SuchdealsalsoallowustostrengthenourrelationshipwithspecificICfirms.…And,inturn,wewantthoseICfirmstoconsiderP&G
asthepreferreddestinationwhentheycomeacrossinterestingideasinthe(inventor)community.”Sothisapproachformonetizingstrandedassets(whether
thosearepatentsorjustproductconcepts)hastwopayoffs—potentialnewproductrevenues,andastrongerrelationshipwiththeICfirmtobecomethe“preferredinnovationportal.”
Arethereanydownsidestopartneringwithaninnovationcapitalist?Well,therearedefinitelysomerisksthatclientfirmsneedtokeepin
mind.Preciselybecausetheyarenewonthescene,innovationcapitalistsarestillrefiningtheirbusinessmodelsandthusmustworkoutsomewrinkles.Forexample,theygetmuchmoremodestreturnsthando,say,venturecapitalists.Thatmeanstheyneedenoughongoingprojectsintheirportfoliostosustainthebusiness.Butanoverlargeportfoliowillreducethe
valueanICfirmcanaddindevelopinganygivenideaandalsothreatenitsrelationshipswithbothclientcompaniesandtheinventorcommunity.Anotherriskfortheclientfirmisrelationalrisk.Ontheonehand,tobenefitfromtheICfirm’scapabilities,aclientfirmhastoopenupandshareitsinnovationpriorities;ontheotherhand,buildingthetrust136
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neededforsuchsharingofinformationwilltakesometime.Thus,thisposessomeriskfortheclientfirmespeciallyiftheICfirmisstillveryyoungandnotwellestablished.
Table6.3showssomeofthekeyelementsofthisformoftheCreativeBazaarmodelthatinvolvespartneringwith
ICs.Thekeyobservationthatbearsrepe-tition—successinpartneringwithICs—dependsontheclosenessofthepartnershiptheclientfirmcanbuildwithICs.
InthewordsofDavidDuncan,theheadofR&DforUnilever’shomeandpersonalcaredivision,atbestsuchrelationshipsoffermorethanapipelineofnewprojectsandbecome“a
collaborativeeffortatbuildingtheinnovationcapability”ofaclientcompany.13
Table6.3TheCreativeBazaarModel&TheInnovationCapitalistElementsofNetworkCentricInnovation
PartneringwithInnovationCapitalist
Natureoftheinnovation
Theideasthatemergefromtheinventorcommunityare
space
evaluatedforcommercializationfeasibilityandalignment
withclientfirm’scorporateinnovationgoalsandpriorities.
Structureofthenetwork
Theclientfirm(forexample,P&G,Dial,Staples,andso
leadership
on)makesallthekeydecisionsrelatedtothecommercial-
izationoftheinnovativeidea(patent).
InnovationRoles
Architect
Clientfirmplaystheroleofaninnovationportal.
Adapter
Independentinventorsplaytheroleofinnovatorandcon-
tributenewproductandtechnologyideas.
Agent
Innovationcapitalist.
NetworkManagement
Networkgovernance
Therearenoformaltiesamongnetworkmembers;trust-
basedandreputationalmechanismsserveto
facilitatenet-
workgovernanceandcoordinationinthenetwork.
Knowledgemanagement
Theinnovationcapitalistprovidestheinfrastructuretocom-
municateandshareknowledgewithindividualinventors;
theclientfirmshareswiththeinnovationcapitalistitsinno-
vationgoalsandpriorities.
IPrightsandvalue
Patentsandlicensingagreementsareusedtoassignthe
appropriation
rightsandforvalueappropriation.
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137
CONCLUSION
TheCreativeBazaarmodelinvolvesalargefirm“shopping”forinnovative
ideasbyestablishinganetworkofpartnersthatmightrangefromindividualinventorsandinventorcommunitiestodifferenttypesofinnovationintermediaries.
YouexploredthreepartneringmodelsontheCreativeBazaarcontinuumthatrepresentdifferentpointsonthecontinuumofriskandcostandconsideredthe
importantroleplayedbyanemergingclassofentitiescalledinnovationcapitalists.
Althoughtheinnovationcapitalistisapowerfulapproachtosourcinginnovativeideas,itisjustoneweaponinthearsenalofalargefirm.Mostlargefirmsneedtopursuenotjustonebutacombinationofthedifferentoptionswehavediscussedsofar.Inother
words,theyneedtoimplementaportfolioofinnovationsourcingmechanisms.Thequestionthenis,howshouldalargefirmgoaboutselectingtheappropriatesetofsourcingmechanismsandmakingsurethatitsoverallportfolioofinnovationsourcingisbalanced?Whatdoestheoptimalportfoliolooklike?Theseareimportantquestions,andwhilewecan
statetheobviousbysayingthattheanswerswouldbedictatedbyindustryandmarketfactors,wewilladdresstheseissuesinmoredetailinChapter9,“DecidingWhereandHowtoPlay,”whenwediscusshowafirmcanidentifyopportunitiesinnetwork-centricinnovation.
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TheJamCentralModel
IntheOrchestramodel,thefirmhasaveryclearsenseforthe
natureoftheinnovationitseekstoco-createwithpartners.IntheCreativeBazaarmodel,whiletheinitialinnovativeideamight
emergefromtheinventor
community,thefirmstillplaysthedomi-
nantroleindecidinghowtheinnovationwillevolveintoamarket-
readyproductorservice.Sometimes,however,innovationsare
emergentinnatureandinvolvethecommunitytoamuchgreater
extent—takingshapethroughthecollaborativeeffortsofcontribu-
tors,andevolvinginwaysthatarenotwell-understoodattheoutset.
Recallingouranalogyfromthemusicbusiness,welookatadifferentapproachtocreatingnetwork-centricinnovationthatisakinto
musiciansjammingtogethertocreatenewmusic.Inintroducingthe
JamCentralmodelinChapter3,“TheFourModelsofNetwork-
CentricInnovation,”wecomparedmusicaljammingsessionstocol-
laborativeinnovation,andweidentifiedthreethemesthat
definetheessenceoftheJamCentralmodel:
■
Anemergentinnovationvisionandgoalsthatevolvefrom
intenseinteractionsamongthecommunitymembers
■
Adiffusedleadershipstructurethatreliesoneachmember
ofthecommunity
■
Aninfrastructuretosupportimprovisationandsharingof
innovationbenefits
Aninnovationinitiativethat
embodiesallofthesethemesisthe
developmentofApache,anOpenSourceWebserversoftwarethat
runsonmostoperatingsystems,includingUNIXandWindows.First
139
140
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createdin1996,ApachehasestablisheditselfasthemostpopularWebserverontheInternet;morethan70%ofallWebsitesontheInternetcurrentlyuseApache,makingitmorewidelyusedthanallotherWebserverscombined.1
ThehistoryofApachecanbetracedbacktotheearly
1990swhenagroupofindividualsstartedworkingonimprovingtheHTTPDserveroriginallydevelopedbyRobMcCoolattheNationalCenterforSupercomputingApplications,UniversityofIllinois,Urbana-Champaign.Whentheresultingproduct—Apacheserverv0.6.2—wasreleasedinApril1995,ittookoffimmediatelyintheWebservermarketasan
opensourcealternativetootherproprietaryproducts.In1999,astheprojectgotwiderrecognitionandattractedmorevolunteers,theApacheSoftwareFoundation(ASF)wasestablishedtobetterorganizeandchannelthecreativecontributionsofthevolunteercommunity.
AninterestingtwistintheApachestoryisthatwhiletheoriginaleffortwasfocused
solelyoncreatingandsupportingtheApacheWebserverproduct,bytheearly2000s,abroadervisionhademergedinthecommunity—avisionthatencompassedprojectsrelatedtoanumberofotheraspectsoftheWorldWideWeb.Inthisbroadervision,theASFwasnolongerjustaWebserverinitiative;instead,ithadevolvedintoaninnovationcommunitytiedtogetherbya
commonsetofvalues(includingmeritocracyandopenness)andpursuingamoreemergentsetofsoftwaredevelopmentgoals.
Asthenumberofcommunitymembers(orinnovationparticipants)andthediversityoftheinnovationprojectsgrew,theApachecommunityadoptedaveryopengovernancestructure.Eachprojecthasitsown
separateprojectmanagementcommittee,comprisedofmemberscommittedtothatproject,whichexercisesfullautonomyonproject-relateddecisionsandactivities.Acentralboard(againcomprisedofthemostcommittedsetofcommunitymembers)keepsthecommunitytogetherthroughappropriatesupportactivities.Newprojectideasfromindividualmembersare
evaluatednotforthenatureoftheproject(allprojectideasareequallywelcome)butforthepotentialforthegroupassociatedwiththatprojecttoadheretotheoverallcommunitygoals,norms,andvalues.
TheWeb-basedinfrastructureatApache.orgsupportsthecollaborativeprocessandenablesthecommunitymembersto
cometogetherandcontributetothevariousindividualprojects.Further,alltheoutputfromthecommunity’sinnovationeffortsismadeavailableinthepublicdomainundertheopenApachelicense,benefitingthebroadercommunity.
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141
TheApacheinitiativeunderscoresthekeytenetsoftheJamCentralmodeloutlinedearlier—anemergentinnovationvisionbeingpursuedinacommunity-ledenvironmentinamannerthatbenefitsallthecommunitymembers.Suchacollaborativeinnovationmodelisclearlyevidentinmanyotherpartsofthesoftwareindustry,too—fromoperatingsystems
andWebserverstoenterpriseapplicationsandend-usertools.
ButtheJamCentralmodelhasapplicabilitywellbeyondsoftware.Itisbeingappliedwithsuccessinawiderangeofdomainsandindustriesthatarequitedifferentfromsoftware.Inthischapter,wedescribeexamplesfromtwoverydifferentindustrycontexts—thebiomedical
researchfieldandtheconsumerinteractive-servicesindustry—toillustratethekeyaspectsoftheJamCentralmodel.Byconsideringsuchdivergentcontexts,wehopetodemonstratehowbroadlythismodelcanbeapplied.
WestartwiththecaseoftheTropicalDiseaseInitiative(TDI)—acommunity-basedinnovationinitiativeinthe
areaofbiomedicalresearch.
FINDINGCURESBY“JAMMIN”TOGETHER:THETROPICAL
DISEASEINITIATIVEANDTHESYNAPTICLEAP
Tropicaldiseasesarealargelyneglectedfrontierinthecommercialdrugdiscoveryarena.Onlyabout1%ofallnewlydeveloped
drugsarefortropicaldiseases.2MostofthetropicaldiseasesoccurindevelopingcountriesinAfricaandAsiawherepatientscanseldomaffordtopaythehighpricesthataretypicalofpatenteddrugs.Assuch,thereislimitedinterestfromcommercialpharmaceuticalfirmstopursuedrugdiscoveryinthisarea.AstheWorldHealthOrganizationreportnotes,
tropicaldiseasesrepresentboththegreatestneedandtheopportunityforopencollaborativeresearch,onethatisnotdependentoncommercialproprietarysolutions.3
TheTDIisaWeb-based,collaborativeinnovationeffortaimedatidentifyingcuresfortropicaldiseasessuchasmalariaandtuberculosis.Theprojectwas
launchedbyagroupofscientistsandresearchersincludingStephenMaureroftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley,ArtiRaiofDukeUniversity,andAndrejSalioftheUniversityofCaliforniaatSanFrancisco.TheTDIprojectaimstobringtogethercomputationalbiologistsandothervolunteerresearcherstoworkcollaborativelyonspecifictropicaldiseasesandthen
makestheresultsofsuchcollaborativeinnovationavailableinthepublicdomain,whereotherresearcherscouldusethemtoguidetheirclinicalresearchwork.
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Drugdiscoveryisparticularlywell-suitedtoa
collaborativeinnovationapproachbecauseofthedichotomyoftasksinvolvedindrugR&D.TheR&D
processconsistsoftwobroadtypesoftasks:knowledge-basedtasksandrule-basedtasks.Knowledge-basedtaskscallfordeepdomainknowledgealongwithintelligenceandjudgmentcapabilitiesbutverylimitedlaboratoryorothertechnical
infrastructure.Examplesofknowledge-basedtasksincludeidentifyingpromisingtargets,designingcomputerizeddiseasemodels,andsoon.AsBernardMunoswroteinNature,suchknowledge-basedtasksare“aboutscientistsleveragingeachother’sideasandusingtoolstogaindeeperinsightsthatmightleadtobreakthroughs”4—inother
words,buildingonandimprovisingthroughcontinuedinteractions.Ontheotherhand,rule-basedtasksinvolveclinicalexperimentationandrequiresignificantlaboratoryfacilities,equipment,studysubjects(patients),andfunding.Examplesofsuchtasksincludeclinicaltrials,toxicologystudies,andotherlab-intensivework.Rule-basedtasksarealsosubject
torigidregulatoryrequirements,sotheytendtorequirehighlystructuredandcontrolledresearchenvironments.Thus,whileaWeb-basedcollaborativeinnovationmodelmightnotbeappropriateforrule-basedtasks,itisanexcellentapproachtocarryoutknowledge-basedtasks.5
Collaborativeworkinknowledge-basedtaskshas
becomeevenmorepromisingduetotheincreasingimportanceofcomputationinthedrugdiscoveryprocess.6Indeed,computingandbiologyareconvergingrapidly,openingupnewpossibilitiesfororganizingcollaborativeinnovationefforts.Computingresourceshavebecomecheaperandmorewidelyavailable.Newdistributedcomputingtechniquesallowspare
computingresourcesdistributedacrossorganizationalandnationalboundariestobeintegratedintoapowerfulcommoninfrastructure.And,newerandmorepowerfulsoftwaretoolsarebecomingavailablefordrugdiscovery.Thesenewtoolscanhelpscientistsidentifypromisingproteintargetsandleadchemicalcompounds,minegenomicdatabases,visualizebind
sites,mapmetabolicnetworks,anddesigncomplexmolecules.
Thesetoolscanworkondiversemedicaldatabasesandenablevolunteerstoparticipateintheinnovationprojectfromtheirhomes.Further,manyofthesetoolsarenowavailableasOpenSourcetools.Forexample,theOpenScienceprojectisdedicatedtodevelopingand
releasingfreescientificsoftwarefordrugdiscoveryandotherresearchpurposes.7
Thesetwofactors—morecomputingresourcesandbettertools—haveradicallychangedthefaceofcomputationaldrugdiscovery.ThefoundersofTDI,SteveMaurer,ArtiRai,andAndrejSali,drawparallelsbetweencomputationaldrug
discoveryandsoftwaredevelopment:
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143
Verysimilartothewaysoftwaredevelopersfindbugsandwrite
patchesinopensourceprojects,biologistslookfor
proteins(“tar-
gets”)andselectchemicals(“drugcandidates”)thatbindtothemandaffecttheirbehaviorindesirableways.Inbothcases,innovativecontributionsconsistoffindingopportunitiesandfixingtinyproblemshiddeninanoceanofcode.8
THETDI-TSLNETWORK
TheTDIbringstogetheracommunityofresearchersandscientistswhohavecommoninterestsrelatedtodrugdiscoveryandarewillingtovolunteertheirtimeandeffortincollaborativelypursuingsuchinterests.TheTDIoffersaWeb-basedenvironmentthathelpstointegratescientifictalent,computingresources(forexample,softwaretools),andawidevarietyof
chemical,biolog-ical,andmedicaldatabases.Inthisenvironment,TDIpartnerswithanotherentitycalledTheSynapticLeap(TSL).
TSLisaNorthCarolina–basednon-profitorganizationfoundedin2005byGingerTaylor,asoftwareprofessional.TSLprovidesapackageofWeb-basedfacilitiestosupportopencollaborativebiomedical
research.9TheWebsiteprovidesthevehiclefororganizingthedifferentresearchtools,technologies,anddatabasesandmakingthemavailabletothecommunitymembers(scientists).
MemberscanperusetheresearchtasksontheWebsite,choosetheonethattheyareinterestedinworkingon,andregisterthemselvesas
contributors.
Contributorscanthendownloadanynecessarydataandtoolsandstartworkingonthatdata.OtherWeb-basedfacilities(forexample,chatrooms,wikis,blogs,anddiscussionboards)providethecommunicationinfrastructureforthecommunitytodiscussanddebatetheinnovativeideasineachproject.Thus,by
providingtheWeb-basedinfrastructure,TSLcomplementstheresourcesandcapabilitiesoftheTDI.AsTaylornotes,“Afterspeaking(withtheTDIfounders),Idiscoveredthattheirheartisreallyinthebiomedicalscience.TheyhavelittleinterestinbuildingandrunningacollaborativeWebsite.Wethereforecombinedforces;theyprovideinputstous,andwe
buildandmaintainthesitewheretheyandotherscientistscancollaborate.”10
TherearethreetypesofplayersintheTDI-TSLnetwork.Acorebodyoffoundingmembers(whichincludespeoplefromTDIandTSL)playstheroleoftheinnovationstewardbyprovidingthebroaddirectionforthecommunityandfacilitatingcollaborationand
communicationamongmembers.Scientistsfromallovertheworldcontributetoindividualprojectsbyvolunteeringtheirtime144
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andscientificexpertise.Insodoing,theyplaytheroleofinnovators.Theirincentivesincludereputationalbenefits,acquisitionofnewskillsandknowledge,expandingtheir
professionalnetwork,andtheprospectofgainingprominenceintheemploymentmarket.Finally,externalorganizations(for-profitaswellasnon-profit)playtheroleofinnovationsponsorsbyprovidingfundingandothertypesofresources,includingcomputingresources,softwaretools,andsoon.
TDIhasdefinedabroad
focusontropicaldiseases.However,thespecificprojectsarelefttoindividualcontributorsorcommunitymembers.Anycontributorcanproposeanewproject,andaslongastheprojectfallswithinthebroadscopeofTDIandthereissufficientinterestamongthecommunitymembers,itwillbeincorporatedintothefold.ThefirstactiveprojectintheTDIportfolioisfocusedon
malaria.
Asnotedearlier,thegoalsandactivitiesofthecommunityareemergent.Forexample,considertheevolutionoftheSchistosomiasisproject.SoonafterthemalariaprojecttookoffintheTDL-TSLforum,MathewTodd,achemistfromtheUniversityofSydney,hadanideaforanopenresearchprojectfor
Schistosomiasis.HisobjectivewastodevelopacheaperprocessforproducingPraziquantal,thecurrenttreatmentforSchistosomiasis.HeinteractedwiththeTDIfoundersandexpressedhisinterestinstartingthisnewprojectandwasencouragedtocollaboratewithGingerTaylortocomeupwithamoreformaloutlineoftheprojectandthedesignofthe
communitysite.HisblogpostontheproposedprojectontheTSLWebforumelicitedmanypositivereactionsfromthecommunitymembers.OnesuchvolunteerwasJean-ClaudeBradley,achemistfromDrexelUniversityinPhiladelphia.BradleyfoundTodd’spostandbegantoofferideasforcollaborativelypursuingthoseresearchgoals.With
sufficientinterestexpressedbycommunitymembers,itwasevidentthattheprojecthadlegsandToddvolunteeredtoplaytheroleoftheSchistocommunityleader.Overthenextfewmonths,heworkedwithTSL’sTaylortodevelopaninformationarchitecturetoserveastheportalfortheSchistocollaborativeresearchproject.
Similarly,newprojectsarebeingdefinedandinitiatedaspartofTDI.Forexample,theideaforaprojectonChagas,adiseasethatplaguesSouthAmerica,wassuggestedbyayoungbiologyresearcherfromVenezuela.Similarly,anotherscientist,MiguelMitchell,isleadinganothernewprojectthatrelatestotuberculosis.Thus,asnewcontributorsjointhecommunity,newresearch
ideasemerge,getsharedandbuiltupon,andevolveintoindividualprojects.
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145
MOVINGFROMTHELABTOTHEMARKET
AcriticalissueintheTDInetworkrelatesto
intellectualpropertyrightsandproductionofdrugs.Specifically,who“owns”theoutputfromtheTDIprojectsandhowshouldsuchoutputsreachthe“market”?TheTDIcommunitymembershaveattheirdisposalseveralintellectualpropertyownershipoptions.
Researchersalwayshavetherighttopublishtheirideasintraditionalpeer-reviewed
scientificjournals.Inaddition,theScienceCommonsofferspublicdomainlicenses(similartotheCreativeCommonslicensingscheme)thatcanbeusedtomakeavailabletheleadsortargetsgeneratedthroughtheTDIprojecttootherscientistsforfollow-upwork.
Similarly,ifapromisingleadoranewcompoundis
generatedthroughtheTDIproject,thenitsfurtherdevelopmentcanbeoutsourced.Notethattheearlydrugdiscoveryprocesses,whichformtheprimaryfocusofTDI,occuratapre-commercialstageandtypicallytheoutputmightnothavereachedapatentablestage.However,heregiventhenichefocusofTDI,theobjectiveistokeepthenewknowledgecreatedin
thepublicdomainsothatallthedifferentoptionstoexploitsuchknowledgecanbeexercised.Thisincludesoutsourcingtheclinicaltrialsandproductiontonon-profitpharmaceuticalentitiesor“VirtualPharma”entitiesliketheInstituteforOneWorldHealthandtheDrugsforNeglectedDiseasesInitiative.
TheTDIinnovationnetwork
owesitsearlysuccesstoseveralfactors:theemergenceofcomputationalbiologyasapowerfulandsophisticatedvehicletoresearchanddiscovernewdrugcandidates,theabilityofWeb-basedinfrastructuretobringtogetherhundredsofscientistsandresearcherswhoarewillingtodonatetheirtimeandknowledgeincollaborativeresearch,andthealternativesystemsand
mechanismsavailabletoprotectandsharetheintellectualpropertyrightsinthepublicdomain.TheseforceshaveenabledthecreationofacollaborativeresearchforumthatadherestoallthreecentraltenetsoftheJamCentralmodel—anemergentinnovationvisionandgoals,acommunity-leddiffusedleadershipstructure,andarobustinfrastructuretosupportcollaborative
knowledgecreationandvalueappropriation.
OTHERINSTANCESOFTHEJAMCENTRALMODELINBIOMEDICAL
RESEARCH
AnothersetofexamplesoftheJamCentralmodelevidentinbiomedicalresearchrelatestotheopendatabasesapproach.The
morefamousexamples146
THEGLOBALBRAIN
includetheHumanGenomeProject,theSNPconsortium,andtheInternationalHapMapproject.
ConsidertheInternationalHapMapproject.Theprojectisamulti-countryefforttoidentifyandcataloggeneticsimilaritiesanddifferences
inhumanbeings.11TheHapMap(HaplotypeMapping)isacatalogofcommongeneticvariantsthatoccurinhumanbeings.UsingtheinformationintheHapMap,researcherswillbeabletofindgenesthataffecthealth,disease,andindividualresponsestomedicationsandenvironmentalfactors.Inotherwords,
researcherscanlinkhaplotypes(patternsofgeneticvariation)todiseasephe-notypes.Theproject,startedinOctober2002,involvesscientistsandfundingagenciesfromsixcountries:Japan,theUnitedKingdom,Canada,China,Nigeria,andtheUnitedStates.Theprojectreleasesallinformationgeneratedbyresearchersintothepublicdomain.However,the
informationisreleasedundera“click-wrap”license,whichrequiresthosewhoaccesstheHapMapdatabasetoagreethattheywillnotfileproductpatentapplicationsifsuchpatentsarebuiltupon,evenifonlyinpart,HapMapdata.12Inotherwords,theHapMapprojectadoptsthe“copyleft”licensingscheme.13
Althoughtheprojectdoesnotallowjustanybodytoget
involved—onlythosewhoaretiedtotheaffiliatedorganizationscancontribute—theoverallstructureoftheinitiativefollowstheJamCentralmodel.Thenetworkofscientistsmaintainsabroadinnovationvisionfortheproject—forexample,inthiscase,todevelopahaplotypemapofthehumangenomesoastodescribethecommonpatternsofhumangeneticvariation—and
collaboratebyimprovisingandbuildinguponeachothers’researchwork.Theleadershipforindividualprojectsisdiffusedtothelocallevelandthecentralnetworkinfrastructureisusedtoshareaswellasprotecttherightstothedataandtheotheroutputsfromtheproject.
ToseehowtheJamCentralmodelcanbeappliedtoa
verydifferentcontext,weshiftourfocustothecreationofWeb-basedconsumerinteractiveservicesandthecaseofSecondLife.
CREATINGCONSUMEREXPERIENCESBY“JAMMIN”TOGETHER:
THESECONDLIFE
In1992,NealStephensonauthoredanow-classic
sciencefictionnovelcalledSnowCrashinwhichheenvisionedasuccessortotoday’sInternet—avirtualreality–basedInternetthathecalledtheMetaverse.InStephenson’sMetaverse,CHAPTER7•THEJAMCENTRALMODEL
147
denizenscreate“avatars”oronlinevirtualbodiesand
theirsocialstatusderivesfromthesophisticationoftheiravatars.TheMetaverseinspiredseveralattemptstocreatesuchvirtualrealityworldsandimplementsomeoftheconceptshedescribedinhisbook.Bythetimethe1990srolledaround,3-D
technologieshadalsoadvancedsignificantly,andsuchvirtualworldimplementationsbecame
feasible.
OneofthefirstMetaverse-like3-DvirtualrealityworldswasActiveWorld,launchedinJune1995.ItwassoonfollowedbyahostofotherimplementationsincludingThere,SecondLife,ThePalace,Uru,DotsoulCyberpark,Blaxxun,andEntropiaUniverse.Whilesomeofthesenolongerexistandsomeareontheirway
out,perhapsthemostrepresentative—anddefinitely,themostwell-known—isSecondLife.
SecondLife(SL)isapartlysubscription-based3-Dvirtualworldthatwaslaunchedin2003byLindenLab—aprivatelyheld,SanFrancisco-basedcompanyfoundedin1999byformerRealNetworksCTOPhilipRosedale.TheSecondLife
“world”residesinavastarrayofcomputerserversownedandoperatedbyLindenLab.ThecompanyalsoprovidestheWeb-basedtoolsandtechnologiesforuserstocreate,view,andmodifytheiravatarsandtheotherobjectsintheSLworldandparticipateinitsvirtualeconomy.TheresidentpopulationinSLhasbeengrowingexponentiallysinceitsinception—onOctober18,
2006,thepopulationhitthe1millionmark,andbyJuly2007,ithadreached7million.
ThegoalofLindenLabistocreateauser-definedMetaverse-like“virtualworld”
inwhichusersor“residents”caninteract,play,andparticipateinotheractivities.However,SLismuchmore
thana3-Dvirtualworldforentertainment.
LindenLabseesitselfasbeinginthebusinessofhostingandfacilitating“consumerexperience”innovation.SLoffersdiversetypesofexperiencestoitsresidents.TheseexperiencesarenotcreatedbyLindenLab—theyarecreatedcollaborativelybytheresidentsthroughindividual
creativityandinteractions.
TheroleofLindenLabistoprovidethecontextandthetoolsforresidentstocreatethoseexperiences.Inshort,SecondLifeisamassiveexperimentincollaborativeexperienceinnovation.Assuch,itisanexcellentexampleoftheJamCentralmodel—whiletheinnovationspaceconstitutes“userexperiences,”thenatureof
theseexperiences(thatis,theinnovationgoals)areemergentandtheresidents(thatis,theinnovators)“jamtogether,”improviseininnovatingthoseexperiencesandshareinthefruitsoftheinnovation.
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THEGLOBALBRAIN
THESLNETWORKAND
THEPLAYERS
LetusconsiderthenatureoftheinnovationnetworkandtheplayersinSL.
Broadly,theinnovationnetworkinSLconsistsofthreeplayers:LindenLabplaystheroleofinnovationsteward,individualsandotherresidentsofSLplaytheroleoftheinnovatorsandcorporationsseekingto
connecttothecommunityplaytheroleofinnovationsponsors.
LindenLab’sprimaryroleistofacilitateexperienceinnovationinSLbybringingthecollaboratorstogetherandprovidingthemwiththesupportingtoolsandtechnologiestoinnovateandtheinfrastructuretoappropriateandsharethevaluefromtheinnovations.
ItssuccessinthisrolecanbetracedtothreekeyideasofLindenLabfounder,Rosedale.
Rosedale’sfirstkeyideawastocreatealiveforumthatcouldbringtogethertheresidentsandhosttheirinteractions.Theseliveinteractionsformtheexperience—nothingispredeterminedorpre-designed.LindenLab’s
computersdoalltheintensecomputationalworkthatisneededtokeeptheSLdynamicandasliveastherealworld.
Thesecondkeyideawastosupportresidents’creativitybyofferingeasy-to-usetoolsandtechnologiesthatcanbeusedtocreateobjects(includingresidents’
ownavatars)inSL.While
thetechnologiesareuser-friendly,theyarepowerfulenoughtosupportthediversecreativetalentthatresidentsbringtoSL.Forexample,onesuchtoolisa3-DModelerthatallowsresidentstocreatecomplexobjects—rangingfromavatarattachmentstobuildings,sculptures,andgardens—outofasetofbasicbuildingblocks.ResidentscanthenuseSL’sscriptinglanguage
(calledLindenScriptingLanguage)toapplyscriptstoshapethebehavioroftheobjectstheycreate.SLalsoprovidestoolstoaddtexturetothesurfaceofany3-Dobject(forexample,tattoosonanavatar’sskin)toenhanceitsrichness.Multimediacapabilities(forexample,sound)canalsobeaddedtosuchobjects.Thispowerfulsuiteoftoolsenablesresidentstocreate
veryrichobjectsinSLthatexhibitdiversebehaviorsandleadtodiverseexperiencesthroughtheirinteractions.
ThethirddecisionthatRosedalemadewastoallowtheresidentstoretaintherighttotheircreation,whetheritbetheirownavataroranyotherobjectthattheycreatedinSL.ThisfeatureallowedLindenLabtodevelopatruly
collaborativeinnovationenvironmentinSLthatemphasizestheresidents’roleasinnovators.
Asinnovators,residentscontributetothecommunitythroughtheobjectstheycreateaswellasthroughtheinteractionstheyparticipatein.Thus,themorediversetheresidents,themorediversetheoverallexperiencesintheSLworld.
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Finally,corporate,non-profit,andothertypesoforganizationsparticipateinSL
bysponsoringandcatalyzingthecollaborativeexperienceinnovation.Asaninnovationsponsor,afirmcandirectly
hostandfacilitateexperiences.Forexample,AmericanApparelopenedanoutletinSLthatallowsresidentstobrowsethroughmerchandiseandshopforvirtualclothingfortheiravatars.14
Thecompanyisnowconsideringtest-marketingnewstylesofjeansinthevirtualenvironmentbeforetheyarelaunchedinreal-life
stores.Bycatalyzingsuchvirtualshoppingexperiencesforresidents,thecompanycontributestothecommunity—inreturn,garneringadditionalcompanyexposureandbrandrecognition.Companiescanalsosponsorusers’experienceinnovation.Forexample,onSeptember14,2006,PopSci.com(theonlinehomeofPopularScience)sponsoredaspecialliveconcertinSLthat
featuredpopularSLmusiciansincludingJonathanCoulton,MelvinTook,andEtherianKamaboko.
MANAGING“AVATAR”BEHAVIORANDRIGHTSINSL
MembersoftheSLcommunityaretiedtoLindenLabthroughasetofTermsofServicetheyagreetowhentheyjointhenetwork.This
formalagreementallowsLindenLabtoestablishabasicsetof“accepted”behaviororgroundrulesandspecifiesconsequencesifsuchrulesarenotadheredto.Forexample,residentswhoharassotherresidentsorengageindestructivebehaviorcanbeejectedfromthecommunity.Similarly,residentscanalsoregisterciviccomplainsinregulartown-hallmeetingsandthese
complaintswillthenbeacteduponbyLindenstaff.TheseformalgovernancemechanismsenableLindenLabtoensureaninnovationenvironmentthatmemberswouldwanttobeapartof.
However,suchformalmechanismsareonlypartofthestory.
Moreimportantasagovernancemechanismare
thebehavioralnormsthatexistamongthemembersthemselves.Suchsocialmechanismsincludegroup-drivencultureandreputationalsystems.Forexample,SLiscomposedofnumerous“interest”groups.Individualresidentscancreategroupsandinviteotherresidentstojointhem.Groupscanbebasedonaparticularinterestoractivity.Thenamesofthegroupsthat
aresidentbelongstoaredisplayedinthatuser’sprofile.Eachgroupcansetupitsowngroupleadershipteamwithtitlesandresponsibilities.Thegroupsthroughtheirinteractionssetuptheirownnormsandvalues—suchgroup-drivencultureformsapowerfulmechanismtobringcoherencetomembers’interactionsandexperienceswithinSL.
Asnotedpreviously,residentsowntherightstotheirinnovationsinSL—forexample,theobjectsthattheycreate.EventhoughtheactualcomputercoderelatedtotheobjectsresidesonLinden’sservers,residentsretainthefull150
THEGLOBALBRAIN
intellectualpropertyrightsforallthedigitalcontent
theycreate.LindenLabemploystheCreativeCommonslicenseschemetoenableresidentstoassignrightstotheirinnovations.Thisgivesresidentsconsiderableleewayindecidinghow,when,andinwhatwaysotherresidentscanuseorbuildontheirinnovation.
Itisimportanttonotethat,whileresidentsmightown
therightstotheobjectstheycreate,“consumerexperiences”arebasedontheinteractionsamongtheobjectscreatedbythedifferentcommunitymembers.Assuch,thereissufficientincentiveforcommunitymemberstosharetheirinnovationswithothersandtofacilitatesuchinteractions.
LindenLabalsoprovidesthe
infrastructureformeasuringandmonetizingvaluecreatedinthecommunity.SLhasitsowncurrency,referredtoasLindenDollars(L$).ResidentscanacquireL$bysellingtheobjectstheycreate.TheeconomythatisbasedonL$hasgrownconsiderablyoverthepastfewyearswiththeincreasedlevelofactivityintheSL“economy.”IntheSLeconomy,residentscan
appropriatevaluefromtheirinnovationsbytransactinginL$.
LindenalsoprovidesanexchangecalledtheLindeXforresidentstoconvertL$
intoUS$.
ThecaseofSecondLifethusillustratestheapplicationoftheJamCentralmodelinyetanothercontext—the
consumerinteractiveservicesindustry.
Whiletheparticularsandthedetailsmightbedifferentfromtheearliercontextsofsoftwareandbiomedicalresearch,thethreethemesoftheJamCentralmodeloutlinedearlierformstheessenceofSecondLife,too—SLresidents(innovators)collaborateandimprovisetocreatenewinteractive
experiences(innovation)inacommunity-ledenvironmentthatissupportedbyaninfrastructureforprotectionandsharingofinnovationrights.
“JAMMIN”TOGETHERTOCREATEMUSIC:MYVIRTUALBAND(MVB)
MyVirtualBand.com(MVB)(acquiredbyNetMusicMakers.comin
December2006)isaWebportalformusicianstocometogetherand
form“virtualbands”tocollaborativelywriteandproduceoriginalmusicthatcanthenbefreelysharedwithothers.15
MVBwasstartedin2004bytwoMadison,Wisconsin-basedfriendsKellySenecal(aguitarist)andScottMason
(adrummer).ThetwohadstartedCHAPTER7•THEJAMCENTRALMODEL
151
andplayedinabandtogetherfrom1996onwards.However,whenone
ofthemhadtomovetoadifferentcity,theyfelttheylackedthetoolstoworkonmusicalprojectstogether.
ThisunmetneedgaverisetotheideaofbuildingaWebportaltofacilitatecollaborativesongwritingandrecording.
MVBoffersanonlineforumformemberstoadvertisetheirindividualprojectsandinviteothermemberstojointhoseprojectsbyuploadingaudiotracksoftheirowninstrumentsorvocalsandspecifyingthetypeof
collaborationthatisneeded.Memberscandownloadthefiles,addtheircontributions,andreuploadthem—sothesongevolvesovertimethroughcontributionsfrommultiplecommunitymembers.Whenasong
iscompleted,MVBputsitasanMP3fileontheFeaturedSongslist,whichnon-membersaswellasmemberscanlistento.
MVBoperatesonaCreativeCommonsAttribution2.0licensethatit
callsthe“MVBOpenMusicAgreement.”Thelicenseappliestoallaudiofilesandothersupportingmaterials(forexample,lyrics)thatare
uploadedontheMVBserver.Italsoappliestocompletedsongs.Thus,anymembercanfreelycopy,distribute,
display,perform,andofcourse,addtoormodifythesongsaslongasacknowledgmentsaremadetotheoriginalauthorsofthemusic.MVBalsooffersamoreformalmusic
showcaseordistributioninfrastructurecalledtheMVBRadiothatisapodcastofthecompletedsongs.Memberscanvoteonthesongsfor
inclusioninthepodcast.Insum,MVBrepresentstheessenceoftheJamCentralmodel—acommunityofmusicianscomingtogethertoimprovise
andcreatenewmusicthatisopenlysharedandthusbenefitstheentirecommunity.
ELEMENTSOFTHEJAMCENTRALMODEL
WhenwecomparethedifferentexamplesoftheJamCentralmodelthatwehavedescribedinthischapter,weseesomecommonelementsthatdefinetheessenceofthisformofnetwork-centricinnovation.Table7.1summarizesthesecommonelements.
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THEGLOBALBRAIN
Table7.1ElementsoftheJamCentralModel
Elementsof
Network-Centric
Innovation
TDI/TSL
SecondLife
Apache
Natureofthe
Drugdiscoveryfor
Creationofrichand
DevelopmentofWeb-
innovation
tropicaldiseases
diversedigital
relatedsoftware
space
andotherneglected
experiencesfor
products
diseasesconsumers
Structureofthe
TDIboardprovides
Individualresidents
ASFcouncilprovides
network
broadguidance;
andresidentgroups
broadguidance;
leadership
individualproject
makekeydecisions
individualproject
teamsexercise
teamsexercise
completeproject
completeproject
autonomyautonomy
InnovationRoles
Architect
TDI/TSLasinnovation
LindenLabas
ASFasinnovation
steward
innovationsteward
steward
Adapter
Individualscientist
Residentasinnovator
Individualdeveloper
asinnovator
asinnovator
Agent
Pharmacompaniesas
Consumercompanies
Softwarecompanies
innovationsponsor
asinnovationsponsor
asinnovationsponsor
NetworkManagement
Network
Trustandreputation-
Formalmechanisms
Apache“meritocracy”
governance
basedsystems
(TermsofService)
andsocialmechanisms
(groupculture,trust,
andsoon)
Knowledge
Web-basedfacilitiesto
Onlineforumsfor
Onlineforumsto
management
shareinformationon
consumerstoextend
supportknowledge
“targets”andco-create
supporttopeers
sharing
knowledge
IPrightsand
ScienceCommons;
CreativeCommons
ApachePublic
value
Licensingrightsto
license
License
appropriation
“virtualpharma”and
non-profits
Thefirstcommonthreadinalltheseexamplesistheemergentnatureoftheinnovationgoals,andtheneedforcontinuousimprovisationthroughiterationsandinteractions.Theinnovationspaceisonlybroadlydefined—whetherit
beCHAPTER7•THEJAMCENTRALMODEL
153
thefocusontropicaldiseasesinTDI,theWeb-basedsoftwareintheApachecommunity,ortheinteractiveexperiencesinSecondLife.Thespecificinnovationgoalsthenemergefromthecommunitythroughthecontinuedinteractionsofthe
members.Thistwo-phasegoalsetting(broadinnovationfocusandemergentinnovationgoals)wasevidentinallthedomainswestudiedandindicatesthenatureofthecommunity-basedleadershipstructurethatprovidesthefoundationfortheinnovationactivities.Suchemergentgoalslendtoasenseofbelongingandownershipamongcommunitymembers
astheyworktogethertoevolvethesharedgoalsandobjectives.Theyalsoimbuethecommunitywiththeimprovisationalspiritthatpervadestheinnovationprocess.Indeed,theactualinnovationismarkedbya“callandresponse”pattern—membersrespondtoandimproviseoneachothers’contributionstoiterativelyevolvetheinnovation.
Thesecondcommonthreadrelatestothedecentralizednatureofdecisionmakingintheinnovationnetwork.Inallthecontexts,thediffusedleadershipisachievedthroughtwomechanisms.Thefirstmechanismenablestheentirecommunitytocometogethertomakecriticaldecisionsregardingthebroaderinnovationagendaorthecommunity’sgoals.InthecaseofTDI,this
taskisachievedbyaninformalbodythatconsistsofthefoundingmembersandsomeofthemostactivecommunitymembers.InthecaseofApache,thetaskisachievedthroughtheBoardoftheApacheSoftwareFoundation.Thesecondmechanismoperatesattheindividualprojectorgrouplevelandenableslocalizeddecisionmakingthatinvolvesonlythosemembers
whoparticipate(orhaveastake)inthatproject.Thecombinationofthesetwomechanismsensuresthecontinuedinvolvementofthecommunitymembersintheevolutionoftheinnovationagendaaswellasthenecessaryflexibilityforindividualprojectstocharttheirownpath.
Athirdcommonthreadrelatestothenatureofthe
collaborationinfrastructure.Giventheimprovisationnatureoftheinnovationprocess,theJamCentralmodelreliesonaneffectiveinfrastructuretofacilitatetheconstant
“giveandtake”thatinvolvesmultiplemembersofthecommunity.Typically,theinfrastructurehaselementstosupportboththe“socialknowledgecreation”
aswellasthedevelopmentofa“sharedworldview”thatiscriticaltokeepthecoherenceofthevariedinnovationactivitiesinthecommunity.
Inmostcases,theinnovationstewardhadtheresponsibilitytomaintainthecollaborationinfrastructure—whetheritisasimpleonlineforumforcommunitymemberstointeract(forexample,discussionboards
intheApachecommunity)ormorecomplexfacilitiestoswapknowledge(forexample,thewikisanddatabasesinthecaseofTDIorobjectrepositoriesinthecaseofSecondLife).
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AnotherimportantobservationintheJam
Centralmodelrelatestotheappropriationofrewardsfromtheinnovation.Whilethereisanemphasisonsharingthefruitsoftheinnovationwiththewidercommunity,thisdoesn’tnecessarilymeanthatallintellectualpropertyrightsarereleasedtothecommunity(ortothepublicdomain).Indeed,aswehaveseeninthecaseofSecondLife,certainrightsrelatedto
aninnovationmightstaywithanindividualmember.However,thecommunitymightprovidethemechanismforindividualmemberstosharesomeofthoserightswithothercommunitymemberssothattheycanbuildonthoseinnovations.Asisevidentfromtheexamples,theabilityofthecommunitytodeviseanddeployinnovativemechanismstoshare
intellectualpropertyrightsamongthecommunitymembersisessentialtoensurethesuccessoftheinnovationinitiatives.
JOININGTHEJAMSESSIONS:HOWLARGECOMPANIES
CANPARTICIPATE
Despitethecommunity-basedinnovationagendaandgovernancesystemoftheJamCentralmodel,abundantopportunitiesexistforlargefor-profitcompaniestoparticipateinsuchinitiatives.However,realizingsuchopportunitiesrequirescompaniestounderstandthespecificrolestheycanplayandthecompetenciestheyneedtoperformsuchroles.
Largecompaniescanplaytheroleofaninnovatorbycontributingtheiremployees’timeandefforttoJamCentralprojects.Forexample,IBM“donates”
hundredsofitsemployeestotheLinuxcommunity.TheseIBMemployeeswritecodeandcontributetotheLinuxdevelopmentinthesamewayanyothermemberoftheLinuxcommunitywould.
TheyparticipateintheLinuxonlineforumsanddiscussthedifferentmoduleenhancementideaswithothervolunteerdevelopers,writecodetoaddnewfunctionalities,andtestfinishedcodewrittenbyothercommunitymembers.
Similarly,companiesinbiomedicalresearch,canparticipateasinnovatorsbydonatingtheiremployees’
timeandexpertise.Forexample,onecompanythatisparticipatinginaTDIprojectisInpharmatica,amidsizedLondon-basedbiotechcompany.Similarly,severallargepharmaceuticalcompaniesincludingEliLillyandMerckareactivelyexploringopportunitiestoparticipateinsuchcommunity-led,drugdiscoveryprojects.Inatypicalscenario,ascientist
employedbythepharmaorbiotechcompanywouldparticipateasavolunteerresearcherinaproject—forexample,byworkingonprotein“targets”identifiedCHAPTER7•THEJAMCENTRALMODEL
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inpriorresearchandhelpingthecommunityadvancethedrugdiscoverytothe
experimentalstage.Playingsuchaninnovatorrolemight,however,requirethecompanytomakeastrategiccommitmenttotheinitiativeasitislikelytoinvolvecontributingvaluableandexpensiveresources(domainexpertise,scientifictalent,andsoon)totheprojectwithlimitedclarityonanydirecteconomicreturns.
Corporationscanalso
promoteandfacilitatecommunity-ledprojectsbyplayingtheroleofaninnovationsponsor.Theycanprovidecomputing,laboratory,orothertypesofinfrastructuralsupportforinnovationactivities.Forexample,CollaborativeDrugDiscovery,aSanFrancisco-basedcompanythatwritessoftwareforbiomedicalresearch,providesfreeaccesstoitsbiomedicaldatabasesto
themembersoftheTDIcommunity.ThisaccessofferstheTDIcommunitymembersarichresourcetominetargetsrelatedtothedifferentdrugdiscoveryprojectsthattheypursue.Similarly,inApril2006,MicrosoftlaunchedacollaborativeinitiativecalledtheBioITAlliance,whichaimstounitethepharmaceutical,biotech,hardware,andsoftware
industriestoexplorenewwaystosharecomplexbiomedicaldataandcollaborateamongmulti-disciplinaryteamstospeedthepaceofdiscoveryinthelifesciences.16TheothermembersofthenetworkincludeAmylinPharmaceuticals,AppliedBiosystems,Geospiza,Hewlett-Packard,Interknowlogy,ScrippsResearchInstitute,Sun
Microsystems,andVizXLabs.Microsoftplaystheroleoftheinnovationsponsorinthisnetworkbyprovidingbothdatamanagementresourcesaswellasspecifictechnicalexpertisetothenetworkmembers.Oneofthefirstprojects,theCollaborativeMolecularEnvironment,involvesbuildinganapplicationenvironmenttocapturelaboratorydata
electronicallyandenablescientiststoannotateitandsearchforiteffectively.TheprojectutilizesthesoftwaretoolsandothertechnicalresourcesprovidedbyMicrosoft.
Althoughcorporateorganizationscancontribute“free”resourcestothecommunity,suchcontributionsarenotentirelyaltruistic.IBM’s
contributionstotheLinuxdevelopmentprojecthaveearneditthegoodwillofthecommunity.
IthasevenearnedIBMaseatatthedecision-makingtableintheLinuxcommunity.Forexample,participationintheOpenSourceDevelopmentLab(OSDL)allowsIBMtonotjustparticipateactivelyintheadvocacyofLinuxbutalsoinfluencetheevolution
oftheoverallcommunityinnovationagenda.
Similarly,Microsoft’scontributionstotheBioITalliancealsohavecommercialbenefitsforthecompany.AsDonRule,platformstrategyadvisoratMicrosoft,notes,“We’relookingattheareaswheredisruptivechangesareoccurringinthe156
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(pharmaceutical)industry,focusingonbringingtogetherproof-of-conceptapplicationsthatwillalleviatesomeofthebottlenecksweseeintheindustry.
TheadvanceswillbenefitMicrosoftaswellastheothercompanieswearecollaboratingwith.”17
CONCLUSION
Thecommunity-centricJamCentralinnovationmodelholdstremendous
promiseasawaytoorganizeandshapetheinnovationactivitiesindiverseindustriesandmarketsrangingfromsoftwaretodrugdiscoverytointeractiveentertainment.However,animportantissuethatwehave
notdiscussedsofarrelatestotheappropriatenessofthismodeltoparticularcontexts.WhatarethefactorsthatdeterminetheapplicabilityoftheJamCentralmodelinspecificinnovationcontexts?Wewillreturntothisquestionafterwedescribeinthenextchapterthefourthandfinalmodelofnetwork-centricinnovation,theModStationmodel.
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
8
TheMOD(“MODification”)
StationModel
Intheprecedingchapter,wesawhowacommunityofinnovators
cancometogethertoimprovisetheirwayinaninnovationinitiative.
However,notallcommunity-
basedinnovationneedstobemanaged
inthisemergentmanner.Communitiescanalsocometogetherto
innovatearoundawell-definedtechnologyorplatform.
InChapter3,“TheFourModelsofNetwork-CentricInnovation,”we
talkedaboutaninnovativecommunity-basedapproachtocreatea
movie,Sanctuary.Themovie,offeredintothepublicdomainunderanopenlicense,fueledthecreativeenergyofindividualcontributorswhoadapt,interpret,andevolvetheoriginalmovie.Thisopen
approachhastwo
requirements.First,theinnovationprojectshould
bedesignedsothatelementsoftheprojectcanbepartitionedand
handedofftodifferentcommunitymembers.Second,theproject
sponsorshouldprovidethetoolstomodify,adapt,andrecombine
theelementsoftheinnovation.Thiscommunity-basedmodification
approachisyetanotherformofnetwork-centricinnovation—one
thatmarriesthecertaintyofawell-definedinnovationarchitecturewiththediversityandthecreativityofacommunityofcontributors.
Inthischapter,weexaminethismodelofnetwork-centricinnova-
tion,whichwecalltheMODStationmodel.AswenotedinChapter
4,“InnovationNetworks:ThePlayersandthePlays,”thetermMOD
itselfisassociatedmostwith“modifications”madetoa
computer
gamebythegeneralpublic(orusers)andhence,knownas“mods”
inthecomputergamingindustry.Generalizingfromthisdefinition,
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werefertotheMODStationmodelofnetwork-centricinnovationasaninnovationcontextwhereinacommunityofinnovatorscometogethertocreatenewofferingsbymodifying,extending,and/orenhancinganexistinginnovationplatforminwaysthatbenefitallmembersofthenetworkincludingthecreatoroftheinnovation
platform.
TounderstandhowtheMODStationmodelworks,wetakealookatthecomputergamingindustrywherethismodeloriginated.Later,weconsiderothercontextsincludingthesemiconductorindustry.
“MODDING”INTHECOMPUTERGAMINGINDUSTRY
AnarenawheretheMODStationmodelisquitepopularisthecomputergamingindustry.Manygamersarehighlyconversantwithcomputerprogramming,andafairnumberofthemalsobelieveinthe“hackerculture”—pursuinginnovativeideastochangethegametoaddanextradimensionofchallengeorexcitementtothegame,ortoimprovetheiroddsofsuccess
inplayingthegame.Soavidgamersoften“hack”ormodifythegames,andsometimestaketheadditionalstepofreleasingtheirmodificationstoothergamersthroughonlinegamingcommunityWebsites.MostcontemporaryPC-basedgamesaredesignedsothattheycanbemodifiedbygamersrelativelyeasily.Thecombinationofthehackingcultureandtheease
withwhichgamescanbemodifiedhasgivenrisetothephenomenonof“mods”inthecomputergamingindustry.
Thebenefitsfrommodsaccruetogamersaswellastothedevelopersoftheoriginalgames.And,thishasledtomanygamedevelopers(forexample,EpicGames,idSoftware,ValveSoftware,BethesdaSoftworks,andso
on)takingamoreproactiveapproachtopromoteandsupporttheinnovativeactivitiesofthegamingcommunityinwaysthatopenupnewcommercialpossibilitiesfortheoriginalgameaswellasenhancetheoverallgamingexperience.
THE“MODDING”ANDTHE“MODDERS”
Theoriginalgameprovides
thestructurefortheinnovativeactivityofthegamingcommunity.However,theprecisenatureandextentofthemodificationscanvarywidely.Broadly,themodscanbeoftwotypes—partialconversionsandtotalconversions.
Partialconversionsarerelativelyminoralterationstoagame,inthattheydonot
changetheunderlyingelementsorflowoftheoriginalgame.Forexample,CHAPTER8•THEMOD(“MODIFICATION”)STATIONMODEL
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modificationscanchangetheexecutionofcertainfunctionsofthegameincludingthebehaviorofspecificactors,theoperation
ofparticularweapons,andsoon.Partialconversionscanalsoinvolveaddingnewelementstothegame—forexample,newweapons,newgamemaps,new“skins”—thatbringmorecomplexitywithoutchangingtheunderlyingflowofthegame.Forexample,TeamFortress,oneofthemostpopularmods,isapartialconversionoftheoriginalgamecalledQuake.
Totalconversions,incontrast,involvemodifyingtheoverallgameplayaswellasthecoreelementsofthegame.Whileatotalconversionmodmightstillemploythebasicengineoftheoriginalgame,theendproductcanbeacompletelydifferentgamewithadifferentlookandfeel.Typically,suchtotalconversionprojectsinvolvecomplexdevelopmentwork
andasignificantamountofdevelopmenttimeandthusareoftenpursuedasagroupproject.
Whilemodsexistformostofthepopulargames,somegamesinparticularhaveattractedalotofattentionfromthegamingcommunity.AnotableexampleisHalf-Life,agameproducedbyValveSoftwarein1998.Half-Lifewasasingle-player
“first-personshooter”(FPS)gamewithacomplicatedplotinvolvingaprotagonistwithanadvanceddegreeintheoreticalphysicssavingEarthfromasetofattackingaliens.Withmorethan8millioncopiessoldsinceitsrelease,Half-Lifeisoneofthebest-sellingPCFPSgamestodate.ThesuccessofHalf-Lifecanbeattributednotonlytothepioneeringelementsoftheoriginal
gamebutalsotothehighlyinnovativemodsthatfollowedintheeightyearsorsosincethereleaseoftheoriginalversion.
ModsforHalf-Lifehaverangedfrompartialconversionsthatinvolvednewgamemapstototalconversionthatchangedthegamefromsingle-playertomultiple-playerformat.Thebest-knowntotalconversion
modofHalf-LifeisCounterStrike,whichusestheHalfLifeenginebutisamultiplayer-onlygame.CounterStrikeisateam-based,first-personshooterinwhichtheplayersjoineithertheterroristsorthecounter-terrorists,andcombattheopposingteamwhilefulfill-ingpredeterminedobjectives.Releasedshortlyaftertheoriginalgame,CounterStrikeisthemostpopularonline
first-personshootergameinhistory—withmorethan94,000gamersplayingatanygiventimeandcollectivelycontributingmorethan5billionminutesofplayingtimeeachmonth.1Indeed,CounterStrikehasbecomesopopularthatithasgenerateditsownmodsanddedicatedgamingcommunities.
Becausemosttotalconversionmodsusethe
basicengineoftheoriginalgame,playingsuchmodsrequiresowningtheoriginalgame,too.However,someofthegameengineshavebecomefreesoftwareallowingthetotalconversionsto160
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becometrulystand-alonegames—playablewithouthavingtoowntheoriginal
game.ExamplesincludetheTremulousmodforQuakeIIIArenaandtheD-Day:NormandymodforQuakeII.
Inthisinnovationnetwork,thegamedeveloperplaystheroleofaninnovationcatalystbymakingthegame“moddable”;thatis,releasingitinaformthatallowsmodding.Forexample,gamedeveloperscanfacilitatemoddingby
defininggameplayvariablesinnon-proprietaryfileformatsandadoptinggraphicsofastandardformat(forexample,bitmapfiles).Developerscanalsomakeavailableextensivetoolsanddocumentationtoassistmodmakers.Forexample,inthecaseofHomeworld2,agamethatrequiresaverysophisticatedtoolcalledMayatobuildnewin-gameobjects,afreeversionofthe
toolwasmadeavailabletothemoddingcommunity.
Similarly,inthecaseofHalf-Life,ValveSoftwareprovidedtoolsandcodetothegamingcommunity.Forexample,itincludedWorldcraft,thedesigntoolusedduringthegame’sdevelopment,aspartofthegamesoftware.Thedeveloperalsoreleasedacomprehensivesoftware
developmentkit(includingtextureeditors,modeleditors,andrivalleveleditors)thatenabledeasiermodding.Finally,thesourcecodeofthegamewasalsoreleasedandhasbecomethebaseforthemanymultiplayermodesthathavebeencreatedforthegame(includingCounterStrike).
Theindividualswhoparticipateincreatingthe
modsplaytheroleofinnovators.Inthegamingcommunity,theyarereferredtoasmodders.Mostmoddersbelongtothefancommunityassociatedwithaparticulargame.Theonlineforumsassociatedwithsuchcommunitiesalsoprovidetheplatformforthemodderstopromoteanddistributethemods.
Theonlineforumsalso
providethecontextforagroupofmodderstocometogetherasateamtopursueprojectsofcommoninterest.Someofthesemodderteamsgoontocreatemorethanonemod.OnesuchexampleisTeamReaction,aprolificmodteam,mostnotablyknownfortheQPongandJailbreakmods.
INCENTIVESFORMODDING
Allcomputergamesinvolvesomecombinationofintellectualpropertyrights—
copyrights,trademarks,patentedtechnology,andtradesecrets.However,byandlarge,acopyrightisthemostwidelyappliedIP(intellectualproperty)rightmanagementmechanisminthecomputergameindustry.Acopyrightinacomputer-basedgameprotectsthe
sourcecode(eitherembeddedonaphysicalCHAPTER8•THEMOD(“MODIFICATION”)STATIONMODEL
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mediumsuchasaDVD-ROMorasafilemadeavailablefordownload).Manyotherelementsofagame(suchasgameartwork,musicalscore,andsoon)
mightbesubjecttothecopyrightofadifferententity(author).
TheIPissuesrelatedtothemodsarecomplexandyettoberesolved.2Mostmodsarederivativeworksastheyarebuiltonorusepartsofothergames.Assuch,gamedevelopersrequiremodstobenon-commercialorfree.Asnotedpreviously,somegamedevelopershave
openedupthesourcecodeoftheirgamesforusebythemodcommunitywhileotherdevelopershavepartiallyopenedupthecode.Forexample,theQuake2gameenginefromidSoftwarehasbeenreleasedtotheopensourcecommunityundertheGNUPublicLicense(GPL).Similarly,RavenSoftware(whichlicensedtheQuake2engineprivatelytocreatethegameHereticII)released
partofthesourcecodeofHereticIItothemodcommunitywhilekeepingclosedsomeotherpartsastheywereconsideredtradesecrets.
Despitetheissuesrelatedtointellectualpropertyrights,gamedevelopershavelargelyadoptedapositiveapproachtowardsthemoddingcommunity,becausetheyrealizethatmoddingoffers
importantindirectbenefitsforthem.Goodmodshelptobuildandmaintainafanbaseforthegame.Thelargerthenumberofmodsassociatedwithagame,thebiggertheplayercommunityassociatedwithit.Modsalsoextendthelifecycleofagame.Eachtimeanewmodisreleased,theoriginalgameattractsanewgenerationofplayers.Formostmods,theoriginalgameisstillrequiredtorun
themod,soanumberofhigh-qualitymodscanresultinasignificantincreaseinthesalesoftheoriginalgame.Forexample,inthecaseofHalfLife,popularmodssuchasCounterStrike,TeamFortressClassic,DeathmatchClassic,Firearms,Ricochet,andDayofDefeathaveextendedthelifeofaproductthatwasfirstreleasedin1998byseveralyears,andhavehelpedpush
thetotalsalestoover15millionunits.
Gamedeveloperscanalsoacquirethemorepopularmodsandconvertthemintodistinctproducts.Forexample,bothCounterStrikeandDayofDefeatweresopopularinthegamingcommunitythattheywereboughtbyValveSoftwareandturnedintofull-fledgedretailproducts.Game
developerscansavedevelopmentcostsaswellasdevelopmenttime.Inaddition,somegamedevelopershavealsoencouragedmodcreationbyhiringthestarmodcreators.
Althoughalltheprecedingincentivesbenefitthegamedeveloper,theplayercommunityalsogainsmuchfromthemodscreatedbythecommunitymembers.
Mostmodsarenon-commercialproducts,sotheyarefreeofcost.Thismeansthatmodsmultiplythereturnsfrompurchasingtheoriginalgame.Modsalsoprovideapowerfulavenuetochannelthecreativityofindividualdevelopers.Witha162
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greaterproportionofgame
codeaswellasdevelopmenttoolsavailableinthepublicdomain,thedevelopmentofmodshasbecomeeasier.Further,thereputationalincentivesassociatedwithcreatinghigh-qualitymodsserveasapowerfulmechanisminattractingmoreandmoretalentintothemoddingcommunity.
Insum,thecomputergameindustryoffersanexcellent
illustrationoftheMOD
Stationmodelofnetwork-centricinnovation—acommunityofinnovatorscomingtogethertoinnovateinaclearlydefinedandstructuredinnovationspaceandsharingthebenefitsofsuchinnovationwithothermembersofthenetwork.
However,thismodelisnotlimitedtothecomputer
gamingcontext.Indeed,itfindsapplicationinseveralothercontexts.Letusnowconsideranexampleofthismodelfromaprojectinthesemiconductorindustry—namely,the
OpenSPARCInitiative.
“MODDING”THECHIPARCHITECTURE:THEOPENSPARC
INITIATIVE
Inearly2006,SunMicrosystemsInc.launchedtheOpenSPARCInitiative—acommunity-basedinitiativetopromoteopenandcollaborativeinnovationarounditshitherto-proprietarySPARCmicroprocessorarchitecture.TheinitiativeinvolvedthecreationofacommunityWebsite
(www.OpenSPARC.net)
whereSunreleasedthesourcecodeandotherspecificationsintothepublicdomainunderanopensourcelicenseallowinganycontributortomodifyandbuildontheSPARCarchitecture.
SPARCstandsforScalableProcessorArchitectureandisatechnologythatisbasedon
therevolutionaryReducedInstructionSetArchitecture(RISC)createdattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeleyinthe1980s.TheSPARC
architecturewasinitiallyimplementedinworkstations,whichwerehigh-performancestandalonemachinesusedforscientificandfinancialservicesapplications.Later,itwas
usedtobuildprocessorsforlargeservers,averydifferentapplication.SPARCmachinesgenerallyuseSun’sSolarisoperatingsystem,butovertheyears,otheroperatingsystemsrangingfromFreeBSD,OpenBSD,andLinuxhavealsobeenused.OneofthemorepopularSPARC
implementations—theSPARCstation1—was
introducedbySunin1989.
Inthesameyear,SunalsoestablishedaseparateentitycalledSPARC
InternationaltopromotetheSPARCarchitectureandtoprovideconformancetesting.SPARCInternationalownsandmanagesthelicensingoftheSPARC
architectureandthe
associatedtrademark.Theorganizationhasbeeninstrumentalinthelate1980sandearly1990sinlicensingthetechnologytoseveralCHAPTER8•THEMOD(“MODIFICATION”)STATIONMODEL
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manufacturersincludingTexasInstruments,Cypresssemiconductors,andFujitsu.
Overtheyears,severalversionsoftheSPARCarchitecturehavebeenreleased—themostnotablehavebeenSPARCVersion8,thestandard32-bitarchitecturedefinitionreleasedinthelate1980s;SPARCVersion9,the64-bitarchitecturereleasedin1994;andUltraSPARCArchitecture2005,anextendedarchitecturedefinition,releasedinlate
2005.
Inlate2005,SunalsointroducedUltraSPARCT1,anewmicroprocessorimplementationthatconformstotheUltraSPARCArchitecture2005specificationandexecutesthefullSPARCV9instructionset.UltraSPARCT1isdesignedasamultithreading,multicoreCPUandisattheheartof
Sun’snewestserverline,theSunFireT2000andSunFireT1000servers.
OnMarch21,2006,SunmadetheUltraSPARCT1processordesignavailableundertheGNUGeneralPublicLicense(GPLv2)throughtheOpenSPARC
project.
Sunpursuedtheopenlicense
strategyfortworeasons.First,Sunrealizedthattherevenuesitcouldderivefromitsproprietaryinternal“builds”andsupportservicescouldbesignificantlyenhancedbythecomplementaryexternalinnovationthatcouldbecreatedforitsarchitecture.Second,thecompanyalsorealizedthattherewerediversenewapplicationareasforitsSPARCarchitecture
chips,rangingfromconsumerelectronicstohealthinformatics.Enteringsuchnewmarketswouldbefareasierifthecompanyadoptedamoreopenapproachtowarditstechnologyarchitectureandencouragedcommunity-basedinnovationinitiativestargetedatsuchnewapplicationareaswhereSunhadlimitedexpertise.
Thus,theprimaryobjectiveoftheOpenSPARCinitiativewastoenableacommunityofinnovatorstotakethesourcecodeandspecificationsofthe64-bitUltraSPARCT1processorandmodifyandbuildonittodesignanddevelopanewgenerationofmulticore,multithreadedchipsandcomplementarysoftwareproducts.Thenewerchipsandsoftwareproductswould
openupnewermarketsfortheUltraSPARCT1design,benefitingallcommunitymembers.
WhilemodifyingandimprovingthebasicSPARCarchitectureisoneoftheprimaryobjectivesoftheOpenSPARCinitiative,anotherequallyimportantobjectiveistofacilitatethe“SystemOnaChip”(SOC)design.TheSOCdesign
movementisdictatedbytheneedtolowerproductcostsaswellastospeedupproductdesigncyclesinthesemiconductorindustry.Itinvolvesintegratingontoasinglechipanumberoffunctionalmodulesthatinthepasthavebeen164
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spreadacrossseveralchips.Akeychallengeinthis
designapproachinvolvesgettingaccesstotheIPrelatedtotheseparatepieces(neededforintegrationonagivenchip)inaformatthatfacilitateseasycustomizationandreadyintegration.TheOpenSPARCinitiativeisaimedatbuildingmomentumforsuchanSOCdesignmovement.
Thus,theinnovationspaceintheOpenSPARCprojectis
clearlydefinedandstructuredbytheSPARCarchitecturespecificationsandtheinstructioncodesetthatSunreleasedintothepublicdomain.Specifically,SunreleasedthesourcecodeinVeriloglanguageofthe64-bit,32-threadedUltraSPARCT1
processor.ThisnewopensourceversioniscalledtheOpenSPARCT1.Alongwith
thisversion,SunalsoreleasedthefullUltraSPARCArchitecture2005
specification(thatis,theinstructionset)aswellasthefullOpenSPARCsimulationenvironmentandverificationsuites.Inaddition,severalothersupporttoolsandtechnologiesthatfacilitateinnovationonthearchitectureincludingSunStudiosoftwareandSPARC-
optimizedcompilerwerealsoreleased.AllofthesetechnologieswerereleasedundertheGPLv2license,whichgivestherighttouse,modify,and/orredistributethetechnologies,therebyenablingawiderangeofinnovationactivities.Tounderstandwhattheseactivitiesare,letustakeacloserlookattheoperationoftheOpenSPARCcommunity.
THEOPENSPARCCOMMUNITYANDTHEINNOVATIONACTIVITIES
MembershiptotheOpenSPARCcommunityisopenandfreetoanyinterestedentity—firmsaswellasindividuals.ByregisteringatthecommunityWebsite,contributorscangetaccesstoallthecodeandthetools.Theycanalsoparticipateinanyoftheopen
projects.Inmid2007,morethan200registeredmemberswereintheOpenSPARCcommunity,amajorityofthembeingfirms.
Whoarethekeyplayersinthiscommunity?ThefirstkeyplayerisSunitself.
Thecompanyplaystheroleofaninnovationcatalystbycontributingthebasearchitectureuponwhichall
theinnovationactivitieswillbebased,andbycreatingtheWeb-basedinfrastructuretosupportthecommunityactivities.SunalsoactivelyparticipatesinthecommunitygovernanceandprovidesabroadroadmapfortheevolutionoftheSPARCarchitecture.
Thesecondkeyroleisthatoftheinnovator.Allcommunitymemberswho
contributetotheenhancementoftheSPARCarchitectureplaythisrole.ThesecommunitymembersorinnovatorsrangefromsoftwareandhardwarefirmstoindividualdevelopersandacademicresearcherswhocontributeindifferentCHAPTER8•THEMOD(“MODIFICATION”)STATIONMODEL
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ways.Forexample,softwarefirmstakethesourcecodeoftheSPARCarchitectureandcreateinnovativesoftwareapplicationsthatarehighlyoptimizedandtightlyintegratedwiththehardware.Microprocessorchipdesignersandmanufacturers(foundries)taketheSPARCarchitectureandmodifyittodevelopnewerchips.Similarly,otherhardwarevendorsuseknowledgeof
SPARCarchitecturespecificationstodesignhighlycustomizedbenchmarkingtoolsandverificationsuites.Finally,individualdevelopersandresearchersbuildontheSPARCarchitectureandspecificationstoresearchanddevelopnextgenerationchiparchitectures.Manyoftheseindividualdeveloperstendtoworkforfirmsorresearchinstitutions.
ThenatureoftheOpenSPARCcommunityissuchthatmembersdonotnecessarilyhavetohaveanyformalrelationshipswithSun.OpenSPARC.netisanindependententityandassuchallthemembersdeveloptheirtieswithoneanotherthroughthecommunity.Further,therearenointermediariesinthecommunity.Tiesamongcommunitymembersare
developedovertimebasedonthenatureoftheprojectstheyareworkingon.
MembersintheOpenSPARCcommunityarefreetoinnovateeitherwithinoroutsidethearchitecture.Withinthearchitecture,memberscan,forexample,addordeletecores,addnewinstructionstotheinstructionset,modifythedifferenttypesofinterfaces(memory
interface,Input/Output,cache/memoryinterface,etc.).Memberscanalsoinnovateoutsidethearchitecturebydesigningadditionalcomponentsthatextendthearchitecture—forexample,videoorgraphicscomponents,networksinterface,andsoon.
AsofJuly2007,therehavebeenmorethan4,700OpenSPARCT1RTL
downloadsthroughthecommunityWebsite.TypicalprojectsintheOpenSPARC
communityhaverangedfromportingoperatingsystemstothecurrentSPARC
chiptodevelopingnewerchipsthatbuildontheSPARCarchitecture.
Forexample,inItaly,asmallcompanycalledSimplyRISC
designedandpublishedthefirstderivativeproductoftheOpenSPARCchipdesign.SimplyRISC
isacompanythatdevelopsandsupportsCPUcores,peripherals,andinterfacesreleasedundertheGNU-GPL(opensourcelicensingscheme)tobuildfreehardwaredesignsofmicroprocessors,Systems-on-a-ChipandNetworks-on-
a-Chip.In2006,ateamofengineersatSimplyRISCcreatedacut-down(single-core)versionoftheOpenSPARCT1processorcalledtheS1core,whichcanrunonUbuntuLinuxandcanbeusedinembeddeddevicessuchasPDAs,set-topboxes,anddigitalcameras.ThisversioncanbefreelydownloadedandimplementedonaLinuxhost.
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Anotherprojectrelatestooperatingsystemsoftware.DavidMiller,anindividualsoftwaredeveloper,ledtheLinuxcommunityincreatingaLinuxportfortheOpenSPARCT1processorthatwasaddedtothemainlineLinuxkernel.Theportallowsaverydiverseset
ofapplicationstorunontheOpenSPARCarchitectureandalsopavesthewayforabroaderadoptionofthetechnology.And,basedonthiswork,twoLinuxdistributors—UbuntuLinuxandGentooLinux—
havealreadybroughtoutOpenSPARC-specificLinuxdistributions.
Finally,amoreambitious
projectbasedontheOpenSPARCopensourceisbeingpursuedbyasetofresearchersattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.
Theproject,calledResearchAcceleratorforMultipleProcessors,orRAMP,isaimedatdevelopinganewmulticore,microprocessorarchitecturethatisfocusedonparallelcomputing.Theresearchersareworkingon
buildingamassivelypowerfulandcomplexarchitecturethatinvolveschipsthatholdonetotwodozencores.TheRAMPteamhasadoptedtheOpenSPARCT1processorasatargetprocessorforitsprojectbecauseitisavailableinthepublicdomain.
COMMUNITYGOVERNANCEANDINFRASTRUCTURE
AlthoughSunistheinitiatoroftheOpenSPARCproject,itisacommunity-ledinitiative.Thecommunityhasestablishedaformalmechanism,anelectedcommunityadvisoryboard,toexercisesuchcommunityleadership.Reflectingthecommunity-basedgovernancestructure,theadvisoryboardisexpectedtosolicitinputfromthecommunityonaregularbasis
andusethisinputtoshapetheevolutionoftheinitiative.TheOpenSPARCcharterexplicitlystatesthat
“TheboardshallbeselectedandshallconductitsaffairsinaccordancewithdemocraticprinciplesandshallrepresenttheinterestsoftheOpenSPARCcommunity.”3Assuch,theroleoftheadvisoryboardissimilartothatofadvisory
councilsthatarecommoninOpenSourceSoftwarecommunities.
Theadvisoryboardhelpstosetacoherentinnovationagendaforthecommunity—anagendathatembodiesthewillandtheinterestsoftheoverallcommunity.AsDavidWeaver,Sun’srepresentativeontheOpenSPARCboardnoted,“Theboardistheretohelpfosterthedevelopment
ofthecommunityandasafinalarbiterincaseofanydisputesthatmightarise.”4Theboardalsohelpsinpromotingasetofcommunity-wideprinciplestoguidethecollaborativeinnovationactivitiesandpractices.Theseguidingprinciplesincludeequalrightsandopportunitiesforallmembers,fairprocessesinallcommunityprojects,andtheobligationtomake
available,wheneverpossible,theIP(intellectualproperty)rightstoallcommunitymemberstobuilduponandshare.5
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Sohowcanamemberinitiateandparticipateina
collaborativeprojectinOpenSPARC.net?Anyregisteredcommunitymembercanstartanewproject.
Whenamembermakesarequesttostartanewproject,therequestisevaluatedbyacommunitymanagertoensurethattheproposedprojectmeetstheguidingprinciplesofthecommunity.Aftertheprojectisapproved,
thememberswhoparticipateinthatprojecthavealltherightsandresponsibilitiestomanagetheactivitiesandmakealltheproject-relateddecisions.Memberscanplaydifferentcontributingrolesinaproject—fromprojectownertodevelopertocontentdeveloper.
OpenSPARC.netconstitutesthecentralforumformemberstointeract,
downloadandusethetoolsandtechnologies.Itliststheongoingprojectsandtheirdetailstoallowmemberstojointheprojects.Italsoprovidesdifferenttypesofinteractionfacilitiestomembersrangingfromcommunitydiscussionboardstoblogsandwikis.Anditofferstoolstosupportcollaborativedevelopment,includingmailinglists,sourcecodeversioncontrol,
issuetracking,andfilesharing.
Thecommunityisalsointheprocessofdevelopingan“openbook”onOpenSPARCT1thatislicensedundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicense.Theobjectiveistodescribethearchitectureindetail(asortofusermanual)toassistthedevelopercommunity.
IPRIGHTSMANAGEMENTANDVALUEAPPROPRIATION
SunmadetheOpenSPARCarchitectureandthespecificationsavailabletothecommunityundertheGPLv2license.TheGPLv2isanopensourcelicensethathasbeenapprovedbytheOpenSourceInitiativeandprovideswidelatitudetotheusertorun,copy,distribute,
ormodifythetechnology.TheGPLisbuiltonthe“copyleft”principle,whichgiveseverypersonthepermissiontoreproduce,adapt,modify,ordistributeawork(asoftwareprogram,anart,apieceoftext,andsoon)aslongassuchrightsarepreservedforanyresultingmodificationsoradaptationsaswell.
Communitymembersare
allowedtomakeprivatemodifiedversionsofthetechnology,withoutanyobligationtodivulgethemodifications,aslongasthemodifiedtechnologyisnotdistributedtoanyoneelse.However,ifamemberchoosestomodifyandredistributethetechnology,thenthemodifiedtechnologymustalsobelicensedtotheOpenSPARCcommunityunderthesame
GPLv2license.Thispracticeensuresthatthewholecommunitybenefitsfromtheinnovativeeffort.Notethatmembersareallowedtodistributeamodified168
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technologyandchargeafeeforitaslongasthemodifiedtechnologyisalsoreleasedunderGPLv2tothecommunity.
AllcontributorstotheOpenSPARCcommunityarealsorequiredtosignaContributorAgreement(CA)beforecontributingcodetothecommunity.6TheCAensuresthatthecommunityhasapatentlicenseforallcontributionsmadetotheproject.TheCAestablishesajointcopyrightassignmentinwhichthecontributorretainscopyrightownershipwhilealsograntingthoserightsto
Sunastheprojectsponsor.However,theCAdoesnotchangeanyoftherightsandresponsibilitiesthatareduefromtheGPLv2oranyotheropensourcelicenseusedinthecommunityWebsite.
TheSPARCtrademarkremainsthepropertyofSPARCInternational.Assuch,whilemodifiedornewdesignsbasedontheOpenSPARCarchitecturecan
bemarketedbycommunitymembers,theywillneedtolicensethetrademarkiftheywanttoassociatesuchnewormodifieddesignswiththeSPARCname.
AninterestingquestionhereishowdoesSunbenefitfromtheOpenSPARCinitiative?Or,inwhatwaysdoesSunappropriatevaluefromthisproject?
OnebenefitisthatbecauseSunstilldevelopsandmarketssystemsthatarebasedontheUltraSPARCT1architecture,byopeningupthearchitectureandestablishingavibrantcommunityaroundit,theinitiativewillleadtothecreationofnewmarketsthatthecompanycantarget.Forexample,withtheporting(implementation)ofLinuxontheOpenSPARCplatform,
themarketforSun’sUltraSPARC-basedsystemsbroadenedconsiderably.AsDavidWeaverofSun’sArchitectureTechnologiesGroupnoted,“Ourhopeisthatthecreativitythatgetsunleashedontheopenplatformwouldleadtonewandinnovativeapplications—applicationsthatSunhasneverthoughtabout(andmayneverwill)—thatexpandandenhanceour
broaderecosystem.Anoverallbiggerpieandanincreasedsliceofthepieforeveryone.”AnotherbenefitisthattheOpenSPARCinitiativeenablesmoreexternal“eyes”tobefocusedonresearchingthechallengesandopportunitiesaroundmultithreadingand64-bitprocesses(forexample,theRAMPproject)therebyenablingthesetechnologiestoevolvemorerapidlyand
creatingneweropportunitiesforSun’sowninternaltechnologydevelopmentprojects.Further,byincreasingthenumberofpeoplewhocanobtaintheSPARCarchitecturecode,theOpenSPARCinitiativealsoincreasesthenumberofdeploymentsandthebaseofcustomerslikelywillingtopayforsystems,software,andservicesfromSun.
CHAPTER8•THEMOD(“MODIFICATION”)STATIONMODEL
169
Forcontributingmembers,thecommunityprovidesothertypesofincentives.
TheOpenSPARCWebsiteoffersamarketplacetoexchangeortradeproductsandtechnologiesdeveloped
bycommunitymembersontheOpenSPARCarchitecture.Memberscanmarketfreeaswellas“paidfor”products.Forindividualdevelopersaswellasothercommunitymembers,returnscanalsocomethroughexposuretootherfirms.Byparticipatinginandcontributingtothecommunity,firmscanenhancetheirreputationamongtheirpeersaswellastrackthetechnology
evolutionandmarketdynamicsthatinturnmightinformtheirowninternaltechnologydevelopmentstrategies.
COMBININGOPENSPARCWITHOTHERSUNINITIATIVES
SunhasextendedtheOpenSPARCmodeltoitsothertechnologies—most
notably,itsoperatingsystemSolaris—throughtheOpenSolariscommunityprojectanditsJavatechnologythroughtheOpenJavainitiative.
TheSolarisOSisSun’soperatingsystemdistributionandisbranded,tested,maintained,andsupportedasaSunproduct.TheOpenSolarisprojectprovidestheopensourcecodebaseof
Solaris,the“build”toolsnecessaryfordevelopingthecode,andaninfrastructureforcommunicatingandsharingrelatedinformation.7Overtime,Sunexpectsmost(ifnotall)developmentofthesourcetotakeplaceintheOpenSolariscommunity.SincelaunchingtheOpenSolarisinitiative,SunclaimsasignificantincreaseintheinstalledbaseofSolaris(uptonearly6
millionregisteredlicenses).8
InMay2007,SunreleaseditsimplementationoftheJavatechnologyasfreeOpenSourceSoftwareundertheGNUGPLv2license—effectivelyreplicatingthesamecommunity-basedcollaborativeinnovationmodelthatitusedfortheOpenSPARCandtheOpenSolaristechnologies.Thesourcecodetoallthree
implementations—theJavaPlatformStandardEdition(JavaSE),theMicroEdition(JavaME),andtheEnterpriseEdition(JavaEE)—werereleasedtothecommunityformodificationandenhancement.
Thesuccessofthesecommunity-basedinitiativeswilldependonSun’sabilitytobeaneffectiveinnovationcatalyst—offeringan
appropriateinnovationinfrastructure,beingcreativeindevisingIPrightsmanagementsystems,andbeingaresponsiblecommunitypartner.Inaddition,Sun’sabilitytofindpotentialsynergyamongthethreeinitiativeswouldalsoshapethegrowthandsuccessoftheseinitiatives.
170
THEGLOBALBRAIN
MODDINGINTHEWEBSERVICESARENA:THE“MASHUP”
MOVEMENT
AmorerecentexampleoftheMODStationmodelofnetwork-centricinnovationistheMashupmovementthathasemergedintheWebservicesmarketsince2005or
so.TheMashupmovementrepresentsthecreativityofindependentdevelopersandentitiesinmixingandmatchingdataandpresentationelementsfrommultipleWebinformationsourcestooffernewandinnovativeWebservices.
TheinnovationarchitectureinthiscontextisdefinedbythedataandpresentationelementsofpopularWeb
informationsitessuchasYahoo!,GoogleMaps,Flickr,VirtualEarth,Technorati,YouTube,Zillow,andAmazon.Theinnovationactivitiesinvolvecombiningdifferentelementsofthesearchitecturestocreatemashupsornewservices.
TherearetwotypesofplayersintheMashupcommunity:ThelargeWebinformationcompaniesthat
playtheroleofinnovationcatalystsandtheindividualsandsmallfirmsthatplaytheroleofinnovatorsbycreatingthemashups.Theapplicationprogramminginterfaces(APIs)publishedbythelargecompaniesprovidetheprimarymechanismfortheinnovatorstocombineelementsfrommultiplesources.Furthermore,theselargecompaniesalsoprovidefreeaccesstotheirdata(as
wellasthepresentationformats)therebypromotingtheMashupmovement.Inmanycases,theyalsoprovidevisibilitytosuchinnovativeeffortbylinkingsuchmashupstotheirWebsites.
ConsiderMappr,onesuchmashup.9MapprwasdevelopedbyateamofSanFrancisco–baseddesignersandprogrammers.The
MapprserviceusestheFlickrAPIsandsiftsthroughthetagsofallthephotospostedonFlickr.com(bymorethan300,000Flickr.comcustomers)andthentransposesthemagainsttheU.S.
map—ineffect,creatingaphotoguideofthedifferentplacesandpeopleindifferentpartsofthecountry.
AsofJuly2007,thereweremorethan2,000mashupsrangingfrommapmashupstonewsmashups.10Morearebeinginnovatedeveryday,atanaveragerateofaroundthreeperday—indicatingtherichnessoftheinnovationspace.
WhatistheincentiveforthelargeWebcompaniessuchasFlickrtooffersuchfreeaccessandplaysucha
sponsoringrole?Mashupsallowthemtotapthecreativityofexternaldevelopersinawaythatenhancesthevisibilityandusageoftheirownproducts.Forexample,throughtheMapprservice,Flickr.comcangetCHAPTER8•THEMOD(“MODIFICATION”)STATIONMODEL
171
moreWebsurfers(orcustomers),someofwhommightbewillingtopaymoreforpremiumservices.Inotherwords,theMashupmovementenableslargeWebcompaniestoexpandthereachoftheirWebservicesplatformstonewermarketsandcustomers.AsPaulLevine,generalmanagerofYahoo!Localnotes,
“Wewanttoencourage
communityparticipation(throughmashups).It’sessentiallyresearchanddevelopmentandmarketingforus.”11
Asatruecommunity-basedinitiative,theMashupmovementalsomaintainsanexpectationtogivebacktothecommunity.Forexample,inthecaseofMappr,theservicepublishesitsownAPIsthatotherdevelopers
canuse.Inshort,onemashupcanbuildontopofanothermashupbyusingtheappropriateAPIs,therebyformingatrulycollaborativeinnovationprocess.
TYINGTOGETHERTHECOMMONELEMENTSOFTHEMOD
STATIONMODEL
Thethreeexamplesofthe
MODStationmodelofnetwork-centricinnovationaredifferentinmanyrespects,buttheyhavesomecommonthemes(seeTable8.1).Webrieflydiscussthesethreekeythemes.
Table8.1ComparisonoftheThreeMODStationExamples
Elementsof
Network-Centric
OpenSPARCComputer
Mashup
InnovationInitiative
Games
Movement
Natureoftheinno-
Definedbythe
Definedbyindivid-
Definedbythedata
vationspace
SPARCarchitecture
ualcomputergames
andpresentation
architectureofkey
Webinformation
serviceproviders
Structureofthenet-
OpenSPARC
Communityof
Communityof
workleadership
communityled
modders
developers
InnovationRoles
Architect(innovation
SunMicrosystems
Gamedevelopers
Webinformation
catalyst)
serviceproviders
Adapter(innovator)
Individualandfirm
Individualsandmod
Individualandfirm
innovators
teams
innovators
continues
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THEGLOBALBRAIN
Table8.1ComparisonoftheThreeMODStationExamples
Elementsof
Network-Centric
OpenSPARCComputer
Mashup
InnovationInitiative
Games
Movement
NetworkManagement
Networkgovernance
Advisoryboard
Moddingcommunity
Mashupaggregator
providesbroadcom-
forumsassociated
forumsserveasthe
munityguidance;
withindividual
platformforthe
individualprojects
gamesdevisenorms
broadercommunity
managed
andvaluesand
todevise“do’sand
autonomously
validate/regulate
don’ts”andtoeval-
modquality
uatemashupquality
Knowledge
OpenSPARC.net
Onlineforumsserve
APIsprovidethepri-
management
providesallthe
tosharetools,docu-
marymechanismto
infrastructure
ments,andsoon
sharedataandinte-
relatedtothegame
grateknowledge
IPrightsandvalue
Openlicensing
Mixofopen(for
Individualdevelop-
appropriation
scheme:GPLv2
example,GNU-GPL)
ersdecidetheIP
andproprietary
rightsoftheir
licensing
mashups
Onethemeisthat,ineachoftheexamples,theplatformfortheinnovationactivitieswasclearlydefinedorwellspecified—forexample,theOpenSPARC
architectureortheHalfLifecomputergame.Theavailabilityofsuchastructuredinnovationspaceservesasacatalysttobringtogetheracommunityof
innovatorsandalsoprovidedcoherencetotheircreativecontributions.Whileasingleentityisgenerallyresponsibleforreleasingtheinnovationplatformtothepublicdomain,thenatureoftheinnovationactivitiesonsuchaplatformislargelylefttothecommunity.Forexample,inthecaseofcomputergames,individualmodteamsdecidethespecificnatureof
modificationstheywouldmaketothegame.
Anothercommonthemeisthepresenceofsomeformofcommunitygovernance.InthecaseoftheOpenSPARCcommunity,aformalmechanism—agoverningboard—channelsandfacilitatescommunityleadership.Inthecaseofcomputergames,themodcommunitiesaremore
looselyorganizedaroundthedifferentonlinemodforums.Theinteractionsofthecommunitymembersintheseforumsprovidethecontextfordevisingandapplyingthecommonnormsandvaluesofthecommunity.CommunityinteractionsalsoservetoregulateorCHAPTER8•THEMOD(“MODIFICATION”)STATIONMODEL
173
validatethequalityofthemodsandindirectlyallowthecommunitymemberstoformulateasharedvisionofthedesirednatureofinnovations.Inallthreeexamplesthatweconsidered,thesuccessofaninnovationislargelybasedontheuseofthatinnovationbythecommunitymembers.Assuch,communitymembers
exerciseconsiderableinfluenceontheoverallinnovationagendaandtheoutputs.
Thethirdcommonelementrelatestotheintellectualpropertyrightsandtheincentivesassociatedwiththeinnovativecontributionsofthecommunity.OurexamplessuggestthattheMODStationmodeldemandsamixofIPrights
mechanismsandincentivesappliedtopromoteandsustaincommunity-basedinnovationactivities.Itisalsoevidentthatopen(left)andclosed(right)IPrightsmechanismscancoexistinmanyofthesecontextsandhelpchanneltheinnovativecontributionsofthecommunitytospecificareasoftheinnovationplatform.Forexample,byopeningupcertainpartsofthecode,
gamedeveloperscanencouragethedevelopmentofmodsrelatedtospecificelementsofthegame.Similarly,intheinformationservicesindustry,bycarefullyopeningupcertainelementsofinformationdeliveryarchitecture,technologyfirmshavebeenabletoencourageandpromotethecreationofinnovativemashups.Theseexamplessuggestthat
applicationoftheappropriatemixofIPrightsandincentivescanhelptocatalyzecommunity-basedinnovationactivitiesinwaysthatbenefitallthemembersofthenetwork,includingthefirmsthatcontributetheplatformforsuchinnovation.
LARGECOMPANIESANDTHEROLEOFTHEINNOVATION
CATALYST
Ourexamplesclearlydemonstratethatcompaniesthatplaytheroleoftheinnovationcatalystbycontributingtheinnovationplatformtothecommunitycanrealizeseveralbenefits—bothdirectandindirect.Forexample,weoutlinedsomeofthebenefitsthatSunderivesfromitsOpenSPARCinitiative—expan-sionofthe
company’sexistingcustomerbase,greaterreachintonewermarkets,explorationoftheapplicationpotentialoftheSPARCarchitecture,andsoon.Wealsoindicatedthedifferenttypesofbenefitsthatgamedevelopersmightobtainfrommodsassociatedwiththeirgameproducts—highersales,longerproductlifecycle,largerandmorediversefancommunity,brandrecognition,andsoon.
Ineffect,byopeningupcertainpartsoftheirproductortechnologyarchitectureforcommunity-basedinnovation,companiescancreatewin-winsituationsforallthemembersofthenetwork.
174
THEGLOBALBRAIN
Howcancompaniesadopt
theMODStationmodeltopromotesuchcommunity-basedinnovationinitiativesfocusedoncertainpartsoftheirproductortechnologyarchitectureinwaysthatbenefitsalltheentitiesinvolved?Whatspecificcapabilitiesandresourcesdotheyneedtobringasaninnovationcatalyst?
Weaddressthesequestionsindetailinthenexttwo
chapters.AkeyobservationisthatthesuccessfuluseoftheMODStationmodelrequiresaclearunderstandingoftheincentivesforthecommunitymemberstoinnovateontheplatformandtodeviseandapplytheappropriatemixofIPrightsmechanismsthatwouldsupportsuchincentives.Italsodemandsthatcompaniesserveasatrue“partner”ofthe
innovationcommunity,andbecomfortablewithoperatinginacontextwheretheinnovationgoals,objectives,andactivitiesarelargelyshapedbythecollectivedesiresofthecommunitymembers.
CONCLUSION
TheMODStationmodelofnetwork-centricinnovationisarelativelynascent
phenomenon.Mostoftheapplicationsofthismodelhavethusfarbeenlimitedtoinformation-basedproductsandservices(forexample,software,computergames,computerhardware,movies)thataremorereadilyamenablefordeployingsuchapartitioned,community-basedinnovationinitiative.Asthetrendtowardincreasingtheinformationintensityofproducts
continues,wearelikelytoseethismodelextendedtootherproductsandmarkets.
Wehavenowcompleteddescribingthefourcoremodelsofnetwork-centricinnovation.Beginningwiththenextchapter,wefocusonthelogicalnextquestion—whichmodelisthemostappropriateforaspecificcompany?Andwhatdoesittaketomakeeachmodel
work?Weexploretheseissuesbyshowinghowtomatchthemodeltothecontextofthecompany’smarketandenvironment,andbydetailingthecompetenciesandbestpracticesassociatedwithspecificrolesineachofthemodels.
P
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ExecutingNetwork-Centric
Innovation
Chapter9DecidingWhereandHowtoPlay177
Chapter10Preparingthe
Organization197
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9
DecidingWhereand
HowtoPlay
Inthepublicspeakingbusiness,itisoftensaidthatagoodpresentationshouldanswerthreequestions:
What?Sowhat?Andnow
what?Sofarinthisbook,wehaveaddressedthefirsttwoquestionsbyintroducingtheGlobalBrainanditsawesomepowertoturbo-chargeinnovation,andbydescribingthefourmodelsofnetwork-
centricinnovation.Butwearestillleftwiththethird,andperhaps,themost
importantquestion—nowwhatdowedo?Howshould
yourcompanytapintotheGlobalBrain?Whatmodelshouldituse?
Andhowcanyouprepareyourorganizationtoembraceanetwork-
centricinnovationstrategy?Inthischapter,weofferapractical
roadmapforcompaniesandmanagerstoidentifyandpursueoppor-
tunitiesfornetwork-centricinnovationthatbestmatchthecontext
ofthecompanyanditsbusinessenvironment.
Intheprocessofresearchingthisbook,weinterviewedasenior
manageratalarge,Midwest-basedtechnologyfirmwhowasrespon-
sibleforleadinghiscompany’scollaborativeinnovationinitiatives.
Duringourconversation,themanagerremarkedthatinthelasttwo
yearsorso,thecompanyhadbeendabblingwith“open”
innovation
initiatives.However,hewasnotsatisfiedwiththeprogresstheyhadmade.Hefeltthatalotofenergyandinvestmenthadbeenexpended
ontheseeffortswithlittletoshowintermsoftangibleoutcomes.
177
178
THEGLOBALBRAIN
Theproblemwasnotalackofcommitmentfromseniormanagement,R&D,ortheproductdevelopmentorganization.Rather,hefeltthattheproblemlayinthelackofacoherentapproachtoidentify,evaluate,andpursueexternally-focusedinnovationopportunities.
Compoundingtheissuewasthefactthatthecompanyparticipatesinawiderangeofmarketsandhasseveralthousandproductsspreadacrossmanybusinessunits.Facedwithawidearrayofopportunities,theexecutivefeltthatthecompanywasunclearaboutwhatopportunitiesandrelationshipsitshouldfocuson,andhowitshouldpursuepromisingopportunities.
Thisconcernisechoedbymanagersinmanylargecompanieswehavestudied.
Werespondtothisconcernbyofferingathree-stepapproachtoaddressingthequestionofwhereandhowacompanyshouldtapintotheGlobalBrainthroughanetwork-centricinnovationstrategy:
1.Welookathowacompany
canscopeitsnetwork-centricinnovationinitiativesanddeterminethemostappropriateopportunities.
2.Weshowhowthecompanyshouldprepareitselfintermsoforganizationalcapabilitiesandresourcestopursuethosespecificoppor-
tunities.
3.Wehighlightbestpracticesthatitcanadoptforimplementingitsnetwork-centricinnovationstrategy.
Inthischapter,wefocusonthefirststepbyprovidingguidelinesformanagerstoevaluatethedifferenttypesofopportunitiesbasedonindustry/marketfactorsandtoselecttheopportunitiesthatbestleveragethefirm’sresourcesandcapabilitiesas
wellasalignwiththefirm’soverallinnovationagenda.
POSITIONINGYOURFIRMINTHEINNOVATIONLANDSCAPE
Thediscussioninthepreviousfourchaptersillustratedthatdifferentmodelsinthelandscapeofnetwork-centricinnovationhavedifferentimplicationsforaparticipatingfirm—
implicationsforthenatureoftheinnovationroles,innovationcapabilities,innovationoutcomes,andvalueappropriation.Ifthereare
“differentrolesfordifferentfolks,”howshouldacompanyanswertheseem-inglysimplebutimportantquestion,“Wheredoesmycompanyfitinthenetwork-centricinnovation
landscape?”(seeFigure9.1)CHAPTER9•DECIDINGWHEREANDHOWTOPLAY
179
Emergent
CreativeBazaar
JamCentral
YourFirm?
Network
Leadership
Centralized
Diffused
vation
Inno
Space
Orchestra
MODStation
Defined
Figure9.1Positioningyourfirminthenetwork-centricinnovationlandscapeThefirststepinansweringthisquestionrequiresanalyzingtheindustryandmarketcharacteristicsforthefirmandidentifyingthequadrantinthenetworkcentric
innovationlandscapethatismostappropriateforthefirm’scontext.ForlargemultibusinesscompanieslikeP&G,DuPont,GE,IBM,andUnilever,thisanalysismightneedtobeconductedattheStrategicBusinessUnit(SBU)level,becausetheindustryandmarketcontextislikelytobequitedifferentacrosstheSBUs.Forexample,atGE,theGEHealthcarebusinesshasa
verydifferentbusinesscontextfromGENBCUniversalorGEMoney.
Thesecondstepistoanalyzethenatureoftheinnovationcontributionthatthecompanycanmakeandthespecificroleitcanplayinthatpartofthenetworkcentricinnovationlandscape.Thisanalysishastotakeintoconsiderationtherequirementsofthe
innovationroleaswellastheuniqueresourcesandcapabilitiesthatthecompanycanbringtotheinnovationcontext.
Westartwiththefirststep.
DECIDINGONTHEMOSTSUITABLEMODEL
Thefirm’sinnovationcontextplaysakeyroleindeterminingwhichmodelof
network-centricinnovationismostappropriate.Threebroadsetsofquestionsframethecontext:
180
THEGLOBALBRAIN
■
Howwelldefinedistheinnovationspace?Aretheinnovationgoalsclearly
articulated?Doestheinnovationdefineanewarchitectureorextend/enhanceanexistingarchitecture?Howvisiblearethemarket
opportunities?Howwelltiedaretheinnovationgoalsandthearchi-
tecturewiththosemarketopportunities?
■
Whatisthenatureoftheknowledgeandcapabilitiesdemandedbytheinnovation?Doinnovationprojectsinvolvehighlyspecializedor
advanceddomainknowledge?Whatistheextentofknowledgeintegra-
tionrequired?Whatarethecapabilitiesneededfor
participatingintheinnovationactivities?Howwidelydistributed(oravailable)arethesecapabilities?
■
Howwellestablishedarethemechanismsforappropriatingvaluefromtheinnovation?Willtheinnovationrequireestablishingradicallynew
valueappropriationsystems?Doestheinnovationcontextallowamixof“open”and“closed”IPrightssystemstocoexist?Isitpossibletodeployadiversesetofincentivestoappealtodifferenttypesofcontributors?
Table9.1capturestheimportantindustryandmarketconditionsthatreflecttheprecedingissuesand
shapethechoiceofthedifferentnetwork-centricinnovationmodels.Basedonthesefactors,wenowdescribethetypicalcontextthatbestsuitseachofthefourmodels.
First,consideracontextwhenthereisaclearlydefinedinnovationarchitectureortechnologyplatformthatiswelltiedtoamarketopportunitywith
establishedmechanismsforvalueappropriation.AswehaveseenfromtheexamplesofBoeingandSalesforce.com,thiscontextisbestsuitedtotheOrchestramodel,particularlyiftheknowledgeneededforimplementingthearchitectureishighlyspecializedandheldbyafewentitiesorifpartners’capabilitiesareimportanttoenhancethereachand
richnessoftheecosystem.Further,ifthetechnologicalormarketriskintheinnovationprojectisrelativelyhigh,itisimportanttopoolandshareriskwithanetworkofpartners.Marketsthatshowthesecharacteristicsincludesemiconductors,software,computerhardware,biotechnology,networkingequipment,consumerelectronics,andsoon;in
eachofthesesectorsareseveralexamplesoftheOrchestramodel.
CHAPTER9
Table9.1ContingenciesforModelsofNetwork-CentricInnovationIndustry/MarketFactors
ModelsofNetwork-CentricInnovation
•
Orchestra
CreativeBazaar
JamCentral
MODStation
DECIDINGWHEREANDHOWTOPLA
Innovationgoalsand
Well-definedinnovation
Broadinnovationgoals
Broadinnovationgoals
Well-definedand
architecture
goals;clearlyspecified
thatcanbetiedtoa
butnotwelltiedtoany
relativelymodular
andmodularinnovation
specificmarketspace;
particularmarketspace;
architecture;innovation
architecture
limitedarticulationof
limitedarticulationof
opportunitiesnot
innovationarchitecture
innovationarchitecture
predictableorwell
defined
Addressablemarketfor
Clearlydefinedmarket
Marketopportunitiesare
Marketopportunitiesare
Marketopportunitiesare
innovation
opportunity(often
evidentbuttendto
notalwaysclearly
notalwaysquiteevident
significant—greaterthan
rangefromsmallto
defined;mightinvolve
andtendtobeniche
Y
$300million)thatistied
medium
immaturemarketsthat
totheinnovation
havethepotentialto
architecture
growrapidly
Natureofinnovation
Implementing,
Mostlystand-alone
Specialized
Complementingor
contributions
complementing,or
innovationsthatmeet
contributionsthathelp
enhancingtheexisting
extendingtheinnovation
thebroadinnovation
defineandimplement
innovationarchitecture;
architecture
goalsofthefirm
theinnovation
newmarket
architecture
opportunities
Natureoftechnological
Predictablebut
Relativelymoderate
Significantandoften
Predictableand
change
potentiallymajor
technologicalchanges
unpredictable
relativelymoderate
technologicalchanges
technologicalchanges
technologicalchanges
Natureofinnovationrisk
Highdevelopmentand
Moderatetohigh
Highdevelopment,and
Lowdevelopmentrisk;
commercializationrisk
developmentrisk;
commercializationrisks
moderatetohigh
181
moderate
commercializationrisk
commercializationrisks
continues
182
Table9.1Continued
Industry/MarketFactors
ModelsofNetwork-CentricInnovation
THEGLOBALBRAIN
Orchestra
CreativeBazaar
JamCentral
MODStation
Natureofinnovation
Innovationknowledgeis
Innovationknowledge
Involvesintegrationof
Innovationknowledgeis
knowledge/expertise
complex/diverseand
rangesfromsimple
complex,new,and
somewhatcomplex/
heldbyalimited
tomoderately
diverseknowledgethat
specializedbutwidely
numberofentities;
complex/diverse;some
is,however,widely
distributed
requiresknowledge
knowledgeintegration
distributed
integrationacross
required
domains
Natureofinnovation
Ideadevelopment
Ideadevelopmentand
Ideadevelopmentand
Ideadevelopmentand
supportfacilities
testingrequires
testingfacilitiesare
testingfacilitiescanbe
testingfacilitiesare
expensiveand
morewidelyavailable
madewidelyavailable
oftenwidelyavailable
sophisticated
andtendtorangefrom
althoughtendtobe
andrelatively
capabilities
inexpensiveto
sophisticatedand
inexpensive
moderatelyexpensive
moderatelyexpensive
NatureofIPrights
Highlypredictableand
IPprotectionisfeasible
Largelyunpredictable
FairlypredictableIP
management
manageableIPrights
andpredictablebut
context;cansupport
context;supportsmixof
context
requiresmorework
mixofopenandclosed
openandclosed
systems
systems
Valueappropriation
Clearlydefined
Clearlydefinedand
Limitedornoexisting
Mixofexistingandnew
systems
mechanismsforvalue
alreadyexisting
mechanismsforvalue
valueappropriation
appropriation
mechanismsforvalue
appropriation
mechanisms
appropriation
CHAPTER9•DECIDINGWHEREANDHOWTO
PLAY
183
Incontrast,eveniftheinnovationarchitectureisclearlydefined,iftheexistingmarketopportunitieshavealreadybeenexploitedandnewmarketopportunitiesarenotveryclear,thenthecontextsuggeststheuseoftheMOD
Stationmodelofnetwork-centricinnovation.ThecaseofSun’sOpenSPARC
Initiativeisillustrativeofthismodel.TheMODStationmodelworksparticularlywelliftheinnovationknowledgeisdiffusedorwidelydistributedandtheinnovationcontextdemandsamixofopenandclosedIPrightsmanagementsystems.Insuchacontext,thefullor
partialunlockingoftheinnovationarchitecturetofacilitatemore“open”andcommunity-basedinnovationpursuitscanuncovernewmarketopportunitiesforapplyingorextendingtheinnovationarchitecture—opportunitiesthathadneverbeenrecognizedortargetedbythefirmthatdevisedthearchitecture.AndastheexamplesofthecomputergameindustryandtheWeb-
basedinformationservicesindustrysuggested,aslongastherightmixofincentives(andIPrightssystems)arecreated,suchcommunity-ledinnovationcanbenefitallthemembersofthenetwork,includingthefirmthatcreatedthearchitectureorplatform.
Inothersituations,theinnovationarchitectureorthespecificinnovationoutcomes
arenotdefinedbutthemarketopportunitiesarevisibleand/orwellarticulated.Ifsuchacontextisalsomarkedbyinnovationexpertiseandfacilitiesthatarenottoocomplexandareratherwidelydistributed,thentheCreativeBazaarmodelbecomesrelevant.AswesawfromthevariousexamplesinChapter6,“TheCreativeBazaarModel,”severalmarketsinthe
consumerproductsindustry(forexample,officesupplies,homecare,andsoon)aretypicalofsuchinnovationcontexts.Individualinventorscanthinkofinnovativeproductideasthatalignwellwiththebroadmarketgoalsandobjectivesarticulatedandcommunicatedbylargefirms.Further,itisimportanttoutilizeanexistinginfrastructurefor
commercializingtheinnovation,whichcanonlybeprovidedbyadominantfirminthenetwork.
Anadditionalinterestingissuehererelatestothenatureofthemarketopportunity.OurresearchsuggeststhatthetypicalsizeofthetargetmarketassociatedwiththeCreativeBazaarcontexttendstoberelativelymodest.Indeed,if
themarketopportunityisrelativelybig,thenitmightpiquetheinterestofalargefirm,whichwouldpursueitaggressively.TheCreativeBazaarcontextworkswellwhenthemarketopportunityisdiverseandrichindetail—therebycallingforveryinnovative(evenifsimple)solutions.
Finally,consideracontextwheretheinnovation
architectureisnotverywelldefinedandneitherarethespecificmarketopportunities.Instead,onlythebroadcontoursoftheinnovationdomainmightbeevident.Inthiscontext,184
THEGLOBALBRAIN
thereisfairlyhighdevelopmentriskaswellasmarketrisk.SuchacontextbecomesripefortheJam
Centralmodelofnetwork-centricinnovation.
Examplesofsuchcontextsincludenewandemergingtechnologicalareas(forexample,biotechnology,nanotechnology,renewableenergy,andsoon)orpreviouslyunchartedareasofexistingdomains(forexample,software,drugdiscovery,andsoon).
Insuchacontext,iftheinnovationknowledgeorexpertiseisalsowidelydistributed,thenitmightleadtotheformationofanetworkofinnovatorswhohaveasharedinterestinthatinnovationdomainbutdonothaveanyimmediatefocusonvalueappropriation.Thespecificinnovationgoalsandarchitecturewillthenemergefromtheinteractionsofthesenetworkmembers,aswasthe
caseintheTropicalDiseaseInitiativediscussedinChapter7,“TheJamCentralModel.”Theneedtocontinuetoattractandmaintainthecreativeenergyofthemembersrequiresamore“open”governancesystem,onethatensureseverymember’sabilitytovoiceandinfluencetheinnovationproceedings.Inaddition,thegreatertheeasewithwhichopenIPpoliciescanbe
deployedintheinnovationcontext,thegreaterwillbetheappealofthecommunity.Further,acombinationoffactors—includinglackofclarityonimmediatemarketpotential,longerinnovationincubationtime,andhigherextentofinnovationrisk—
allcontributetocorporateentitiesassumingasponsoringroleratherthanamoreactiveroleinthe
innovationprocess.
Theidentificationofthemostappropriatemodelrelatedtoaninnovationcontextisonlyonepartofthesolution.Thesecondpartistoidentifythemostappropriaterolethatthecompanycanplayinthatinnovationcontext.
DECIDINGONTHEMOSTSUITABLEINNOVATION
ROLE
Inearlierchapters,duringourdiscussionofthefourmodelsofnetwork-centricinnovation,wehadidentifiedseveralinnovationrolesthatfirmscanplay.Table9.2liststhesedifferentroles.Firmschoosingtoplayoneoftheserolesshouldcarefullyexaminethekeyunderlyingissuesandconditionsthatwould
determinetheappropriatenessofthatroleoropportunity.
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Table9.2RolesinNetwork-CentricInnovation
ModelofNetwork-
CentricInnovation
InnovationRoles
Architect
Adapter
Agent
Orchestramodel
Integrator
Component
Platformleader
developer
Complementor
CreativeBazaarmodel
Innovationportal
Inventor
Ideascout/broker
Innovationcapitalist
JamCentralmodel
Innovationsteward
Innovator
Innovationsponsor
MODStationmodel
Innovationcatalyst
Innovator
PARTICIPATINGINTHEORCHESTRAMODEL
ThetwotypesofrolesthatfirmscanplayintheOrchestramodelaretheroleoftheintegratororplatformleaderandtheroleofacomponentdeveloperorcomplementor.
INTEGRATORORPLATFORMLEADER
Asourtwocasestudies—BoeingandSalesforce.com—showed,firmswantingtoplaytheroleofanarchitectintheOrchestramodelneedtoownaninnovationarchitecture(orplatform)thathassignificantappealtoawiderangeofpotentialpartnerswhocancontributeindevelopingtheinnovationcomponentsorcomplementaryproductsandservices.Inadditiontothis
requirement,twokeyissuesdeterminewhetherthefirmcanplaytheroleofanintegratororplatformleader.
Thefirstissuerelatestotheaddressablemarketfortheinnovationplatformorarchitecture.Isthemarketopportunitydefinedbytheinnovationarchitecturelargeorbroadenoughtosupportthenetwork?WesawinthecaseofBoeingthatthekey
initialconsiderationforthecompanywastheabilitytoappealtoalargeenoughmarket—onethatcouldsupportandjustifytheinvestments186
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madeandtherisksassumedbyBoeing’spartners.Similarly,theroleofaplatformleaderwillalsobemoresuccessfulifthe
innovationplatformisrelevanttodiversemarketcontextsincludingnichemarkets.ConsiderIBM’sroleasplatformleaderinitsPowerarchitecturenetwork.Whiletheplatform’soriginaltargetmarket(forexample,PCsandWorkstations)isconsiderablylarge,theabilitytofindnewnichemarketsiscriticaltosustaintheappealofthenetworktoexistingandnewpartners.
Forexample,HCLTechnologies,anIndia-basedITfirm,recentlystartedinnovatingonthePowerarchitecturedesign—specifically,thePowerPC405andPowerPC440embeddedmicroprocessorcores—toextenditsapplicationtowirelessandconsumerdevicesareas.Thus,akeyconsiderationforafirmevaluatinganopportunitytoplaytherole
ofarchitectinanOrchestramodelisthesizeoftheaddressablemarket.
Thesecondissuerelatestothefirm’sowninternalresourcesandriskappetite.
Devisinganinnovationarchitecture(orplatform)andbuildinganetworkofpartnersaroundittakesconsiderabletimeandresources.Associatedwith
suchaninvestmentistheconsiderableamountofinnovationandmarketrisk.Inmostcases,theplatformwillendupinalongandbitterbattleofattritionwithotherplatforms(forexample,thecurrentbattlebetweenthecompetingBlu-RayandHD-DVDplatformsforhigh-definitionrecordedvideo),andoneormoreoftheplatformsmightendupgettingmarginalized(recall
theSonyBetamax).Beforeelectingtoplaytheroleofanintegratororaplatformleader,afirmhastocarefullyevaluatewhetherithasthestomachtoassumethislevelofrisk.AsourearlierexampleofSalesforce.comshowed,acompanycanalsograduallyevolveintotheroleofaplatformleaderbycommittingmoreandmoreresourcestobuildthenetworkasthefirmgains
moresuccessinestablishingitsowncoreproductsandtechnologies.Thus,thekeyconsiderationsforafirmshouldbetheamountofresourcesthefirmcanexpendonbuildingtheinnovationnetworkandtheextentofriskitiswillingtoassume.
COMPONENTDEVELOPERORCOMPLEMENTOR
AsanadapterintheOrchestramodel—thatis,acomponentdeveloperoracomplementor—afirmneedstocontributespecializedinnovationexpertiseorcapabilitiesaswellasbearitsshareoftheriskassociatedwiththeinnovationplatformorarchitecture.Twoconsiderationsareimportantinevaluatingsuchanopportunity.
Thefirstissuerelatestothenatureoftheconnectionbetweenthefirm’sspecializedcapability(thatis,itscontribution)andthenetwork(ortheinnovationCHAPTER9•DECIDINGWHEREANDHOWTOPLAY
187
platform).Ontheonehand,thetightertheconnection,
themorelikelythatthefirmwillbeavaluablenetworkpartnerandthatitcanrealizegreaterreturnsfromitscontributions.Ontheotherhand,thetightertheconnection,thegreatertheconstraintsthenetworkwillplaceonthefirm’sabilitytochartitsowngoalsandstrategies.Achievingabalancebetweenthesetwoforcesisimportant.Thequestionstoaskwouldbe,
“Canthefirm‘specialize’itsassetstomeetthenetwork’sgoalswithouttyingitsownfuturewiththesuccessofthatnetwork?”“Arethereopportunitiesforthefirmtodeploythesamesetofassetstoanothernetwork?”Or,“Willtheopportunitytoplaytheroleofanadapterinanetworkmoveitawayfromothernetworks?”Afirmhastoconsidertheseimportantissuesbeforecommittingtoa
particularinnovationplatformornetwork.
Anotherissuethatcandictatethechoiceoftheadapterroleisthelearningpotentialassociatedwiththatrole.ByparticipatingintheOrchestramodel,afirmcanacquirenewcapabilitiesorexpertise(technologicalormarketrelated)thatmightjustifytheoverallriskitassumesinplayingthatrole.For
example,inthecaseofBoeing’spartners,someoftheJapanesecompanies,includingKawasakiandMitsubishiHeavyIndustries,havelong-termplansofevolvingintostand-aloneaircraftmanufacturers.Theyfirmlybelievethattheirexperienceandthetechnologicalexpertiseacquiredfromthe787developmentprogramcanhelpthemachievethese
futureplans.Similarly,firmsthatdevelopcomplementarysolutionsonaninnovationplatform(forexample,Microsoft’s
.NETplatformorSalesforce.com’sAppExchangeplatform)mightdiscoverthatthepotentialtoacquirenewexpertisefromothernetworkmemberswouldoff-setsomeoftherisksassociatedwith
networkfailure.Thus,akeyconsiderationinevaluatingtheadapterrole,particularlyforsmallerfirms,shouldbethepotentialtoacquireadditionalexpertisefromtheirinteractionswithothernetworkmembers.
PARTICIPATINGINTHECREATIVEBAZAARMODEL
Weidentifiedthreetypesof
rolesintheCreativeBazaarmodel:innovationportal,inventor,andideascout/innovationcapitalist.Giventhattheroleoftheinventorisplayedlargelybyindividuals(customers,amateurinventors,andsoon),herewefocusontheissuesrelatedtotheothertworoles.
BECOMINGANINNOVATIONPORTAL
Firmscanplaytheroleofaninnovationportaltoensurearichandcontinualflowofinnovativeideasfortheirinternalproductdevelopmentpipelines.
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Inevaluatingtheopportunitytobecomeaninnovationportal,thekeyconsideration
relatestotherangeofinnovationsourcingmechanismsthatthecompanywillhaveaccesstointhatparticularindustry/market.Specifically,willthecompanybeabletoemployabalancedportfolioofsourcingmechanismsthatwouldenablethefirmtomanagetherisksassociatedwithentertainingandplayinghosttoexternalideas?
AswediscussedinChapter6,thesourcingoptionsattheleftendoftheCreativeBazaarcontinuum(forexample,ideascout,patentbroker)areattractiveinindustriesandmarketswhereamateurinventorscanworkbythemselveswithlimitedresourcestocomeupwithnewproductconcepts.Thus,companiessuchasDial,Staples,Sunbeam,LifetimeBrands,andChurch&
Dwight(representedbyFirmAinFigure9.2)withlotsofsmallanddiverseproductsmightfavorthosemechanisms.
Ontheotherhand,thesourcingoptionsattherightendofthecontinuum(forexample,venturecapitalist,externalincubator,andsoon)aremoreappropriateininnovationcontextsthatrequireconsiderabledomain
expertiseandsignificantcapitalandtimefordevelopmentandmarketvalidation.CompaniessuchasDuPont,3M,andKodak(representedbyFirmBinthefigure)whoparticipateinscience-basedmarketsmightrelymoreonthosemechanisms.
Firm“A”
Firm“B”
Firm“C”
Firm“D”
“Market-
“Raw”
Ready”
Idea
Product
CreativeBazaarContinuum
Figure9.2Towardabalancedinnovationsourcingportfolio
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Factorsrelatedtoafirm’sparticularmarketcontextarelikelytoimplyabiastowards
onesetofsourcingmechanisms.However,therearedownsidesassociatedwithrelyingexclusivelyononesetofmechanisms—acceptingeithertoomanyriskyideasortoomanyexpensiveideas.Soitisadvisableforafirmtobalanceitsinnovationsourcingapproachesbycomplementingitsfavoredapproachwiththeotherapproachesonthe
continuum.This“movetothemiddle”mightinvolveworkingwithentitiessuchastheinnovationcapitalist,whorepresentsacompromisebetweenthetraditionaltwoextremesofthecontinuum.LookingatFigure9.2,FirmCandFirmDhaveamorebalancedinnovationsourcingstrategyalthoughtheirmarketandfirm-specificfactorsmightstillimplymaintaininganoverallbias
towardtheleftendandtherightend,respectively.GoingbacktotheexampleofDuPont,whileitmightfindthatbuyingcompaniesispreferableinitstraditionalmaturebusinesses,alternativeapproaches—liketheuseofinnovationcapitalists—mightbeusedinemergingbusinesseslikebio-basedmaterialsorelectronics.
Thus,companiesplanningtoplaytheroleofaninnovationportalshouldfirstevaluatetheirpotentialtoemployarangeofmechanismssoastominimizetheriskofunbalancedsourcing.Inshort,thegreatertherangeofinnovationsourcingoptionsavailableintheparticularindustry/market,thebettertheopportunityforassumingtheroleofaninnovationportalwithacceptablerisk.
IDEASCOUTSANDINNOVATIONCAPITALISTS
Companiesintendingtoplaytheroleofanagent(productscout,patentbroker,innovationcapitalist,andsoon)intheCreativeBazaarmodelneedtodecidethenatureoftheircontribution(orinnovationintermediation).Ingeneral,thegreaterthevalueaddition
afirmcanbringtotheinnovationsourcingprocess,thehigherthereturnsitcanobtainfromtheclientfirm.However,twoissuesdeservecarefulconsideration:First,whatistheuniquenessofthevalueadditionthatthefirmcanbringtoinnovationsourcing?Second,howimportantisthisvalueadditionintheeyesoftheclientfirm?
Considerthefirstissue.Doesthefirmhavesomeuniqueaccesstoinventornetworksthatitcanleverage?Doesthefirmhavespecializedexpertiseorpatentedprocessestofilterinnovativeideasortoconductrapidinitialmarketvalidation?Forexample,aswesawearlier,theBigIdeaGroup(BIG)cultivatesitsownnetworkofinventorsandalsoconductsuniqueroadshowsthatbring
togetherinventorsandapanelofexpertstoseekoutgoodideas.Ordoesthe190
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firmhaveuniquecapabilitiestointegratedifferenttypesofknowledgetoadvanceortransformaninnovativeidea?Arethereuniquerelationshipswithlargeclientfirmsthatthefirmcanbringtothesourcing
process?Forexample,IgniteIPreliesonitsexclusivenetworkofseniormanagersinlargeclientfirmstobecomeawareofcriticaltrendsintechnologiesandmarkets.Absentsuchuniquecapabilitiesorrelationships,itisunlikelythatafirmcanbeanythingmorethanabrokerintheCreativeBazaarmodelwithlimitedreturns.
Typically,entitiessuchas
ideascoutsandinnovationcapitalistsfocusononeortwospecificindustriesormarketswheretheyhavedeepdomainadvantage.
Itisimportantforsuchintermediariestocarefullyconsiderthehowmuchvalueadditiontheclientfirmwillperceiveinthecontributionthattheymake.
Forexample,incertain
marketswherenumerousrelativelyminorinnovativeideasneedtobesortedout(forexample,homeimprovementandself-helptools;toys),“ideafiltering”mightbeperceivedasvaluable;ontheotherhand,incertainothermarketscharacterizedbyfuzzyorunpredictableIPrightscontexts,validatingtheIPrightsofthoseideasmightbedeemedmorevaluable.
Thus,afirmshouldcarefullyconsidertherelativeimportanceofthedifferentvalueadditionactivitiesininnovationsourcinginagivenmarketanddecidethespecificrolethatseemsmostpromising.
PARTICIPATINGINTHEJAMCENTRALMODEL
IntheJamCentralmodel,themostlikelyroleforafirmis
thatoftheinnovationsponsor.Giventhattheideasemergefromthecommunity,theroleoftheinnovationstewardwillbecarriedoutbythoseentities(mostlyindividuals)thatprovidedtheinitialsparktotheinnovationcontext.Eventheroleoftheinnovatorwilllargelybeplayedbyindividualmembersofthecommunity.Assuch,herewelimitourfocustotheappropriateness
oftheroleofaninnovationsponsor.
INNOVATIONSPONSOR
Firmsdon’tplaytheroleofaninnovationsponsorasanactofaltruismorsocialservice.Suchdecisionsarealways(and,webelieveshouldrightlybe)basedonasoundbusinesscase.
ConsiderIBM.Ithasan
importantstakeintheOpenSourceSoftwaremovementandactivelypursuestheroleofaninnovationsponsorinthoseinitiatives.
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191
InaninterviewwithIrvingWladawsky-Berger(IBM’s
formervicepresidentfortechnicalstrategyandinnovation),henotedtherigorthatIBMbringstothisdecision:
IBMtakesLinux,Apache,andothersuch(OpenSource)communities
veryseriously.Forus,workingwiththemisano-nonsensebusiness
decisionandwemakethemonlyafterconsiderableanalysisofthe
technologyandmarkettrends,theoverallqualityandcommitmentof
thecommunity,itslicensingandgovernance,andthequalityofits
offerings.Inouropinion,thekeytosuchopeninnovation
initiativesisthequalityofthecommunity,notwhetheryoucanhaveaccessto
thesourcecodeofthesoftware.And,ifyoudon’thaveagoodcom-
munity,thenthereisnothinginitforustojoin.Soweaskourselvesallthesetoughquestionsabutthecommunity,itsgoalsandobjectives,itswaysof
organizationbeforewemakeacommitmentto
supportthem.1
A“businessdecision”doesnotmeanthatafirmshouldplaysucharoleonlyiftherearedirectorvisiblebenefits.Inmanycases,suchdirectreturnsmightnotexist,atleastintheshortterm.Instead,innovationsponsorsneedtofocusontheindirect,
andoftenlong-termbenefitsthatsucharolemightbringtothefirm.ForIBM,thesebenefitsmightincludedevelopingafavorablebrandimageandgaininginfluenceintheOpenSourceSoftwarecommunity.InthecaseoftheTDI,largepharmaceuticalandbiotechcompaniesthatarecurrentlyexploringapotentialsponsoringrolewithTDImightconsiderthebenefitsofbeingexposedto
trendsanddevelopmentsindrugdiscoverythatareoutsidethescopeofitstraditionalbusinessunits.
Anothersetofissuesrelatetotheinnovationoutcomes.Whatarethetypesofexpectedinnovationoutcomes?Howpromisingandsignificantaretheseexpectedoutcomes?Dotheyhavethepotentialtoradicallychangeexisting
markets?WhattypesofIPrightsmechanismsarelikelytoapplytosuchoutputs?
Finally,itisalsoimportanttoevaluatehowthefirm’scontributionstotheinnovationcommunityarelikelytobeperceived.Aretheinputsgivenbythefirmasaninnovationsponsorlikelytobeperceivedascriticalfortheoverallinnovation?Andhowexactly
willithelpthecommunityadvanceitsinnovationagenda?
Theanswerstotheprecedingquestionscanindicatethelong-termsuccessofthecommunityagendaaswellasthelikelybenefitsthefirmmightpotentiallyderivefromsupportingsuchanagenda.Assuch,itisimportanttogiveeachof192
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theseissuescarefulconsiderationbeforecommittingresourcestosupportthecommunity-ledinnovationinitiative.
PARTICIPATINGINTHEMODSTATIONMODEL
AfirmcanplayprimarilytwotypesofrolesintheMODStationmodel:an
innovationcatalystoraninnovator.Westartwiththeroleoftheinnovationcatalyst.
INNOVATIONCATALYST
Asaninnovationcatalyst,afirmcontributestheinnovationarchitectureorplatformtoinitiatecommunity-ledinnovationactivitiesonit.Earlier,inChapter8,
“TheMOD(“MODification”)StationModel,”wehadidentifiedseveralincentivesforafirmtomakesuchacontribution.However,whilethebenefitstothefirmmightbeevident,thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatsuchacontributionwillalwayssparkthecreativeenergyofthecommunity.Indeed,theopportunitytoplaysucharoleiscriticallydependentonthenatureof
theinnovationplatformandassuchmanyoftheissuesrevolvearoundthisdependency.
Thefirstissuerelatestotheinnovationpotentialassociatedwiththeplatform.
Unlesstheinnovationplatformisinherentlyperceivedasvaluableandalsoopensupadiversesetofinnovativeopportunities,itis
unlikelythatthefirmwouldbeabletoattractacommunityofinnovatorsaroundit.Thus,someoftheissuesforthefirmare—howmodularistheinnovationplatform?Isthemodularityoftheplatformmatchedwiththeinnovationinterestofthecommunity?
Arethedifferentinnovationopportunitiesrelatedtotheplatformvisible?Arethere
specificmarketopportunitiestiedtotheseinnovationpossibilities?
Thesecondissuerelatestotheincentivesforthecommunitytoinnovate.Willthefirmbeabletocreateadiversesetofincentivestoattractandmaintaintheinterestoftheinnovationcommunity?CanthefirmfacilitatetheapplicationofamixofIPrightsmechanisms
(forexample,openandclosedlicensingschemes)thatwouldcatertoawiderangeofcommunitymembers—individualsaswellasotherentities?
Beyondtheprecedingquestionsistheissueofthefirm’sowncommitmenttotheinitiative.AstheexampleofSunanditsOpenSPARCinitiativeindicated,theprocessofbuildinga
communityaroundsuchinnovationarchitecturecanoftenbeslowandcallsforcontinuedcommitmentfromthecompany.Further,CHAPTER9•DECIDINGWHEREANDHOWTOPLAY
193
thefirm’sabilitytogradually“letgo”ofcontrolovertheinnovationplatformand
activelypromotecommunity-ledgovernancewillcriticallyshapethecontinuedparticipationofcommunitymembersandtherebythesuccessoftheinitiative.Suntookthestepofincorporatingleadmembersofthecommunityintothefirstgovernanceboardthatithelpedtocreate.ThesuccessofOpenSPARCwillbedependentonhowwellthecommunity
governancesystemworksandhowwelltheinnovationopportunityofferedbyOpenSPARCcancapturetheimaginationofthecommunitymembers.
Thus,overall,afirmshouldcarefullyconsiderhowitcanopenuptheinnovationplatformtothecommunityinawaythatbenefitseverybody,includingthefirm.
INNOVATOR
Nowconsidertheroleoftheinnovator.Althoughthisroleplaysoutinacommunity-basedinnovationforum,aswehaveseenfromthedifferentexamplesinChapter8,thereareseveralwaystoappropriatevaluefromsuchinnovation.
Assuch,undercertainconditions,itmightbe
appropriateforafirmtoplaytheroleofaninnovatorintheMODStationmodel.Whataresomeofthesecontextualconditions?
First,andperhapsthemostimportant,arethepoliciesrelatedtointellectualpropertyrights.Whilesomeoftheopenlicensingpolicies(forexample,GPLv2)mightprecludemostprofit-orienteddevelopmentactivities,other
variationsoftheopenlicensingschemesmightallowcertaintypesofsuchactivities,particularlyonderivativeproducts.
Anotherconsiderationrelatestotheoverallsizeandhealthofthecommunity.
Thelargerandthemoreactivethecommunity,thegreaterthepotentialtosustaintheplatformoverthe
long-termandthemorelikelytherewouldbemarketinterestforcomplementarysolutionsbasedontheplatform.Assuch,afirmhastotakeahardlookatthequalityofthecommunitythattheinnovationcatalysthasbeenabletoattractaroundtheplatformandthendecidehowworth-whileitwouldbetoplaytheroleoftheinnovatorinthatcommunity.
Table9.3capturesthekeyissuesthatwehavediscussedsofarregardingthedifferentrolesinthefourmodelsofnetwork-centricinnovation.Aswementionedearlier,theseareonlythemoreimportantones;theremightbeotherconsiderationsuniquetothefirmthatitwillneedtoconsiderinevaluatingthedifferentopportunities.
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Table9.3ConsiderationsfortheRolesinNetwork-CentricInnovationRolein
Network-CentricInnovation
KeyIssuesforConsideration
OrchestraModel
Integrator,platformleader
Marketpositioningoftheinnovationarchitecture/plat-
form;riskappetiteofthefirm
Componentdeveloper,
Dependencyofthenetwork;opportunityforlearning
complementor
(growth)
CreativeBazaarModel
Innovationportal
Abilitytodeployabalancedportfolioofsourcing
mechanisms
Ideascout,innovation
capitalist
Uniquenessofvalueaddition;perceivedimportanceof
valueaddition
JamCentralModel
Innovationsponsor
Qualityofcommunity;importanceofcompany’s
contributions
MODStationModel
Innovationcatalyst
Abilityto“letgo”ofcontrolovertheinnovationplatform;
abilitytoattractandretainthecommunity
Innovator
NatureoftheIPrightspoliciesinthecommunity;
overallcommunityhealth
CREATINGAPORTFOLIOOFINNOVATIONROLESANDDECIDING
THE“CENTEROFGRAVITY”
Sometimes,notonlyaretheredifferentrolesfor
differentfolks,theremaybedifferentrolesapplicablewithinthesamefirm.LargecompanieslikeUnilever,DuPont,andIBMwithdiversebusinessunitswilltypicallyfindthatthereismorethanoneinnovationroletheycanpotentiallypursueacrosstheirdiverseinnovationcontexts.Assuch,itisimportanttothinkoftheportfolioofrolesthatalargefirmshouldassumeasit
formulatesitsnetwork-centricstrategy.
Considerafewexamples.
IBMplaystheroleofaplatformleaderinsomeofitstraditionalbusinessareas,includingsystemsandservers,semiconductors,andsoon.ThePower
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195
Architecturediscussedearlierisagoodexampleofthis.IBMdevisedandarticulatedtheplatformandnurturedanetworkofpartnerstoexpanditsreachandpotentialapplicationareas.Eveninmanyofitssoftwareproductbusinesses(forexample,middleware
softwareplatformssuchasWebSphere,operatingsystemssuchasAIX,andsoon),thecompanyplaystheroleofaplatformleader.
Ontheotherhand,morerecently,thecompanyhasbeenplayingtheroleofaninnovationsponsorinsomeofthecommunity-ledinnovationinitiativesinthesoftwareindustry,mostparticularly,theLinux
community.Thecompanyhasalsostartedplayingsucharoleininnovationcommunitiesinotherdomains—
forexample,inthebiotechnologyindustry.
Similarly,considerP&G.Intheconsumerproductbusiness,thecompanyfollowstheCreativeBazaarmodelandactivelyplaysthe
roleofaninnovationportal.P&Gpartnerswithadiversesetofinnovationagentsincludingproductscouts,eR&Dmarketplaces,andinnovationcapitaliststoseekoutinnovativeideasthatitcanthenbringinsidetocommercialize.Ontheotherhand,insomeofitsotherbusinesses—forexample,chemicals,pharmaceuticals,andsoon—thecompanyhasfollowedtheOrchestramodel
andplayedtheroleofanintegrator.Specializedcapabilitiesofpartnerfirmsarebroughttobearinthedevelopmentandcommercializationofnewproducts.
SunMicrosystemsisanexampleofafirmthatparticipatesinboththeOrchestramodelandtheMODStationmodel.Inmuchofitsserverbusiness,Sunis
aplatformleader,developingandpromotingproprietarytechnologyplatformsthatformthebasisforitsproductssuchasSunFireserversandSunUltraworkstations.Ontheotherhand,inrecentyears,thecompanyhascontributedsomeofitsproprietarytechnologyplatformstoinitiatecommunity-ledinnovationinitiatives.WedescribedtheOpenSPARC
initiativeearlier.OthersimilarinitiativesincludingopeninguptheJavasourcecodeforcommunity-basedinnovationhavefurtherexpandedthecompany’sroleasaninnovationcatalyst.
Theprecedingexamplesindicatethepotentialforcompaniestopursueaportfolioofrolesindifferentpartsofthenetwork-centricinnovationlandscape.The
natureofsuchaportfoliowillbeshapedbytheindustry/marketcharacteristicsofthedifferentbusinessunitsofthecompany.Further,itisalsolikelythatoneofthoseroleswithintheportfoliowillassumedominancedependingontherelativesizeandimportanceofthedifferentbusinessunits.Suchadominantroleindicatesthelocationofthe“center-of-
gravity”ofthefirm’snetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives.GoingbacktotheexampleofIBM,inspiteofallthecommunity-ledinnovationinitiativesthatthecompanyhasjoinedinrecentyears,196
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itsroleasaplatformleaderisstilldominantinitsoverallcollaborationstrategy.
Similarly,itisevidentthatforP&G,thecenterofgravityliesintheCreativeBazaarmodel.
Whyshouldyoubeinterestedinthe“centerofgravity”ofafirm’snetwork-centricinnovationstrategy?Asyouwillseeinthenextchapter,thenatureoftheresourcesandcapabilitiesthatacompanyneedstomusterdependsonwhereitscenter
ofgravityfallsinthenetwork-centricinnovationlandscape.
CONCLUSION
Inthischapter,weshowedhowafirmcanevaluatethedifferentopportunitiestotapintotheGlobalBrainandidentifythemostappropriateroletoplay.Afterthefirmhaspositioneditselfinthenetwork-centricinnovation
landscape,thenextsetofquestionsthatarisesis,“HowcanIpreparemyorganizationtocarryoutsucharolemosteffectively?”“Whatarethecapabilitiesandresourcesthatwouldbeneeded?”“Whataresomeofthebestpracticesthatmyfirmshouldbeawareof?”Inthenextchapter,weexploretheseissues.
C
H
A
P
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10
PreparingtheOrganization
Imaginethatyouaresettingoutonatrekkingexpeditiontoaremotemountainousarea.Thefirststepinplanningyourexpeditionisto
understandthelandscapethatyouwillbetrekkingon,andtoplot
thebestrouteforyourtrek.Havingdonethis,youthenneedtoprepareyourself.Youneedtoassembleyourteamandgetthemphysi-
callyaswellasmentallypreparedforthetrip.Andyouneedto
gatherthesuppliesandtoolsthatyourteamwillneedtosurviveandsucceed.Withoutcarefulpreparation,
undertakingthetrekwouldbe
dangerous,nomatterhowwellyouunderstandtheterrainandthe
route.
SuchisthecaseinplanningyourexpeditiontotapintothepoweroftheGlobalBrain.Inthepreviouschapter,wefocusedon
understandingtheterrainofopportunities,anddecidingonacourseof
actionforyourorganization.Afteryouhaveidentifiedtheopportu-
nities,youneedtolookinwardandensurethatyourorganization
hasthecapabilitiesitneedstocapitalizeonthe
opportunities.
Inthischapter,weofferadviceonhowtomakeyourorganization
“innovationready.”Weconsidertwocomponentsofafirm’sreadi-
nessfornetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives:organizational
readinessandoperationalreadiness.
Organizationalreadinessreferstothepeopledimensionofthecapabilitiesneededfornetwork-centricinnovation.Essentially,itis
aboutcreatingtherightenvironmentwithintheorganizationto
encourageandsupport
participationinnetwork-centricinnovation.
Thisincludescreatingan“open”mindset,gettingleadershipon
197
198
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board,creatingthe
appropriateorganizationstructure,andcommunicatingtheinnovationstrategyinternallyandexternally.Operationalreadinessreferstotheprocessdimensionofthecapabilities.Thisincludesdesigningprocessesforprojectselection,partnerselection,riskmanagement,integratinginternalandexternalprocesses,andmanagementofintellectual
propertyrights.
Operationalreadinessalsoinvolvescreatingthetoolsandtechnologiestosupportexternallyfocusedinnovationandmetricstotrackyourprogressandassessyoursuccess.
Thestartingpointforreadyingtheorganizationistochangethemindsetoftheorganizationregarding
network-centricinnovation.Thisisthemostimportantandthemostdifficultstepinorganizationalreadinessbecauseitgoesagainsttheentrenchedproprietarymindsetthatmostorganizationshaveregardinginnovation.Letuslookatthechallengesinchangingtheinnovationmindset,andhowfirmscanovercomethesechallenges.
OPENINGYOURORGANIZATION’SMIND
AswenotedinChapter1,“ThePowerofNetwork-Centricity,”acentralchallengefororganizationsembarkingonanetwork-centricinnovationinitiativeistocreateamindsetthatencourageslookingoutwardandbecomingmoreacceptingoftheideasofoutsiders.Thisisespecially
challengingwhenintellectualpropertyandsecrecyisatstake.ConsiderInnoCentive,themuch-talkedabout“innovationmarketplace”createdasaspin-offfromEliLillyseveralyearsago.Dr.AlphBingham,afounderandboardmemberofInnoCentive,recallsthestiffresistancehisteamfacedwithinEliLilly.Whentheypresentedtheconceptinternally,theinternalR&D
andlegalteamsbalkedatthehereticalnotionthatLilly’ssecretR&Dproblemswouldbepostedonlineforthewholeworldtosee.Itwasahereticalideaforscientistsusedtotheimageof
“SkunkWorks”—thelegendaryR&DorganizationwithinLockheedwherescientistsandengineerstoiledawayincompletesecrecy,walledoutfromthe
worldandevenfromwithintheotherpartsoftheorganization.ButtheInnoCentiveteampersisted,andtoday,theconceptofanopenmarketplaceforinnovationseemsquitelogical.
Theresponsibilityforcreatingthe“open”mindsetrestslargelywithexecutivemanagement,anditbeginswiththeCEOofthe
company.Inourexperience,organizationsthathavemadeheadwayhaveoftenbeenmandatedbytheCEO
toadoptacollaborativeandexternallyfocusedmindset.IthelpsiftheCEO
publiclydeclarestheintentandthegoalsforthefirmtochangeitsinnovationstrategy.Thisleavespeoplewithverylittlechoicebutto
getonboard.ForCHAPTER10•PREPARINGTHEORGANIZATION
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example,whenP&G’sCEOA.G.Lafleyproclaimedin2000thathalfofP&G’snewproductswouldcomefromitsownlabsandhalfwouldcomethroughthem,itcatalyzedpeopleintoaction.1AsTomCripe,
associatedirectorofP&G’sExternalBusinessDevelopment(EBD)grouptoldus,“Ourseniormanagementhasbeenveryfocusedonthisandtheyrepeatitateachandeveryinternalforum,andwhentheydothat,itslowlygrowsonyou,andhelpstoevolveaculturewherepeoplearemorereceptivetoideascomingfromotherplaces.”2
OVERCOMINGTHE“WEKNOWEVERYTHING”(WKE)SYNDROME
MalcolmS.Forbessaid,“Education’spurposeistoreplaceanemptymindwithanopenone.”Soitgoeswithchangingtheinnovationmindset.Thereisnogreaterenemyoflearningthanouroverconfidencethatwealreadyknoweverything.Indeed,weareprisonersof
whatweknow,becausewetendtorejectotherpeoples’ideaswhenwebelieveweknowallweneedtoknow.Alothasbeenwrittenaboutthe“NotInventedHere”(NIH)syndrome—aculturethatrejectsideas,research,andknowledgebecauseitwasn’toriginatedwithintheorganization.Welookatthissyndromesomewhatdifferentlyasthe“WeKnowEverything”(WKE)
syndrome,whichwedefineasanorganizationalmindsetthatisclosedtoexternalideasandknowledgebecauseofthebeliefthatinternalknowledgeandexpertiseissufficient,andthereisnoneedforimportingexternalexpertise.
TheWKEsyndromeisparticularlydangerousforcompanieswithalongandillustrioushistoryofR&D
accomplishments,suchasBoeing,Kodak,3M,DuPont,Merck,Motorola,Sony,andIBM.Thesecompaniespracticallyinventedtheirindustries,andrightfullyconsiderthemselvestobethepioneersoftheirmarkets.Theyhavealsobeenassociatedwithlegendaryinnovations,andtheyhavewithintheirrankssomeofthemosttalentedscientistsandengineers.
Furthermore,inmanyoftheseorganizations,theaveragetenureofresearchersandengineersisquitelong,andtheyhaveatremendousamountofaccumu-latedknowledgeandexperience.Insuchanorganization,itishardtobelievethatsomeoneoutsidetheorganizationcantellyousomethingyoudon’talreadyknow!
Consider3Masanexample.
Ithasmorethan6,000scientistsandresearchersinitsR&Dsetupworkingin30coretechnologyorscientificareasrangingfromadhesives,abrasives,andfilmstofiberoptics,imaging,andfuelcells.ThesescientistsworkatR&Dunitsatdifferentlevelsoftheorganization—inthedivisionlabs,inthesectorlabs,andinthecorporatelabs.3Mhassuchdeep
scientific200
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in-housetalentthatitsscientistsandengineershaveformedseveralinformalgroupsornetworksbasedontheirspecificresearchareastosharetheirknowledgeandresearchfindings(akintoIEEE-typeforumsinsidethecompany).3M
hasstruggledtoovercometheWKEsyndrome.Explicitacknowledgementfromseniormanagement—particularlytheCEOortheCTO—thattheWKEexistsintheirorganizationscanbethemostimportantfirststepinthisregard.Inthecaseof3M,JayIhlenfeld,seniorvicepresidentofR&D,playedakeyroleinhelpingtheorganizationtoacknowledgethischallenge
andtostartworkingonaddressingit.3
Itisalsoverylikelythateventhemereadmissionofsuchaproblem,letalonespecificactionstoovercomeit,islikelytocreateconfusionandresistancewithintheorganization.Forexample,whenMerck’snewR&Dchief,PeterKim,acknowledgedthatthecompany’sinternaltalent
wasunlikelytobesufficienttoreplenishthecompany’sR&Dpipelineforthefuture,heimmediatelysparkedprotestwithinthescientificestablishmentofthecompany.MerckR&D
veteranssuchasEmilioEmini(seniorvicepresidentofvaccineresearch),KathrinJansen(aresearchmanagerwhoplayedakeyroleinthedevelopmentofthecervical
cancervaccine),andScottReines(atopresearcherinpsychi-atricdiseases)allleftMerck.OneofKim’smainjobswastoinstillinMerck’sR&Dsetupthenotionthatitdidn’tknoweverything.And,moreimportantly,therewasaneedtotreatsmallercompanieslookingforpotentialcollaborationwithMerckwithrespectandhumility—notasan“arrogant”partner.Specific
counselingsessionswereconducted—inthewordsofDr.MervTurner,Merck’sheadoflicensing,“Wesentourguystocharmschool.”4
Suchinterventionsdonebyseniormanagementcaninstillamindsetthatacknowledgesthelimitationsofthecompany’sinternalknowledgebaseandismoreinvitingofexternalideas.
THEPOWEROF“LETTINGGO”
TheflipsideoftheWKEsyndromeisthefirm’sabilityto“letgo”ofitsproprietaryknowledgeandintellectualassets,orcedecontrolovertheinnovationprocessinordertoadvancetheoverallinnovationagenda.Thisactionisparticularlychallengingfororganizationsusedto
controllingeveryaspectoftheirinnovationactivitiesaswellas“hoarding”everysingleintellectualpropertyasset.
Ascompaniescollaboratewithexternalentities(whetherotherfirmsorindividuals)ininnovationinitiatives,theyhavetobecomecomfortablewiththeCHAPTER10•PREPARINGTHEORGANIZATION
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notionoflooseningcontrolovertheinnovationprocess.Andtheyhavetobecomecomfortablewiththeideathattheyhavetocontributesomeoralloftheir“proprietary”knowledgetoenhancetheinnovationeffort.Suchaneedtoletgomightcomeasanunpleasantsurprisetoseniormanagement,too.InChapter
2,“UnderstandingNetwork-CentricInnovation,”wedescribedIBM’srealizationofthisneedwhileworkingondevelopingthefirstOlympicsWebsite(fortheAtlantaOlympics).InthewordsofIBM’sIrvingWladawsky-Berger,wholedthatprojectinthemid-1990s,suchrealizationcanbemomentous.
Irememberwhenwedidthe
WebsitefortheAtlantaOlympicsin’96.
MypeoplewhodidthatWebsiteusedApacheinsteadofIBM’spropri-
etaryproduct.TheyreportedtomeatthetimeandIsaid,“Well,whyareyouusingApache?”Andtheysaid,“Becauseit’smuchbetter.YouwantagoodWebsiteordoyouwanttopushyour
ownproduct?”
And,Isaid,“No,wemusthaveagoodWebsite,becausenobodycareswhatthestackis.TheywanttheWebsitetoworkwell.”AndthiswasthefirsttimeanybodyhadputupOlympicresultsonaWebsite.So
wereallywantedtomakesureitworked.Andeventuallytheysaid,
screwit.Let’sditchtheIBMproduct,whichhasalmostnomarket
shareandisinferior,andjoinforceswithApache.Atthetime,thisseemedrevolutionary.Nowyoulookatthatandyousay,itseemsto
becommonsense.
Theconceptof“lettinggo”is
somethingthatanorganizationhastogetcomfortablewithovertime.Infact,somecompaniesrealizethattheyarelettinggoofthingsthattheyneverreallydidcontrolasmuchastheythoughttheydid.
Thereisanillusionofcontrolthatisgreaterthanthereality.However,evenifitisanillusion,gettingeverybodyinthe
organizationtoacknowledgeitisachallengeforseniormanagers.And,astheexampleofIBMshowed,sometimesitmightalsopercolatefromscientistsandengineersworkingontheprojectupthehierarchytoseniormanagers.
Preparingtheorganizationtoadoptsuchamindsetrequirestheseniorexecutivestocommunicatethebenefitsof
lettinggo.Thisprocessbecomesmorechallengingwhentheexpectedreturnsfromlettinggoarenotcontemporane-ousoreveninthesameproductmarketorbusinessdivision.Inotherwords,thepayofffromlettinggocanbedistantinbothspaceandtime.Furthermore,oftentheveryactoflettinggomightintheshorttermdisruptthefirm’sexistingrevenuestream
makingitevenmorepainfulandincreasingtheresistancewithintheorganization.Thus,theabilityoftheseniormanagementtoseethebroaderinnovationagendaandcommunicatehow“lettinggo”canactually202
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provetobebeneficial(orevennecessarytosustainthegrowthofthefirm)becomes
crucial.
Ananalogyfromparentingmighthelpillustratethechallengeandthebenefitsoflettinggo.Asaparent,youmighthavetheillusionofcontroloveryourchild’saspirations,careers,andinterests,andsolettinggocanbequitedifficult.
However,youreallydon’thaveasmuchcontrolover
yourchildasyouthinkyoudo.Andthemoreyouletgo,thegreatertheconfidenceandautonomyyoubuildinyourchild.Similarly,foranorganization,themoreitisabletoletgoofitscontrolorknowledgeinaninnovationinitiative,themoreitwilllikelygainfromtheparticipationofcollaborators.
STRUCTURINGTHE
ORGANIZATION
Afterafirmachievesanenlightenedinnovationmindset,thenextaspectofreadinessistocreatetheappropriatestructurefortheorganizationalentitythatleadsnetwork-centricinnovation.Inthisregard,wehaveencounteredtwofrequentquestions,“Doweneedtohaveadedicatedunittoleadournetworkcentric
innovationinitiatives?”and“ShouldwecreateaneworganizationalunitoruseourR&Dunit(orotherexistingorganizationalunits)toprovidethisleadership?”Ouranswertobothofthesequestionsis—itdepends!
Insomefirms,existingorganizationalunits(forexample,corporateR&Dunit,businessdevelopmentunit,andsoon)canevolveor
transformtospearheadthenetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives.Inothercases,newunitsandnewpositionsneedtobeestablishedtoprovidetheleadership.Threefactorsshapesuchdecisions:
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DoesthecompanyhaveahistoryofparticipatingincollaborativeR&D
ventures?
■
Istheinnovationspacethecompanyismostlyfocusedonforcollaborationclearlydefinedormorediffusedinnature?Further,howdiversearethecompany’sinnovationpartnerslikelytobe?
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Aretheinitiativesbeingconsideredbythecompanyrelatedtoitsexistingproductsandservicesortonew/emergingbusinessareas?
Letusstartwiththefirstissue.Ifacompanyhasalongandconsiderablecollaborativeexperience(forexample,jointventuresinR&D,technologyconsortiums,andsoon),then
itislikelythatelementsofthecollaborativespiritaswellasassociatedcompetenciesarepresentwithintheorganization.Ifso,thereisnoneedtocreateneworganizationalunitsdedicatedtonetwork-centricCHAPTER10•PREPARINGTHEORGANIZATION
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innovationinitiatives.
Instead,thefirmcanrelyontransformingoneormoreexistingunitsthatalreadyhastheexperiencetotakeonthenewresponsibilitiesrelatedtoleadingandcoordinatingthecompany’snetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives.
AgoodillustrationofthiscollaborationhistoryisP&G’sEBDgroup—aunitwithmorethan50people.
EBDhasshoulderedaconsiderablepartoftheresponsibilityforP&G’sConnect+Developinitiativerightfromtheearlystageinthelate1990s.TheEBDgroupalreadyhadconsiderableexperienceininteractingwithexternalentitiesfortechnologycommercializationandlicensingdeals,andassuch,itonlyneededtoevolvefurthertointeractand
coordinatewithalargernumberofexternalpartners(includingproductscouts,innovationcapitalists,andsoon).OtherbusinessunitsutilizetheservicesofEBDtoseekoutexternalinnovationopportunities,negotiatedeals,andinteractwithexternalpartners,andinreturn,theseinternalclientscontributetoEBD’sbudget.Thus,inthecaseofP&G,itspriorcollaboration
experienceenabledittotransformexistingorganizationalunitssuchasEBDtoassumetheresponsibilitytocoordinatethenetwork-centricinnovationactivities.
Ontheotherhand,ifacompany’scollaborativeexperienceislimitedornotwidelydispersedacrosstheorganization,creatinganewunitmaybenecessaryto
signaltheshiftinthecompany’sapproachtoinnovation.ThisistheapproachthatKodakadopted.Thecompanyhasa100-yearoldtraditionofbeingahighlyverticallyintegratedcompanywithabundantinternaltechnologicalresources.However,asKodakstartedundergoingamajortransformationfrombeingachemical/analogcompanytobecominga
digitalcompany,thecompanyrealizeditcouldn’tmakethisshiftonitsown,andthatitneededtobemuchmoreaggressiveabout“goingout”togetthebreakthroughideas.So,inrecentyears,Kodakhascreatedneworganizationalunitsandnewpositions,liketheExternalAllianceGroup,tofacilitatethedevelopmentofnewpartnershipswithexternalinnovationnetworks.
TheneworganizationalunitsarehelpingKodakbreakdowntheculturalbarriersrelatedtoexternallysourcedinnovationandestablishsystemsandprocessestoidentifyandcollaboratewithawiderangeofexternalpartners,rangingfromearlystagefirmstoindividualinventorstoacademicscientists.5
Thesecondissuerelatesto
thenatureoftheinnovationspaceandthediversityofpartners.Evidently,ifyouareparticipatingintheOrchestramodel,muchoftheinnovationspaceisclearlydefinedandyouarelikelytointeractwitharelativelylessdiversesetofnetworkpartners.Inthiscontext,theroleofadedicatedorganizationalunitwouldlargelybetoestablishthestandardsetofpracticesthat
thedifferentpartsofthecompanyneedtofollow.Whiletheunit204
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mightassumeastrongleadershiproleintheinitialstages,astheprocessesandpracticestakerootindifferentpartsoftheorganization,itcanstepbackandpursueamoresupportiverole.
Ontheotherhand,ifthecompanyisparticipatingintheCreativeBazaarmodelortheJamCentralmodel,theuncertaintiesassociatedwiththeinnovationspaceandtheneedtointeractwithamuchmorediversesetofpartnersdemandaverydifferentrolefortheorganizationalunitresponsiblefornetwork-centricinnovationactivities.First,ascompanieslikeIBMandSunhaverealized,
partnershipwithinnovationcommunitiesandothersuchentitiesofteninvolvespontaneousorunplannedinteractionsbetweenacompany’semployeesandsuchexternalpartners.Adedicatedorganizationalunitcanhelptoincreasethecoherenceoftheseinteractionsandtofacilitatetheinteractionsinsuchawaythattheyadvancethecompany’sinnovation
agenda.Morespecifically,toensurethatvaluegeneratedthroughtheseinteractionsarecapturedanddonot“fallthroughthecracks.”Themorediversethesetofinnovationpartners,themorediversethesetofinnovationcapabilitiesneeded.Soanotherrolefortheorganizationalunitistoseekoutandassemblecapabilitiesfromdifferentplayers.Insum,inadiffusedinnovation
spaceandwithadiversepartnernetwork,thededicatedorganizationalunitactslessasaprocessenforcerandmoreasaclearinghouseforbestpracticesandskills.
Thefinalissuetoconsiderindefiningtheappropriatestructureiswhethertheinnovationinitiativerelatestothecompany’sexistingmarkets(products/services)
ordoesittakethefirmintoverynewarenas?Ifthefirmisstayingclosetoexistingmarkets,thenitislikelythatthecompanywillhavetocreatestronglinkagesbetweentheorganizationalunitspearheadingnetwork-centricinnovationactivitiesandtheR&Dunitswithinindividualbusinessdivisionsassociatedwiththoseexistingmarkets/products.Forexample,3Mhasfocused
onusingitscorporateR&Dunittoleaditsnetwork-centricinnovationactivities.
However,giventhatmanyoftheseinitiativesrelatetoexistingproductsandmarkets,theearlyfocushasbeenonbringingtogetherthedivisionalR&Dunitstodevelopacoherentplanfornetwork-centricinnovation.
Ontheotherhand,ifthe
initiativesrelatetoemergingornewbusinessareas,averydifferentstructuremightbeneeded.Forexample,inthecaseofDuPont,thebio-basedmaterialsareaisonemarketwherethecompanyintendstoactivelypursuenetwork-centricinnovationapproach.Thus,ithascreatednewpositionstocoordinateexternalinnovationsourcingactivitiesinthebio-basedmaterialsbusinessarea.
ThesenewstructuralarrangementsarenotyettiedtotheR&Dunitsinotherbusinessareas.However,itisexpectedthatasDuPont’sCHAPTER10•PREPARINGTHEORGANIZATION
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innovationstrategyexpandstoothercornersoftheorganization,eventuallythoselinkageswouldalsobe
established.
Overall,webelievethatdedicatedunitsarelikelytobehelpfultospearheadandprovidecoherencetoacompany’snetwork-centricinnovationactivities.
However,theextentofinfluenceandcontrolsuchorganizationalunitsshouldexercisedependsonthenatureofthefirm’sportfolio
ofnetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives.
LEADINGANDRELATINGWITHPARTNERS
Whenparticipatinginnetwork-centricinnovation,companiesmightoftenneedtoleadtheirnetworksandattheveryleast,relatewelltoothernetworkpartners.Inthefourmodelsofnetwork-centricinnovationthatwe
discussedinthisbook,thenatureofsuchleadershipandrelationalcapabilitiesneededarequitedifferent.
Earlier,wediscussedhow,intheOrchestramodel,acompanysuchasBoeinghastoexerciseleadershipinwaysthatbringcoherencetothegoalsandactivitiesofthenetworkmembersandinstillasenseoffairnessandpredictabilityinthe
processesrelatedtovaluecreationandvalueappropriation.
Inourdiscussionwithmanagersinsuchcompanies,oneleadershipthemehascomeagainandagaintotheforefront:theneedtoprojectanimageofdecisivenesswithoutimplyinga“high-handed”approachtodecisionmaking.Suchdecisivenesscanrelatetooneormoreof
thefollowingissues:whogetstoplay,whatisthearchitecturethatwillguidetheplay,andhowwilltheplayproceed?
Indeed,mostofthecompaniesthatplaytheroleofanadapter(complementor,innovator)intheOrchestramodelseekdecisivenessfromthenetworkleader.
Decisivenesshelpsthem
evaluatetheopportunitytoparticipateinthenetworkwithmuchmoreclarity.Andithelpsthemplantheircontributionstothenetworkinwaysthatlendstabilitytotheirowngoalsandstrategies.
EveninthecaseoftheCreativeBazaarmodel,althoughthecompanyplayingtheroleoftheinnovationportalmightnot
interactdirectlywithallthenetworkpartners,itsabilitytocreatealevelplayingfieldforallparticipantsisacriticalelementofleadership.Theleadershiproleincludesbringingmoretransparencytotheinnovationprocess—forexample,makingexplicitwhatthecompanyislookingfor,howitwouldevaluatetheinnovativeproductideas,andhowitwouldgoabout
bringingsuchideastothemarket.WhilecompaniessuchasKrafthaveputoutcallsontheirWebsitesforcustomerparticipationininnovation,the206
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emphasisshouldbeoninformingtheinventorcommunityabouthowthatprocessofsuchinnovationsourcingwillunfold.
Inthetwocommunity-ledmodels—JamCentralandMODStation—whilea
companymightnotplayadirectleadershiprole,itcanstillprovideconsiderablesupporttothecommunityinnovationgoalsandtherebyofferanelementofmoreindirectleadership.Inthiscase,leadershipismorelikegoodcitizen-ship.Aftertheleadergainsthetrustofthe
communityandisacceptedintothefold,thecommunitymembersexpectittocontributetowardstheinnovationagenda.Insomecases,employeesofthecompanymightplayleadershiprolesinthecommunitybasedontheirownindividualexpertiseandcapabilities—forexample,someofIBM’semployeesplaysuchrolesintheLinuxcommunity.Insomeother
cases,contributionsmighttaketheformofharnessingthecompany’sexpertiseininnovationmanagementforthebenefitofthecommunity-ledproject.Forexample,someofthelargepharmaceuticalcompaniessuchasPfizerandEliLillyhavestartedmakingsuchcontributionstothecommunity-ledinnovationprojectsinthebiomedicalindustry.
Turningtorelationalcapabilities,twoimportantthemesrunthroughthedifferentmodelsofnetwork-centricinnovation.
Thefirstthemerelatestothepotentialasymmetryinpowerandresourcesbetweenthelargerandthesmallerparticipantsornetworkmembersinallfourmodelsofnetwork-centricinnovation.Itisobviousin
thecasesofboththeOrchestraandtheCreativeBazaarmodels.Itisevenevidentinthecommunity-ledprojects,too,asmembersrangefromindividualstolargecompaniestonon-profitentities.Assuch,animportantrelationalcapabilityistheabilitytointeractwithadiversesetofpartnerswithavaryingextentofresourcesandinfluenceontheinnovation
process.
Asonemanagerofalargeconsumerproductsfirmputit,“thefirstcompetencethatwehavefocusedondevelopinghereistobeabletointeractwithoursmallerpartnerswithoutmakingthemfeeloverwhelmed.Wedon’twanttobeperceivedasthe800-poundgorillatryingtostealtheirideas—ratherwewanttocomeacrossas
theseniorpartnerwhohastheresponsibilitytolookoutforthewelfareofallofourpartners,includingthesmallerfirms.And,wespendconsiderableeffortineducatingourmanagersastowhatthismeanswithregardtotheirday-to-dayinteractionswithourpartners.”
Anotherthemerelatestotheabilitytobuildtrustthrough
moreopencommunicationandinteractions.Again,trustisequallyimportantintheOrchestramodelasintheJamCentralmodelalthoughthemechanismstobuildsuchtrustamongnetworkpartnersmightvary.WhenDial,Inc.acquiresthehelpofCHAPTER10•PREPARINGTHEORGANIZATION
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nationalinventorassociationstocommunicatetoindividualinventors,itisfocusingonbuildingsuchtrustwithitspotentialcontributors.Similarly,whenBoeingbuildsanextensiveIT-basedvirtualcollaborationsystemtoenhanceinformationsharingamongitspartners,itisfocusingonfacilitatingtrust-basedinteractionsinthenetwork.
OrasP&Ghasdiscoveredinplayingtheroleoftheinnovationportal,trustbuildswitheachadditionalinteractionwithanexternalpartner.ThecompanycallsthistheWeed’slaw6—“Theseconddealwithapartnertakeshalfthetimeasthefirstonedid.And,thenextdealtakeshalfofthattime,andsoon….”AswediscussedinChapter5,“TheOrchestraModel,”cultivating
relationshipswithaselectedsetofinnovationcapitalistsandotherintermediarieshelpsP&G
tousethemutualunderstandingandtrustdevelopedthroughrepeatedinteractionstoacceleratetheoverallinnovationprocess.Thus,theabilitytoidentifyappropriatemechanismstobuildsuchtrustindifferentcontextscancriticallyshape
thesuccessofafirminnetwork-centricinnovation.
MANAGINGDEPENDENCIESBYSTAYINGFLEXIBLE
Bydefinition,network-centricinnovationcreatesdependenciesbetweenthefirmanditscollaborators—dependenciesoninnovationplansofotherpartnercompaniesanddependencies
onthecapabilitiesofexternalinventorsandothersuchentities.Forexample,acompanythatdevelopsasoftwareapplicationtorunonSalesforce.com’sAppExchangeplatformisjoinedatthehipwiththeplatformanditsfuture.Similarly,whenaninnovationcapitalistsuchasEvergreenIPdecidestofocusonaparticularmarket(say,toys)andcatertothe
innovationneedsofaselectedsetoflargeclientfirms,itisineffectcreatingadependencythatlinksitsportfolioofprojectswiththemarketneedsofitsclients.EvenintheJamCentralmodel,whencompaniescommittoaparticularcommunity-ledprojectandstartcontributingresourcesandexpertisetomovetheinnovationforward,theycreatedependenciesthat
mightbelessexplicit,butnolessrelevant.Soitisimportantforafirmtoacknowledgesuchdependenciesandcreatesufficientflexibilityinitsstrategytomanagetheassociatedrisks.
Onedimensionofflexibilityrelatestotheinnovationassetsthatthecompanycontributestotheinnovationeffort.Theabilitytoidentify
alternatedeploymentopportunitiesforsuchassetscanenablethecompanytoreduceormanagethedependenciesonthenetwork-centricinnovationproject.RecallBoeing’s787developmentproject.ManyofthenewtechnologiesbeingdevelopedbytheJapanesefirmsalsoinvolvedeeperexpertisethatthosecompanies208
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couldapplytootherprojects—particularly,theirownindependentinitiativesinaircraftmanufacturing.
Anotherapproachtobringflexibilitytotheinnovationstrategyistoparticipateinmorethanoneinnovationnetwork,ifpossible.Hedgingone’sbetsmightallowacompanytobalancethe
associatedrisksandmanagethetechnologicalandmarketdependencies.Forexample,someofthecompaniesbuildingapplicationsonSalesforce.com’sAppExchangeplatformhaveincorporatedstandardsandarchitecturethatenablethemtoportadd-onsolutionstoothercustomer-relationshipmanagement(CRM)solutionsandtherebyreducetheirrisk.Theobjectiveof
suchanapproachistomanagethe“distance”orsepara-tionbetweenthecompany’sowninnovationgoalsandthegoalsofthenetworkcentricinnovationprojectsitparticipatesin.
Wenowturntothesecondhalfofpreparingtheorganization—operationalreadinessfornetwork-centricinnovation.Westartwiththeprocessesthatareneededto
supporttheinnovationeffort.
PROCESSESTOSUPPORTNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
Whenmostcompaniesdecidetolookoutsideforinnovativeideas,morethanlikelysuchinitiativeswouldstartoutinanad-hocfashion.However,asmoreandmoreresourcesgetcommittedtosuchinitiatives,theneedfor
clearlydefinedprocessessoonbecomesapparent.Unlessbasicprocessesareestablishedtoguideandmanagethecompany’sparticipationinexternalinnovationinitiatives,theorganization’sabilitytoderivereturnsfromsuchactivitiescanbeseriouslyhampered.
Ourdiscussionswithmanagersincompaniessuch
as3M,DuPont,Unilever,P&G,andKodakleadustoconcludethatestablishingprocessesearlyintheevolutionofthefirm’snetwork-centricinnovationinitiativesiscriticallyimportant,asthishelpsbringdisciplinetotheinnovationactivities.Althoughthespecificsofthedifferentprocessesandtheirimplementationdependontheparticularorganizational
context,wepointtosomegenericprocessesthatareneededtosupportnetwork-centricinnovation(NCI).
Themostimportantprocessistheselectionofbusinessareaswithinthecompanythatwouldbemostappropriateforpursuingnetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives.Howshouldthecompanydecideitsnatureandlevelofinvolvement?
Whoshouldmakesuchdecisions?Whatcriteriashouldbeconsideredinmakingsuchadecision?
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AnotherfocusforNCIprocessesshouldbetheselectionofexternalinnovationnetworksand
networkpartners.Itiscriticalthatacompanyhasacoherentsetofpoliciesforselectingitspartners(whetheritisanindividualfirmoraninnovationcommunity)thatitcouldimplementorganization-wide.Largecompaniesmayalreadyhaveestablishedprocessesforselectingpartnersforjointventuresandtechnologyalliances.Forexample,3Mhasasteering
committeethatevaluatesallpotentialcandidateprojectsforexternalcollaborationandselectsthemostsuitablebasedonasetofcriteria,includingtheabilitytodefineparametersforsuccessandrelevancetobusiness.Asthediversityofpartnersincreases,suchprocessesmightneedtobemodifiedtoincludeahostofotherfactorsthatmightnothavebeenofimportanceinone-
on-onepartnerships.Typically,suchprocessesshouldconsiderfactorssuchasthecompany’spriorrelationships,complementarityoftechnology/expertise,andsoon.
Third,processesalsoneedtobeestablishedtoidentifyandmanagetherisksassociatedwithparticipatinginnetwork-centricinnovation
projects.
Participatingincommunity-ledinnovationprojectsposesdifferenttypesofrisksthanparticipatingininnovationnetworksthatthecompanyleads.Forexample,inentertainingideasfromamateurinventorsandcustomers,thereareIP-relatedrisksandcompaniesneedtoinstituteprocessestomitigatetheserisks.Onthe
otherhand,whenparticipatinginanopenprojectsuchasLinuxorTDI,acompanymightallowitsemployeestomakeintellectualcontributions.Differenttypesofrisksareassociatedwiththisscenario.Thusthenatureoftheriskvarieswiththetypeofinnovationproject.Someoftheserisksarelikelytobethosethatthecompanyhasnotfacedbefore.Also,many
oftherelationshipsthecompanycreatesasitpursuesitsnetwork-centricinnovationagendamightrequirecarefulconsiderationofthelegalimplications.Itisagoodideatoinstituteprocessestovetthedifferentprojectsforthelegalissuesinvolved.
Inadditiontotheprecedingareas,processesmightalsobeestablishedtomanage
otheraspectsofacompany’sparticipationincludingsharingknowledgewithexternalpartners,coordinatinginnovationactivitieswithexternalpartners,andmanagingrelationshipswithadiversesetofnetworkpartners.
Theoverallobjectiveoftheprocessinfrastructureshouldbetoenablethecompanytouseauniformyardstickto
monitorandmeasureperformanceintheNCIactivitiesacrossthedifferentbusinessunitsoftheorganizationandtoensurealevelofrepeatabilityinsuchperformance.
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DEPLOYINGTOOLSANDTECHNOLOGIES
Overthepastfewyears,awiderangeoftoolsandtechnologiestosupportcollaborativeinnovationhavebeencreated.Someofthesetoolsfacilitatecommunicationandknowledgesharingamongnetworkmemberswhilesomeothertoolsenablecoordinationandmanagementofcollaborativeinnovationprocesses.
AswesawearlierinthebookinthecaseofBoeinganditsdevelopmentofthe787,theuseofappropriateinformationtechnology(IT)toolscansignificantlyenhancethequalityofcollaborationamongpartnerfirmsandleadtomoreeffectiveparticipationinsuchexternalinnovationprojects.Similarly,intheTDIproject,theWeb-basedinfrastructureprovidedby
thenon-profitorganizationTSLwasinstrumentalinfacilitatingthecollaborationamongthescientistsandotherparticipantsofthenetwork.
IT-basedtoolscanbeusedinfourareasofnetwork-centricinnovation:7
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Theycanbeusedasprocess
managementmechanismstoinstillstructuredproductdevelopmentprocessesandtobringalevelofrigorandstabilitytotheinnovationactivities.Althoughsomeofthetoolsmightimplementgenericandindustry-specificprocessmodels(forexample,theCapabilityMaturitymodelinthesoftwareindustryortheStage
Gatemodelinproduct
development),severalproprietaryprocessmod-
elsalsoexist(forexample,PACE).Thesetoolsandtechnologiesenablenetworkmemberstointegratetheirinnovationprocesseswithoutlosingcontroloverthem.
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Theyfacilitatebasicprojectmanagementfunctions—
scheduling,coordinating,andmanagingresourcesrelatedtoacomplexproject,
whetheritisanOrchestramodelprojectliketheBoeing787oraJamCentralprojectlikeTDI.Someofthesetoolsprovideavirtual“commandcenter”or“warroom”withaccesstoallprojectinformation
throughacommoninterface.
■
Theysupportinformationsharingamongthedifferentnetworkmembers.Theyutilizedifferentdataandinformationstandards(forexample,ISO-STEP)tohandledifferenttypesofinformation(including
graphics,audio,video,andsoon).Someofthetoolsalsooffermoreversatilefacilities
capableofcombiningstructuredandunstructuredinformationinreal-time.
CHAPTER10•PREPARINGTHEORGANIZATION
211
■
Theyprovidecommunicationsupportrangingfromfacilitiesforacommunityof
innovatorstocometogethertohighlysecureforumsforadefinedsetofpartnerfirmstointeractandsharedocuments.
Althoughthesetoolsandtechnologiescanbeimplementedseparately,therearesomecomprehensivetoolsthatincludemostoftheprecedingfunctionalities.
Forexample,ProductLifecycleManagement(PLM)toolsprovideawiderangeoffeaturesandfunctionalitiestosupportnetwork-centricinnovationprojects,particularlyintheOrchestraandtheCreativeBazaarmodels.Inparticular,functionalitiesrelatedtoprojectresourcemanagement,productplatformmanagement,productdatamanagement,
andcollaborationmanagementassumeconsiderablesignificanceinthenetwork-centricinnovationprojectcontext.
Forexample,intheaerospaceanddefenseindustry,NorthropGunmanusesPLMsolutionstosupportitscollaborativedevelopmentoftheU.S.Navy’snext-generationdestroyer.Theproject,a
goodexampleoftheOrchestramodel,involvesmultiplepartnersandthecompanyutilizesPLMsolutionsfromDassaultSystems(aleadingPLMsolutionsprovider)tosupportitscollaborativedesignanddevelopmentactivities.8Similarly,HermanMiller(theofficefurnituremanufacturer)hasimplementedPLMsolutionstosupportcollaborative
designactivitiesbetweenthecompanyanditspartners(includingcustomersanddealers).9
AlthoughPLMandothersuchtoolsmightvaryintheirfeaturesandfunctionalities,thekeyissuehereishowwellthosefeaturessupportthenetworkmemberstoachievetheoverallinnovationgoals.Themoreintegratedthetoolsarewith
theunderlyinginnovationprocessesinthenetworkandthecapabilitiesofthenetworkmembers,thegreaterthepotentialreturnsfromsuchtools.Thus,thebottomlineforcompaniesistousethesetechnologiestodeviseanintegratedinnovationenvironmentthatembracesthenetworkmembersandbringscoherencetotheiractivitiesandcontributions.
MEASURING“SUCCESS”
Animportantelementofoperationalreadinessistheabilitytoevaluatethecompany’sperformanceandreturnsfromnetwork-centricinnovation.Thisabilitydemandsthecreationofanappropriateportfolioofinnovationmetrics.
Astheoldadagegoes,“Becarefulaboutwhatyou
measure.”Measuringthewrongthingcouldleadacompanydownthewrongpath.Forexample,counting212
THEGLOBALBRAIN
thenumberofpartnersmightgiveafalsesenseoftheintensityofthecollaborativeactivityofthecompany.Similarly,countingthenumberofpatentsproduced
throughcollaborationmightagaingiveawrongpictureofinnovationsuccessbecausepatentsdon’t“paythebills.”Thus,identifyingtherightsetofinnovationmetricsisofutmostimportance.
Network-centricinnovationmetricsdifferinnatureandfocus.Somemetricsaremoregenericandapplytoallmodelsofnetwork-centricinnovation,whileothersare
specifictothemodelthecompanyparticipatesinandtheroleitassumes.Whilesomemetricsaredefinedattheleveloftheinnovationnetwork,othersfocusonthecompanyandreflecttheimpactofthecompany’sparticipationonitsinternalactivitiesandoutcomes.
Table10.1providesaninventoryofthemetricsthatfallintoeachofthese
categories.Notethatthislistofmetricsisonlymeanttoberepresentative,andnotexhaustive.
Table10.1MetricsforNetwork-CentricInnovation(NCI)
Nature/Focusofthe
InnovationMetric
Network-Related
Company-Related
General
Capabilitiesandreputation
DiffusionofNCI-relatedcul-
ofthepartnerfirms
turewithinorganizational
units
Extentoftrustandcommit-
mentamongpartnerfirms
MaturityofNCI-related
processesandsystems
Qualityofvalueappropria-
tionmechanismsinthe
Perceptionofthecompany
network
amongnetworkpartners
NatureofIPrightsmecha-
AwarenessofNCIopportu-
nismsdeployed
nitiesamongdivisional
managers
Extentofcoherenceinfirm’s
NCIinitiatives
Model-specific
Orchestramodel
Extentofinvestments
Marketreachofthe
made/riskassumedbypart-
product/platforms
nerfirms
Timetomarket
Uniquenessofpartnercon-
Extentofriskassumedby
tributions
thecompany
Clarityofproduct/platform
architecture
CHAPTER10•PREPARING
THEORGANIZATION
213
Nature/Focusofthe
InnovationMetric
Network-Related
Company-Related
CreativeBazaarmodel
Sizeandgeographicscope
Numberofideassourced
ofinventornetwork
frominventornetwork
Natureoftieswithinterme-
Numberofnewproducts
diaries(innovationcapitalist)
generatedfromexternal
Extentofideatransforma-
ideas
tion(andriskassumed)by
Costofinnovationsourcing
partners
JamCentralmodel
Numberofmembersinthe
Company’simageinthe
innovationcommunity
innovationcommunity
Turnoverininnovation
Extentofcompany’sinflu-
communitymembership
enceoninnovation
Qualityofinnovation
outcomes
infrastructure
Extentof“learning”
achieved
MODStationmodel
Intensityofactivityinthe
Reachtoneworemerging
innovationcommunity
markets
Diversityofcommunity
Increaseinproduct/platform
membership
lifecycle
Communityinvolvementin
Qualityofrelationshipwith
networkgovernance
communitymembers
Thefirstsetofmetricsrelatestotheoverallnetwork.Thesemetricsallowacompanytoevaluatewhetheritispartneringwiththe“right”networkandmightalsoindicatewhenthecompanymighthavetorethinkitscollaboration
strategy.Forexample,foracompanysuchasDial,Staples,orP&GthatplaystheroleofaninnovationportalintheCreativeBazaarmodel,avaluablemetricwouldbethereachandgeographicscopeofitsnetwork—thenumberofinventorsandintermediariesthatthecompanyhasbeenabletoreachoutto.
Similarly,foracompany
playingtheroleofinnovationsponsorintheJamCentralmodel,ausefulmeasurewouldrelatetothestabilityoftheinnovationcommunity—thenumberofmembersinthecommunityandtheaverage
turnoverinmembership.Suchmeasuresindicatetheoverallqualityofthenetworkandinformonthecurrentandfutureinnovationpotentialof
thenetwork,andthuscouldhelpacompanytocontinuouslyevaluatewhetheritispartneringwiththerightsetofexternalentities.
Thesecondsetofmetrics,whichrelatestotheimpactofthecollaborationonthecompany,indicateshowwellthecompanyisfairingorgainingfromits214
THEGLOBALBRAIN
participationintheinnovationproject.GoingbacktotheCreativeBazaarexample,thenumberofexternalideasenteringacompany’sproductdevelopmentpipelineorthenumberofnewproductsthatcanbetracedbacktosuchexternalsourcesindicatestheclearandthemostdirectimpactofthecompany’s
participationinthenetwork.Similarly,acompanyplayingtheroleofinnovationcatalystmightconsiderthenumberofnewmarketsthatithasbeenabletoexpandasanindicationoftheimpactofitsparticipationinthenetwork.
Someofthecompany-specificmeasurescouldbemoregenericandrelatetotheinternalinnovation
infrastructureorcapabilities.Forexample,anauditofthecompany’sinternalinnovationprocesses—processmaturity—mightindicateitsoverallpreparednesstoidentifyandexploitdifferenttypesofnetwork-centricinnovationopportunities.Similarly,perceptualmeasurescanalsobeusedtounderstandthecompany’soverallperformance.Forexample,
measuresthatcapturethecompany’simageamongnetworkpartnerscouldprovetobeveryusefulinevaluatingandbuildingrelationalandleadershipcompetencies.
Similarly,internalmeasuresthatreflecttheextentofmanagers’awarenessofnetwork-centricinnovationopportunitiesmightindicatetheculturalandbehavioral
issuesthatmightimpactthecompany’sperformanceinnetwork-centricinnovation.
AsTable10.1shows,acompanycanutilizearangeofmeasures.Giventhateachmeasureprovidesauniquevieworperspectiveofsuccessinnetworkcentricinnovation,itisimperativethatacompanyadoptaportfolioofsuchmeasures.Mostimportantly,the
selectionofthemetricsshouldreflectthecompany’sdesiredfocusinparticipatinginnetwork-centricinnovation.
CONCLUSION
Inthischapter,weconsideredmanyoftheissuesthatcompanieshavetocarefullyaddresstopreparetheirorganizationtonavigatethenetwork-centric
innovationlandscape.Table10.2capturesthesedifferentissues.
CHAPTER10•PREPARINGTHEORGANIZATION
215
Table10.2DimensionsofNetwork-CentricInnovationReadinessDimensionofReadiness
QuestionstoConsider
OrganizationalReadiness
CultureandMindset
DoesthecompanysufferfromtheWKE
syndrome?Ifso,whatstepshasthesenior
managementtakentoaddressit?Isthe
companycapableof“lettinggo”itsintellec-
tualassetsandcontroltoadvancetheover-
allinnovationagenda?
StructuralArrangements
Howwillthecompanyensurecoherenceto
theNCIactivitiesacrossthe
organization?Is
thereanyoneunitthatwillhavetherespon-
sibilitytoprovidesuchinternalleadershipto
theNCIactivities?
LeadershipandRelationalCapabilities
Isthecompanycapableof
providingleader-
shiptothenetworkpartners,ifrequired?
Howwell-developedisthecompany’srela-
tionalcapabilities?Whatmechanismshave
beeninstitutedwithinthefirmtobuild
andinstilltheappropriatesetofrelational
capabilities?
DependenciesandFlexibility
Whatisthenatureofthelinkagesbetween
thecompany’sinnovationgoalsandthe
goalsoftheinnovation
networkitpartici-
patesin?Isthecompanyawareofthe
natureofdependenciesithaswiththeNCI
initiative?Whatproactivemeasureshasthe
companytakentomanagesuchdependen-
ciesandintroduceflexibilitytoitsinnovation
strategy?
OperationalReadiness
ProcessesforNCI
Hasthecompanyimplementedrepeatable
andmeasurableprocessesrelatedtoitsvar-
iousNCIactivities?Aretheseprocesses
adoptedwidelywithinthedifferentpartsof
theorganization?Isthereanyoneunitor
personresponsibleformaintainingthese
processes?
continues
216
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Table10.2Continued
DimensionofReadiness
QuestionstoConsider
ToolsandTechnologies
Hasthecompanyidentified
andimple-
mentedtheappropriatesetoftoolsand
technologiestosupportitsNCIactivities?
Howwellintegratedarethesetoolsand
technologieswiththeNCIprocesses?How
readilycanthecompanyintegratethese
toolsandtechnologieswiththoseofits
partnerfirms?
MetricsforNCI
Hasthecompanyidentifiedaportfolioof
innovationmetrics
appropriatetothenature
ofitsNCIactivities?Doestheportfolioof
metricsgiveawell-roundedperspectiveof
thecompany’sperformanceinNCIinitia-
tives?Havespecificorganizationalunitsor
rolesbeenestablishedtocollectthedata
relatedtothesemetrics?
Aswenotedinthebeginningofthischapter,ourtaskherehasbeentoidentifytheimportantdimensionsofsuchnetwork-centricinnovationreadiness.Aseachindividualcompanychartsitsownpathinthenetwork-centricinnovationlandscape,itwill
needtoacquiretheparticularsetofresourcesandcapabilitiesthatwouldenableitfollowthatuniquepath.Withthisfocusonorganizationalpreparedness,wecometotheendofourjourneythatwestartedinChapter3,“TheFourModelsofNetwork-CentricInnovation,”bydescribingthelandscapeofnetwork-centricinnovation.
Inthenextchapter,webroadenourhorizonandconsidertheglobalcontextfornetwork-centricinnovation—specifically,theopportunitiesandpotentialforcompaniesinemergingeconomieslikeIndia,China,RussiaandBrazil,toparticipateinnetwork-centricinnovationandhowlargecompaniescanleveragetalentinemergingeconomiesforinnovation.
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GlobalizingNetwork-Centric
Innovation:TheDragon
andtheTiger
Perhapsnocompanyhasplayedamoreimportantroleinmaking
theworldasmallerplacethantheBoeingCompany.Eversincethe
launchoftheBoeing707
long-haulcommercialaircraftin1958,fol-
lowedbythelegendaryBoeing747in1970,Boeinghasenabledbusi-
nesstravelerstocrisscrosstheglobetoconductglobalbusiness.
Boeinghascustomersin145countries,anddespitetherecentgains
madebyAirbus,over75%ofthecommercialaircraftinservicetodayweremanufacturedbyBoeing.
Paradoxically,whileBoeingaircraftflyaroundtheworld,until
recently,theyweredesignedveryclosetoSeattle.Withtheexcep-
tionofafewselected
JapaneseandEuropeanpartners,Boeingdid
muchofthedesignandengineeringforitsaircraftin-house.
EmergingeconomieshardlyshoweduponBoeing’sradarassources
ofengineeringandresearchtalent.Butthissituationbeganto
changewhentheairlineindustrywentintoatailspinfollowingthe
eventsofSeptember11,2001.Boeing’ssalescrashed,anditwas
forcedtocutcosts.Toreducedevelopmentcosts,Boeingbeganto
movesomelow-levelengineeringtaskslike
validation,verification,andtestingtolow-costgeographicareaslikeIndia.
Withthe787Dreamlinerproject,Boeinghasmadedramaticstrides
intakingitsinnovationprocessglobalandtappingintotalentfrom219
220
THEGLOBALBRAIN
emergingeconomies.BoeingisnowinvolvingIndianITfirmsinend-to-endsystemdesignwork—fromsystemsrequirementsdefinition,design,testing,certification,andsupport.Inalandmarkagreementsignedinearly2005withBoeing,HCLTechnologies,anIndianITandengineeringservicescompany,wasselectedto
providediversetechnologiesforthevarious787avionicssystemsincludingtheAirborneCollisionAvoidancesystem,displaysystems,crewalert-ingsystems,proximitywarningsystems,ground-basedsoftwaretools,andtheauxiliarypowerunit.BoeinghasalsopartneredwiththeIndianInstituteofScience,Bangalore,toconductresearchinaerospace
materials,structures,andmanufacturingtechnologies.Thesepartnershipsarenotaboutcost-cuttingandtheydonotinvolvelow-skilledjobs.Theyarepartnershipstodriveinnovation,andtheydemandveryhighlyskilledengineersandaerospacescientists.
Sofarinthisbook,wehavefocusedonthesearchforcreativityoutsidethe
boundariesofthefirm.But,astheBoeingexamplesuggests,theGlobalBrainalsotranscendstheboundariesofgeography.Inparticular,thereisvastuntappedbrainpowerintheemergingBRICeconomiesofBrazil,Russia,India,andChina.Asrecentlyasadecadeorsoago,geographicalbarrierspreventedfirmsoperatingintheUnitedStatesand
WesternEuropefromreachingouttotheglobaltalentpoolincountriessuchasIndia,China,andRussia.Inrecentyears,advancesinInternetandcommunicationstechnologieshavedramaticallychangedthispicture.TheGlobalBraincannowbeaccessedeffortlesslyoverawirehalfwayacrosstheworld.
InthewordsofTom
Friedman,thebest-sellingauthorandtheleadingchroni-clerofglobalization,wenowliveina“flatworld”—aninterconnectedworldwherethecompetitiveplayingfieldisbeingleveledwiththeadvancesofinformationtechnology,bringingemergingeconomieslikeIndiaandChinaontotheworldstage.1Althoughonecangetcarriedawaybythebreathlesshype
ofjour-nalistsandanalystsabouttheriseofemergingeconomies,thereisnodoubtthatnetwork-centricinnovationisrapidlybecomingaglobalphenomenon.
Moreimportantly,companiesintheemergingeconomieshavethepotentialtoplayimportantrolesinsuchglobalnetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives.
Whatarethetrendsdrivingtheglobalizationofinnovation?Whattypesofpartnerscanfirmstapintoastheyseektoglobalizetheirinnovationefforts?WhataretheopportunitiesforcompaniesincountriessuchasIndiaandChinatoparticipateinthevariousformsofglobalnetwork-centricinnovation?Howshouldcompaniesprepareforsuchglobalinnovation
opportunities?Thesearethequestionsthatweconsiderinthischapter.
CHAPTER11•GLOBALIZINGNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION:THEDRAGONANDTHETIGER
221
THEDRAGONANDTHETIGER:RISEOFCHINA
ANDINDIA
Almost40%oftheworld’spopulationlivesinChinaandIndia.Thisfacthastwoimportantimplicationsforglobalcommerce.Onthedemandside,thesecountriesareswiftlybecomingthemostimportantmarketsintheworldforawiderangeofproductsandservices.Onthesupplyside,thesecountrieshavealreadybecomethe
mostimportantsourcefortechnicalandscientifictalent.
Let’slookatthesetrendsinturn.
CONSUMERISMINTHEEMERGINGECONOMIES:THEMASSCLASS
Animportanthallmarkofanyrapidlydevelopingeconomyisitsprodigious
appetiteforconsumerproductsandservices.Consumerismhastakenonnewdimensionsinmostoftheemergingeconomies,particularlyinIndiaandChina.
Indeed,ithasledtotheemergenceofanewclassofconsumerthathasbeentermedtheMASSclass:“thehundredsofmillionsofglobalconsumerswhoare
nowunifiedintheirquestforthebestdealsonofferonaglobalscaleinvirtuallyeachB2Ccategory.”2HowbigisthisMASSclass?Considersomestatistics.
Itisprojectedthatby2015morethan800millionpeopleintheBRICcountrieswillhaveanannualincomethatisabove$3,000andby2025,approximately200millionwillhaveanannualincome
above$15,000.Suchprojectionsimplyamassivesurgeindemandforalltypesofconsumerproducts—basicgoodssuchasrefrigerators,airconditioners,cellphones,andTVsetsaswellashigher-pricedbrandedandluxuryproductsrangingfromMercedescarstoArmaniclothesandgoldjewelry.
Thisconsumerdemandisalreadyevident.In2006,
India’smiddle-incomegroupwaspeggedatapproximately260million,representingabout25%oftheoverallpopulation.Thisnumberisexpectedtogrowto628millionby2015.
Thismiddleclassislargelyresponsibleforthecurrent$450billionIndianconsumergoodsmarket(approximately65%ofthetotalGDP).
AnimportantpartoftheIndianconsumerclassistheyoungandeducatedpopulation—peoplelessthan30yearsofageandworkinginknowledge-intensivesectorssuchasinformationtechnology(IT)andbusinessprocessoutsourcing(BPO).Theseyoungandeducatedworkersearninganaverageof$600
amonth—arelativelyhigh
incomeinIndia—mightformthedrivingforceofconsumerisminIndia.Witharound2millionofthesepeoplespendingmorethanabillionandhalfdollarseverymonth,thedemandforofferingsranging222
THEGLOBALBRAIN
fromdesignerjeansandcosmeticstocomputersandcarshaveincreased
exponentially.
Thissurgingdemandforconsumerproductsintheemergingeconomieshascreatedimportantmarketopportunitiesforforeigncompanies.OnecompanythatunderstandstheimplicationsoftheexpandingconsumerismoftheBRIC
countriesisIkea,theSwedish
furnituregiant.ThecompanyhasopenedmegastoresincountriessuchasChinaandRussia.InChinaitself,thecompanyexpectstohaveatotalof10newstoresby2010—inBeijing,Guangdong,andShanghai’sPudongNewDistrict.
Inmanyoftheseemergingeconomies,peoplearealsohungryforinformation,creatingnewopportunities
forWesternmediacompanies,too.Forexample,theIowa-basedmediaconglomerateMeredithCorp.launchedanIndiaeditionofitsbest-sellingwomen’smagazine,BetterHomesandGardens,inearly2007.
Similarly,CondeNastPublicationsInc.,theNewYork-basedmediagiant,hasdecidedtopublishanIndianeditionofVoguemagazine.
TheemergenceoftheMASSclassthusimpliesnewmarketopportunitiesformultinationalconsumercompanies,suchasIkea,P&G,andJ&J—alsocallingforthecreationofnewinnovativeofferingstailoredtothesemarkets.However,thisdemandforinnovation—drivenbytheconsumerismoftheBRICcountries—alsohasaflipside.Therapidlyexpandingbaseofquality-
andtrend-consciousconsumersinIndia,China,andRussiaalsopresentsanotheropportunityforcompanies,onethatisdirectlyrelatedtonetwork-centricinnovation.Specifically,theemergingMASSclassrepresentsalargeandgrowingpoolofinnovatorswhosecreativityandtalentiswaitingtobetapped.
DEEPTECHNOLOGICALANDSCIENTIFICTALENT
Theemergingeconomies,particularlyinIndia,China,andRussia,havealsobecomeadeepreservoiroftechnologicalandscientificexpertiseinfieldssuchascomputerscience,mathematics,biotechnology,medicine,andenvironmentalscience.
ManyoftheWesterneconomiesarefacingtheeffectsofanolderandshrinkingworkforce—arapidlydepletingpoolofscientistsandtechnologists.Ontheotherhand,incountriessuchasIndiaandChina,thenumberofgraduatesintechnicalandengineeringprogramscontinuestoexpandexponentially.
CHAPTER11•GLOBALIZINGNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION:THEDRAGONANDTHETIGER
223
Considersomenumberstoputthingsinperspective.Indiahas270universitiesandseveralworld-classengineeringandresearchinstitutions.In2005,India
produced220,000engineerswithfour-yeardegrees,and195,000engineerswiththree-yeardiplomas.InChina,theannualoutputofengineeringinstitutionsiscloseto640,000graduates(ofwhichapproximately350,000arefrombachelor-leveldegreeprogramsandtheremainderfromassociate-equivalentprograms).Bycomparison,U.S.institutionsgraduateonlyabout70,000
engineeringstudentsannuallyandEuropeanUnioninstitutionstogethergraduateapproximately100,000students.3,4
Itis,thus,nowwidelyacknowledgedthatthebalanceofthegloballaborsupplyhasshiftedtotheemergingeconomies.Inthefuture,thisshiftislikelytobecomeevenmoreskewed.Forexample,ithasbeen
projectedthat97%ofthe438millionpeopletobeaddedtotheglobalworkforceby2050willcomefromdevelopingcountries.5Consequently,thecompetitionforsuchglobaltalenthasbecomemoreintense—asWesternmultinationalsaswellasindigenouscompaniesintheseemergingeconomiestrytotapintothesenewsourcesoftalent.
However,itisnotjusttherun-of-the-millengineeringorscientifictalentthatthesecountriesnowpossess.Theyarealsobecomingthesourceofmorespecializedtechnologicalandscientificexpertise.Forexample,Russiahasanabundanceofrocketscientistswhoarecapableofdoingveryhigh-endmathematicswithwiderangingapplications—infinancialandsecurities
industry,softwareindustry,andbiotechnology.Russiaisbecomingarichsourceoftalentinanichearea—complexmathematicsandcomputing.Similarly,witharapidlygrowingtalentbaseforR&Dinmicroprocessors,Indiahasevolvedintoaglobalcenterforhigh-endmicroprocessordesign.
Theimportanceofthiscombinationofbothgeneral
andnichetechnologicalandscientifictalentforWesternmultinationalsisperhapsquiteevident.Forexample,IndiaisalreadyhometoR&Dcentersofmorethan125Fortune500
companies.However,thisvasttalentbasealsoposesimportantopportunitiesforcompaniesintheseverysamecountries—opportunitiesforassuming
importantrolesinglobalnetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives.
NON-PROFITANDNON-GOVERNMENTALORGANIZATIONS
AthirdtrendevidentintheBRICcountriesistherapidemergenceofanewtypeofplayercapableofparticipatingintheglobalinnovationinitiatives—
non-profitandnon-governmentalorganizations.
224
THEGLOBALBRAIN
ThemarketopennessandtheembracingofglobalcapitalismintheBRICcountrieshasalsobeenaccompaniedbythebirthofahostofnon-profitandnon-governmentalorganizations
(NGOs)tochampiontheinterestsofvariedstakeholdersinthesociety.ManyoftheNGOswereestablishedovertheyearstoprotestskewedregionaldevelopmentplansorcorporatepoliciesthatnegativelyimpactcertainsectionsofthesocietyandtopromotesustainabledevelopmentpoliciesandinitiatives.Forexample,NGOs’effortshavefocused
onliabilityinthecaseofoilspills,childlabor,violationofhumanrightsincertainindustries,foodqualitystandards,andsoon.
Overthelastseveralyears,however,manyofthesesameNGOshaveevolvedandadoptedamoreopenagendathatincludespartnershipwithcorporateentitiestopromoteoradvancemutuallybeneficialsocialand
economicgoals.6
Forexample,considertheinitiativespursuedbyHewlettPackard’sEmergingMarketSolutions(EMS)unit.7TheEMSteamlaunchedHP’si-community(inclusioncommunity)programtodevelopandintroduceITsolutionsthatareparticularlyrelevantforemergingmarketsanddirectlysupportsocialand
economicdevelopment.InIndia,thecompanypartneredwithNGOstosupporttheoperationofacommunityinformationcenter(CIC)intheremotetownofKuppaminthestateofTamilNadu.Similarly,inSouthAfrica,thecompanypartneredwiththeInternationalComputerDrivingLicense(ICDL)
Foundation,anNGO,toestablishatrainingand
testingcenterforOpenSourceSoftwareattheMogalakwenaHPi-community.
Similarly,Microsoft’spartnershipwiththeIndianNGOPrathamtodiffusecomputertechnologyinIndianvillages,Nestlé’spartnershipwithNGOsinPerutodistributenutritionallyfortifiedfoodproductstothepoor,and
ABNAMRO’spartnershipwithNGOAccionInternationaltopursuemicrofinancebusinessinLatinAmericaallindicatehowtheconvergenceofthegoalsandobjectivesofcorporateorganizationsandNGOscanleadtouniqueopportunitiesforvaluecreationintheemergingeconomies.AsthenumberandthediversityoftheNGOsintheemerging
economiesincrease,companiesarelikelytofindawiderrangeofsuchpartnershipopportunities—partnershipsthatextendtonetworkcentricinnovationinitiatives,too.
EMERGINGECONOMIESANDNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION
OPPORTUNITIES
Thesetrendsevidentintheemergingeconomiestellusaboutthevaluablerolescompaniesinthesecountriescanplayinnetwork-centricinnovation.LetusCHAPTER11•GLOBALIZINGNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION:THEDRAGONANDTHETIGER
225
exploresomeofthese
opportunitiesinmoredetailbygoingthroughthefourmodelsofnetwork-centricinnovation.
OPPORTUNITIESRELATEDTOTHEORCHESTRAMODEL
AswediscussedinChapter5,“TheOrchestraModel,”companiescaneitherplayaleadingrole(forexample,platformleader)oran
adaptorroleintheOrchestramodel.Giventhehighlyspecializedexpertiseandcompetenciesevidentinthecompaniesintheemergingeconomies,webelievetheadapterrole(complementor,innovator)promisesthebestopportunityforthesecompaniestoparticipateinnetwork-centricinnovation.
Companiescanleveragetheircapabilitiesinniche
technologyareastomakeuniquevaluecontributionsasacomplementortoaplatform-basedglobalinnovationnetwork.HCLTechnologies,aleadingIndia-basedITservicescompany,providesagoodillustrationofthisrole.
HCLTechnologiesispartofHCLEnterprise,a$2.7billionglobaltechnologybehemothfoundedin1976as
oneofIndia’sfirstITgaragestartups.Thecompanyhasawiderangeofofferings,muchofitrelatingtosoftware-ledITsolutions,businessprocessoutsourcing,andinfrastructuremanagement.AkeypartofitsbusinessfocusesonR&Dservices,particularlyinthesemiconductorsandthetelecomsectors.
Overtheyears,thecompany
hasacquiredconsiderableexpertiseonVLSIandhardwaredesignbyworkingonsystemdesignsolutionsforverticalindustriessuchasconsumerelectronicsandtelecom.Drawingonitsuniqueinternalexpertise,thecompanyrecentlydecidedtofocusonbuildingadd-onandcomplementarysolutionsforIBM’sPowerArchitecture.In2005,thecompanyopenedaPowerArchitectureDesign
Center(thefirstsuchoutsideIBM’sownwalls)thatoffersSystem-on-Chip(SoC)solutionsonthePowerplatformforawiderangeoforiginalequipmentmanufacturers(OEMs).Todothis,thecompanysublicensesIBM’sPowerPC405andPowerPC440embeddedmicro-
processorcores,andthenbuildsonthemtocreate
innovativeofferingstailoredforspecificmarkets.Thus,inthisinitiative,HCL’sfocusistoplaytheroleofacomplementor—bybringingitsuniquetechnologicalexpertiseinsemiconductordesigntoexpandthereachofIBM’sPowerArchitecturetoareassuchasconsumerdevicesandwirelessnetworking.Suchanapproachthatinvolveschannelingspecialized
expertisetoadvancetheinnovationagendaofaplatformleaderisonethatwouldbeofparticularappealtocompaniesintheemergingeconomies.
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THEGLOBALBRAIN
Similarly,manycompaniesincountriessuchasIndia,Russia,andChinahave
expertiseinnicheareasthatcanbeeffectivelydeployedtoplaytheroleofaninnovatorintheOrchestra-Integratormodelofnetwork-centricinnovation.
Forexample,inthebeginningofthischapter,wedescribedhowHCLTechnologiesplayssucharoleasaninnovatorinBoeing’s787Dreamlinerprojectbycontributing
softwaretechnologycomponents.
Wipro,anIndiantechnologyservicesconglomerate,offersanotherexampleoftheinnovatorrole.Thecompanyhassetupa10,000-strongProductEngineeringSolutions(PES)groupthatoffershigh-endR&Dservicesinnicheareastoclientsinawiderangeofindustries—from
semiconductorandconsumerelectronicstoautomotiveandmedicaldevices.Muchofitsofferingsrelatetoplayingtheroleofaninnovatorbyputtingtouseitsextendedengineeringcapabilities.Forexample,recentlyaU.S.-basedgamingdevicevendorwantedtodevelopahigh-performanceacceleratorchipaspartofitsnext-generationproduct.Insteadofestablishinganin-house
hardwareteam,thecompanytappedintoWipro’sdeepexpertiseinVLSIdesignanditsEagleWisiondesignmethodologythataimstoreduceiterationsinthedesignofsiliconchips.TheclientfirmintegratedWipro’scapabilitieswithitsownproprietaryarchitecturetodefinetheSoC,designit,andtestit.Wipro’sengineerswereabletoproduceazero-defectchipsampleinjust15
months,therebyhelpingtheclientfirmtoreducethecycletimebyfourtofivemonths.8
Stillanotherexampleofsuchanadapterroleisprovidedbythepharmaceuticalindustry.Clinicaltrials—testingnewmedicationsforsafetyandefficacyinhumanpatientstogaintherequiredapprovalsfromgovernmentagencies—formanimportant,
expensive,andtime-consumingphaseinthedevelopmentofnewdrugs.ThepotentialtoleveragespecializedcapabilitiesandexpertiseresidentincountriessuchasIndiainclinicaltrialshaveattractedahostoflargepharmacompanies.Forexample,WyethPharmaceuticalsInc.haspartneredwithAccenture’sLifeSciencesCenterinBangaloreto
enhanceitsclinicaltrials.9AcomprehensiveteamofIndia-basedAccenturelifesciencesexperts—medicaldoctors,PhDs,pharmacists,statisticians,andsoon—workonthedesign,development,execution,andthereportingofclinicaltrialsforclientslikeWyeth.
Similarly,SIROClinphamisanIndianCRO(contractresearchorganization),
establishedin1996,thatoffersafull-suiteofspecialistservicesinclinicaltrialstocatertoglobalbiotechnologyandpharmaceuticalcompanies.10Itleveragesitsstrongcapabilitiesinclinicaltrialstoplugintothedrugdevelopmentprojectsoflargepharmacompaniesandhelpthemacceleratethedevelopmentprocessaswellasreducethedevelopment
costs.InthecaseofWyeth,itspartnershipwithAccenturehelpedthecompanyreducetheaveragetimetoprepareCHAPTER11•GLOBALIZINGNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION:THEDRAGONANDTHETIGER
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clinicaltrialreportsfromsixmonthstoafewweeks—each
daysavedtranslatesintoasavingsofabout$1millionindevelopmentcost.
OPPORTUNITIESRELATEDTOTHECREATIVEBAZAARMODEL
Rapidlyincreasingconsumerismintheemergingeconomiesholdstwoimplicationsforcompanies—oneveryobviousandthe
otherlessobvious.First,itisveryevidentthattheMASSclassisdrivingthedemandforinnovativeproductsandservices;thatis,innovativeofferingsthataretailoredtofittheneedsoftheemergingmarkets.Second,theincreasingnumberofknowledgeableandarticulatecustomersinthesemarketsalsoindicatestheconsiderablepotentialforcompaniestosource
innovativeideasfromtheseverysamemarkets.Thissecondimplicationmightbelessobvioustoday,butmayhavefar-reachingsignificanceinthefuture.Cost-effectiveinnovationscreatedinemergingeconomiesmightfindahomeinthemarketsofthedevelopednations.Letusexaminethisimplicationinmoredetailandunderstandtheopportunitiesthatthis
presentstocompanies.
TheMASSclassincountriessuchasIndiaandChinahasattractedahordeofWesterncompaniestothesemarkets.However,someoftheearlyinitiativesofthesefirmsendedupasfailuresthatonfurtheranalysisindicatealackofunderstandingofthemarketneeds.Forexample,considerKellogg’sfirstforayintotheIndianmarketin
1995withitsCornFlakesproduct.Despiteawell-knownbrandnameandareasonablypricedproduct,theresultswerequitedis-appointing.Saleswerelessthan20%oftheinitialtarget.Whatwentwrong?Thecompanyoverlookedasimplefact.Indianspreferhotmilkintheircerealandaproductmadeforcoldmilkwasnotveryappealing.Itwasonlywhenitrealizedthis
andrevampeditsproductthatKelloggfoundsuccessintheIndianmarket.
Theseandothersuchexamples(forexample,McDonald’sintroductionof
“MaharajaMac,”andsoon)indicatetheneedforcompanies—bothforeignanddomestic—tocarefullyunderstandtheuniqueneedsoftheseemergingmarkets
andtoinnovatebeforetryingtopushproductsandbrandsthathavefoundsuccesselsewhere.Theseexamplesalsoindicatethecriticalimportanceofthevastanddiversesetofcustomerinnovatorsinthesemarketswhoseideasandinsightscanbetappedtocreatethenewofferings.Further,ideassourcedfromsuchcustomers(andamateurinventors)mightevenhavewider
appealtoothermarkets.
Thisopportunityhasimportantimplicationsforlargecompaniesthatmightplaytheroleofaninnovationportal.Forexample,inIndia,companiessuchas228
THEGLOBALBRAIN
HindustanLeverLimited(aUnileversubsidiaryinIndia),theTataGroup,andReliance
Industrieswithlong-termpresenceandwell-developedbrandimageinthelocalmarketsareparticularlywellsuitedtopursuesuchopportunities.
Thesecompanieshavethecapabilitiesandtheinfrastructuretoseekoutinnovativeideasandtechnologiesfromindependentinventorsandcommercializethemforlocal
aswellasglobalmarkets.
However,aswesawinChapter6,“TheCreativeBazaarModel,”tobeaneffectiveinnovationportal,largecompaniesneedthehelpofsmallercompaniesthatcanplaytheroleofinnovationintermediaries.Intermediariessuchasideabrokersandinnovationcapitalistscansourceinnovativeideasfrom
inventornetworks,mediatetheinteractionswithlargecompanies,andaddvaluetotheinnovationprocess.UnliketheNorthAmericancontext,intheemergingeconomiesveryfewsuchentitiesexist,andassuch,webelievethispresentsapromisingopportunityforsmallcompaniestoplayaroleinnetwork-centricinnovation.
ConsiderIdeawicket,aNewDelhi-basedinnovationintermediarylaunchedinearly2007.Theyoungcompanyfocusesonplayingtheroleofanideabroker—
itallowsindependentinventorstoposttheirinnovativeideasonitsWebportalandthenprovidescompanies(subscribers)accesstothoseideas.Astheinventornetworks
establishedbycompaniessuchasIdeawicketexpand,theopportunitiesforcompaniestotapintosuchconsumercreativityintheemergingeconomieswillalsogrow.
Smallfirmsthatalreadyplaycomplementaryactivitiesinthisspace—marketresearchfirms,innovationconsultingfirms,andsoon—mightalsobeuniquelypositionedto
assumesuchintermediaryrolesgiventheirknowledgeofthecustomersinthesecountries.Theywouldneedtodevelopdeeperrelationshipswithcustomernetworksandwithamateurinventors,andaswedescribedindetailinChapter6,theycangainseveralinsightsfromtheexperienceofU.S.-
basedinnovation
intermediariessuchasBIG,EvergreenIP,andIgniteIP.
Thepromiseofsourcinginnovationextendsbeyondtheconsumerproductsectortotechnology-basedproducts,too.Forexample,considerthesoftwareindustryinRussia.Withsomanysmallsoftwarestartupsandhighlysophisticatedtalent,thereareboundtobeanumberofinnovativeproduct
andtechnologyideasthathavenotprogressedduetolackofcommercializationexpertiseandresources.InnovationintermediariesthatareabletoseekoutsuchideasandbringthemtotheattentionofglobalsoftwarevendorsmightbeabletopursueaveryusefulandprofitablebusinessinIPplacement.Suchanopportunityisnot,however,limitedtothesoftware
industry.Technology-basedCHAPTER11•GLOBALIZINGNETWORK-CENTRICINNOVATION:THEDRAGONANDTHETIGER
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industriesrangingfromenvironmentalmanagement,energy,andtelecomtomedicaldevicesandaerospacearealsoprime
contextsforlaunchingsuchIP
placementbusinesses.
OPPORTUNITIESRELATEDTOTHEJAMCENTRALMODEL
Aswenotedpreviously,oneofthehallmarksoftheemergingeconomiesisthelargenumberoftechnologistsandscientists
invariedfields.Thisvastscientificresourcepresentsnumerousopportunitiesforcommunity-ledinnovationinitiativesthatarefocusedonsolvingproblemsuniquetotheemergingeconomies.Infacilitatingandsupportingsuchcommunity-ledinnovationinitiatives,companiesaswellasnon-profitorganizationscanplayaveryvaluableroleasinnovationsponsors(for
example,byprovidingaccesstovariedresourcesincludingcomputingcapacity,knowledgebases,innovationtools,infrastructure,andsoon).
ManyoftheissuesthatcountriessuchasIndiaandChinafacerelatetoprovidingbetterinfrastructuretotheirvastpopulation—fromdrinkingwatertohealthcareand
education.Mostsuchissuesdemanduniquesolutions—
solutionsthatleveragelocalresourcesandcapabilitiesinacost-effectivemanner.
ManyNGOsandothersuchagenciesareinvolvedinaddressingthesechallenges.However,astheseentitieshaverealized,thecriticalfactorinaddressingsuchchallengesisnotjustthe
availabilityoffinancialortechnologicalresourcesbuttheingenuityandinnovativenessthatcanbeharnessedfromthe
“community”inordertocomeupwithnovelsolutions.Thus,thekeytaskistofashiontherightenvironmentforthecommunitytocometogetherandcontributetowardsuchinnovativesolutions.
C.K.Prahalad’srecentworkfocusedonthepartnershipsbetweencorporateorganizationsandNGOsinemergingeconomiestodevelopnewbusinessesaimedatthemarketsatthe“bottomofthepyramid.”11WebelieveNGOsandcompaniescanextendsuchpartnershipstonetwork-centricinnovationinitiativesbysponsoringandsupportingsuchcommunityinnovation
initiativesthatmighthavebothsocialandeconomicgoals.
Inassumingsucharoleasinnovationsponsor,bothNGOsaswellascorporateentitieswouldneedtobringuniquecapabilitiestoadvancethecommunity-basedinnovationagenda.NGOscanbringtheirextensivereachintothecommunitythatfacesthe
particularissueandislikelytobenefitfromtheinnovation.Theycanalsobringsignificantcredibilitytotheinnovationinitiative,230
THEGLOBALBRAIN
therebyappealingtoandattractingthecommunitymemberswhoarelikelytocontributetotheinnovation.Ontheotherhand,corporate
organizationscanbringparticularexpertiseandtechnologiestoorganizeandfacilitatethecommunityinteractions.Theycanalsobringcapabilitiesthatwouldsupportthedevelopmentandtheimplementationoftheinnovation.
RecalltheTropicalDiseaseInitiative(TDI)discussedinChapter7,“TheJamCentralModel.”Oneoftheproject
ideasintheTDIrelatestoadiseasecalledChagas—ahumantropicalparasiticdiseasethatplaguesSouthAmerica.
Becauseitisahighlylocalizeddiseaseandonethatdoesn’thavethesamevisibilityas,say,malaria,itdoesn’tattracttheattentionandfocusofresearchersworldwide.ThisisasituationwhereNGOsandcorporate
organizationscouldstepintohelpsponsororsupporttheinnovationactivities.Forexample,NGOsincountriesaffectedbythisdisease(forexample,Venezuela)wouldbewellpositionedtoreachouttotheaffectedcommunitiesandhelpclosethegapbetweentheresearchersparticipatingintheTDIandthesecommunities.
Pharmaceuticalcompanies,ontheotherhand,cansponsororchampionsuchresearchinitiativesbyprovidingaccesstorelatedproprietarydatabasesormakingavailableparticularresearchtoolsortechnologies.
Withadiversesetofissuesandchallengesbeingtakenupbysuchcommunity-ledinnovationinitiativesinthe
emergingeconomies,theopportunitiesforcompaniesandNGOstoassumetheroleofinnovationsponsorandpartnerwithoneanotherarealsolikelytobeequallydiverse.
OPPORTUNITIESRELATEDTOTHEMODSTATIONMODEL
Finally,technologyandinnovationplatformsthat
havebeen“opened”upforcommunity-basedinitiativesalsopresentuniqueopportunitiestosmallcompaniesintheemergingeconomiestoparticipateasinnovatorsintheMOD
Stationmodelofnetwork-centricinnovation.
Manysmallcompaniesinthesecountriespossessvaluableexpertiseinoneor
morenicheareasthatarerelatedtosuchtechnologyplatformsandcancontributetotheinnovationinitiatives.Forexample,asyousawinChapter8,
“TheMOD(“MODification”)StationModel,”someoftheinnovatorparticipantsinSun’sOpenSPARCinitiativearesmallcompaniesbasedinEurope.
Similarly,considerSugarCRM—theCalifornia-basedcompanythatofferscommercialandopensourcesolutionsinthecustomerrelationshipmanagementarea.Apartfromthecommercial(proprietary)versionofitsflagshipCRM
solution,thecompanyalsooffersanopensourceversion(SugarOpenSource)CHAPTER11•
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231
thatdependsonthecontributionsoftheglobalsoftwaredevelopmentcommunity.TheSugarCRMcommunityhasgrowntomorethan7,000externalcontributors,manyofthem
intheemergingeconomies.Communitymemberscancontributetothecoreopensourceproductitselfortheycancontributetotheadd-onmodulesandotherextensionstotheopensourceproduct.Suchadd-onmodulesandextensionsenhancethereachandcapabilitiesofthecoreproduct—forexample,portingtheproducttootherplatformsandlanguages.Smallfirms(aswellas
individuals)intheemergingeconomieshavebeeninstrumentalinmakingtranslationoftheSugarCRMopensourceproductintomorethan40differentlanguagesaroundtheworld,therebyfacilitatingeasieruseoftheproductincountriessuchasIndia,China,Russia,andKorea.Inmanycases,thesecontributorshavenotonlygainedvisibilitybutalsoattractedadditional
consultingandserviceprojectsfromcompaniesusingtheSugarCRMsolutions.
SuchexamplesindicatethepotentialfortechnologyfirmsincountriessuchasIndiaandChinatoplugintosuchglobal“open”innovationnetworksandgarnerglobalvisibilityandexposurethatmightinturnleadtootherinnovation
opportunitieswithmoredirecteconomicreturns.
GLOBALINNOVATIONNETWORKSWITH“CHINDIA”ASAHUB
Indiscussingglobalizationofnetwork-centricinnovation,ourprimaryfocushasbeenonunderstandingthespecificrolesandnetwork-centricinnovationopportunitiesforcompaniesintheemerging
economies,suchasIndiaandChina.However,thereissomethingdeeperandbroaderatwork.Wearewit-nessingaglobalrestructuringofresearchanddevelopmentactivitiesincorporations,resultinginthecreationofglobalinnovationnetworks.NolongerisR&DgeographicallyconfinedtoRedmond(inthecaseofMicrosoft),Tokyo(inthecaseofSony),orMunich(in
thecaseofSiemens).Globalcorporationsarecreating“centersofexcellence”withinspecificgeographiesthattakeadvantageofinnovation-relatedcapabilitiesthatcanbesourcedlocallyandberelevanttolocalmarkets.Thesegeographicallydistributedcentersofexcellence,createdincollaborationwithanetworkoflocalpartners,canthenbe
stitchedtogethertocreateaglobalnetworkofinnovation.
Thecomputerindustryoffersanexcellentexampleoftheseglobalnetworksinaction.Inthelaptopcomputermarket,name-brandmanufacturerssuchasHP,IBM,andApplehaveforsometimereliedonglobalinnovationnetworkstodesign(yes,design!),develop,andmanufacturetheirproducts.Thecaseof
QuantaComputerillustrateshowsuchnetworksevolveandoperate.
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QuantaComputerisaTaipei-basedcompany,establishedin1988,thatspecializesinthedesignanddevelopmentoflaptop/notebookcomputers.12Thecompany
hasa3,500-strongin-housedesignandengineeringteamthatchurnsoutfullyfunctioningprototypesofnewlaptop/notebookcomputermodels.Theobjectiveisnottodesignthenextradicalproduct.Instead,thefocusisondesigninganddevelopingthenextversionofthelaptoporthenotebookcomputer.Clientfirms,whichincludelargeU.S.computervendors,chose
theirmodelsfromtheseprototypesdesignedbyQuanta.Afterthemodelispickedbyaclientfirm,Quantawillalsomanagethemanufacturingandlogisticsactivities.Thecompanydoesn’tdothemanufacturingitself.Instead,itparcelsoutthejobtoanetworkofmanufacturers,mostofthembasedinChina.Byleveragingitsdesigncapabilitiesandby
establishingandcoordinatingsuchaglobalinnovationnetwork,Quantahasbeenabletobecometheworld’slargestoriginaldesignmanufacturer(ODM)fornotebookcomputers.
Increasinglythismodelisemerginginotherindustries,too—notably,inconsumerelectronics,pharmaceuticals,andtheautomotiveindustry.OfficeMax,thethird-largest
officeproductsretailerintheUnitedStateswithannualsalesof$9billion,isagoodillustrationofaglobalinnovationnetworkinaction.13
OfficeMaxhasembarkedonanaggressiveprivatelabelstrategyinanefforttodifferentiateitselffromcompetitorslikeStaplesandOfficeDepot.Privatelabelproductscommandmuch
highermarginsthannationalbrands,becausetheretailerdoesnothavetopaythebrandpremiumfornationalbrands.
Traditionally,privatelabelproductsaresoldprimarilyonpriceandarelabeledwiththeretailer’sbrand.OfficeMaxwasnoexception.Mostofitsprivatelabelproductswereimitationsofnationalbrands,mostwere
sourcedfromoverseassupplierswhoservetheentireindustry,andalmostallofthemwerelabeledwiththeOfficeMaxstorename.ButOfficeMaxwantedtodosomethingdifferent.Itdecidedtocreateanewbrandfromthegroundup,andtocontroltheentireprocessfrominceptionthroughdesignandproduction.ThewayOfficeMaxwentaboutthisprocessillustratesthe
powerofglobalinnovationnetworks.
TherewerethreeactorsintheprojecttocreateOfficeMax’sfirstdesign-basedprivatelabelbrand,TUL—aselectionofnewpremiumModernist
design–inspiredpensanddry-erasemarkers.OfficeMaxprovidedtheexpertiseinmerchandising
andretailing.ThesecondactorwasGravityTank,aChicago-baseddesignconsultingfirmthatOfficeMaxhiredtoprovidetheexpertiseincustomerinsights,industrialdesign,andbrandidentity.GravityTankconductedethnographicresearchobservingavarietyofexternalofficeworkers,CHAPTER11•GLOBALIZINGNETWORK-CENTRIC
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talkingwithofficemanagerswhoboughtstationerysuppliesinbulk,andspeakingtostoreclerksandcustomersalike.Thisresearchledtotheinsightofcreatingalineofwritinginstrumentsthatwouldservethegoalof“everyday
premium”—instrumentsthatwouldbeanexpressionofpersonalityandwouldcreatethepersonalattachmentthatpeoplefelttowardsveryexpensivefoun-tainpenstothelower-endrollerballpens.ThethirdsetofactorswastheChinesecompanieswhowereexpertsatlow-costhigh-qualitymanufacturingandlogistics.OfficeMaxandGravityTankcommunicatedtheuniquedesignand
identityoftheTULlinetothesuppliers,whowouldotherwisehavecreatedlook-alikepenswithidenticalpartsthattheyselltoallretailers,withtheonlydifferencebeingtheretailer’slogoemblazonedontheside.
AcombinationoftheretailingskillsofOfficeMax,thedesignskillsofGravityTankandthemanufacturingskillsofChinesesuppliers
allowedOfficeMaxtocreateaproprietarybrandthathasbecomeastrongdifferentiatorforthem,becauseitisdesignedanddevelopedbytheretailer,andisavailableexclusivelyatOfficeMaxstores.Thisexampleshowsthepowerofnetwork-centricinnovationintheglobalcontext.AstheOfficeMaxcaseshows,globalizingnetworkcentricinnovationnotonlytakes
advantageofthenetworkpartners’differentialinnovationcapabilitiesandtalent(asintraditionalNCI),butalsooftheirlowercoststructureduetothegeographiclocation.Ineffect,themodelillustratesthepotentialfor“globalresourcearbitrage”innetwork-centricinnovation.Thebenefitsofresourcearbitragecaneitherbemillionsofdollarsinproduct
developmentsavingsand/orweeksandmonthsshavedfromtheproductdevelopmenttime.
Asthequality,diversity,andthesophisticationofR&DservicesavailablefromIndiaandChinarapidlyincrease,wearelikelytoseemoreandmoreglobalnetwork-centricinnovationinitiativescenteredonserviceofferings.Forexample,bytheendof
2007,fully31%ofglobalR&DstaffwillbeinIndiaandChina.14
Similarly,accordingtoarecentstudybyBoozAllenHamiltonandNASSCOM
(India’ssoftwareindustryassociation),Indiacouldcaptureasmuchas25%to30%oftheworld’sengineeringservicesmarket,whichwouldmean$50
billioninservicesrelatedtoengineering,design,andR&D.15AndChinaisnotfarbehind.
AlloftheseexamplespointtotheincorporationofIndia-China(or“Chindia”16)asanimportanthubinglobalinnovationnetworks,aswellasanincreasingefforttointegratethecomplementaryR&Dandengineeringservicesfromthesetwo
countriestocreateinnovativeofferingsrapidlyandcosteffectivelyfortheglobalmarket.
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PREPARINGFORTHESEGLOBALOPPORTUNITIES
Manyofthetrendsandtherelatedopportunitiesthatwe
havediscussedtillnowareunfoldingrightnowintheseeconomies.Theinterestingquestionthenis,howshouldcompaniesprepareforsuchglobalinnovationopportunities?
InChapter9,“DecidingWhereandHowtoPlay,”andChapter10,“PreparingtheOrganization,”wediscussedindetailthevariousissuesrelatedtoorganizational
preparednessfornetwork-centricinnovation.Alltheseissuesassumerelevanceintheglobalizationcontext,too.
Companiesfirstneedtocarefullyexamineanddecidewhatspecificinnovationroletheycanplayinsuchglobalnetworksgiventheiruniqueresourcesandcapabilities.Wehighlightedsomeofthemorerelevantrolesfor
companiessituatedintheemergingeconomies.Managersneedtoexaminetheappropriatenessofsuchrolesandunderstandtheunderlyingissuesandchallenges.Forexample,aswediscussedinChapter9,companiesthatareexploringthepotentialtoplayadaptorrolesneedtoexaminetwokeyissues.Oneisdeterminingthenatureoftheconnectionbetweena
company’sspecializedcapability(thatis,itscontribution)andthenetwork(ortheinnovationplatform).Thesecondconsiderationinevaluatingtheadapterroleshouldbethepotentialtoacquireadditionalexpertisefromtheirinteractionswithothernetworkmembers—inotherwords,whatisthelearningopportunity?Thisissueisparticularlyimportantforcompaniesin
theemergingeconomiesasparticipationinglobalnetwork-centricinnovationinitiativesmightpavethewayfortheacquisitionofnewcapabilitiesanddiversificationofofferings.
Pluggingintotheglobalnetwork-centricinnovationinitiativesrequiresmorethanjusttechnicalorengineeringexpertise.Italsorequiresorganizationaland
managementcapabilitiesthatenablethecompanytooperateeffectivelyinthenetworkandtoappropriatethevaluegenerated.InChapter10,wediscussedtherelatedissuesrangingfromorganizationalcultureandstructuretoinnovationprocessesandtechnologies/tools.Theseissuesassumerelevancehere,too.
Forexample,considerrelationalskills.Manyofthecompaniesintheemergingeconomiespossesslimitedcollaborativeexperience,particularlywithregardtoparticipatinginlargeinnovationnetworksthatcrossnationalboundaries.
Mismanagingthechallengesrelatedtoregionalculturalissuescouldimpedeacompany’ssuccessin
participatinginanetwork-centricinnovationinitiative.
Thus,companiesneedtoinvestconsiderabletimeandresourcestodevelopappropriaterelationshipmanagementcapabilities.
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Similarly,manyofthesmallercompaniesmightalsolackformalinternalinnovationmanagementsystemsandprocessesandmightbefacedwithsteeplearningcurvesassociatedwithparticipationinlarge-scalecollaborativetechnologydevelopmentprojects.Aswediscussedinearlierchapters,
harmonizationoftheinnovationprocessesacrossthenetworkmembersisimportantandassumesgreatersignificancewhensuchnetworksareglobalinscope.Alloftheseissuesindicatetheneedtocarefullyidentifytherequisitecapabilitiesappropriatetotherole(describedindetailinChapter10)andtodevelopthem.
CONCLUSION
MuchhasbeenwritteninrecentyearsabouttheburgeoningimpactofcountriessuchasIndiaandChinaontheworldeconomy.Forexample,a2004
GoldmanSachsreport17projectedthattheBRICeconomies’shareofworldgrowthwouldrisefrom20%in2003tomorethan40%in
2025.Thesamereportalsoprojectedthattheirtotalweightintheworldeconomy(expressedasashareoftheglobalmarketcapitalization)wouldrisefromapproximately10%in2004tomorethan20%in2025.Suchpredictionshelptounderlinethepathofrapidgrowthanddevelopmentthatthesecountriesareon.However,whatisperhapsevenmoreevidentrightnow
istheimpactofthesecountriesonglobalinnovation.
Inthischapter,weoutlinedthedifferentwaysinwhichglobalnetwork-centricinnovationinitiativescouldincorporatethecapabilitiesandexpertiseresidentintheemergingeconomies.Thespecificimplementationofthesedifferentinnovationrolesmightevolveoverthe
yearsascompaniesexperimentwithdifferentbusinessmodels.However,onefactremainscertain—emerging
economies,ledbyIndiaandChina,willbecomecentralplayersincreatingglobalnetworksofinnovationincomingyears.
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ConcludingThoughtsand
Actionsfor“Monday”
Morning…
Westartedthisbookbyoutliningtheinnovationcrisisthatmany
companiesarefacingasaresultofdecliningR&Dproductivityontheonehand
andthequickeningpaceofcompetitionontheother
hand.CompaniessuchasDell,Kraft,andMerckaregrapplingwith
theinnovationcrisis.Whilethesehigh-profilecompanieshavegot-
tenalotofpressbecausetheyhavefallenonhardtimes,theinno-
vationcrisisisnotlimitedtoafewlargecompanies.Indeed,
companieslargeandsmallacrossawiderangeofindustriesarefac-
ingsimilarproblems.
Isyourcompanyfacinganinnovationcrisis?Askyourselfthefol-
lowingquestions:
■
Haveyouseenasteepincreaseinnewproductdevelopment
costsinrecentyears?
■
AreyouseeingadeclineintheproductivityofR&D
dollars
spentbyyourcompany?
■
Areyoufacedwithshrinkinglifecyclesforyourproducts?
■
Areyourproductsgettingcommoditizedfasterthaninthe
past?
■
Isyourcommercializationcostfornewofferingsatleast
twicethatofthebest-in-classcompetitor?
237
238
THEGLOBALBRAIN
■
Isyourconcept-to-commercializationtimeatleasttwiceaslongasthebest-in-classcompetitor?
■
AreyoufacedwithunfamiliarcompetitorsfromChinaandIndiawho
havesignificantlylowerdevelopmentandmanufacturingcoststhan
yourcompany?
■
Areyoufindingitmoredifficultandmoreexpensivetohirehigh-qualityengineeringandscientifictalent?
■
Areyoufindingthat,evenwithabiggernumberofprojectsinyourpipeline,youarenotabletodeliverenough“hit”productstothemarket?
■
Overall,areyoufindingthatyourinnovationprocessisnotuptomeetinginvestorgrowthexpectations?
Ifyouanswered“yes”toamajorityofthesequestions,welcometotheinnovationcrisis.YouarejoiningtheranksofcompanieslikeMotorola,whichhasseenthepriceofitswildlypopularRazrphoneplummetfromahighof$500whenthephonewasintroducedinNovember2004,to$200inmid-2005,andfinallytolessthan$50bytheendof2006.Inthelastquarterof2006,Motorola
sold48%moreRazrphonesthanintheyear-agoquarter,butitsrevenuesstillfell.Tostemtheerosion,Motorolaintroducedafollow-upproductcalledtheKrzr,butthiswasseenasanincrementalproductthatgotcommoditizedevenfaster.Theresult—theveryfutureofMotorolaisatstake.RemembertheRedQueeneffectthatwedescribedinChapter1,“ThePowerof
Network-Centricity”?ThisisanexampleoftheRedQueeneffectinaction.
OrperhapsyourcompanyislikeGeneralMotors,whichoffersthelowest-pricedcarintheUnitedStates,the$10,560ChevroletAveo,whileanIndianautocompany,TataMotors,isworkingonacarthatitaimstosellfor$2,500.
The“people’scar,”beingdevelopedwiththeingenuityofIndianautomotiveengineersandthedramaticallylowerdevelopmentcostsinIndia,mightrivaltheFordModelTortheVolkswagenBeetleasabreakthroughinaffordabilityandberesponsibleforbringingmillionsofnewcustomersintotheautomobilemarket.1Althoughthetinyand
underpoweredTatacarmightneverbesoldintheUnitedStates,TataMotorswillcertainlylearnvaluablelessonsitcanputtouseincreatingcheapercarstargetedatWesternmarkets.Thisisthefaceofglobalcompetition.
Themultipledimensionsoftheinnovationcrisis—cost,timetomarket,quality,creativity—combineto
createamultipliereffectthatcanjeopardizeyourcompany’sfuture.Tosecureitsfuture,youneedtolookoutsideyourfirmforideas,technologies,andproducts.YouneedtoharnessthepoweroftheGlobalCHAPTER12•CONCLUDINGTHOUGHTSANDACTIONSFOR“MONDAY”MORNING…
239
Braintoimprovethereach,increasethespeed,andreducethecostofyourinnovationprocess.Youneedtochooseandimplementnetwork-centricinnovationmodelsandrolesthataremostappropriateforyourcompany.
ThecoreargumentofourbookisthattappingintotheGlobalBrainisnolongeramatterofchoice.Itismorea
questionofhow,ratherthanwhether,acompanyshouldpursueanetwork-centricinnovationstrategy.Thissenseofcrisisiswhathasstokedexecutivemanagement’sinterestinnetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives,evidencedintheurgentcallforactionissuedbyseveralhigh-profileCEOs.
TheCEOiswhoshouldbegin
thejourneytowardsnetwork-centricinnovation,soitisfittingthatweconcludethebookbyfocusinginthischapterontheroleoftheCEOincommunicatingasenseofcrisistotheorganizationandevangelizingorbuildingthefaithinnetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives.
Wetakeastepbackbyreflectingonsomeofthe
corethemesandpracticesthatunderlienetwork-centricinnovation—themesandpracticesthatreflecttheinsightsandthewisdomdistilledfromexperiencesofthefirmsandthemanagersthatwehaveinteractedwithwhileresearchingthisbook.Someoftheseexperiencesweresuccesseswhereasothersendedinfailure.Assuch,theycapturepracticesthatcansignificantly
advanceacompany’sinnovationinitiativeaswellasthosethatmightremovepotentialbarrierstosuccess.
EVANGELIZEAND“BUILDTHEFAITH”
AthemethathassurfacedrepeatedlyinourdiscussionswithmanagersacrosscompaniesandindustriesisthecentralroleoftheCEOin“buildingthefaith”
intheorganizationaboutlookingoutsidetheorganizationforideasandpartneringwithexternalactorsandcommunitiestofurtherthefirm’sinnovationagenda.
Inmanylargecompanies,thishastakentheformoftheCEOsettingoutexplicitgoalsrelatedtonetwork-centricinnovation.CompaniessuchasDuPont,
P&G,Staples,andIBMcometomind.Insomeofthesecases,theCEO’sgoalshavegottenwidervisibilityinthebusinesscommunity.
However,asthephrasebuildthefaithindicates,theCEO’srolegoesbeyondjustsettinggoalsrelatedtohowmuchinnovationshouldbesourcedfromoutsideorhowmuchnewrevenueshouldbegeneratedfromnetwork-
centricinnovationinitiatives.CEOsneedtochampionanewsetofbeliefsthatmightinitiallybeperceivedashereticalandgeneratestiffinternalresistance.Often,240
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internalresistancecomesfromseniormanagers—peoplewhohavethepowerandthemotivetosabotage
theinitiatives.
OvercomingthisinternalresistanceiswhatSamPalmisano,theCEOofIBM,hadtodowhenits“GlobalInnovationOutlook”(GIO)wasconceivedinearly2004.TheideathatIBMwouldopenitstechnologyandbusinessforecastingprocessestoabroadsetofclientsandpartnersseemedhereticalandattractedplenty
ofresistancewhenitwasfirstproposed.DavidYaun,thevicepresidentforcorporatecommunicationatIBM,recallsinitialresponserangedfromcommentsthatridiculedthevalueoftheideatosuggestionsthattheteambehindtheGIOwoulddamageIBM’scredibilityandbrandimage.2Somemanagersfeltthat“Wealreadydothis,”whileothersopined,“Whatyou’redoing
isverydangerous.Iwon’tstandforit.”Oneexecutive“forbid”theteamfromcontacting
“myclients”andaseniorresearcherwasevenmorecaustic,notingthat,“Myjobistopreventyoufromembarrassingourchairman.”
Palmisanoplayedacrucialrolein“pushing”theorganizationtoacceptthese
initiatives.HestronglyendorsedtheinitiativeandgavetheGIOteamtheirmarchingorders.HepushedthemtoslashtheproposedtimeforimplementingtheGIOinitiativefrom18monthsto5months,andsuggestedtotheteamthat,ifatanytimetheyfeltcomfortablewiththeirprogress,thentheirapproachwaswrong—inotherwords,theywouldbeplayingittoo
safe.Toovercomeinternalobjections,hesteeredawayfromamandate.Instead,hegavetheteamflexiblefunding,freedomtoexperiment(andfail),andmostimportant,constitutedanexecutivesponsorboard(includingsomeoftheoriginalskeptics)tosteertheinitiative—ineffect,givingthemapersonalstakeinitssuccess.Thisapproachsignaledtheseriousnessof
theinitiativeinthechairman’sperspective,andwentalongwayinshapingthethinkingoftheorganizationintherightdirection.TheIBMexperienceillustrateshowaCEOhastobethe“swordandtheshield”foropeningupthecompany’sinnovationeffortsandshiftingtoamorenetwork-centricapproach.
Anotherdimensionof
buildingthefaithisprovidingtherightperspectivefortheorganizationtoviewexternalinnovationopportunities.TheevangelizationeffortsinitiatedbytheCEO’sofficeshouldalsoincorporateabroadoutlineofquestionsthatmanagersneedtoconsiderinembarkingonnetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives.Forexample,whatarethebroad
parametersonwhichtheorganizationiscommittingitselftoexplorenetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives?Aretherecertainmodelsofnetwork-centricinnovationthattheorganizationwillnotpursue?Istheorganizationgoingtopartnerwithnon-traditionalpartners(forexample,non-profitorganizations,individualinventors,andsoCHAPTER12•
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on)?Howmuchcontrolandinfluenceistheorganizationwillingto“letgo”ofintheseinitiatives?Willthisapproachbebroadlyappliedorlargelylimitedtothosebusinessdivisionsinneworemergingmarkets?
Addressingsuchquestionsearlyhelpsmanagersevaluatetheextentoforganizationalcommitmentonnetwork-centricinnovationaswellasunderstandthe
“hows”andthe“whys”thatunderliesuchcommitment.Asonemanagerputittous,“Goalsareimportant.However,wehavelotof‘goals’floatingaroundinour
companyatanyonetime.Soonemoresetofgoalsisnotgoingtobeveryuseful.Whatweneedisaframeworkoramentalmodelforustoapproachthisissueuniformly.AndIbelievethatitisthejoboftheCEOtoprovidethisframework.”
Inshort,publicannouncementsoforganizationalaspirationsregardingnetwork-centric
innovationisonlyonepart(perhapsthemorevisiblepart),butthemoreimportanttaskfortheCEOistosetoutthebroadapproachinawaythatreallyhelpsbuildthefaithoftheorganizationinexternalinnovationinitiatives.
“ENGAGE”THEENTIREORGANIZATION
Aswehaveseeninexploring
thefourmodelsofnetwork-centricinnovation,theopportunitiesforleadingorparticipatinginnetwork-centricinnovationcanemanatefromdifferenttypesofexternalentities—individualinventors,innovationcapitalistsandothersuchintermediaries,customers,technologypartners,suppliers,non-profitorganizations,andsoon.Further,thesedifferent
externalentitiestypicallycomeintocontactwithdifferentpartsoftheorganization—
marketing,R&D,businessdevelopment,procurementandsoon.Assuch,itisimportantto“engage”theentireorganizationintheefforttoidentifyandevaluatethedifferentnetwork-centricinnovationopportunities,evenifthereis
oneunitassignedwiththeresponsibilitytocoordinatethedifferentinitiatives.
Thefirststepinengagingtheorganizationistogetthemessageaboutnetworkcentricinnovationouttoeverycorneroftheorganization.AlthoughthisstepcanpartlybeaccomplishedbytheCEO’sevangelizationefforts,theseeffortsneedtobe
supplementedwithamoreextensiveinformationcampaign.Forexample,inthecaseof3M,thisjobhaslargelybeentheresponsibilityofitscorporateR&Dunit.AsRobertFinnochiaro,3M’scorporatetechnicaldirectortoldus,“Ourtaskinthelastcoupleofyearshasbeentocomplementtheworkdonebyourseniormanagementandtogeteverybodyinthe
organization,particularlyallofourbusinessdivisionsandtheirlocalR&Dunits,onthesamepage.”
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Anotherapproachtodrivebroaderengagementistodeploythenetwork-basedstrategyinsideyourorganizationfirst.WhenIBM
soughttopromoteitsInnovationJaminitiative—an“onlinebrainstormingsession”tominenewandinnovativebusinessideasandopportunities—itconductedthefirstJamexperimentin2003byinvolvingitsownemployees.Theobjectiveofthis“ValuesJam”wastoidentifythecorevaluesoftheorganizationandtodevelopaconsensusaroundthecorevalues.Afterthe
firstJamwasdeemedsuccessful,IBMrefocusedtheJamoninnovation,callingittheInnovationJam,andexpandedtheparticipantstoincludeitsecosystempartners—customers,suppliers,andsoon.TheobjectiveofthesecondInnovationJam,conductedin2006,wastoidentifyemergingtechnologytrendsinthekeymarketsthatmatteredtoIBM.Inthenext
round,IBMexpandedtheboundariesfurtherbyfocusingtheInnovationJamonspecificindustriesandaudiences.Forexample,inMarch2007,itconductedanInnovationJamfocusedontheautomotiveindustrycalledtheAutomotiveSupplierJam.ThisinitiativebroughttogetherindividualsfromsupplierorganizationsaswellasfromOEMs,government,academia,
industryassociations,andothersaffiliatedwiththeautomotivesuppliersegment.Morethan2,000peoplefrom150organizationsand17countriesparticipatedintheAutomotiveSupplierJamontopicslikeprogramlifecycleprofitability,creatinganinnovativeculture,andembracinggreentechnologies.
IBM’sapproachis
reminiscentoftheoldadage,“Charitybeginsathome.”Inbroadeningtheengagementwithnetwork-centricinnovation,startingfromtheinsideisbestby“openingupinside”before“openingupoutside.”Thisinside-to-outsideapproachallowsthediffusionofthevaluesassociatedwithnetworkcentricinnovationbroadlyanddeeplyacrosstheorganization.
Gettingbuy-infromtheentireorganizationrequiresnotjustgettingthemessageout,butmoreimportantly,buildingthe“capability”forthemanagersinthedifferentfunctionalunitsand/orbusinessdivisionstorecognizepromisingnetwork-centricinnovationopportunitiesandto“connectwith”andshareinformationwithotherorganizationalunitsthatcanactonthose
opportunities.
Ifsuchacapabilityiscreated,thenwhereversuchopportunitiesmightarise—
whetheritisthemarketingfunctionortheglobalprocurementunit—theorganizationwillbeabletoidentify,evaluate,andpursuethemwithoutskip-pingabeat.Ideally,everymanagerandeveryfunctionshould
becomea“personalportal”intotheexternalworld,constantlyscanningtheenvironmentforexternalinnovationopportunities.
Thus,in“buildingthefaith”and“engagingtheorganization,”thekeyquestiontoaskis,“Isyourorganizationwiredfornetwork-centricinnovation?”
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EXPERIMENT!EXPERIMENT!—AROUNDVALUECREATION
ANDVALUECAPTURE
Animportantthemethatwehavegleanedfromour
discussionswithmanagersistheneedforcontinuedexperimentation—aroundvaluecreationaswellasvaluecapture.Aswesuggestedinourexaminationofthenetwork-centricinnovationlandscape,severalpartsofthisterrainarestillnotwellpopulatedandmanyoftheinnovationrolesarenewandill-defined.Thisbeingthecase,youarenotlikelytofindexplicit
guidelinesonhowtopursuenetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives.Therefore,youhavetobewillingtoexperimentandtomakemistakes.
ConsidertheCreativeBazaarmodel.CompaniessuchasP&G,Dial,andStapleshaveallexperimentedwithdifferentapproachestoconnectwithindividualinventors.Forexample,
whereasDiallaunchedacompany-hostedcompetitiontodirectlyconnectwithindividualinventors,Staplesusedanintermediarytodothesame,andP&Goptedtodealmostlywithvalue-addinginnovationcapitalists.Ineachcase,thecompaniesdidn’thaveaclearunderstandingofhoweverythingwouldworkoutandwereessentiallyexperimentingwiththe
differentapproaches.Astheirinitiativesprogressed,theylearnedwhatworkedandwhatdidn’tandtheyadaptedtheirstrategiesappropriately.
Inthepharmaceuticalindustry,companiessuchasMerckandPfizerarerealizingtheimportanceofexperimentationintheirinnovationmodelsandprocesses.AswedescribedinChapter7,“TheJamCentral
Model,”alternatemodesofdrugdiscoveryhaveledtonewcontextsforsuchexperimentationforpharmaandbiotechcompanies—contextsthatinvolvenon-traditionalpartners(forexample,non-profitssuchasTheSynapticLeap)andinnovationoutcomesthatlackclarityonvalueappropriationandsharing.Despitethenatureofsuchunpavedroadsandthe
associateduncertainties,pharmacompaniesareforgingaheadbypursuingdifferentnetwork-centricinnovationinitiativesandaddressingtheissuesasandwhentheycomeby.
Thesameexperimentationmindsetwasvisibleinmanyoftheothercompaniesandindustrieswestudied.Inmanycases,notonlyweretheapproachesnotclearto
thecompaniesthemselves,buttheywerealsofacinganumberofquestionsfromtheirnetworkpartners,too.Forexample,whenSunlauncheditsOpenSPARCinitiative,itfacedabarrageofquestionsfromthecommunitymembersregardinginnovationgoalsandprocesses,IPrightsmanagement,valuecapture,andsoon.AsDaveWeaverofSunputsit:“Tobevery
frank,wehadn’tthoughtaboutmanyoftheseissuesthememberswereraising(inthe244
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community)andsoitwasalotoflearningforus—firsttounderstandtheissuesandthentocomeupwithanswersthatwouldbeacceptabletoall.”
Experimentationdoesnotmeanpursuingrolesthatdon’tmakebusinesssenseforthecompany.Ontheotherhand,itindicatesthewillingnesstopursuethoserolesthatmakegoodbusinesssensebutwhosedetailsarenotveryclearattheoutset.Itimpliestheneedtokeepanopenmindregardingtheinitiativesoastocontinuouslyadaptandevolvetogettheprocesses
andthegovernanceright.
Thekeymessageforseniormanagers:Promoteexperimentationandrewardreasonedfailure!
LOOKBEYONDTHEIDEA—ESCAPINGTHEVALLEYOFDEATH!
Oneissuethatcameuprepeatedlyinourdiscussionswithmanagersistheneedto
haveend-to-endcapabilitiestoreallybenefitfromnetwork-centricinnovation.
Muchoftheexcitementaboutexternallyfocusedattentionhasbeenfocusedongettingnewideastofeedthefuzzyfront-endoftheinnovationfunnel.Butyoucannoteatideasforlunch!Ideasthatcannotbeconvertedintocommercializedproductsand
servicesareoflittleuse.Whentheinnovativeideasarebroughtinfromoutside(whetherfromamateurinventorsorcustomersorpartners),theyneedtobeshepherdedthroughthedevelopmentandcommercializationprocessinorderforthecompanytobenefitfromthoseideas.Executivespointtothe“valleyofdeath”thatseparatesideationfrom
commercialization,whereideasget“lostintransition”becausethecommercializationresourcesaren’talignedwiththeideationanddiscoveryinitiatives.Wefindthatthisisacommonproblemwhensourcinginnovativeideasfromtheoutside,owingtothefactthatoftennonaturalhomeexistsinabusinessunitforexternallysourcedinnovation.
Crossingthe“valleyofdeath”requirestwothings:asetofstructured,formalprocessesthatintegrateexternalandinternalactivitiesandacommittedprojectchampion.3
AsweemphasizedinChapter9,“DecidingWhereandHowtoPlay,”preparingtheorganizationfornetwork-centricinnovationinvolvespayingcloseattentionto
processesforintegratinginternalandexternalinnovationactivities—forexample,processesthatbridgethegapbetweenideationandexecution.Manyofthecompaniesthatwestudieddidnothaveclearlydefinedprocessestoensurethattheproductvisiondevelopedaroundtheexternallysourcedideaiscommunicatedwelltoandacteduponeffectivelybythe
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developmentandcommercialization.Suchprocessesshouldspecifyhowtheprojectwillevolveandbecomepartofthecompany’sregularlyfunded
developmentandcommercialactivities—thatis,howtheprojectwillattractresourcesfromestablishedbudgets,whatdecisionprocessesandcriteriawillbeusedforprojectapprovalandevaluation,andsoon.Asthemanagerswetalkedwithnoted,lackofsuchprocesscouldleadtopoortransitioningfromideationtoexecution,withmajorimplicationsonthe
innovationsuccessitself.
Creatingclearorganizationalresponsibilitiesforcommercializationofexternallysourcedinnovationincollaborationwithbusinessunitsisalsoimportant.
Assigninginformalchampionsforeachprojectisonewaytogo,ascompaniessuchasDial,Unilever,andso
onhavefound.Such“champions”serveasthedrivingforceingettingtheprojectacrossthevalleyofdeathbyowningthe
“businesscase”associatedwiththeidea,bynetworkingandconnectingpeopleacrosstheideation-executiondivide,andnegotiatingtoacquireappropriateorganizationalresourcesandcapabilities.
Thus,beforelaunchingnetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives,takingastepbacktore-examineorre-evaluateyourback-endproductdevelopment
processesandcapabilitiesisagoodidea.Doyouneedtorevampthemtoadapttothenewapproachesthatyouareadopting?Doyouneedtoinvestinnewback-endcapabilities?Doyouneedto
createneworganizationalroles?Andremember,dependingonthemodelofnetwork-centricinnovationandtherolethatyourcompanyplaysinit,thenatureoftheseback-endprocessesandcapabilitiesmightvary.
MANAGETHENETWORK“PUSHES”AND“PULLS”
Organizationsembarkingon
network-centricinnovationinitiativeshavetoacknowledgeoneimportantfactor—dependencies!WetalkedaboutthisearlierinChapter10,“PreparingtheOrganization.”However,itisworthrepeatingtheimportantrolethatdependenciesplayinsuchinitiatives.
Anorganization’sabilitytomanagethe“pushes”andthe
“pulls”experiencedinitsinteractionswiththenetworkmemberscanbecomeveryimportantinensuringlong-termsuccess.Managingthesenetworkforcesmightconsumesignificantorganizationalresources.DecisionsandactionsundertakenbypartnersmightdisruptorforcechangesininternalR&Dplans.Theymightcreatenewcentersofresistanceswithindifferent
partsoftheorganizationtowardnetwork-centricinnovationitself.Particularly,ifdependenciesexistbetweenafirm’sexternallyorientedprojectsanditsotherinternalinnovationprojects.
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Suchdependenciescanexist
inthedifferentmodelsofnetwork-centricinnovationthatwediscussed.Forexample,intheOrchestramodel,smallercompaniesthatpartnerwithplatformleaderssuchasMicrosoft,Intel,andSalesforce.comoftenfeelpulledindifferentdirectionswhenthemarketpositioningandstandardsofthecomplementarytechnologytheypossessstartdivergingfromthoseofthe
platformastheplatformevolves.Similarly,assomeofBoeing’sJapanesepartnersdiscoveredovertime,theirowninternalplans(forexample,pursuinglong-termplanstobestandaloneaircraftmanufacturers)mightattimesbeinconflictwiththedecisionsmadebythelargerpartner.
Insomeinstances,thelargerfirmmightneedtotakecare
ofsuchdependencies.Forexample,asIBMstartedcollaboratingwithOpenSourceSoftwarecommunities,itsoondiscoveredthatwhathappensintheOpenSourcearenahasimportantimplicationsonitsotherproducts/services.Someofthesecouldbedecisionstoabandoninternalinnovationeffortsincertainareas—forexample,notpursuingthedevelopmentof
proprietarysolutionsthatcompetewiththeApacheHTTPstack.Someofthemcouldberedefininggoalsandstrategies—forexample,modifying/adaptingdevelopingplanssoastoleveragetheevolutionoftheLinuxplatform.
Thekeymessagehereisnottoloseawarenessofthenatureofdependenciesthatyourfirmwillbegettinginto
whendecidingtopursuenetwork-centricinnovationinitiatives.Suchawarenesscanserveasatriggertoreexamineperi-odicallythecompany’sinternalinnovationgoalsanddecisionsanditsparticipationinthenetwork-centricinnovationinitiative.Thisisimportanttomakesurethatdisruptiveforcesthatoriginateinexternalnetworksdonotderailyour
company’sinnovationagenda.
WEARMORETHANONE“HAT”—BUT,CAREFULLY!
InChapter9,wediscussedhowsomeofthelargecompanieshavestartedplayingmorethanoneroleinnetwork-centricinnovation.Forexample,IBMhasbecomebothaplatform
leader(initsPowertechnology)andaninnovationsponsorinsomeoftheOpenSourceSoftwarecommunities.Similarly,SunhasstartedfocusingonplayingtheroleofaninnovationcatalystintheOpenSPARC
initiative,inadditiontobeingtheplatformleaderinitscoreserverbusiness.
Whenfirmswearmultiple“hats”innetwork-centricinnovation,theycantakeamorebalancedapproachtoexternalinnovationactivities.Forexample,acompanycantakealeadroleincertaininitiativesandatthesametimeplayaCHAPTER12•CONCLUDINGTHOUGHTSANDACTIONSFOR“MONDAY”MORNING…
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moresupportiveroleinsomeotherinitiatives.Thediversityofrolescanreducetheoverallriskinvolvedinexternallyorientedinnovation.Italsofacilitatestheacquisitionofknowledgeor“learning”fromamorediversesetofpartnersaswellasamorediversesetofinnovationactivities.
However,amultiplicityofrolesimposesadditionalcostsforthecompany.Forexample,aswediscussedinChapter9,“DecidingWhereandHowtoPlay,”differentrolescallfordifferenttypesofresourcesandcapabilities.Ascompaniespursueaportfolioofinnovationroles,thediversityofcompetenciesandinfrastructurethatmightneedtobeestablishedtosupportthoseroleswill
increase.
WhileformanyofthelargecompaniessuchasP&G,DuPont,3M,andIBM,theresourceimplicationsmightnotbetoocritical,forsmallercompaniestheseissuesmightbeofparticularsignificance.
Thus,theattractionofa“multi-player”strategyhastobetemperedwiththelikelydemandforadditionalorganizationalresourcesand
capabilities.
REALLOCATE(NOTDECREASE)YOURINNOVATIONDOLLARS!
Innovationnetworksandcommunitiesindicatetheconsiderablepotentialthatexistsoutsideofafirmtoenhanceitsrateandqualityofinnovation.Whencompaniesconsiderthispotential,thereisatendency
toassumethattheycanreducetheirinvestmentininternalR&D.Akeymessagefromcompaniesthathavebeensuccessfulinpursuingnetwork-centricinnovationis,reallocate—
notdecrease—yourcompany’sinnovationinvestments.
Intheshortterm,companiesmightbeabletosubstitute
internalresourceswithexternalresourcesandmaintaintheirinnovationagendawithlowerlevelsofR&Dinvestments.Butitisnotlikelytoworkinthelongterm.Remember,yourabilitytoderivereturnsfromnetwork-centricinnovationisgoingtodependontheinnovationassetsandcapabilitiesthatyoubringtothenetwork.
Thegreaterthevalueofsuchinternalassets,thegreaterthereturnsfromparticipatinginthenetwork.
Thus,participationinnetwork-centricinnovationdoesn’timplymakinglowerinvestmentsinthecompany’sinnovationpursuits.However,itmightleadtodifferentchoicesforthoseinvestments.Forexample,somecompanies
mightinvestmoreindownstreamprocessesandcapabilitieswhereasothersmightinvestmoreinupstreamcapabilities.Reallocationofinvestmentprioritiesshouldreflecttherole(s)thecompanyhasdecidedtopursueinnetworkcentricinnovation.
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Decreasingthecompany’sinnovationbudgetonlylowerstheoverallcapabilityofthecompanytoparticipateinnetwork-centricinnovationandlimitsitsabilitytoexploitthepotentialofexternalnetworksandcommunities.
DON’TFORGETTOMAKEMONEY
Theflipsideoftheeffortsto
encourageandbuildtheorganization’sfaithinnetwork-centricinnovationistheresponsibilityfortheseniormanagementtoletthecompanyknowthatattheend,theinnovationinitiativeshavetocontributetoorganizationalgrowth—whetherintheshorttermorinthelongterm.
AsourexamplesofcompaniessuchasIBMand
Sunshowed,evenpartneringwithinnovationcommunitiessuchasopensourcecommunitiesshouldbebasedonsoundbusinesslogic.Manyexternalinnovationopportunitiesmightlooktempting,especiallyformanagerswhowanttodemonstratetheircommitmenttotheCEO’scallforactiononnetwork-centricinnovation.Insuchacontext,underliningtheneed
fornotabandoningtherigorwithwhichdecisionsaremadetopursueexternalinnovationopportunitiesisequallyimportant.
Asonemid-levelmanagerinalargeconsumerproductcompanytoldus,oncethereissignificantbuzzintheorganizationaboutpartneringwithexternalinventornetworksandcommunities,thereisatendencyforthe
network-centricinnovationinitiativetobecomeanendinitself.Thisbecomesmoreevidentwhenmetricssuchas“numberofideassourcedfromoutside”and“numberofexternalpartners”gainhighervisibilitythanthosethatreflecttherealimpactofnetwork-centricinnovationinitiativesonfirmgrowthorrevenues.
Seniormanagerscanagain
takeaverykeyroleinemphasizingtheneedtolinkallnetwork-centricinnovationactivitieswiththecompany’soverallgrowthobjectives.Thus,whenSunopensupitsSPARCarchitectureandpursuestheOpenSPARCinitiative,itkeepsitsfocusonthenewmarketsthatarelikelytoopenupforitscoreproductsandservicesasaresultoftheinnovationactivitiesofthe
OpenSPARCcommunity,evenifitisinthelongerterm.
Thelessonforseniormanagersistomakesurethattheexcitementregardingnetwork-centricinnovationopportunitiesisgroundedinthecompany’srevenueandprofitgoals.
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ACTIONSFOR“MONDAY”MORNING
WestartedourjourneybyexploringthepoweroftheGlobalBrainandbypaint-ingapictureofthelandscapeofnetwork-centricinnovation.Ourjourneyhas
alsotakenusintoamoredetailedanalysisofthevariedopportunitiesandtheresourcesandcapabilitiesthatcompaniesneedtodeveloptotakeadvantageofsuchopportunities.Ourprimaryobjectiveinthisbookhasbeentoprepareyou,thereader,tobeabletopositionyourcompanyasaplayerintherichanddiverselandscapeofnetwork-centricinnovation.
Nowthatyouhavegainedadeepunderstandingofnetwork-centricinnovation,itistimetochartyourcompany’sownpathinthisinitiative.Wehaveasimplemantraforthis:ThinkBIG,StartSMALL,ScaleFAST.
DialInc.providesagoodcasestudyofhowthismantracanplayout.
THINKBIG!
Itisimportantthatyouconsidertheentirecanvasofnetwork-centricinnovationandapplyawiderperspectivebeforestartingtotunneldowntospecificopportunities.Thinkingbigmeansensuringthatyouareabletodevelopacoherentstorythatconnectsallofyourinnovationinitiatives—evenifsomeoftheseinitiativesemergeorevolveovertime.Thisiswherethe
CEO’sroleinprovidingthe“perspective”becomesimportant.
WhenDialfirststartedthinkingofexploringexternalinnovationsources—thatis,goingbeyonditstraditionalsourcessuchassuppliersandpartneringwithindependentinventors—thecompanydidn’tfocusononespecificinitiative.
Instead,itsapproachwasto“thinkbig”andfocusonthevaluesuchexternalsourcingcanbringtotheorganizationinthelongterm.TheCEOandexecutivemanagementcommunicatedtotheorganizationtheirstrongcommitmenttonetwork-centricinnovationbyestablishinganindependentorganizationalunit—theTechnologyAcquisitiongroup—toorchestratesuch
efforts.Themessagewasclear—thecompanyisbuildingthefoundationforthevariousnetwork-centricinnovationinitiativesthatarelikelytoevolveovertime.
STARTSMALL!
Afteryouhavedevelopedabroadperspectiveforyourcompanytoviewnetwork-centricinnovationopportunities,itisalso
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aninitiativethathasmanageablescopeandwhosereturns(orresults)willbeclearlyevident.Forexample,doyouhaveaparticularproductmarketorcustomersegmentwhereyoucanlaunchyourfirstnetwork-centricinnovationinitiative?
Orcanyouisolatetheinitiativetoaparticulargeographicallocationorbusinessdivision?
Creatinga“cleanroom”foryournetwork-centricinnovationstrategysoastoevaluateandlearnfromyourfirstinitiativeisagoodidea.Suchanapproachcanalsohelpyouearnaquick“win”thatcanthenbeusedtopropelotherinitiatives.
InthecaseofDial,the“cleanroom”wasasimpleWeb-basedinitiativecalledQuestfortheBestthatthecompanylaunchedtostartconnectingwithindependentinventors.Theinitiativedidn’tinvolveextensiveinvestmentsininfrastructureorinvolvealargenumberoforganizationalmembers.Whileitwasarelativelysmallprogram,itwasveryinnovative.Dialwasthefirst
consumerproductcompanytoestablishsuchaprogramthatinvolvedinteractingdirectlywithindependentinventorsandinventorassociations.Theresultsfromthisprogramwereverypositive(severalideasenteredthecompany’sdevelopmentpipeline),andtheprogramservedasa“proofofconcept”forthecompany’sbroadernetwork-centricinnovationstrategy.
SCALEFAST!
Whenyouhavefoundsuccessinthatfirstinitiative,don’tforgettocelebratethewin.However,moreimportantly,don’talsoforgettotakethingstothenextlevelby“scalingfast.”
Setamoreambitioussetofobjectivesfortheinitiative,engagethedifferentpartsoftheorganization,andinvest
extensivelyindevelopingtheorganizationalcapabilitiesthatwouldhelpyouachievethoseobjectives.Yourabilitytorapidlyengagetheentireorganizationintheinitiativewillhelpittotakerootwithinthecompanyandattractmoreorganizationalresourcesandcreativetalent.Itwillalsohelpgeneratemoreinitiativesfromthedifferentpartsoftheorganization.
GoingbacktoDial’sexample,thescalingoftheinitiativeoccurredrightafterthefirstinventorcompetition.Dialformalizedtheinitiativeandcalledit
“PartnersinInnovation.”Theinteractionswithindependentinventorsweremadetobeonacontinuousbasisandexpandedtocoverallpartsofthecompany’sproductportfolio.
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ThecompanyalsorapidlyscaledtheprogramtobeglobalinnaturebyestablishinglinkageswiththeR&Dgroupofitsparentcompany,theHenkelgroup.
Withthisexpandedreach,theentireHenkelGroupofcompaniesbecamepotentialcustomersforideassourcedfromU.S.-basedinventorsbyDial’stechnologyacquisitiongroup.Thecompanyfollowedthiswithaglobalcompetition,calledtheHenkelInnovationTrophy,whichDial’stechnologyacquisitiongroupisdrivingonbehalfofallHenkelcompanies.Thistime,the
focusforexternalsourcingisnotjustU.S.-basedinventorsbutindependentinventorsanywhereintheworld,andthetargetforplacingtheinnovativeideasisnotjustDialbuttheentireHenkelgroup.Trulyglobalscaling!
Thusthemoralofthestoryhereis—“thinkbig”andmakesuretherightperspectiveisadopted,“startsmall”togetthatquick
result,and“scalefast”torapidlyengageandinvolvetheentireorganization.
Wehopethat,asyouputdownthisbook,youcanbegintakingthefirststepsinapplyingtheideasandconceptsthatwehavetalkedabout.ThisistheREAL
journey—thejourneytopursueorganicgrowthbyharnessingthecreativepower
oftheGlobalBrain.Goodluckonthisjourney!
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References
INTRODUCTION
1.“ExpandingtheInnovationHorizon,”IBMGlobalCEOStudy2006
(http://www-1.ibm.com/services/uk/bcs/html/bcs_landing_ceostudy.
html);accessedonAugust15,2006.
2.Forexample,seeNambisan,S.“DesigningVirtualCustomer
EnvironmentsforNewProductDevelopment:TowardaTheory,”
AcademyofManagementReview(2002),27(3),392–413;Nambisan,S.andR.Baron.“InteractionsinVirtualCustomerEnvironments:
ImplicationsforProductSupportandCustomerRelationship
Management,”JournalofInteractiveMarketing,(2007),21(2),42–62.
3.SeeSawhney,M.andE.Prandelli,“CommunitiesofCreation:
ManagingDistributedInnovationinTurbulentMarkets,”CaliforniaManagementReview(2000)24–54.
4.Sawhney,M.,E.Prandelli,andG.Verona,“ThePowerofInnomedi-
ation,”MITSloanManagementReview(2003),44(2),77–82.
5.ManagementToolsandTrendsSurvey,Bain&Co.,2005.
CHAPTERONE
1.“World’sBestInnovatorsAre‘SixTimesMoreSuccessful’inGettingBetterProductstoMarketFaster,
UGSChairman,CEOandPresident
TonyAffusoTellsFellowAutomotiveIndustryLeaders”(http://www.
prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/
10-12-2005/0004166925&EDATE=);accessedonAugust15,2006.
253
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2.TheblueprintforsuchlargecorporateR&Dlabsfocusedonbasicscientificresearchcanbetracedbacktoareporttitled,“Science,TheEndlessFrontier”
writtenbyVannevarBush,
scienceadvisortoPresidentFranklinRoosevelt,inthefinalyearofWWII.Foraninterestingdiscussionofhowcorporationshavestartedshiftingtheirfocusfrom“research”to“development”anditsimplicationsfortheirinternal“templesofinnovation,”see“OutoftheDustyLabs,”TheEconomist(March3,2007),74–76.
3.Source:FactStat
MergerStat(http://www.mergerstat.com/new/indexnew.asp).
4.“WorldClassTransactions:InsightsintoCreatingShareholderValuethroughMergersandAcquisitions,”KPMG,2001;“WhyMergersFail,”MatthiasM.Bekier,AnnaJ.Bogardus,andTimothyOldham,McKinseyQuarterly,2001,No.4;
“There’sNoMagicinMergers,”DavidHenry,BusinessWeek(October14,2002)pp.60.
5.AsreportedinIBMGlobalCEOStudy2006;Bain&Co.,CEOSurvey2005.
6.“Sony’sRevitalizationintheChangingCEWorld,”HowardStringer’sremarks,CEATEC,Tokyo,October4,2005
(http://www.sony.com/SCA/speeches/
051004_stringer.shtml);accessedonAugust15,2006.
7.QuotefromChapter2ofThroughtheLookingGlassbyLewisCarroll,TheMILENNIUMFULCRUMEdition©1991.
8.KraftR&DfiguressourcedfromthepresentationmadebyJeanSpence,executive
vicepresident,KraftonMay10,2005,aspartofKraftInvestorDay(http://media.
corporate-ir.net/media_files/nys/kft/presentations/kft_050510e.pdf);Alsosee“At
Kraft,AFreshBigCheese,”AdrienneCarter,BusinessWeek,June26,2006
(http://www.businessweek.com/investor/content/jun2006/pi20060626_973843.htm).
9.ThetermistakenfromtheRedQueen’sraceinLewisCarroll’sThroughtheLookingGlass.TheRedQueeneffectwasoriginallyproposedbytheUniversityofChicagopaleontologist,LeighVanValen,in1973toexplaintheconstantevolutionaryarmsracebetweencompetingspecies.
10.DaveBaylessisaprincipalandco-founderof
EvergreenIP.TogetmoredetailsonDave’ssimulation,viewhisvideoblogathttp://www.evergreenip.com/
presentations/redqueen/redqueen.html;accessedonJuly5,2007.
11.“KraftLooksOutsidetheBoxforInspiration,”TheWallStreetJournal,June2,2006.
12.“ResearchStirsUp
Merck,SeeksOutsideAid,”TheWallStreetJournal,June7,2006.
13.Source:Authors’interviewwithTomCripeonMarch30,2006.
14.“InnovateAmerica,”NationalInnovationInitiativeReport,CouncilonCompetitiveness,Dec.2004.
REFERENCES
255
15.“IBMGIO2.0Report”2006(http://domino.research.ibm.com/comm/www_
innovate.nsf/pages/world.gio.html#).
16.DavidJ.Farber;K.Larson“TheArchitectureofaDistributedComputerSystem—
AnInformalDescription,”
TechnicalReportNumber11(Sept.1970),UniversityofCalifornia,Irvine.
17.Foster,Ian;CarlKesselman.TheGrid:BlueprintforaNewComputingInfrastructure.MorganKaufmannPublishers.ISBN1-55860-475-8.
18.ExhibitAforthisisperhapsprojectSETI—the
SearchforExtraterrestrialIntelligence.ThegeneralobjectiveofSETIistodetecttheexistenceof“intelligent”transmissionsfromdistantplanets.Thisisnotatrivialtaskandrequiressignificantcomputingpowertoanalyzethevastamountoftelescopicdatagathered.TheSETI@Home,launchedbyU.C.–BerkeleyinMay1999,involvesutilizingthepowerofhomecomputerslinkedto
theInternettoanalyzesuchradiotelescopicdataandcontributetowardtheSETIgoals.AnyindividualcanparticipateinthisprojectbydownloadingandrunningtheSETI@Homesoftwarepackage,whichthenrunssignalanalysisona“workunit”ofdatarecordedfromthecentral2.5MHzwidebandoftheSERENDIPIVinstrument.Theanalysisresultsareauto-matically
reportedbacktoUC–Berkeley.Morethan5.4millioncomputerusersinmorethan225countrieshavesignedupforSETI@Homeandhavecollectivelycontributedmorethan24billionhoursofcomputerprocessingtime(currentsta-
tisticsonSETIretrievedfromhttp://seticlassic.ssl.berkeley.edu/totals.htmlonJuly
5,2007).
19.Network-CentricWarfare(NCW)isalsocalledNetwork-CentricOperations(NCO)insomemilitaryquarters.IntheU.K.,itisreferredtoasNetworkEnabledCapability.ViceAdmiralArthurCebrowskioftheU.S.Navyisoftenreferredtoasthe“Godfather”ofthenetwork-centricwarfareconcept.
OthernotablecontributorstothedevelopmentofthisconceptincludeDr.DavidS.Alberts,whoproposedtheuniversalcommandandcommunicationstheorybyintegratingtheconceptsofinformationsuperiorityandnetwork-centricwarfare,andJohnJ.
GarstkaoftheOfficeofForceTransformationintheUnitedStatesDepartmentof
Defense(U.S.DoD).
20.“NetworkCentricWarfare,”DoDReporttoU.S.Congress,July27,2001(report
availableathttp://www.dod.mil/nii/NCW/).
21.SeeNetworkCentricWarfareDavidAlbert,JohnGarstka,andFrederickStein,CCRP,2ndEdition,1999.
22.“TheFutureofSupplyChainManagement:Network-centricOperationsandtheSupplyChain,”TerryTucker,Supply&DemandChainExecutive2004
(http://sdcexec.com/article_arch.asp?article_id=7285).
256
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23.ForadetaileddescriptionofCisco’sexperienceandtheconceptofNVO,seeNetReadybyAmirHartmanandJohnSifonis,McGrawHill,1999.
24.“TheNetworkedVirtualOrganization:ABusinessModelforToday’sUncertainEnvironment”JohnSifonis,iQMagazine,March/April2003.
25.SeveralWebsitesandblogsexistonthetopicofnetwork-centricadvocacy.Oneof
thebetteronesishttp://www.network-centricadvocacy.net/.
26.“Network-CentricAdvocacy,”MartyKearns,retrievedonAugust20,2006from
http://activist.blogs.com/networkcentricadvocacypaper.pdf.
27.Wheeler,DavidA.“MoreThanaGigabuck:EstimatingGNU/Linux’sSize”(July29,
2002):(http://www.dwheeler.com/sloc/redhat71-v1/redhat71sloc.html),retrieved
onAugust16,2006.
28.“InternetEncyclopedias
GoHeadtoHead,”Nature,438(December15,2005):900–901.
29.“OnlineNewspaperShakesUpKoreanPolitics,”HowardFrench,TheNewYorkTimes,March6,2003.
30.SawhneyM.,E.Prandelli,andG.Verona.“ThePowerofInnomediation,”MIT
SloanManagementReview
(2003),44(2),77–82.
31.Huston,L.andN.Sakkab.“ConnectandDevelop:InsideP&G’sNewModelforInnovation,”HarvardBusinessReview(March2006).
32.IBMGlobalCEOStudy2006.
33.LetGotoGrow,LindaSanfordandDaveTaylor,
PrenticeHall,2005.
CHAPTERTWO
1.Seehttp://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/home.shtml.
2.See“CommunitiesofCreation:ManagingDistributedInnovationinTurbulentMarkets,”M.SawhneyandE.Prandelli,CaliforniaManagementReview(Summer2000):
4294,24–54.
3.Seethe“Coase’sPenguin,or,LinuxandtheNatureoftheFirm,”Y.Benkler,YaleLawJournal,112(Winter2002–2003).AlsoseeTheWealthofNetworks,YochaiBenkler,MITPress(2006).
4.Visithttp://wearesmarter.orgformoredetailsonthisproject.
5.AmoreformaldefinitionoftheOpenSourcehasbeenofferedbytheOpenSource
Initiative(seehttp://www.opensource.org/docs/definition_plain.php).
6.Sawhney&Prandelli,2000,pp.28.
REFERENCES
257
7.ThetermOpenSourcehasbeenattributedtoChristinePetersonoftheForesightInstitute.Formoreinformationonthestorybehindit,visit“HistoryoftheOSI”
athttp://www.opensource.org/docs/history.php.
8.Visithttp://www.opensource.org/.
9.Source:http://www.Sourceforge.net(asofSeptember2006).
10.ForanextensivelistoftheseOpenSourceapplications,visithttp://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Open_source.
11.ThedefinitioncomesfromJamesMoore’s1996book,TheDeathof
Competition:LeadershipandStrategyintheAgeofBusinessEcosystems,HarperBusiness.HisearlierrelatedHBRarticlewas“PredatorsandPrey:ANewEcologyofCompetition,”HarvardBusinessReview(1993).
12.See“ConstellationStrategy:ManagingAllianceGroups,”byGomes-Casseres,Benjamin,IveyBusinessJournal(May
2003).AlsoseeGomes-Casseres,B.,
“CompetitiveAdvantageinAllianceConstellations,”StrategicOrganization,Vol1
(3)(August2003):pp.327–335.
13.Gomes-Casseres,B.,“GroupVersusGroup:HowAllianceNetworksCompete,”
HarvardBusinessReview(July–August1994):pp.62–74.
14.Foranexcellentreviewofthisstrategy,seeGawerandCusumano’sbook,PlatformLeadership,HBSPress(2003).
15.SeeO’Reilly’sarticleathttp://tim.oreilly.com/articles/paradigmshift_0504.html.
16.Foradiscussionofthe
eraoffermentandtechnologycycles,see“TechnologicalDiscontinuesandDominantDesigns:ACyclicalModelofTechnologicalChange,”
P.AndersonandM.Tushman,AdministrativeScienceQuarterly(1990):35,604–633.
17.Authors’interviewwithIrvingWladawsky-Bergeron
April7,2006.
18.Seehttp://www.infoworld.com/article/05/12/14/HNnovellibm_1.html;alsosee
YochaiBenkler’sbook,TheWealthofNetworks,whereonpp.47,hegivesagraphofIBM’srevenuegrowthfromopensource–relatedservices.
19.Sawhney,M.,Verona,G.,andE.Prandelli,
“CollaboratingtoCreate:TheInternetasaPlatformforCustomerEngagementinProductInnovation,”JournalofInteractiveMarketing(2005):4–17.
20.“StaplesTurnstoInventorsforNewProductIdeas,”WilliamBulkeley,TheWallStreetJournal(July13,2006;B1).
21.InterviewwithJevin
Eagle,seniorvicepresident,StaplesBrands(June2006).
22.Authors’interviewwithDr.RobertFinocchiaro,technicaldirector,3M(onJuly26,2006).
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CHAPTERTHREE
1.VisittheprojectWebsiteathttp://www.aswarmofangels.com/.
2.SeetheWikipediaentryonCurrentTVformoredetails:http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Current_TV.
3.“UncleAlWantsYou,”EastBayExpress(Jan.26,2005):http://www.
eastbayexpress.com/issues/2005-01-26/news/feature.html.
4.Visithttp://www.current.tv/.
5.“HackThisFilm,”JasonSilverman,Wired(January2006):http://www.wired.com/
wired/archive/14.01/play.html?pg=2.
6.Seethearticle“MODFilms”ontheCreativeCommonsWebsite:
http://creativecommons.org/video/mod-films.
7.http://modfilms.com/.
8.Morley,E.andA.Silver,“AFilmDirector’sApproachtoManagingCreativity,”
HarvardBusinessReview
(March–April1977):59–70.
9.ForamorerecentarticleonbusinesslessonsfromHollywood,see“Hollywood:ABusinessModelfortheFuture?”CharlesGrantham,SIGCPRConference(2000)ACM.
10.http://www.echochamberproject.com/.
11.Thisisdefinitelyavery
limitedandbriefconceptualizationofthecore/peripherynetwork.Formorerigorousdefinitionanddiscussionoftheimplications,see
“ModelsofCore/PeripheryStructure,”S.BorgattiandM.Everett,SocialNetworks1999,21,375–395.
12.Asnotedin,“MeasureforMeasure:Exploringthe
MysteriesofConducting,”JustinDavidson,TheNewYorker(Aug.21,2006):pp.60–69.
13.“Orchestra:AUsersManual”byAndrewHugill,http://www.mti.dmu.ac.uk/
~ahugill/manual/.AlsoseetheWikipediaentryforOrchestra:http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Orchestra.
14.See“CallandResponseinMusic”athttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_and_
response_%28music%29.
15.SeetheentryforjamintheOnlineEtymologyDictionaryathttp://www.
etymonline.com/index.php?search=jam&searchmode=none.
16.Mod(or,touseitsfullname,ModernismorsometimesModism)—alifestyle-basedmovement—reacheditspeakintheearlytomid-1960s.PeoplewhofollowedthisREFERENCES
259
lifestylewereknownasMods,andweremainlyfoundinSouthernEngland.
Consider,forexample,theTVseries,TheModSquad,whichappearedinthelate
’60s.The1979filmQuadrophenia,basedonthe1973albumofthesamenamebyTheWho,celebratedtheModmovementandpartlyinspiredaModrevivalintheU.K.duringthelate1970s.Formoreonthismovement,readMod,aVeryBritish
PhenomenonbyTerryRawlings,(2000)OmnibusPress.
CHAPTERFOUR
1.See“TheKeystoneAdvantage”M.IansitiandRLevien,HarvardBusinessSchoolPress(2004):pp.94.
2.See“ThePowerofInnomediation”Sawhney,M.,E.Prandelli,andG.
Verona.MIT
SloanManagementReview(Winter2003):77–82.
3.FortheseandotherexamplesregardingIDEO’sroleastechnologybroker,seeAndrewHargadon’sbook,HowBreakthroughsHappen,HBSPress(2003).
4.See“AGeneralTheoryofNetworkGovernance:
ExchangeConditionsandSocialMechanisms,”CandaceJones,WilliamHesterly,andStephenBorgatti,AcademyofManagementReview22(4)(1997):911–945.Inadditiontothis,thereisasignificantamountofresearchdoneinthemanagementareaonthebroadtopicofnetworkgovernance.
5.Davenport,T.H.,&Prusak,
L.InformationEcology:MasteringtheInformationandKnowledgeEnvironment(1997):NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.AlsoseeM.Alavi.“ManagingOrganizationalKnowledge”inFramingtheDomainsofIT
Management(2000):PinnaflexEducationalResources,Cincinnati,OH.
6.FormoredetailsonIntel’s
complianceworkshop,seePlatformLeadershipbyA.
GawerandM.Cusumano,HBSPress(2002):pp.57–60.
7.SeeInkpen,Andrew.“Learning,knowledgemanagementandstrategicalliances:Somanystudies,somanyunansweredquestions.”InCooperativeStrategiesandAlliances,ContractorFJ,LorangeP
(eds).2002.Pergamon:London;267-289.
8.ForamoredetaileddescriptionofIPanditshistory,see“IntellectualProperty—
TheGroundRules”byJamesConleyandDavidOrozco,KelloggSchoolofManagementTechnicalNote7-305-501(August2005).
9.SeeTheEconomicsandManagementofIntellectualPropertybyOveGrandstrand,EdwardElgarPublishing,MA(2000).
10.FormoreonClarkFoamsandthesurfboardindustry,read“BlackMonday:WillSurfingEverBetheSame?”TheNewYorker(August21,2006):36–43.
11.
http://creativecommons.org/.
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CHAPTERFIVE
1.Thebaseplane(787-8)cancarry200passengersonroutesupto8,300nauticalmileswhilethelargerversion(787-9)cancarry250passengersonroutesupto
8,500nauticalmiles.Ashorter-rangeversion(787-3)withcarryingcapacityofupto300seatswillbeoptimizedforroutesofaround3,500nauticalmiles.
2.Thefirstorderforthe787wasplacedbyAllNipponAirways—for50787s.Theorder,valuedataround$6billion,isthesinglelargestlaunchordereverinBoeing’s88-yearhistory.Asof
October2006,29customershaveplacedordersforatotalof420airplanes(ofwhich377arefirmorderswortharound$52billion).
3.Boeinganditspartnersconductedextensiveresearchfortwoyearspriortotheofficialprojectlaunchin2004toinvestigatepotentialmaterialsandtodemonstratetheeffectivenessofcompositemanufacturing
technology.Thenewmaterialsanddesignisalsosupposedtoallowthequietesttakeoffsandlandingsinitsclass,therebyprovidinganaddedenvironmentalbenefit.
4.Bothenginesaredesignedtoprovidethe55,000to80,500poundsofrequiredthrust.Theimprovedenginedesignwoulditselfcontributearound8%ofthe
increasedefficiencygainsattributedtothe787.
5.“Boeing,Boeing,Gone?”byWilliamSweetman,PopularScience(June2004):pp.97.
6.“ASmartBet,”BoeingFrontiers(June2003).
7.“SharingtheDream,”BoeingFrontiers(August2006).
8.Asquotedin“Boeing’sDiffusionofCommercialAircraftDesignandManufacturingTechnologytoJapan,”byDavidPritchardandAlanMacPherson,SUNYBuffalo,
(March2005):www.custac.buffalo.edu/docs/OccasionalPaper30.pdf.
9.Source:“CustomersGetanUpdatefromBoeing,”YvonneLeach,Boeing
Frontiers(February2005).
10.“JustPlaneGenius,”BusinessWeek(April17,2006).
11.“Firm,Toned,andTaut,”LoriGunter,BoeingFrontiers(November2005).
12.SeeDominicGates“Boeing787:Partsfromaroundtheworldwillbeswiftlyintegrated,”The
SeattleTimes,September11,2005.
13.Pritchard&MacPherson(2005).
14.Fingleton,E.“Boeing,Boeing,Gone:OutsourcedtoDeath,”AmericanConservative(January24,2005).
15.E-mailinterviewwithScottStrode,vicepresident
ofairplanedevelopmentandproduction,Boeing(March2007).
REFERENCES
261
16.Boeing’ssloganforthe2016visionis“Peopleworkingtogetherasaglobalenterpriseforaerospaceleadership.”Boeingexplicitlyacknowledgesin
thisvisionitsroleaslarge-scalesystemsintegratorasacorecompetence.
Seewww.boeing.com/vision.
17.Ibid.
18.“Boeing:NewJet,NewWayofDoingBusiness,”CIOInsight(March6,2006).
19.“TheEvolutionofCreation,”DebbyArkell,
BoeingFrontiers(March2005).
20.“Boeing’sDiffusionofCommercialAircraftDesignandManufacturingTechnologytoJapan,”DavidPritchardandAlanMacPherson,StateUniversityofNewYork,Buffalo(March2005).
21.“SharingtheDream,”BoeingFrontiers(August
2006).
22.“WingsAroundtheWorld,”AdamMorgan,BoeingFrontiers(March2006).
23.“TheEvolutionofCreation,”DebbyArkell,BoeingFrontiers(March2005).
24.“OutsourcingU.S.CommercialAircraft
TechnologyandInnovation,”DavidPritchardandAlanMacPherson,StateUniversityofNewYork,Buffalo(April2004).
25.“WaywardAirbus,”BusinessWeek(October23,2006).
26.EADS(2003EuropeanAeronatuciDefenceandSpaceCompany)EADSN.V.
FinancialYear2002:www.financial.eads.net/docredozuk4.pdf.
27.CIOinsightarticle.
28.Gartnerreport,2006.
29.“Salesforce.com’sNewGamble,”CNET(July26,2005).
30.“Salesforce.comBuysintoGoogleAdWords,”CNET(August21,2006).
31.Author’sinterviewwithAdamGross,vicepresidentofdevelopermarketing,Salesforce.com(November2006).
32.“EnvoxPhonelinkNowAvailableonSalesforce.com’sAppExchange,”CRMToday(October11,2006).
33.Author’sinterviewwithAdamGross,vicepresident
ofdevelopermarketing,Salesforce.com(November2006).
34.“Salesforce.comStrivesfortheOn-DemandApex,”DanFarber,ZDnet(October8,2006).
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35.“Salesforce.comCooks
UpOn-DemandProgrammingLanguage,”StaceyCowley,
CRN(October92006):http://www.crn.com/sections/breakingnews/
breakingnews.jhtml?articleId=193105561&cid=CRNBreakingNews.
36.“SalesforceStrivesfortheOn-DemandApex,”ZDNet(October9,2006).
37.“Salesforce.comLaunchesAppExchangeIncubator,”CRMToday(October10,
2006):http://www.crm2day.com/news/crm/120085.php.
38.ForadetailedcasestudyofIntelandMicrosoft’splatformstrategies,seePlatformLeadershipbyAnnabelleGawerandMichaelCusumano,HBS
Press(2003).
CHAPTERSIX
1.SeetheP&GConnect+DevelopWebsite:http://pg.t2h.yet2.com/t2h/page/
homepage.
2.SeetheP&GWebsite:http://submitmyideatopg.com/submitmyidea/.
3.See“ThePowerof
Innomediation,”Sawhney,M.,E.Prandelli,andG.Verona.MIT
SloanManagementReview(Winter2003);and“ConnectandDevelop,”Huston,L
andN.Sakkab.HarvardBusinessReview(March2006).
4.Authors’interviewwithDebraPark,DialCorporation
onMarch24,2006.
5.“InventingBetterOutletforInventors,”ScottKirsner,BostonGlobe(October17,2005).
6.Seehttp://ww2.wpp.com/Press/2006/20060906_1.html.
7.VisitPDGathttp://www.pdgevaluations.com/index.php.
8.IntellectualVentures:
http://www.intellectualventures.com/default.aspx.
9.“IVMovesfromMythtoReality,”VictoriaSlind-Flor,IntellectualAssetManagement(August/September2006),Issues19,29–34.
10.Ibid.
11.InterviewwithStephanJMallenbaum,JonesDay,NY(March6,2006).
12.InterviewwithJohnFunkonMarch1,2006.
13.InterviewwithDavidDuncaninJune2006.
CHAPTERSEVEN
1.Source:November2005NetcraftWebServerSurvey.
2.Touiller,O.,OlliaroPL.“DrugDevelopmentOutputfrom1975to1996:What
ProportionsforTropicalDiseases?”InternationalJournalofInfectiousDiseases(1999)3:61–63.
REFERENCES
263
3.WHOWorldHealthReport,2004.
4.“CanOpenSourceR&DReinvigorateDrug
Research?”BernardMunos,NatureReviewsDrugDiscovery(September5,2006):723–729.
5.Ibid.
6.WilliamJorgensen,“TheManyRolesofComputationinDrugDiscovery,”Science(2004):1813:1818.
7.Visitwww.openscience.org.
8.Authors’interviewwithAndrejSali,StephenMaurer,andArtiRaiinNovember/
December2006.
9.Visithttp://thesynapticleap.org.
10.Author’sinterviewwithGingerTayloronNovember15,2006.
11.Source:International
HapMapsiteathttp://www.hapmap.org/.
12.“OpenandCollaborativeResearch:ANewModelforBiomedicine,”ArtiRai,IntellectualPropertyRightsinFrontierIndustries:BiotechandSoftware(AEI-
BrookingsPress,2005):http://eprints.law.duke.edu/archive/000000882/.
13.Copyleftisageneral
methodformakingaprogramorotherworkfree,andrequiringallmodifiedandextendedversionsoftheprogramtobefreeaswell.See
http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
14.“Avatar-BasedMarketing,”PaulHemp,HarvardBusinessReview(June2006).
15.Visithttp://www.myvirtualband.com/.
16.Visithttp://bioitalliance.org/.
17.“RedmondFormsBiotechAlliance,”RedHerring(April4,2006).
CHAPTEREIGHT
1.http://steampowered.com/status/game_stats.html.
2.ZviRosen,“Mod,Man,andLaw:AReexaminationoftheLawofComputerGameModifications,”Chicago-KentJournalofIntellectualProperty(2005).
3.http://www.opensparc.net/opensparc-charter.html.
4.Authors’interviewwithDavidWeaver,ArchitectureTechnologiesGroup,Sun
Microsystems,inDecember2006.
5.http://www.opensparc.net/opensparc-guiding-principles.html.
6.http://www.opensparc.net/ca_policy.html.
264
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7.http://www.opensolaris.org/os/.
8.“EnterpriseOpenSource”bySimonPhipps(November2006):Line56.com
(http://www.line56.com/articles/default.asp?ArticleID=8034).
9.VisitMapprathttp://mappr.com/.
10.Visitthe
ProgrammableWeb(http://programmableweb.com/mashups)foralisting
ofallmashups.
11.“Mix,Match,andMutate,”BusinessWeek(July25,2005):http://www.
businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_30/b3944108_mz063.htm.
CHAPTERNINE
1.Authors’interviewwithIrvingWladawsky-BergeronApril7,2006.
CHAPTERTEN
1.“ConnectandDevelop:P&G’sNewInnovationModel”byLarryHustonandNabilSakkab,HarvardBusinessReview(March2006):84(3).
2.Authors’interviewwith
TomCripe,March3,2006.
3.Basedonauthors’interviewwithDr.RobertFinnocchiaro,3M,onJuly26,2006.
4.“ResearchStirsupMerck,SeeksOutsideAid,”TheWallStreetJournal(June7,2006).
5.Authors’interviewwithKodakexecutives—Gary
Einhaus(DirectorofResearchLabs);KimPugliese,(HeadofExternalAllianceGroup),andRichardMarken(DirectorofExternalRelations)—inJune2006.
6.Weed’slawisattributedtoJeffWeedman,vicepresidentofEBDatP&G.
7.Nambisan,S.“InformationSystemsasaReferenceDisciplineforNewProduct
Development,”MISQuarterly,27(1),1–18.
8.“NorthropGunmanCIOTalksCollaborativeCADandDataManagement,”
ManufacturingBusinessTechnology(February2005):23(20),pp.38.
9.Alsosee“BuildingCollaborativeInnovationCapability,”byMorgan
Swink,ResearchTechnologyManagement(March2006):49(2),pp.37–47.
REFERENCES
265
CHAPTERELEVEN
1.SeeTheWorldisFlat:ABriefHistoryoftheTwenty-firstCentury,ThomasL.
Friedman(2005).
2.http://www.trendwatching.com/trends/MASS_CLASS.htm.
3.Source:www.nasscom.in.
4.http://www.nationalacademies.org/.
5.“TheRiseoftheMulti-PolarWorld,”AccentureReport(2007):(http://www.
accenture.com/Global/Research_and_Insights/Policy_And_Corporate_Affairs/
ExecutiveSummary.htm).
6.SeeJebBrugmannandC.K.Prahalad.“Co-creatingbusiness’snewsocialcom-pact,”HarvardBusinessReview(February2007):80–90.
7.http://government.hp.com/content_detail.asp?contentid=363&agencyid=
0&mtxs=home-pub&mtxb=B1&mtxl=L1.
8.“WiproPlugsR&DServiceintoInnovationNetworks,”NaviRadjou,ForresterResearch(July2005).Alsovisithttp://www.wipro.com/pes/index.htm.
9.“HowAccentureOne-UppedBangalore,”BusinessWeek(April23,2007).
10.http://www.siroindia.com/.
11.Forexample,JebBrugmannandC.K.Prahalad.“Co-creatingBusiness’sNewSocialCompact,”HarvardBusinessReview(February2007):80–90.AlsoseeC.K.Prahalad’sbook,TheFortuneattheBottomofthePyramid,WhartonPublishing(2005).
12.“InnovationShipsOut,”
CIOMagazine(January15,2005).
13.“TheRevengeoftheGeneric,”BusinessWeek(December27,2006)andpersonalinterviewwithMichaelWinnick,co-founderofGravityTank.
14.“Innovation:IsGlobaltheWayForward?”Insead&BoozAllenHamiltonStudy,2006.
15.Source:NASSCOM(www.nasscom.in).
16.OneofIndia’sleadingeconomists,JairamRamesh,coinedtheterm“Chindia”andwroteabookonthepotentialcooperationbetweenIndiaandChina.SeeMakingSenseofChindia:ReflectionsonChinaandIndia,IndiaResearchPress,NewDelhi(2005).BusinessWeeklatermadethisterm
morepopulargloballybylaunchingaspecialissueonthistopic(issuedatedAugust22,2005).
17.“TheBRICsDream,”GoldmanSachsReport2006;
http://www2.goldmansachs.com/insight/research/reports/report32.html.
266
THEGLOBALBRAIN
CHAPTERTWELVE
1.“TheIncredibleStoryofTataMotorsandtheRs.1-LakhCar,”RobynMeredith,Forbes(March30,2007).
2.BasedonapresentationmadebyDavidYaunattheKelloggInnovationNetworkmeeting,Almaden,CA(March2007).
3.Alsosee,“Moving
TechnologiesfromLabtoMarket,”StephenMarkham,Research-TechnologyManagement(Nov/Dec2002):31–42.
INDEX
A
AppliedBiosystems,155
appropriabilityregime,80
Accenture’sLifeSciencesCenter,226
architects,69-70
ActiMatesInteractiveBarney,19
architectureofparticipation,38
ActiveWorld,147
ASF(ApacheSoftware
activities
Foundation),140
adapters,71
AutomotiveSupplierJam(IBM),242
agents,72-73
awareness,37
architects,69
adapters,71
B
addressablemarket,185
advocacy,22-23
balancedapproachtoinnovative
agents,72-73
activities,246-247
AirborneCollisionAvoidance
balancedportfolioofsourcing
system,220
mechanisms,188
AirbusA380megajumbo,97
Bayless,Dave,15
AIX,IBMasplatformleader,195
Benioff,Marc,101
AleniaAeronautica,90
Benkler,Yochai,31
allianceconstellation,34
Benoiff,Marc,42
alternatedeployment
BigIdeaGroup(BIG),121-124
opportunities,207
Bingham,Dr.Alph,198
AmylinPharmaceuticals,155
BioITAlliance,155
AnnualAcademyofManagement
biomedicalresearch,145-146
Meeting,3
Blair,Michael,89
Apachedevelopment,139-141
Boeing787Dreamlinerproject
ApacheSoftwareFoundation
globalizationofinnovation,219
(ASF),140
Orchestra-Integratormodelof
Apex,102
network-centricinnovation,
AppExchange,43
87-98
AppExchangeCentralBusiness
bookpublishing,ascommons-based
Incubator,108-109
peerproductionmodel,31
AppExchangeforum,100-101
BPO(businessprocess
AppExchangenetwork,103-104
outsourcing),221
governanceofAppExchange,
Bradley,Jean-Claude,144
105-106
Broomall,Vern,92
on-demandtechnologyplatform,
102-103
267
268
THEGLOBALBRAIN
buildingfaithinorganization,239-241
continuumofinnovationsourcing
businessecosystems,34-35
mechanisms(CreativeBazaar
businessprocessoutsourcing(BPO),221
model),114-136
Bye,Kent,55
contractresearchorganizations(CROs),226
ContributorAgreement(CA),168
C
conversions,MODStationmodel,158-159
copyrights,80,160
CA(ContributorAgreement),
168
core(networks),58
CATIA(V5),93
CouncilofCompetitiveness,National
CenterforResearchinInnovationand
InnovationInitiativereport,18
Technology,3
CounterStrike,65,159
centersofexcellence,231-233
CreativeBazaarmodel,62-63,113-114
centralization,58
continuumofinnovationsourcing
certification,105
mechanisms,114-136
challengestoinnovation,26-27
globalizationopportunities,227-229
China,221-224
ideascouts,BIG(BigIdeaGroup),121-124
CIC(communityinformationcenter),224
rolesinnetwork-centricinnovation,
Cisco,4,22
187-190
citizenjournalism,25
CreativeCommonsAttributionLicense,167
ClarkFoams,80
CreativeCommonsinitiative,81
Clark,Gordon“Grubby,”80
Cripe,Tom,17,135,199
co-marketing,Salesforce.com,107
crisisininnovation,14,237-239
Coase,Ronald,30
limitsofinternallyfocusedinnovation,
CollaborativeDrugDiscovery,155
15-17
collaborativeexperience(P&G),203
opportunitiestoovercome,
17-19
CollaborativeMolecularEnvironment,155
powerofnetwork-centricity,19-26
collaborativeprojects,67
“RedQueen”effect,14-15
collectivesanctions(governance
CRM(CustomerRelationshipManagement)
mechanism),77
market,42,101
Collins,Mike,121
CROs(contractresearchorganizations),226
commons-basedpeerproductionmodel,31
crowdsourcing,1
communicationsupport,ITtools,211
culturalchallenges(innovation
communitiesofcreation,1
opportunities),26-27
communityinformationcenter(CIC),224
CurrentTV,53
companionplanting,70
customercommunities,DucatiMotor,39-40
companycontext,47
customerpartners,Boeing,89
competencies,ICs(innovationcapitalists),
CustomerRelationshipManagement(CRM)
127-133
market,42,101
complementors,186-187
complianceworkshops(Intel),78
componentdevelopers,186-187
D
computationaldrugdiscovery,142
DassaultSystems,93,211
computergamingindustry,MODStation
decentralizednatureofdecisionmaking,153
model,158-162
DellInc.,12,15
computing,network-centric,20-21
DELMIA,93
conceptualization,89
dependencies,245-246
CondeNastPublicationsInc.,222
dependencymanagement,207-208
Connect+Developinitiative(P&G),27,114
detaileddesignphase,developmentofthe
ConnectNYnetwork,19
Boeing787,90-91
Consumerism,MASSclass,
221-222
DEV(DeutscherErfinderverband),120
contextualizationchallenges(innovation
DevelopandRefinecompetency
opportunities),27
(innovationcapitalists),131
continuumofcentralization,58
developernetworks,42-43
INDEX
269
development
EurekaRanch,4,130
Apache,139-141
EvergreenIP(EIP),4,124-125
Boeing787,89
executionchallenges(innovation
Dial,4
opportunities),27
PartnersinInnovationinitiative,
experimentation,243-244
117-121,250
ExternalAllianceGroup(Kodak),203
QuestfortheBest,250
ExternalBusinessDevelopment(EBD)
TechnologyAcquisitiongroup,249
group(P&G),17,135
dimensionsofnetwork-centricinnovation,
externalincubators,115
56-59
externalinnovationnetworks,209
direct-to-consumerbusinessmodel,15
ExtraFox,54
distributedinnovation,3
Dreamliner(787)project
F
globalizationofinnovation,219
Finnochiaro,Robert,241
Orchestra-Integratormodel
of
firm-centricinnovation,4
network-centricinnovation,87-98
first-personshooter(FPS)games,159
DucatiMotor
FisherPrice,19
ascustomercommunityexample,39-40
formalmechanisms
knowledgemanagement,77-78
AppExchangegovernance,105-106
Duncan,David,136
innovationnetworks,76
DuPont,4
forms,network-centricinnovation,38,44
customercommunities,39-40
E
developernetworks,42-43
Eagle,Jevin,41
electronicR&Dmarketplaces,44
EagleWisiondesignmethodology
implicationsfororganizational
(Wipro),226
capabilities,46
eBay,77
implicationsforrangeofinnovation,45-46
EBD(ExternalBusinessDevelopment)
implicationsforrisksandreturns,46-47
group(P&G),17
inventornetworks,41
EchoChamberProject,55
OSScommunities,39
EIP(EvergreenIP),124-125
FPS(first-personshooter)games,159
electronicR&Dmarketplaces(3M),44
Friedman,Tom,220
ElekSen,72
FujiHeavyIndustries,90
ElekTex,72
Funk,John,135
Elements,MODStationmodel,171-173
emergentnatureoftheinnovationgoals,152
G
emergingeconomies,224
gatednetworkapproach(governance
consumerismandtheMASSclass,221-222
mechanism),76
opportunitiesrelatedto
GeneralPublicLicense(GPL),81
CreativeBazaarmodel,227-229
GentooLinux,166
JamCentralmodel,229-230
geographicallydistributedcentersof
MODStationmodel,230-231
excellence,231-233
Orchestramodel,225-227
Geospiza,155
Emini,Emilio,200
Gillette,Walter,89,93
EMS(EmergingMarketSolutions),224
GIO(GlobalInnovationOutlook)(IBM),18
engagementoftheentireorganization,
GlobalCollaborationEnvironment
241-242
(Boeing),93
ENOVIA,93
GlobalInnovationOutlook(GIO)(IBM),18
enterprise,network-centric,22
globalpartners,Boeing,88,93-94
EnterpriseEdition(JavaEE),169
globalizationofinnovation,15,219-220
enterpriseinformationsystems,21
ChinaandIndia,221-223
envisionanddirectinnovation
emergingeconomies,224-231
(architects),69
270
THEGLOBALBRAIN
geographicallydistributedcentersof
ideascouts,72,121-124,189-190
excellence,231-233
IdeaExchange,106-107
preparingforopportunities,234-235
ideationto
commercialization,244-245
GNUGeneralPublicLicense(GPL),81,161
Ideawicket,228
goals,network-centricinnovation,36
identificationofrisks,209
Goodrich,90
IDEO,72
governance,75-77
IgniteIP(IIP),4,125
AppExchange(Salesforce.com),105-106
Ikea,222
OpenSPARCInitiative,166-167
incentivesformodding,160-162
GPL(GeneralPublicLicense),81,161
inclusioncommunity,224
granularityofinnovationtasks,38
independentsoftwaredevelopers(ISV),103
GravityTank,232
India,221
gridcomputing,20-21
consumerismandtheMASSclass,221-222
Gross,Adam,102
emergenceofNGOs,223-224
growth,questforprofitable
growth,12-14
technologicalandscientificexpertise,
222-223
H
INdTV,53
informalmechanisms
Half-Life,MODStation
model,65,159-160
AppExchangegovernance,105-106
Hanson,Matt,52
innovationnetworks,76
HaplotypeMapping(HapMap),146
informationsharing,ITtools,210
hardsynergies,M&Adeals,13
informationtechnology(IT)tools,210-211
HCLTechnologies,225
infrastructure,OpenSPARCInitiative,
HenkelInnovationTrophy,120
166-167
HenkelKGaA,117
infrastructureservices(adapters),71
HermanMiller,PLMsolutions,211
InnoCentive,4,25,44,198
HewlettPackard,155,224
innovation,1.Seealsonetwork-centric
HGP(HumanGenomeproject),29,146
innovation
hierarchy-basedproduction,30
challenges,26-27
HindustanLever,228
crisis,14-26,237-239
history,network-centricinnovation
distributedinnovation,3
businessecosystems,34-35
firm-centric,4
modesofproduction,30-32
innovationcapitalists(ICs).
SeeICs
OpenSourceconcept,33-35
(innovationcapitalists)
Homeworld2,160
innovationcatalysts,160
HumanGenomeproject(HGP),29,146
MODStationmodel,173-
174,192-193
OpenSPARCInitiative,164
I
InnovationJaminitiative(IBM),242
i-community(HewlettPackard),224
innovationmetrics,211-214
IBM,4
innovationnetworks,1
GIO(GlobalInnovationOutlook),18
innovationportals
InnovationJaminitiative,242
asCreativeBazaarmodelinnovationrole,
leveraginginnovationnetworks,27
187-189
asOSScommunityexample,39
Dial,119
portfolioofinnovationroles,194
innovationsponsors
PowerArchitecture,225
asJamCentralmodelinnovationrole,
Powerchipinnovationalliance,59
190-192
ICDL(InternationalComputerDriving
TDI-TSLnetwork,144
License)Foundation,224
innovationsteward,TDI-TSLnetwork,143
ICs(innovationcapitalists)
innovationtransformation(agents),73
CreativeBazaarmodel,116-117,124-136
innovators
EvergreenIP(EIP),124-125
asMODStationmodelinnovationrole,193
IgniteIP(IIP),125
OpenSPARCInitiative,164
ideahunts,122-124
TDI-TSLnetwork,144
INDEX
271
IntacctCorp.,71
knowledgemanagement,77-79
Integrators,asOrchestramodelinnovation
knowledgetransfer(agents),72
role,185-186
knowledge-basedtasks,R&Dprocess,142
Intel,78
knowledge-managementmechanisms,85
intellectualproperty.SeeIPrights
Kodak,203
management
Kraft,16
IntellectualVenturesLLC(IV),123
Interknowlogy,155
L–M
internalevangelism,134
Lafley,A.G,199
internalincubators,115
leadership
internalresources,186
organizationalreadinessfor
internallyfocusedinnovation,limitsof,15-17
network-centricinnovation,205-207
InternationalComputerDrivingLicense
structureofnetworkleadership,57-59
(ICDL)Foundation,224
learningpotential,adapterrole,187
InternationalHapMapproject,146
Lenovo,15
InventionQuest(Staples
Inc.),41
licensingscheme(GPL),81
inventornetworks,StaplesInc.,41
LindenLab,149
inventors,partnerships,117-121
linkingmembers(agents),72
IPrightsmanagement,79-82
Linux,24
computergames,160-161
Logitech,72
innovationcapitalists,132
OpenSPARCInitiative,167-169
M&A(mergersand
acquisitions)deals,13
TDInetwork,145
management
ISV(independentsoftwaredevelopers),103
dependencies,207-208
IT(informationtechnology)tools,210-211
intellectualpropertyrights,132
networks,74-82
J–K
risks,supportprocesses,209
mantraforinnovation,249-250
Jailbreak,160
Mappr,170
JamCentralmodel,64-65,139-141
Marketcompetency(innovationcapitalists),
biomedicalresearch,opendatabases
132-133
approach,145-146
market-basedproduction,30
elementsof,151-154
market-readyproducts,114
globalizationopportunities,229-230
Mashupmovement,170-171
largecompanies,154-156
MASSclass,consumerism,
221-222
rolesinnetwork-centricinnovation,
Maurer,Stephen,141
190-192
mechanisms,sourcinginnovation,114
SecondLife(virtualrealityworld),146-150
mediation,agents,72-73
TropicalDiseaseInitiative,141-145
Merck,17
Jansen,Kathrin,200
MeredithCorp.,222
JavaEE(EnterpriseEdition),169
mergersandacquisitions(M&A)deals,13
JavaME(MicroEdition),169
Merwin,130
JavaSE(StandardEdition),169
Metaverse(virtualrealityworld),146
jointdevelopmentphase,developmentof
metrics(innovationmetrics),211-214
theBoeing787,89-90
MicroEdition(JAVAME),169
Joy,Bill,17
Microsoft
Jung,Edward,123
ActiMatesInteractiveBarney,19
KawasakiHeavyIndustries,90
BioITAlliance,155
KelloggInnovationNetwork(KIN),3
Miller,David,166
Kellogg’s,227
mindsetchallenges(innovation
Kieden,109
opportunities),26-27
Kim,Peter,17,200
MitsubishiHeavyIndustries,90
KIN(KelloggInnovationNetwork),3
MODFilms,53
272
THEGLOBALBRAIN
MODStationmodel,65-66,157-158
network-centricinnovation(NCI),4,23-26,
computergamingindustry,158-162
29-30,51-54,67-68
elements,171-173
balancedapproachtoinnovative
globalizationopportunities,230-231
activities,246-247
innovationcatalysts,173-174
buildingfaithinorganization,239-241
Mashupmovement,170-171
companycontextconsiderations,47
OpenSPARCInitiative,162-169
contributionto
organizationalgrowth,248
rolesinnetwork-centricinnovation,
dependencies,245-246
192-193
engagementoftheentireorganization,
modders,160
241-242
models,network-centricinnovation,59,
experimentation,243-244
193-194
forms,38
choosingmostappropriatemodel,179-184
customercommunities,39-40
CreativeBazaarmodel,62-63,113-136,
developernetworks,42-43
187-190,227-229
electronicR&Dmarketplaces,44
JamCentralmodel,64-65,
139-156,
implicationsfororganizational
190-192,229-230
capabilities,46
ModStationmodel,65-66,157-174,
implicationsforrangeofinnovation,
192-193,230-231
45-46
Orchestramodel,60-62,85-111,185-187,
implicationsforrisksandreturns,
225-227
46-47
modesofproduction,30-32
inventornetworks,41
MODification(MOD)Stationmodel.See
OSScommunities,39
MODStationmodel
globalization,219-220
modularityoftheinnovation
system,38
ChinaandIndia,221-224
Moore,James,34
emergingeconomies,224-231
Morley,Eileen,54
geographicallydistributedcentersof
Mulally,Alan,87
excellence,231-233
MVB(MyVirtualBand.com),150-151
preparingforopportunities,234-235
Myhrvold,Nathan,123
historicalandphilosophicalrootsof,30-35
ideationtocommercialization,244-245
N
implicationsforinnovationroles,73-74
landscapeof,55-59
NationalInnovationInitiativereport
mantraforinnovation,249-
250
(CouncilofCompetitiveness),18
members,68-73
natureofthecollaboration
models,59
infrastructure,153
CreativeBazaarmodel,62-
63,
TheNatureoftheFirm,30
113-136,187-190,227-229
NCA(network-centricadvocacy),22-23
JamCentralmodel,64-65,139-156,
NCE(network-centricenterprise),22
190-192,229-230
NCI(network-centricinnovation).See
ModStationmodel,65-66,157-174,
network-centricinnovation
192-193,230-231
NCO(network-centricoperations),21-22
Orchestramodel,60-62,85-111,
NCW(network-centricwarfare),21
185-187,225-227
networkgovernance,75-77
networkmanagement,74-82
networkmanagement,74
organizationalandoperationalreadiness,
IPrightsmanagement,79-82
197-198
knowledgemanagement,77-79
innovationmetrics,211-214
networkgovernance,75-77
leadershipandrelationalcapabilities,
networkpartners,Boeing,91
205-207
network-centricadvocacy(NCA),22-23
lettinggoofinnovationprocess,
network-centricenterprise
(NCE),22
200-202
managementofdependencies,207-208
structureoftheorganization,202-205
INDEX
273
supportprocesses,208-209
OpenSPARCInitiative,162-164
toolsandtechnologies,210-211
combiningwithotherSuninitiatives,169
WeKnowEverything(WKE)
communitygovernanceand
syndrome,199-200
infrastructure,166-167
positioningfirmininnovation
communitymembers,164-166
landscape,178
IPrightsmanagementandvalue
analysisofindustryandmarket
appropriation,167-169
characteristics,179-184
operationalreadiness,197-198
portfolioofroles,194-196
innovationmetrics,211-214
requirementsofinnovationrole,179,
supportprocesses,208-209
184-194
toolsandtechnologies,210-211
principlesof,35-38
operations,network-centric,21-22
reallocationofinnovationinvestments,
Orchestramodel,60-62,85-86
247-248
globalizationopportunities,225-227
network-centricoperations(NCO),21-22
Orchestra-Integratormodel,86-98
network-centricwarfare(NCW),21
Orchestra-Platformmodel,86,100-111
NetworkedVirtualOrganization(NVO)
rolesinnetwork-centricinnovation,
(Cisco),22
185-187
NGOs(non-profitandnon-governmental
Orchestra-Integratormodel,86-88
organizations)
comparisonswithA380and
emergenceofinBRICcountries,223-224
Boeing777projects,98
globalizationofinnovation,229-230
strategy,88-96
NIH(NotInventedHere)syndrome,199
Orchestra-Platformmodel,
86
NineSigma,44
criticalelements,109-111
NorthropGunman,PLMtools,211
Salesforce.comandAppExchangeforum,
NotInventedHere(NIH)syndrome,199
100-101
NVO(NetworkedVirtualOrganization)
AppExchangenetwork,103-104
(Cisco),22
governanceofAppExchange,105-106
on-demandtechnology
platform,
O
102-103
Salesforce.cominitiatives,106
O’Reilly,Tim,38
AppExchangeCentralBusiness
objectives
Incubator,108-109
AppExchange,104
co-marketingandvalue
network-centricinnovation,36
appropriation,107
ODMs(originaldesign
manufacturers),232
IdeaExchange,106-107
OEMs(originalequipment
partneralliances,107-108
manufacturers),225
organizationalcapabilities,implicationsof
OfficeMax,232-233
network-centricinnovation,46
OhmyNews,25
organizationalengagement,241-242
on-demandsoftware,101
organizationalgrowth,248
on-demandtechnologyplatform,102-103
organizationalreadiness,197-198
opendatabasesapproach,145-146
leadershipandrelationalcapabilities,
openmarketinnovation,1
205-207
OpenSourceconcept,25
lettinggoofinnovationprocess,200-202
filmmaking,33
managementofdependencies,207-208
hardware,33
structureoftheorganization,202-205
intelligence(OSINT),33
WeKnowEverything(WKE)syndrome,
network-centricinnovation,33-35
199-200
opensourcecurriculum,33
originaldesignmanufacturers(ODMs),232
OpenSourceDevelopment
Lab(OSDL),155
originalequipmentmanufacturers
OpenSourceSoftware(OSS)movement,4,
(OEMs),225
24,33,39
OSDL(OpenSourceDevelopmentLab),155
OpenJavainitiative,169
Osher,John,116
OpenSolarisproject,169
274
THEGLOBALBRAIN
OSINT(opensourceintelligence),33
principles,network-centric
innovation,35
OSS(OpenSourceSoftware)movement,4,
architectureofparticipation,38
24,33,39
creationofsocialknowledge,37
sharedawarenessandworld
view,37
P
sharedgoalsandobjectives,36
processmanagementmechanisms,210
P&G(Proctor&Gamble),4
Proctor&Gamble.SeeP&G(Proctor&
Connect+Developinitiative,27,114
Gamble)
EBDgroup,collaborationhistory,203
ProductDevelopmentGroup(PDG)LLC,122
ExternalBusinessDevelopmentgroup,135
ProductEngineeringSolutions(PES),
innovationinitiatives,17
Wipro,226
leveraginginnovationnetworks,27
ProductLifecycleManagement(PLM)
portfolioofinnovationroles,
195
tools,211
SpinBrushproduct,115
profitablegrowth,12-14
Park,Debra,117
projectmanagement,ITtools,210
partialconversions,65,158
partneralliances,Salesforce.com,107-108
PartnersinInnovation(Dial),117-121,250
Q–R
partnerships
QPong,160
DialCorporation,117-121
Quake,159
innovationcapitalists,124-127,133-136
qualityrating,105
patentedtechnology,computergames,160
QuantaComputer,232
patents,80
QuestfortheBestcontest(Dial),118,250
PCPack(ActiMatesInteractiveBarney),20
PDG(ProductDevelopmentGroup)LLC,122
R&Dprocess,drugdiscovery,142
Perens,Bruce,33
Rai,Arti,141
periphery(networks),58
RAMP(ResearchAcceleratorforMultiple
PES(ProductEngineeringSolutions),
Processors),166
Wipro,226
RavenSoftware,161
philosophicalroots,network-centric
rawideas,114
innovation
Raymond,Eric,33
businessecosystems,34-35
reachofthemechanism,
sourcing
modesofproduction,30-32
innovation,114
OpenSourceconcept,33-35
reallocationofinnovationinvestments,
Pickering,Thomas,88-91
247-248
platformleaders,185-186
RedHatLinux,24
platformmonitoring,105
“RedQueen”effect,14-15
PLM(ProductLifecycleManagement)
ReducedInstructionSetArchitecture
tools,211
(RISC),162
PlugFests(Intel),78
Reines,Scott,200
portfolioofroles,194-196
relationalcapabilities
positioningfirmininnovationlandscape,178
innovationcapitalists,132
analysisofindustryandmarket
organizationalreadinessfor
characteristics,179-184
network-centricinnovation,205-207
portfolioofroles,194-196
RelianceIndustries,228
requirementsofinnovationrole,179-194
reports,NationalInnovationInitiative
CreativeBazaarmodel,187-190
(CouncilofCompetitiveness),18
JamCentralmodel,190-192
reputationalsystems(governance
MODStationmodel,192-193
mechanism),77
Orchestramodel,185-187
ResearchAcceleratorforMultiple
PowerArchitecture(IBM),195,225
Processors(RAMP),166
PowerArchitectureDesignCenter(HCL
reverseflowmodel,134
Technologies),225
RISC(ReducedInstructionSet
Powerchipinnovationalliance(IBM),59
Architecture),162
INDEX
275
risk
SOC(SystemOnaChip)design,163,225
identificationandmanagement,209
socialknowledge,37
innovationarchitecture,186
socialmechanisms,76
mitigation,114
softsynergies,M&Adeals,13
risksandreturns,implicationsof
softwareasservice,101
network-centricinnovation,46-47
softwaredevelopment,142
roadshows(BIG),121
SolarisOS,169
roles,network-centricinnovation,184-194
space,innovationspace,180
CreativeBazaarmodel,187-190
SPARCarchitecture,OpenSPARCInitiative,
JamCentralmodel,190-192
162-164
MODStationmodel,192-193
combiningwithotherSuninitiatives,169
Orchestramodel,185-187
communitygovernanceand
portfolioofroles,194-196
infrastructure,166-167
rule-basedtasks,R&D
process,142
communitymembers,164-166
IPrightsmanagementandvalue
S
appropriation,167-169
SPARCstation1,162
Salesforce.com
specializedknowledge(adapters),71
AppExchangeforum,100-106
SpinBrushproduct(P&G),115
asdevelopernetworkexample,42-43
StaplesInc.,4,41
initiativesasplatformleader,106-109
StarAlliance,34
Sali,Andrej,141
Stephenson,Neal,146
Samsung,commoditization,15
Stonecipher,Harry,87
Sanctuary,54
StrategicBusinessUnit(SBU)level,179
SangerInstitute,69
Strategies,Boeing’snetwork-centric
Sargent,Ron,41
innovation,88-96
SBU(StrategicBusinessUnit)level,179
Streiff,Christian,99
ScalableProcessorArchitecture.SeeSPARC
Strode,Scott,92
architecture
structure
Schistosomiasisproject,144
innovationspace,56-57
ScienceCommonsinitiative,81
networkleadership,57-59
scientificexpertise,emergingeconomiesof
organization,202-205
IndiaandChina,222-223
Submit&Winsweepstakes(Dial),118
ScrippsResearchInstitute,155
SugarCRM,230
SecondLife(SL).SeeSL(SecondLife)
SunMicrosystemsInc.,155
SeekandEvaluatecompetency(innovation
OpenSPARCInitiative,162-169
capitalists),128-130
portfolioofinnovationroles,195
787BoeingDreamliner
project
supportprocesses,208-209
globalizationofinnovation,219
ASwarmofAngels,52
Orchestra-Integratormodelof
TheSynapticLeap(TSL),144
network-centricinnovation,87-98
SystemOnaChip(SOC)design,163,225
Shaffer,Steve,92,94
sharedawareness,37
T
sharedgoals,36
sharedworldview,134
TaiwanSemiconductorManufacturing
Silver,Andrew,54
Company(TSMC),71
SimplyRISC,165
Tata,15
SIROClinpham,226
Taylor,Ginger,143
SL(SecondLife),146-147
TDI(TropicalDiseaseInitiative),141-144
behavioralnorms,149-150
TDI-TSLnetwork,144-145
networkandplayers,148-149
TeamFortress,159
Smith,Dan,95
TeamReaction,160
snifftest,129
technologicalexpertise,emerging
SnowCrash,146
economiesofIndiaandChina,
SNPconsortium,146
222-223
276
THEGLOBALBRAIN
technologies,operationalreadinessfor
valuechain,ICs(innovationcapitalists),127
network-centricinnovation,210-211
DevelopandRefinecompetency,131
TechnologyAcquisitiongroup(Dial),
Marketcompetency,132-133
117,249
SeekandEvaluate
competency,128-130
technologybrokers,72
valuecreation,243-244
tendingtheinnovationnetwork
valuenets,21
(architects),70
valuenetworks,21
3M,4,44,199
ValveCorporation,HalfLife,65,159
timetomarket,114
VendlinkLLP,19
Todd,Mathew,144
venturecapitalists,115
tools,operationalreadiness
for
ViewerCreatedContent(CurrentTV),53
network-centricinnovation,210-211
VizXLabs,155
totalconversions,65,159
VoughtAircraftIndustries,90
Toyota,22
tradesecrets,80,160
W–Z
trademarks,80,160
Walmart,22
transactioncosts,30
Warfare,network-centric,21
triggerandcatalyze
innovation
TheWatch,54
(architects),69
WeAreSmarterThanMe,31
TropicalDiseaseInitiative(TDI),33,
WeKnowEverything(WKE)syndrome,
141-144
199-200
trust-basedenvironment,Boeing,94-96
Weaver,David,166
TSL(TheSynapticLeap),144
web-deliveredsoftware,101
TSMC(TaiwanSemiconductor
WebSphere,IBMasplatformleader,195
ManufacturingCompany),71
Weed’slaw,207
Turner,Dr.Merv,200
WellcomeTrust,69
TVPack(ActiMatesInteractiveBarney),20
Wikipedia,24
Williams,Brandon,133
U–V
Williamson,Oliver,30
U.K.-basedWellcomeTrust,69
Wipro,226
UbuntuLinux,166
WKE(WeKnowEverything)syndrome,
UIA(UnitedInventorAssociation),119
199-200
UltraSPARCT1,163
Wladawsky-Berger,Irving,39,191,201
Unilever,4
worldview,37
UnitedInventorAssociation(UIA),119
Worldcraft,160
WyethPharmaceuticalsInc.,226
valueappropriation,180
OpenSPARCInitiative,167-169
Salesforce.com,107
valuecapture,243-244
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DocumentOutline
ContentsForewordIntroductionPartI:FromFirm-CentrictoNetwork-CentricInnovation
Chapter1ThePowerofNetwork-
CentricityChapter2UnderstandingNetwork-CentricInnovation
PartII:TheLandscapeofNetwork-CentricInnovation
Chapter3TheFourModelsofNetwork-CentricInnovationChapter4Innovation
Networks:ThePlayersandthePlays
PartIII:TheFourModelsofNetwork-CentricInnovation
Chapter5TheOrchestraModelChapter6TheCreativeBazaarModelChapter7TheJamCentralModelChapter8The
MOD(“MODification”)StationModel
PartIV:ExecutingNetwork-CentricInnovation
Chapter9DecidingWhereandHowtoPlayChapter10PreparingtheOrganization
PartV:GlobalizationandNetwork-Centric
InnovationChapter11GlobalizingNetwork-CentricInnovation:TheDragonandtheTigerChapter12ConcludingThoughts&Actionsfor“Monday”Morning
ReferencesIndex
ABCDEFGHIJ–KL–MNOP
Q–RSTU–VW–Z