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APPROACH TO A CASE OF RESPIRATORY DISTRESS IN THE
NEWBORN
DR JAGAN MOHAN VARAKALA
• Causes of significant morbidity and
mortality newborn
• Incidence 4 to 6% of live births
• Many are preventable
• Early recognition, timely referral,
appropriate treatment essential
2
OBJECTIVES
• TO IDENTIFY THE RESPIRATORY PROBLEMS IN THE NEWBORN
• TO UNDERSTAND THE ETIOLOGY OF RESPIRATORY PROBLEMS IN THE NEWBORN
• TO LEARN ABOUT THE MOST COMMON RESPIRATORY PROBLEMS IN THE NEWBORN
APPROACH TO A CASE OF RDS
• WHY DO NEWBORNS DEVELOP HIGHER INCIDENCE OF RESPIRATORY DISTRESS ?
APPROACH TO A CASE OF RDS
• MAINLY BECAUSE OF DIFFICULTIES IN ADAPTING TO TRANSITION
• ASSSOCIATED DEVELOPMENTAL AND PATHOLOGIC PROBLEMS
• DUE TO PREMATURE BIRTHS
FETUS TRANSITION NEWBORN
TRANSITIONAL CIRCULATION
UVDV IVC RA
FO LA LV
SVC RA RV
DA Des Ao
F
E
T
A
L
Fetus Birth Newborn
Pu
lmo
na
ry V
as
cu
lar
Re
sis
tan
ce
PaO2
pH
PaCO2
Leukotrienes
Endothelin
PaO2
pH
PaCO2
Nitric oxide
Prostacyclin
CHANGES IN PULMONARY VASCULAR RESISTENCEAT BIRTH
FIRST BREATH
NEONATE
WITH
RESPIRATORY
DISTRESS
LABORATORY
TESTS
DIFFERENTIAL
DIAGNOSIS
CARDIACPULMONARY MOTHER CAUSES
HISTORYPRENATALINTRAPARTUM
PHYSICAL EXAMNATION
FINAL DIAGNOSIS
MANGEMENT:GENERAL AND SPECIFIC
APPROACH TO A CASE OF RDS
Determining Differential Diagnosis
What you need to know…History•
•
•
Presentation/X-raysLab values
clinical assessment
•
18
EVALUATION OF NEONATES WITH RESPIRATORY DISTRESS
Ante History-obsterician friend
Premature delivery
Postmature delivery
Fetal distress
Meconium-stained
fluidMaternal diabetes
Oligohydramnios/
polyhydramnios
Decreased fetal movements
Traumatic delivery
Drugs
Cesarean section
Vaginal bleeding
Antenatal Steroids
• Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)
• Meconium aspiration syndrome (MAS)
• Transient tachypnoea of newborn (TTNB)
• Asphyxial lung disease
• Pneumonia- Congenital, aspiration, nosocomial
• Persistent pulmonary hypertension (PPHN)
9
• Tracheo-esophageal fistula
• Diaphragmatic hernia
• Pierre -Robin syndrome
• Choanal atresia
• Congenital lobar emphysema
10
Early progressive - Respiratory distresssyndrome or hyalinemembrane disease (HMD)
Early transient - Asphyxia, metaboliccauses, hypothermia
PneumoniaAnytime -
19
TTNB, polycythemia
MAS, asphyxia,
malformations
Cardiac
Early well looking
Early severe distress
-
-
Late sick with
hepatomegaly
-
Late sick
Anytime
with shock - Acidosis
Pneumonia-
20
• Obvious malformation
• Scaphoid abdomen
• Frothing
• History of aspiration
21
EVALUATION OF NEONATES WITH RESPIRATORY DISTRESS
Major signs:
cyanosis, tachypnea
grunting, retraction, flaring
Stridor, wheezes,
hoarseness, and other
airway findings
CardiovascularassessmentBlood pressure
Neurologic assessment
Temperature
Physical Exam
Downes score*0 1 2
Resp. rate
Central
cyanosis
Retractions
Grunting
Air entry
<60
None
60-80
None with
40% FiO2
Mild
Minimal
Decreased
>80
Needs
>40% FiO2
Severe
Obvious
Very poor
1.
2.
None
None
Good
3.
4.
5.
* Score > 6 indicates severe distress
15
• Downes J,Vidyasagar D and Boggs T (1971)
Color—pink, dusky, Central Cyanosis Peripherally
Heart rate
Pulses Distal vs Central
Perfusion Capillary RefillTime Blood Pressure
,pale,mottled
13
EVALUATION OF NEONATES WITH RESPIRATORY DISTRESS
Laboratory Workup
Chest radiograph
Arterial blood gas
Blood glucose
Central hematocrit
White blood cell
and differential
If indicated:
Blood culture
Echocardiogram
Other diagnostic
imaging
TTNTERM INFANT IN RESPIRATORY DISTRESS
A male infant weighing 3000g is born at 36 weeks'gestation, with normal Apgar scores.Examinationthe child is tachypneic, with subcostal retractions.Lung sounds are clear and there is no heartmurmur.
X-Ray findings Prominent Perihilar
Hyperinflation
Fluid in fissure
streaking
28
X-ray
Fluid in the fissure
What Next ?
Most common diagnosis of respiratorydistress in the newbornIneffective clearance of amniotic fluid
from lungs with deliveryMost often seen at birth or shortly after birth
25
68
Predisposing factors
PROM >24 hours, foul smelling liquor,
Peripartal fever, unclean or multiple per
vaginal
Treatment
Thermoneutral environment, NPO, IV
fluids, Oxygen, antibiotics-
(Amp+Gentamicin)
69
70
• Myocardial dysfunction
• Cerebral edema
• Asphyxial lung injury
• Metabolic
• Persistent
acidosis
pulmonary hypertension
72
CASE HISTORY
• A 3kg female infant is delivered via caesarean section at 41 weeks’ gestational age because of MSAF. She is limp and cyanotic at birth with minimal respiratory effort. Apgar scores are 2 and 7 at 1 and 5 minutes, respectively. Temp:is 99°F (37.2°C), HR: 177/ minute, and RR: 80/minute.
• Physical examination findings include marked increased work of breathing with nasal flaring, subcostal and suprasternal retractions.
• Barrel-shaped chest, and coarse rhonchi in bilateral lung fields.
• Chest X Ray findings…
61
Increased AP diameter
Hyperinflation
Atelectasis
Note meconium staining of skin Increase AP
diameter of chest and the convexity of the sternum
MAS:PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Vidysagar D. PEDIATRICS 1975
PREVENTION OF MECONIUM ASPIRATION SYNDROME(MAS)
• Because of potential morbidity and
mortality from MAS,
prevention would clearly be beneficial.
• This has led to a number of antenatal,
intrapartum and postnatal preventative
therapies with a varying degree of
success.
IS MENONIUM PRESENTYESNO
IS THE BABY VIGOROUS?
Intubate and tracheal suction.
CONTINUE WITH RESUSCITATION
CLEAR MOUTH AND NOSE FROM SECRETIONS
DRY,STIMULATE AND REPOSITION
GIVE OXYGEN AS NECESSARY
NOYES
Bag and masking is contraindicated
Small right pneumothorax
Pneumomediastinum
Pneumopericardium
EtiologySpontaneous, MAS, Positive pressureventilation (PPV)
73
Respiratory Assessment Tachypnea
Nasal flaring
Grunting
Retractions
BS absent or decreased
74
Clinical Assessment Cyanotic
Pale, gray
Heart Rate
▪
▪
▪
Tachycardia
Bradycardia
PEA
Pulses
▪
▪
▪
Normal
Poor
absent
75
Perfusion Capillary Refill (CRT)
Blood Pressure if monitoring Arterial narrowing pulse pressure
Deformities of ChestWall
Asymmetry of chest
Line,
CHEST X-Ray speaksfor itself!!
76
Pneumothorax/Airleaks
•Management• Needle aspiration, chest tube
TERM INFANT IN RESPIRATORY DISTRESS
Left diaphragmatic hernia
Defect present at birth Increased risks: Parents have CHD? Siblings have CHD? Maternal diabetes
often picked up on usg
Exposure to German mother HIV+
measles, toxoplasmosis, or if
Alcohol use during pregnancy Cocaine use during pregnancy
86
Respiratory Assessment Respirations
▪ Normal
▪ Tachypnea
Saturations depend upon defect.
▪
▪
▪
Acyanotic lesions sats are more normal
Cyanotic lesions acceptable sats are low
~ 70% is acceptable; ideally on 21% FiO2
87
Clinical Assessment HR▪ Slow, fast, variable▪ murmur
BP▪ Check in all 4 extremities
Pulses in all extremities CRT in all 4 extremities Color▪ Acyanotic -pink▪ Cyanotic-blue
88
Hyperoxia Test
• Obtain ABG–> Then place the patient on 100% O2 for 10 minutes then repeat ABG , If the cyanosis is pulmonary , the PaO2 should be increased by 30 mm of Hg. If the cause is cardiac , there will be minimal improvement in PaO2.
Echocardiogram Best test to aid in diagnosis
Cardiac Cath for possible intervention
PRETEM INFANT WITH RESPIRATORY DISTRESS
44
Respiratory Distress Syndrome
• Also called as hyaline membrane disease• Most common cause of respiratory distress in
premature infants, correlating with structural & functional lung immaturity.
• 1/3 infants born between 28 to 34 weeks, but less than 5% of those born after 34 weeks.
INCREASED RISK FACTORS
• Infants of diabetic mothers
• Delivery before 37 wk gestation
• Multifetal pregnancies
• Cesarean section delivery
• Precipitous delivery
• Asphyxia
• Cold stress
• History of previously affected infants
DECREASED RISK FACTORS
• Chronic or pregnancy-associated hypertension
• Maternal opiate addiction
• Prolonged rupture of membranes
• Antenatal corticosteroid use
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
• Surfactant deficiency - decreased production and secretion
• Present in amn.fluid:28-30wks, mature levels after 35 wks
• Surfactant reduce surface tension and prevent the collapse alveoli
• Alveolar atelectasis, hyaline membrane formation, and interstitial edema make the lungs less compliant, so greater pressure is required to expand the small alveoli and airways
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (CONTD…)
• Decreased lung compliance- insufficient alveolar ventilation – result in hypercapnia
• Combination of hypercapnia, hypoxia, and acidosis → pulmonary arterial vasoconstriction → increased R → L shunting through the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus →Pulmonary blood flow is reduced → ischemic injury cap endothelium & alveolar epithelium → leak of plasma (proteinaceous material) into the alveolar spaces
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (CONTD…)
• leak of plasma (proteinaceousmaterial) into the alveolar spaces →combine with fibrin & necrotic alveolar pneumocytes & form hyaline membrane
• Hyaline membranes: coagulum of sloughed cells and exudate, plastered against epithelial basement membrane
Primary Hyaline membranedisease(HMD):e.g Prematurity
Secondary HMD e.g Meconium aspirationsyndrome, asphyxial lung injury, pulmonaryhaemorrage
42
PREVENTION
• Prevention of prematurity
• Lecithin:sphingomyelin ratio in amniotic fluid: >2 means mature lungs <1.5 means HMD
• Betamethasone to women 48hr before the delivery - between 24 and 34 wk of gestation- 6mg IM for 4 doses 12 hrs apart or 12 mg IM for 2 doses 12 hrs apart
PREVENTION (CONTD…)
• First dose of surfactant into the trachea of symptomatic premature baby immediately after birth (prophylactic) or during the first few hours of life (early rescue)
• MonitoringSupportive
22
• Avoid hypothermia
• IV Calories and fluids
• Warm humidified oxygen
• CPAP : prevents collapse of surfactant-deficient alveoli
• Assisted ventilation
• High-frequency ventilation (HFV )
Indications
• All babies with distress
• Cyanosis
• Pulse oximetry SaO2 < 90%
Method
• Flow rate 2-5 L/ min
• Humidified oxygen by hood ,nasal prongs ,or CPAP
* Cautious administration in pre-term
23
DEFINITIVE TREATEMENT
SURFACTANT THERAPY : DEFINITIVE
TREATEMENT
• Multidose endotracheal instillation : 4ml/kg
• Treatment (rescue) is initiated as soon as possible in the 1st 24hr of life
• Dose repeated - via the ET tube 6–12hrly for a total of 2-4 doses
• Appropriate monitoring equipment must also be available - radiology, blood gas laboratory, and pulse oximetry
INDICATIONS FOR MECHANICAL VENTILATION
• Clinical: Absolute: Apnea (intractable), gasping, cyanosis not responsive to O2
RDS SCORE: >4-6 ,Increased Fio2,Work of breathing
• Laboratory (while on CPAP or FiO2 > 0.5):
pH < 7.25 with increasing PCO2 > 50 mm Hg
(or) PO2 < 60 and / or SpO2 < 85 %
• Other: Surgical procedures, compromised airway
Neonate with
respiratory
distress Abnormal
Chest X-Ray
?
Common Uncommon
Yes Look for
abnormalities
of:
No
Resp Distress Synd
Transient Tachypnea
Aspiration Syndromes
Pneumonia
Air leaks
Effusion
Pulmonary Edema
Diaphrag. Hernia
Trach-Esoph fistula
Cysts, tumors
Hypoplasia
Hemorrhage
Cong. Lobar Emph.
Lymphangiectasia
Sequestration
AV fistulae
Perfusion,
BP, HCT
Upper or lower
airway
Cardiac problems
Neuro-
muscular
Diaphragm or
Chest wall
AbdomenOther or
Mixed findings
IN SUMMARY
TAKE HOME MESSAGES
• Obtain good Prenatal and Perinatal history• Identify at risk pregnancies• Establish communication between
OB/PED/NEONATAL services prior to delivery• Early diagnosis of infant in Respiratory Distress,
using:• Clinical and Diagnostic work up :RDS score, pulse
oximetry, X-ray ,CBC.
• EARLY AND SAFE TRANSFER TO LEVEL II AND III NICU WILL SAVE MANY BABIES
Thank You …
Thank You …
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