€¦  · Web view“An overview study of paratra. nsit transport in the. Indian context ”...

“An overview study of paratransit transport in the Indian context”

Joseph Subha

(11060242045)

Research Supervisor: - Dr. Amir Bashir Bazaz

A Dissertation Submitted in the Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Science

In

Economics

(2011 - 2013)

Symbiosis School of Economics

CONSTITUENT OF SYMBIOSIS INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

(Established Under Section 3 Of The UGC Act 1956, By Notification No F9-12/2001-U.3 Of Government

Of India)

EXAMINERS’ CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation titled

(“An overview study of paratransit transport in the Indian context”)

Submitted by Subha Joseph Manelshekhar (11060242045) has been assessed and graded towards the partial

fulfillment of the degree of Master of Science (Economics) in the academic year 2011-13.

____________________________ (Signature)

Name of Internal Examiner: Dr. Amir Bashir Bazaz

____________________________ (Signature)

Name of External Examiner: Mr. Santanu Ray chaudhuri

Date: - 25/11/2013

Time: 2:00Pm

Place: - Pune

Symbiosis School of EconomicsCONSTITUENT OF SYMBIOSIS INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

(Established Under Section 3 Of The UGC Act 1956, By Notification No F9-12/2001-U.3 Of Government Of India)

Submission Checklist

Tick the field on the left of the list

INITIAL PRECONTENT MATTERFilled in all fields on the title page. Filled in the acknowledgments page.Filled in the executive summary page. Dissertation abstract is fewer than 350 words.

PAGE NUMBERSNo page number on title page. Page number ii is used on the bottom center of abstract page. Roman numerals continue in order on bottom-center of each precontent page. Arabic page numbers on first page of each chapter, bibliography/references section, and each appendix are at bottom center. Arabic page numbers are on top right of all other pages, one double space above first line of text on the page. Page numbers on landscaped pages located on the bottom-right corner (on the computer screen), which will be the top-right corner when the page is rotated for binding.

MARGINSLeft = 1.5”, Right = 1.25”, Top & Bottom = 1” for all portrait pages.Top = 1.5”, Bottom = 1.25”, Left & Right = 1” for all landscape pages.Top = 2”, Bottom = 1.25”, Left & Right = 1” for first page of (a) each chapter, (b) precontent sections, (c) references section, and (d) each appendix

MAIN TEXTAll text is 12 pt in Times New Roman or any other formal font type, if using APA.Each heading level is formatted in APA format as explained in the respective manuals. No boldface is used except for certain APA headings as directed.

QUOTATIONSQuotations of 40 words or more are set in indented block format in APA style. Block quotations are single spaced in APA Spaced periods (not Word’s automatic ellipsis points) are used as ellipsis points to indicate omitted material.

CITATIONSYour department’s style preference (APA) was followed as directed in the respective manuals. In APA, page numbers are only included for direct quotes. Notes are not used at all or only for special cases in APA. All studies cited in the text are listed in the references list or bibliography. Obtained permission to reproduce or adapt copyrighted figures, tables, lengthy passages, and other material as appropriate.

REFERENCESReferences list or bibliography is formatted as directed by the APA manual. If using a references list, all studies listed are cited at least once in the text.

TABLESTables and table notes are formatted as directed in the APA manual. All tables fit within the margin limits.Notes are 12 pt in APA. Tables are not overused in the text. Each table is mentioned specifically in the text before it is presented. Each table is placed as close as possible to its first mention in the text, either on the same page, or if not possible, on the top of the next page. Text is continued after tables to fill the white space on each page.

Each table has a number and a title. Tables are numbered in a clear, logical, and sequential format. Tables are only landscaped if they cannot be reduced, broken into multiple tables, or reformatted in some other way to fit on a portrait page.

FIGURESAll figures fit within the margin limits. Color is only used if necessary, in which case its meaning will still be clear in grayscale photocopies and microfiche.Text is legible and clear. If figures are reduced in size, the font does not fall below 8 pt in size. Each figure is mentioned specifically in the text before it is presented. Each figure is placed as close as possible to its first mention in the text, either on the same page, or if not possible, on the top of the next page. Text is continued after figures to fill the white space on each page. Each figure has a number and a brief but descriptive caption. Figures are numbered in a clear, logical, and sequential format. Figures are only presented in landscape if it is not possible to present them in portrait form.

APPENDICESOnly necessary material is included in the appendices. All text and images in the appendices fit within the allowed margins.

LINE SPACINGCompleted a final scan of the document to check that 1.5 spacing is used as required by the Thesis and Dissertation Guide, that table and figures are placed correctly, and that white space is filled except on the last page of a chapter, appendix, or the references list.

PRECONTENT LISTSAll headings are represented in the table of contents exactly as they appear in the text. All page numbers are correct in the table of contents. All table titles are represented in the list of tables exactly as they appear in the text. All page numbers are correct in the list of tables. All figure captions are represented in the list of illustrations (or list of figures if using APA format) exactly as they appear in the text. All page numbers are correct in the list of illustrations or list of figures.The table of contents, list of tables, and list of illustrations/figures are formatted as shown in the APA formatting template.

CONFIRMATION I have read and addressed all items in this check list. I have taken the time to format my thesis or dissertation correctly. I have only left boxes blank if they do not apply to my thesis or dissertation. I understand that I will have to fix any incorrect formatting before my thesis or dissertation can be archived. ___________________________________ ___________________________________ Signature Date Signed SUBHA JOSEPH MANELSHEKHARName in Block Capitals

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

For this dissertation I would like to thank my Director, Dr. Jyoti Chandiramani, my mentor Dr. Amir Bajaj and

my professors for their guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary information

regarding the dissertation and also for their support in completing the dissertation. I would also like to thank

my family and friends for their support during this dissertation.

Abstract:

The study examines the quality of the paratransit service and its operations in Pune with a view to

identifying its challenges and contributions to informal transport and equitable service distribution to the

residents of Pune. Structured questionnaires and past literature were used as sources of data. The primary data

included road networks, number of trips per day by operators, operating speed, and purpose of travel,

passengers’ security, and waiting time. The socio-economic characteristics of paratransit operators in the city

of Pune have been investigated in this paper. Information was collected both from primary and secondary

sources. Normally the economically weaker section of the society operates the paratransit vehicle and they

migrate to the urban area from the rural areas for their livelihood. The auto rickshaw operators are mainly

permanent city dwellers and illiterate. Many of them are migrated from the nearby rural areas. The sensitivity

of usage of paratransit modes with respect to the travel cost has been analyzed in this paper. The sensitivity

analysis revealed that the socio-economic condition of the paratransit operators can be improved by increasing

the fare of the modes and by providing relevant facilities for the operators. The study found that they are

making 9–12 trips per day. It was found that people’s feelings about the attributes of the service provided for

paratransit users, such as affordability, regularity, comfort and safety.

Background of Topic:-

Para transit is an alternative mode of flexible passenger transportation that does not follow fixed routes or

schedules.

Fully demand responsive transport—the most flexible paratransit systems offer on-demand call-up door-to-

door service from any origin to any destination in a service area.

Para transit services are operated by public transit agencies, community groups or not-for-profit organizations,

and for-profit private companies or operators.

It is about addressing the need of persons with disabilities and others for paratransit service. When accessible

“fixed-route” bus or rail service is not available or, if available, cannot be used by persons who need more

specialized transportation.

Cities and towns and villages in less-wealthy regions faced with many barriers to such transportation. These

barriers are so great that many cities, to say nothing of the countryside beyond these cities, have not begun to

address the task of providing paratransit for those who most need it.

The financial, infrastructure, and operational issues are daunting. In many rural areas, nearly everyone is

mobility-impaired because there is very little public transportation. The situation can be equally bad in cities

for persons with disabilities who are unable to use bus and rail lines. They remain trapped where they live,

unable to get to work, to school, or to medical help and other activities due to the prohibitive cost of hiring a

taxi or finding an accessible vehicle.

Para transit systems in many developing world cities are operated by individuals and small business. The

fragmented, intensely competitive nature of the industry makes government regulation and control much

harder than traditional public transport.

Government authorities have cited problems with unsafe vehicles and drivers as justifying efforts to regulate

and "formalize" paratransit operations.

However, these efforts have been limited by ignorance on the part of regulatory authorities and mistrust

between authorities and operators.

METHODOLOGY

The study on which this paper is based was a scoping study that aimed at identifying the main features of

strategy development and implementation among pune’s paratransit operators as seen by knowledgeable

observers. Its purpose was to provide background information for a further study that will gather information

directly from the business operators.

Alternative Service strategies

Following the implementation of ADA paratransit service, there has been growing interest in service strategies

offering flexible alternatives to paratransit. Transit operators increasingly need to serve markets for which

conventional fixed route bus and rail modes are too expensive, inefficient, or inflexible. Many operators are

finding that flexible services have an important role to play in serving low-density areas, dispersed trip

patterns, and travel by seniors and people with disabilities.

Social cost Benefit Analysis

Definition

A technique designed to determine the feasibility of a project or plan by quantifying its costs and benefits.

It refers to the study of feasibility of a project in terms of its total economic cost and total economic benefits. It

means to compare total cost with total benefit if we add external cost with private cost; it’s called total social

cost if we add external benefit with private benefit, called total social benefit.

For example: Suppose, a manufacturer produces soaps and sells it tk.20 a bar. Now, if we think about the

impact of soaps does the price of soap take note of the benefits from the use of soap, e.g., reduced risk of

spread diseases?

To reflect the real value of a project to society, we must consider the impact of the project on society. Impact

Positive Negative (Social Benefit) (Social Cost) Thus, when we evaluate a project from the view point of the

society (or economy) as a whole, it is called Social Cost Benefit Analysis (SCBA)/Economic Analysis.

Scope of SCBA

Can be applied to both Public & private investments – Public Investment: SCBA is important especially for

the developing countries where government plays a significant role in the economic development. Private

Investment: Here, SCBA is also important as the private investments are to be approved by various

governmental & quasi-governmental agencies.

Objectives of SCBA

The main focus of Social Cost Benefit Analysis is to determine:

1} Economic benefits of the project in terms of shadow prices; 2} the impact of the project on the level of

savings and investments in the society; 3} The impact of the project on the distribution of income in the

society; 4} The contribution of the project towards the fulfillment of certain merit wants (self- sufficiency,

employment etc).5} To ensure safety & transparency in para-transit system. 6} To ensure Social & financial

inclusion of auto drivers to make auto travelling a pleasant & passenger friendly transport system to make auto

drivers aware & responsible citizen.

An Interview: - An AV Interview conducted by me where I met many persons for their sustenance i.e. for

their livelihood they have to bear many consequences in this occupation. Now nowhere any occupation which

his left out with risk. All occupation i.e. an Entrepreneur is a risk bearer. But there are several occupations

after taking risk which is hazardous on other side.

 Market prices, the basis for CBA, do not reflect the social values under imperfect market competition.

Externalities: A project may have beneficial or harmful external effects that are considered in SCBA, not in

CBA. Taxes & Subsidies: From the social point of view, taxes & subsidies are nothing but transfer payments.

But in CBA, taxes & subsidies are treated as monetary costs and benefits respectively.

Significances of Social cost Benefit Analysis:-

In SCBA, the division between benefits & consumption is relevant wherein higher valuation is placed on

savings. But in CBA such division is irrelevant. Concern for Redistribution: In SCBA, the distribution of

benefits is very much concerning issue where commercial private firm does not bother about it. Merit Wants:

Merit wants are important from the social point of view and therefore, SCBA considers these wants.

Social Impact Assessment and Targeting of Low Income or other Beneficiaries

As most transport reform advocates are extremely reluctant to broaden the inclusion of social benefits in the

road sector to make it easier to justify the financing of roads in low income areas for fear of the precedent it

would establish, most would support improving the degree to which road projects are targeted to low income

beneficiaries. In our view, this would best be done not by changing the economic appraisal but by changing

the importance of the evaluation determining how well the project is targeted to the needs of the poor, and by

changing the social impact assessment.

Since the aim of poverty alleviation should be central to lending criteria for all projects and not just an

assessment of poverty-oriented subcomponents and the mitigation of severe adverse social impacts, certainly

loan evaluation criteria should require a much more thorough assessment of the impact of the project on the

poor, perhaps in the social impact assessment.

How it works?

Para transit is a potentially attractive alternative to conventional transit, especially in remote, rural areas where

population density is too sparse to be supported by the schedule based transit system.

Users

The potential users of the paratransit system could be categorized into different groups such as students,

housewives, employees, disabled, elderly, etc. The profile of each user plays an important role and can be

defined as the mobility needs of the specified user, their financial situation, if they own private means of

transport, etc. The paratransit system aims to facilitate personal mobility needs and fight social exclusion

while providing high quality services at a relatively low cost. Tourists may constitute a special category of

the system’s users. The paratransit system may accommodate their mobility needs providing transportation

solutions of better quality and cost.

Identification of Impacts

Financial

Para transit services may result in the improvement of the local economy and the creation of new jobs in

some less favored regions by providing suitable mobility. The increased mobility, especially among rural

disadvantaged population groups will result in increased economic activity. Currently there are villages with

few and old families, which have no means to own a private vehicle or are unable to drive it. These families

rely on the bus service, which stops at their community twice a day. The ability of these groups to visit the

more vibrant market areas will result in increased economic activity at the local markets and touristic

SMEs, more opportunities for these disadvantaged groups and increased convenience. Students will easily

access schools, gyms, tutoring houses, and other extracurricular activities.

Land use

Another important impact of the paratransit system can be the spatial development of less favored areas. By

providing better transportation options, people will be less dependent on fixed schedule lines that may affect

their housing decisions. In addition, rural areas can be revitalized as people can still dwell in those areas and

have access to schools, jobs and markets, without having to rely exclusively on private vehicles.

Social (Education, health, other chances for better quality of life)

Para transit can contribute significantly against the social exclusion of special groups of the population such

as disabled and elderly people. It can also increase the chances for better education, medical treatment,

social life and several other aspects of everyday life in remote, rural areas.

Environmental (pollution, emissions)

The environmental impacts of paratransit are related to the consumption of energy, the gas emissions, the

air pollution as well as the level of traffic congestion in the more densely populated areas it provides service

to. Para transit also provides a good alternative solution to the problem of increasing car use subsequently

increasing numbers of car accidents.

There is much potential for the P/T system i.e. public transportation to attract more customers. It can

provide easy access to from work, so it would provide a transportation solution for employees. It can enable

people to reach otherwise inaccessible places and it is possible to mitigate the parking space problem.

Main Contribution through the Research: - It highlights the significance of Para transit transportation system in

simple terms it emphasis mainly upon the reduction of traffic congestion in cities & redeveloping it with or

rebuilding it with such kind of technology which will help to bring a revolution in transportation system.

Key findings:-

Around the world, demand-response paratransit services are needed to supplement accessible "fixed-route" bus

and rail services. Paratransit services will always be required for those seniors and disabled passengers who

are unable to take other public transport to their destinations, or are unable to reach transit stops and stations

due to inadequate sidewalks and road crossings. Both accessible "fixed-route" and more specialized

paratransit services are needed.

When available and accessible, transport modes open to the general public tend to be more inclusive, less

expensive, and more cost-effective than more specialized paratransit services. Bus, rail, taxi, auto-rickshaw,

and cycle-rickshaw services should be encouraged for seniors and persons with disabilities who are able to use

them.

Public, private, and non-profit sectors should work together to promote paratransit services. This is

demonstrated in our case studies of cities contracting with private providers. Cities can also promote

paratransit services by subsidizing the purchase of vehicles or providing lower-cost fuel and maintenance for

NGOs and other agencies.

New technologies have opened up new possibilities to expand paratransit service, such as the use of smart

phones, tablets, and GPS devices.

Smaller vehicles can be used to scale up lower-cost paratransit service. The use of central call centers, along

with minor design changes, can assist auto- and cycle rickshaw agencies, as well as taxi companies, to provide

lower-cost paratransit with less dependence on public subsidies.

Paratransit service within each of several zones may provide more trips for more people in large cities,

especially when accessible bus and rail services can assist by providing citywide connections.

NGOs can work together to save money on fuel, maintenance, and training, and in some cases may save

money on vehicle procurement as well.

Smart scheduling will better serve passengers at a lower cost per trip.

Look before you leap! Paratransit providers may benefit by phasing in their services without locking

themselves into too many commitments. This will provide more flexibility to reconfigure services based on

actual experience.

Stable funding sources must be identified in order to sustain large paratransit operations.

This is a lesson we learn from Moscow, São Paulo, Istanbul, and other large cities.

Demand management may help expand paratransit to rural areas where services do not currently exist.

Consideration should be given to scheduling services at periodic intervals along with other approaches to

providing transport at a sustainable cost.

Cities should consider mobility management or paratransit brokerages among the many alternatives for

promoting paratransit services. City staff should prepare detailed action plans to prioritize alternatives and

select ways to start up and scale up paratransit services.

The burgeoning urban population of India is engaging in a variety of economic activities in rapidly expanding cities,

which are, therefore, encountering fast escalations in urban travel demand.

A variety of transport modes, such as, walking, cycling, two-wheelers, Para-transit, public transport, cars, etc. are used

to meet these travel needs.

A study carried out for the Ministry of Urban Development, covering 21 cities in the country, suggests that more than

75 per cent of the trips in a city are on account of either employment or education.

ISSUES IN URBAN TRANSPORT IN INDIA

Congestion

Congestion is an outcome of twin factors, (a) growth in number of vehicles on road, (b) limitations to expansion of

road space.

Cities without good mass transit systems, like Delhi, Chennai, Hyderabad and Bangalore, showed a higher growth rate

in vehicular population as compared to those with mass transit systems.

Declining Reliance on Public Transport

An associated problem has been the declining reliance on public transport vehicles, with a corresponding rise in the

dependence on personal motor vehicles. For examples, in Delhi, while the number of personal vehicles per 1000

population has expanded about 3 times (between 1981 and 2001); the number of buses per 1000 population has

increased only 2.3 times.

Accidents

The number of road accidents has increased, from about 161,000 in 1981 to over 400,000 in 2001. About 57 per

cent of the persons killed in road accidents in Delhi during this period were pedestrians and cyclists.

URBAN PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN INDIA

Current Status

Most experts acknowledge that persuading people to shift from personal vehicles to public transport is amongst the

most important elements of any strategy to meet the growing urban travel demand in a sustainable manner. This is

because public transport occupies less road space, consumes less fuel and emits less pollutant on a per passenger basis

for every unit of travel demand that it satisfies, compared to other motorized modes of travel.

Developing an Optimal Modal Mix

The next exercise in developing an appropriate strategy would be to determine optimal modal preferences for meeting

travel demand. This requires an assessment of the likely travel patterns, segmented for different categories of city residents

and an identification of the modes that are the most sustainable.

Mode share projections, which do not include walking trips, show a high reliance on public transport and

cycling. Further, survey-based studies carried out in Delhi and Mumbai show that while high income households rely

heavily on personal vehicles in Delhi, the low income households rely more on non-motorized modes. Walking

constitutes a high share for both categories in Mumbai followed by a reliance on public transport

Modal choices have to be made based on their relative congestion impacts, emission characteristics and energy

efficiency if they are to lead to sustainable mobility. It is well known that non-motorized modes emit no pollutants and

occupy least amount of road space. Hence, they should be amongst the most preferred modes. However, they are not

suitable for trip lengths longer than 6 to 7 km in highly undulating terrains during hot weather.

Essentially efforts have to be aimed at containing the use of personal motor vehicles for family outings during weekends

and special/emergency requirements. Daily commutes to work or school should be undertaken on more sustainable

modes.

Use of personal vehicles can be discouraged by making its use more expensive and difficult. This can be

achieved by a combination of fiscal and control measures. Examples of fiscal measures include charging of a fee for using

certain crowded parts of a city, levy of high parking fees, increasing vehicle registration charges and by increasing

the tax on fuel, etc.

Improving vehicle technology:-

Improving vehicle technology requires mandating the phased use of cleaner technologies and laying down a clear and

time bound action plan, with adequate lead-time, to allow the auto and oil industry to make the required

investments.

A cluster approach in urban planning also makes it easier to provide better public transport coverage, as connecting

cluster centres is often adequate to meet public transport needs. Short, intra-cluster trips can usually be performed by

walking, cycling or para-transit.

The central government of India has formulated a draft National Urban Transport Policy with the following

objectives:

· to bring about better integration of land use and transport planning so as to improve access to jobs, education, etc.;

· to encourage public transport and non-motorized transport so that the dependence on personal motor vehicles is reduced;

· to offer central government support for investments in cycle tracks and pedestrian paths;

· to offer central government support for investments in mass transit systems;

· to have a more coordinated approach to urban transport management through Unified Metropolitan Transport

Authorities;

· to offer support for capacity building at the state level;

SERVICE MODELS & NEW TECHNOLOGIES

To introduce different business and service models for practitioners who may wish to start up or scale up

paratransit services for persons with disabilities. New technologies may create new service models, especially

when used with taxis or with auto-rickshaws and other lower-cost vehicles.

In every country there are different types of transportation for different purposes, ranging from walking or

animal conveyances to the private car to many different types of public transportation including buses, trains,

taxis, and auto-rickshaws. “Public transportation” is often defined as transit service open to the public that

charges fares. "Paratransit" is a subset of public transportation that uses mini-buses, taxis, or smaller vehicles

that usually do not follow fixed routes or schedules.

Paratransit services may consist of a taxi or small bus that will run along a more or less defined route and then

stop to pick up or discharge passengers on request. More often, paratransit systems offer call-up door-to-door

service from any origin to any destination in a service area. Paratransit services may be operated by (1) public

transit agencies, (2) for-profit private companies or operators, and (3) NGOs and other not-for-profit

organizations.

The definition of “paratransit” transportation that “exclusively or partly serves mobility-impaired persons.”

These passengers often represent those who most need the transportation, are least able to pay for it, and,

accordingly, often receive the least service. Historically, these services, when provided at all, have been

provided by the third category – by voluntary, NGO, or social service agencies around the world, that is, by

the non-profit sector. In less-wealthy regions of the world, paratransit for mobility-impaired users is offered

mainly by these agencies, usually for their own clients so that they can get to health centers or schools or other

social service facilities.

Fortunately, there are hopeful signs that paratransit services may be increasingly operated by the first two

categories – by public transit agencies and by for-profit companies and operators, that is, by the public and

private sectors. This trend may result in expanding paratransit services in many locales – a “scaling up” of

current services – to the benefit of riders with disabilities. For this reason, this guide includes case studies

looking at paratransit for mobility-impaired persons offered by the public and private sectors. A major goal of

this guide is to promote coordination between the public, private, and nonprofit sectors to join forces to start

up and scale up paratransit services.

Public sector ownership and operation of paratransit services

`Public sector agencies, such as city governments and transport ministries, have many advantages. They are

stable and often powerful, and they may have the ability to adopt and enforce plans for a range of social goals.

For example, city governments have a unique ability to create a sustainable funding base for paratransit

services because they have taxing powers and may have access to funding for purchases of vehicles or

operation of services.

But these public entities may also have disadvantages, including bureaucratic inefficiencies, poor management

ability, difficulty in controlling the cost of service provision, or political agendas. Public sector paratransit

entities could take many forms, operating at national, state or local levels. They could be created under a

variety of legislative models, granting them power under national or state or local legislation, or formed by

joint agreements between two or more local governments using their existing legal powers.

Public, private, and non-profit sectors working together to provide paratransit services

• Public regulation of private operators: This approach is common around the world. For Example, a

transport ministry may regulate and monitor fares, establish vehicle safety and Maintenance standards set up

standards for driver training (of special importance to Paratransit operations

• Coordination and mobility management: The public sector can be a “mobility manager” for a City or

region by identifying paratransit providers, potential markets, and gaps in service; and by providing technical

expertise and exchanging ideas, or by promoting shared assets such As vehicles, maintenance, training, or

fueling facilities. This far-sighted approach is of special Importance in order to start up or scale up paratransit

services for mobility-impaired persons.

• Demand management: This approach is often seen as fostering sustainable cities by Promoting staggered

work hours, regulating development to make it easier to use public Transportation or providing better real-time

information to the public about all transport Modes.

In the world of paratransit services, demand management could also encourage Social service agencies to

stagger their hours to even out the “peak hours” for paratransit Services. If agency A serves its clients from 9

a.m. to 3 p.m. and agency B serves its clients From 11 a.m. to 5 p.m., their paratransit needs might be met with

fewer vehicles and drivers, which may mean a lower cost per trip or the ability to make more trips, to the

advantage of all?

Concerned.

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other not-for-profit agencies operate paratransit services

incorporating various service models. They are often the main providers of paratransit services in many

regions. Especially in large cities, we recommend careful consideration of the possible advantages of this

“zone” or “district” service model in order to increase the amount of paratransit service.

This approach enables trips to be far shorter, so more passengers can be transported per hour at lower cost.

Services could then be scaled up to possibly include more trip purposes if the service is subsidized by a

municipality. But there are tradeoffs, especially if this model, that limits service to within specific zones, is

used to replace a current service which permits passengers to travel all over the city. Some current passengers

may then complain, with possible political repercussions.

These passengers may correctly point out that transferring to accessible bus or rail lines may in some cases be

tiring or not usable due to their disabilities. But if a new paratransit service starts up by using a model with

trips limited to specific zones, there will probably be fewer complaints and more people may ultimately

benefit.

Regulations and their impact on paratransit service models

Too little regulation can be a bad thing. So can too much. On the one hand, regulations should be provided

and enforced to assure that paratransit services are safe and efficient. On the other hand, regulations may

increase the cost of providing service and too much Regulation can be counterproductive.

General comments about some positive uses of regulations

People usually think of regulation as a function of city or regional or national governments. But even in the

absence of government regulations, transit agencies or associations of transit Companies or owners can self-

regulate, as can associations of NGOs and other non-profit Providers who operate vehicles to serve their

clients. The requirements of international or other donor agencies may also serve the function of regulating

paratransit services in helpful or negative ways.

What can go wrong?

Any one of the positive features noted above can be subverted by a lack of transparency or Integrity in the

promulgation and enforcement of regulations. Excessive bureaucracy and Paperwork, corruption, bribery, or

"playing favorites" among competing companies can subvert the role of the market and ultimately harm the

ability of everyone -- and especially Persons with disabilities -- to access public transport and paratransit

services.

Can regulations enhance paratransit services with commercial vehicles?

When consistent and fair legal enforcement of contracts is available, it is usually best to try and rely on

competition to assure the efficiency of private sector paratransit providers in a Well-regulated market-driven

environment.

Some unregulated service can be especially difficult to access on the part of elderly or disabled passengers.

The use of motorized auto-rickshaws, cycle-rickshaws and similar Vehicles charging lower fares should also

be considered where possible. Such vehicles may be usable by most persons with disabilities, including those

wheelchair users who can safely Transfer to the passenger seat provided space is provided to safely carry a

folded wheelchair.

Auto-rickshaws are found by the tens of thousands in many Asian countries and in some Regions of Africa and

Latin America as well. Many persons with disabilities currently rely on them. As fuel prices increase, they

will probably also find greater acceptance in Europe and North America. India alone manufactures some

400,000 auto-rickshaws every year. Entrepreneurs, city officials, and larger NGOs should consider GPS and

mobile phone Technologies that open up new possibilities for less-expensive and more convenient services

Using auto-rickshaws.

An auto-rickshaw entrepreneurship forum sponsored by EMBARQ included a focus on social Benefits, noting

that "Social equity by way of accessible and affordable transportation choices for elderly, women, disabled,

and children is a core aspect of promoting sustainable transports Services. Fleet DAR (dial-a-rickshaw)

services can help meet this goal by providing Household access to auto-rickshaws through centralized calling

facilities."

Entrepreneur-driven auto-rickshaw fleets with call centers have grown rapidly in India. For Example,

commercial startups utilizing call centers are reported in the Indian cities of Chandigarh, Delhi, Gurgaon,

Ahmadabad, Rajkot, Vadodara, Mumbai, Pune, Bangalore, and Chennai. Cycle-rickshaw call centers are

reported in various cities in Punjab, organized as a Non-profit benefitting the rickshaw drivers. These call

centers usually connect with fleets of Vehicles that utilize on-board GPS units and provide mobile

communication between drivers

And the call center. Some call-center operations charge a surcharge (called a "service Charge" or

"convenience charge") on the prevailing auto-rickshaw fare, which still is considerably lower than that of taxis.

This surcharge may be reduced for seniors and Persons with disabilities (for example, Rickshawale in

Mumbai). Services may emphasize Security for women, children, and seniors (e.g., Radio Tuk in Gurgaon or

a similar service In Rajkot). Auto-rickshaw drivers may receive special training to assist seniors and persons

with disabilities (e.g., Any Time Rickshaw of G-Auto in Ahmedabad).

Call center startups need to pay special attention to driver training, to assure courteous and competent

treatment of their disabled passengers. They may need to deal with daunting regulatory environments. The

advantages of auto-rickshaws include lower costs and thus lower fares, a low-floor Design, and in some case

the ability to accommodate folding-type wheelchairs.

However, Safety concerns increase with the use of smaller vehicles such as auto-rickshaws. There is

especially a need for research into alternative methods for the use of seat belts. Mini-taxis (For example,

Tata's Nano) may be able to charge competitive rates with auto-rickshaws and provide a different set of

advantages and disadvantages in terms of accessibility.

Long-term implications

If a person with a disability can communicate directly with a nearby taxi or auto-rickshaw, the Scheduling and

dispatching support structure can be reduced or eliminated. GPS, Smartphone, and payment technologies may

enable a restructuring of many paratransit Services in developing regions in years to come.

The infrastructure for these developments is Already in place in many locales due to the rapid expansion of

mobile phones in the very Areas where land-line phone infrastructure is not well developed. This type of cell

phone Expansion will probably trend toward smart phones with paratransit-related applications.

However, there may still be a need for an integrating agency "to put it all together" in terms of Certifying

eligible clients if fare subsides are offered, or if incentives are needed for drivers or Companies to provide a

higher level of service to disabled passengers. These approaches may be assisted by regulatory reforms in the

auto-rickshaw permit Process and by reforms to road safety, including the segregation of auto-rickshaws from

other Motor vehicles in particularly congested areas.

Summing up, new technologies and the use of fleets of small commercial vehicles provide a Breakthrough in

creating higher-volume and lower-cost mobility for disabled persons, even if the requirements for such a

service may sometimes require use of a brokerage or other Agency to integrate and coordinate the different

elements of the system.

Governments unable or unwilling to directly subsidize the paratransit fares of low-income Persons with

disabilities may wish instead to subsidize access features and other Conveniences to make vehicles more

accessible and to better train drivers serving Passengers with disabilities. Not the least of these features is the

development of more Accessible auto-rickshaws and cycle-rickshaws that can be utilized by those wheelchair

users who cannot transfer to a regular seat during travel? Typically this will focus on designing the Rear or

one side of the vehicle to be hinged as a ramp, which may require extensive re-design of a sub-fleet of more

specialized vehicles?

Case study: AUTO-RICKSHAWS IN NEW DELHI

Three-wheeled motorized auto-rickshaws are a major public transport mode in Asia, Africa, and other regions.

A recent study by EMBARQ* reported that six Indian cities with a Combined population of 45 million was

served by some 330,000 auto-rickshaws. Metropolitan New Delhi alone has 80,000 "autos." An 8 km (5 mile)

trip by auto-rickshaw in New Delhi costs 58 rupees (=US$1.32), while even the least-expensive taxi service

would Be almost twice as much.

For persons with disabilities, often among the poorest of the Poor in cities such as New Delhi, any method of

improving travel by this mode is important. Agencies in India have shown increasing interest in auto-

rickshaws.

Salam, an initiative Of the S.J. Charitable Trust in New Delhi, is promoting the potential of auto-rickshaws to

provide lower-cost door-to-door services for persons with mobility and sensory Impairments. A test session

(photos above) was organized by Svayam in late 2011 at GNB Motors Ltd. in Faridabad, a suburb of New

Delhi, at the suggestion of Access Exchange International.

The test session provided an opportunity to more rigorously demonstrate the Potential of this mode. Two

models of auto-rickshaws were tested by volunteers with Disabilities, one of whom was semi-ambulatory,

using a crutch, while the second volunteer used a wheelchair. Not surprisingly, the larger model proved easier

to use by disabled Passengers.

Auto-rickshaws have rather low floors and the photos at top show that existing hand rails provide significant

help to a disabled person boarding the vehicle. Another photo (inset) shows the additional hand grasps

recently added to auto-rickshaw models.

Work is needed to test different low-cost modifications, including the value of one or more simple two-point

"airline style" seat belts or a more expensive Three-point retractable seat belt. Possible changes in the

bulkhead behind the driver could provide more room to enter the vehicle. Added padding to protect the knees

and legs of passengers could be considered, as well as a Device to help secure crutches or walkers. These or

other modifications are Part of the larger context relating to auto-rickshaw safety. Auto-rickshaws May be

safer than bicycles or motorcycles, but offer less safety than automobiles or vans or mini-buses. Fortunately,

New Delhi's auto-rickshaws have a top speed of only 50 Km/hour (30 mph) and a cruising speed of 35 km/hr

(22 mph).

Driver behavior is also a concern. Training and other support for drivers is needed. In turn, Strategies are

needed to enhance the ability of auto-rickshaws to provide these somewhat more specialized paratransit

services. One approach would be to modify all auto rickshaws with low-cost changes.

Another approach would address the complexities of a "Sub-fleet" of adapted auto-rickshaws with better-

trained drivers and an operational model that addressed scheduling, dispatching, and the use of call centers to

request services. This approach, which is already being tested in New Delhi, also would lend itself to the

possible use of subsidies in some cities to better enable qualified disabled persons to use the service.

In all events, other alternatives are needed for those disabled passengers who cannot transfer to a passenger

seat. The use of auto-rickshaws must also focus on Creating an environmentally sustainable service, for

example with less-polluting 4-stroke Engines instead of the 2-stroke engines used in some cities, as well as the

use of CNG (Compressed natural gas) as an alternative to diesel fuel.

Another concern is that only some models of auto rickshaws have the interior space to accommodate a folded

wheelchair behind the passenger seat, in a weatherproof compartment with a rain shield. Alternatively, it is

possible that a device to hold a folded wheelchair could be affixed to the rear of the Exterior of the vehicle.

However, no auto-rickshaw Model we have seen would permit a wheelchair User to enter the vehicle in the

wheelchair, although this could be done by means of complex Modifications that would include hinging the

rear or Side section of the vehicle.

To introduce key issues and processes to assure that subsidized Paratransit services reach those who most need

them. The use of low-cost market-driven paratransit modes, such as the example which is described in the case

study above from New Delhi, may hopefully help paratransit to become more available for seniors and persons

with disabilities, with little or no eligibility screening. In addition, as governments become more aware of the

negative "social costs" of not providing transport services to persons with disabilities, it may be hoped that

funds will be provided to further subsidize specialized paratransit services. Currently, however, eligibility

screening remains a critical element for agencies that strive to serve those who are most in need of paratransit

service.

In the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) law provides clear and Structured

requirements regarding who is eligible to receive paratransit service. However, in less wealthy countries, some

of these requirements may not be relevant or there may be Others that is more critical to the program’s

effectiveness.

The ADA requires that paratransit service be provided to all those individuals whose disability prevents them

from using fixed-route service. The word “prevents” is a high threshold that is Necessary when viewed in the

light of another key requirement of the legislation that no Individual can be denied a trip based on trip purpose

or a number of other factors.

In other Words, if transit agencies have to provide paratransit for a very wide range of trips, there needs to be a

mechanism in place to control access to that program. That mechanism is the Eligibility process that flows out

of the legislative requirements. This is the key tool provided by the law to enable transit agencies to have a

measure of control over the demand for Subsidized paratransit services, and therefore over costs.

Often choose to limit eligibility based on type of disability, income level, age, or trip purpose (e.g., to work, to

rehabilitation services, to special education). Each of these limitations Serves to constrain the mobility of the

disability population, yet the lack of financial resources May require these measures in order to ensure a fair

application of the policy. Given how valuable this service can be in the lives of people with disabilities,

decisions about Eligibility can be highly emotional and politically charged.

For this reason it is important that Substantive input is gained from community leaders in how to design the

eligibility program. It is important that a passenger certification process be developed that is as objective and

fair as possible. Where professionals with experience in rehabilitation are present, it would be Advisable to

involve a physical or occupational therapist in the development and possibly the Implementation of the

eligibility process.

Medical personnel can also be used, although they tend to have less relevant experience in assessing functional

abilities to ride a bus or train than those in the rehabilitation field. Once the overall eligibility policy has been

decided, those involved in either the development of policy or in service provision will need to create criteria

and procedures to help interpret these policies.

For example, in the USA there are a number of key eligibility categories that could be adapted in other

countries. Persons are eligible for paratransit if their disability prevents them from getting to or from a bus or

train stop, from boarding or getting off the Vehicle, or from being able to ride on the bus. This can be due to

either physical or cognitive Reasons, or because of a visual disability. If the resources are available, the

paratransit provider may wish to request that an individual Come in for a mobility assessment, in which she or

he tries out a replica of a bus entrance at a bus stop to test the functional abilities that would be needed to take

a bus or train. This Replica does not require substantial equipment.

However, since it is intended to replicate a Real world environment, it could be conducted in an area where

there are street crossings, Traffic noise, wide streets, and other barriers that may prevent a person with a

disability from Getting to a bus. If a bus stop is available near to the assessment site, the individual can also be

accompanied by an assessor to determine their functional abilities.

Assuming that the number of people with disabilities who would need paratransit service in Any less-wealthy

country would far outstrip the capacity of the service, the need to Incorporate a “means” test seems to be

inevitable. In other words, while most people with Disabilities in less-wealthy countries are likely to be poor;

those who are the poorest are likely to be in the greatest need and have the least mobility alternatives.

As such, installing a Mechanism for determining an individual’s financial means may be the first threshold in

the Installation of a new eligibility policy. On the other hand, some systems may decide that it is Critical to

ensure that even a small segment of the disability community has access to work, Even if these are not the

members of the community who are in the greatest financial need.

While eligibility assessments may vary depending on the context in which they are being implemented (such

as availability of transit, accessibility of the environment, financial Resources), procedures must be developed

to ensure that this critical resource is distributed in the fairest possible way.

If not, situations may arise in which only a small fraction of the Disability population has access to paratransit

service, even though some of those individuals May have alternative mobility choices that are not available to

the majority. Some of these Concerns are touched upon in the Cape Town case study, below. Especially when

eligibility requirements are changed for an existing paratransit system, it should be anticipated that decisions

surrounding the design of the eligibility screening policy will be difficult.

Nevertheless, they may be necessary to ensure mobility for those who need it The most. The best policy may

be to begin with eligibility requirements that can later be relaxed if permitted by the capacity of the system.

This will give managers an opportunity to learn from experience as the system grows, while not having to

explain to public officials why they may need to cut back on service for some categories of users. It is always

easier to add Service than to take it away! With lower-income passengers, the needed revenues to provide

door-to-door services often come from multiple sources.

Paratransit systems for low-income disabled persons in major Cities in less-wealthy countries are usually

subsidized by long-term sources of income, usually from some combination of city, state, or provincial

transportation funding to supplement passenger fares which typically only cover a modest portion of the total

cost.

Emergency preparedness

Paratransit managers and dispatch personnel should give thought to how to prepare for Sudden emergencies,

including those for which there is some warning (e.g., hurricanes, Typhoons) and those for which there may be

little or no warning (e.g., earthquakes, tsunamis). Emergencies can also vary from being of relatively small

scope (an accident involving a Single vehicle or an incident involving a single person) to very large in scope

(e.g., a major Flood or landslide).

In all such emergencies, vehicle fleets can become a critical element in Evacuating entire populations in an

area at risk or evacuating or assisting seniors and Persons with disabilities who may face special concerns if

they cannot get needed medicines, require oxygen, or need knowledgeable personnel to help remove them

from harm’s way. Emergency preparations for paratransit systems should include close liaison with existing

Medical, police, fire, and transportation agencies, as well as other services.

Managers should have up-to-date contact information for such agencies and coordinate plans with them to

address emergency situations. Contact lists for those persons with disabilities who may require special

assistance should be kept up-to-date along with plans for teaming up Personnel to evacuate such persons in an

emergency. In a city with well-developed Emergency services, paratransit providers can be included in

different types of drills to Prepare for different types of emergencies. Or, where needed, paratransit providers

could take the lead in promoting coordinated responses to emergencies.

RURAL PARATRANSIT

Introduction

The contributors to this guide are generally oriented toward accessible urban transportation and hold no special

qualification to address the even more difficult situations found in rural Areas, especially in regions which

may be lightly populated, mountainous, and lacking in Roads and transport infrastructure. In such regions, the

issues associated with disability tend to merge with issues of poverty and accessibility in general and the

difficulty which everyone has to get goods to market or to get to schools, jobs, or health care.

In addition, the Distinction between paratransit and other public transit modes may fade away in some

Circumstances. Rural transportation especially is a challenge for people needing travel between villages and

district or market towns. This "intermediate travel" is often a missing Link making it impossible to reach bus

routes, where the vehicles usually lack accessibility Features.

There are many studies concerning rural transport needs. The contributors to this guide are generally oriented

toward accessible urban transportation and hold no special qualification to address the even more difficult

situations found in rural Areas, especially in regions which may be lightly populated, mountainous, and

lacking in Roads and transport infrastructure. In such regions, the issues associated with disability tend to

merge with issues of poverty and accessibility in general and the difficulty which everyone has to get goods to

market or to get to schools, jobs, or health care. In addition, the Distinction between paratransit and other

public transit modes may fade away in some Circumstances. Rural transportation especially is a challenge for

people needing travel between villages and district or market towns.

This "intermediate travel" is often a missing Link making it impossible to reach bus routes, where the vehicles

usually lack accessibility Features. There are many studies concerning rural transport needs Everyone, make it

easier to identify by persons with low vision, help blind passengers to Safely position them behind the stop,

help disabled persons to reach the first step Of the bus if the driver is properly trained to stop adjacent to the

curb piece, and generally Keep intending passengers more safely off the road.

This approach needs research, as it would require enough road maintenance so that buses would not dig ruts

adjacent to the Curb piece or "widen" the road by moving away from particularly hazardous ruts, thus making

the curb piece irrelevant. (4) Rural bus stations (e.g., at villages served by daily or weekly bus service) would

benefit from all-weather shelters to protect waiting passengers. For example, Cuba evidently provides

facilities for disabled persons at some of their rural bus stations.

A comparative study

Role of Auto-rickshaw Sector in Promoting Sustainable Urban Transport

Role of the Type of Service (Contract Carriage)

The findings from this study indicate that auto-rickshaw services in cities can help meet the objectives of the Shift

strategy—of promoting public transport and reducing private motorization—based on the following aspects:

FIRST AND LAST MILE CONNECTIVITY TO PUBLIC TRANSPORT: Auto-rickshaw services,

integrated as a feeder mode providing such connectivity, can complement public transport systems by ensuring

that all parts of the city have easy access to public transport stations.

DOOR-TO-DOOR TRANSPORT ALTERNATIVE TO PRIVATE MOTOR VEHICLES: The door-to-

door on-demand service provided by auto-rickshaws will ensure that transport needs requiring door-to-door

connectivity, such as occasional trips to the airport or emergency trips for health care can be met in cities without

having to rely on private motor vehicles.

Vehicle performance and Need for improvements

This paper assesses the performance of the motorized three-wheeler (auto-rickshaw) in Indian cities with

respect to two important sustainability parameters—emissions and road safety—to identify current challenges

and areas for vehicle-related reforms that can improve performance:

EMISSIONS: A key challenge in the auto-rickshaw sector is its emissions of particulate matter of

aerodynamic diameter of less than

10 microns (PM10). PM10 are known to have adverse impacts on health, and the conventional two-stroke engine

auto-rickshaws prevalent in many cities are major sources of these emissions (Shah and Iyer 2004).

ROAD SAFETY: The paper looks at the impact of the auto-rickshaw sector on the safety of both city

pedestrians and the rickshaws’ occupants (driver and passengers). Research conducted by EMBARQ India using

pedestrian fatality data for Mumbai and Bangalore shows that auto-rickshaws lead to fewer fatal pedestrian acci-

dents than do motorized two-wheelers and cars.

This is likely a result of their lower speeds and lighter weights (Mohan and Roy 2003). There are concerns for

the safety of auto-rickshaw occupants, however, particularly in multivehicle collisions (ones between auto-

rickshaws and other motor vehicles). A study of auto-rickshaw injury patterns in Hyderabad revealed that

multivehicle collisions were the leading cause of injury for auto-rickshaw occupants.

Auto-rickshaw services in cities can help promote public transport usage and reduce private

motorization

To meet the objectives of the NUTP, the findings from this study highlight the need for an overarching policy

vision for the auto-rickshaw sector in urban transport (Figure E.1) based on the Shift and Improve strategies of

the ASI framework to promote sustainable urban transport.

Reform Needs and Next Steps

In accordance with the policy vision, the following regulatory and vehicle-related reforms will help ensure that

the auto-rickshaw sector supports public transport and provides alternatives to private vehicles, while

addressing the sustainability challenges of emissions and road safety:

ENSURE AVAILABILITY OF DISPATCH SERVICES: Auto-rickshaw services in the majority of

Indian cities are provided by individual owner-operators rather than by fleet companies. The lack of organization

makes it difficult to provide dispatch (dial-a-rickshaw) services. This needs to be addressed through

regulatory reforms that enable fleet-based operations with dispatch services to enter the auto-rickshaw sector.

These regulatory reforms should be pursued by State transport departments, which are the nodal regulatory

agencies for the auto-rickshaw sector.

REDUCE EMISSIONS: Findings from this study highlight that improvements in engine technology (moving

from two-stroke to four-stroke engines) is potentially the best approach to reduce PM10 emissions from the auto-

rickshaw sector. Four-stroke engines have lower PM10, hydrocarbon (HC), and carbon dioxide (CO2)

emissions than two-stroke engines (Shah and Iyer 2004). Further, four-stroke engines can reduce PM10 emissions

by running on compressed natural gas (CNG) and other alternatives to gasoline (Reynolds, Grieshop and

Kandlikar, 2011).

The engine and fuel-related reforms should be pursued by State transport department as the nodal regulatory

agencies.

The needed reforms in emission standards are the adoption of separate emission standards for HC and NOx

emissions, instead of the current combined (HC + NOx) standard. These reforms should be pursued by the

Standing Committee on Implementation of Emissions Legislation set up by the Ministry of Road Transport and

Highways (MORTH) for emissions legislation (SIAM 2011b).

IMPROVE ROAD SAFETY: Vehicle design improvements such as seat belts and padding on stiff surfaces

(Schmucker et al. 2009) have been noted as key reform needs to improve occupant safety in multivehicle

collisions. Further, infrastructure interventions such as dedicated lanes for auto-rickshaws, narrow lanes, and

speed tables on urban roads to reduce average speeds will reduce the risk of occurrence of multivehicle

collisions.

Vehicle design improvements, through reforms in current motor vehicle safety regulations, should be pursued

by the Automotive Industry Standards Committee (AISC) (SIAM 2011b) set up by MORTH for motor vehicle

safety regulations.

Infrastructure interventions to improve auto-rickshaw occupant safety should be pursued by City governments as

part of their citywide road safety enhancement strategies.

Policy vision for Auto-Rickshaw sector in cities

Quality of fuel

The quality of fuel has been significantly improved; leaded petrol has been completely phased out. Sculpture

content of diesel has been reduced in stages from 0.8% to 0.05% with effect from March 2001. The quality of

petrol being supplied to Delhi has been improved by reduction of sculpture content to 0.05% and benzene

content to 1%. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is emerging as an attractive alternative fuel due to its clean

burning characteristic and very low level of exhaust pollution.

Budget 2010 has set up a National Clean Energy Fund for financing research and innovation in clean energy

technology. Taxes and duty reductions for solar energy technologies and LEDs will give the necessary impetus

for the growth of renewable energy technology in the country.

Urban Transport Trend & challenges:

An analysis of literature on Urban transport trends in India reveals a shift away from public transport & non

motorized transport {NMT} modes, with increasing usage of private motor vehicles.

GROWTH IN URBAN TRANSPORT DEMAND:

With rapid urbanization, urban transport demand in India continues to grow. Population in Indian cities is

expected to increase by around 250 million in the next 20 years (McKinsey & Company 2010), bringing enormous

growth in urban travel demand. It is projected that total daily passenger trips in 87 major urban centers in India

will more than double from around 229 million in 2007 to around 482 million in 2031 (MoUD 2008).

GROWTH IN PRIVATE MOTORIZATION:

According to industry data from the Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM), India’s private motor

vehicle market (motorized two-wheelers [MTWs] and cars) grew by more than 85 percent between FY 2003-04

(around 59 million vehicles) and FY 2009-10 (around 110 million vehicles), at an average annual growth rate of

close to 11 percent (CII 2011). Rapid economic growth, rising per capita incomes, ease of consumer financing

options, and favorable government policies toward the automotive sector will continue to drive an unprecedented

increase in private motor vehicle ownership and usage in India (EconomyWatch 2011; India Reports 2011).

DECLINING PUBLIC TRANSPORT MODE SHARES: Public transport mode shares declined in Indian

cities (20-70% decline in different size cities) between 1994 and 2007. This can be attributed to the inability of

public transport services to keep pace with rising demand and to maintain high quality of service, coupled with

increasing private motor vehicle ownership and usage in cities (MoUD 2008).

DECLINING NONMOTORIZED TRANSPORT (NMT) MODE SHARES: Mode shares of NMT

modes (walking and especially cycling) have declined in Indian cities. Cycling mode shares in cities have

come down from an average of 30 percent in 1994 to less than 11 percent in 2007, attributed to an increase in

average trip lengths as a result of urban sprawl, inadequate facilities for cycling, and growth in private motor

vehicle ownership and usage (MoUD 2008).

USE OF INTERMEDIATE PUBLIC TRANSPORT AS PRIMARY MODE FOR DAILY

COMMUTES: City commuters are increasingly using IPT, including auto-rickshaws, as the primary mode

for their daily commutes in cities. As stated in the National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP), launched in

April 2006 by the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India

CURRENT URBAN TRANSPORT TRENDS IN INDIAN CITIES ARE LEADING TO BRODER

SUSTAINABILITY CHALLENGES FOR PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN TERMS OF

INCREASING EMISSION AND ROAD FATALITIES

(MoUD, 2006), the deteriorating quality of public transport in many cities has led commuters to shift to IPT

for daily commutes.

These interrelated trends contribute to broader challenges for people and the environment in Indian cities. For

example: Private motor vehicles are the single largest contributors (contributing between 50 and 90%) of total

emissions1 by the passenger road transport sector in cities (MoUD 2008).

According to a study of road fatality trends (Mohan et al. 2009), the road fatality rate in India increased from 36

fatalities per million persons in 1980 to 95 fatalities per million persons in 2006. Though this study looks at

combined urban and rural road fatality trends, it reports that the growth in private motor vehicles is a major

Contributor to deteriorating road safety trends in cities. Unless policies to control urban road infrastructure

investments and the increasing number of motor vehicles are implemented, such trends are expected to continue

in the future.

Based on a detailed study of road fatalities and transport characteristics in 30 Indian cities in 2008, MoUD’s

comprehensive study on urban transport (MoUD 2008) found that cities with public transport services were safer

than those without them, and it concluded that improving public transport (and reducing private motor vehicle

usage) should be a key strategy for cities to improve road safety.

Characteristics of auto-rickshaw users can be assessed in terms of the trip purposes served by auto-rickshaws, for

example, work, education, shopping, health care, and recreation. Based on published statistics linking mode shares

with trip purposes for select cities, table 3 shows the mode share of auto-rickshaws for various trip purposes.

As seen from table 3, people use auto-rickshaws for a variety of purposes, including education, shopping,

health care, recreational trips, and commuting to work.

The statistics presented in figures 2 and 3 and tables 2 and 3 on auto-rickshaw market size, domestic sales

trends, and mode shares highlight the contribution of the auto-rickshaw sector to meeting the daily transport

needs of urban citizens.

Market size & Sales Trend:

The Market size of auto rickshaws in cities currently varies from around 15,000 to 30,000 in Tier II cities

(population between 1& 4 million) to more than 50,000 in Tier I cities (population greater than 4 million).

Based on population statistics, it is estimated that Tier I & II cities have 4 to 16 auto-rickshaws serving every

1,000 people on average.

Industry Statistics on auto-rickshaw production & sales between 2003 & 2010 are presented in fig-3. These

statistics show that the auto rickshaw market is growing. While part of the domestic sales are associated with

the rural & semi-Urban market, domestic sales are being driven by the growing auto-rickshaw market

particularly in Tier II & Tier III cities (Tier cities are those with a population of less than 1 million), as well as

by replacement sales – scrapping old vehicles & replacing them with new ones-in Tier I cities.

Mode Shares & user characteristics:-

Analysis of mode shares for select cities (Table 2) Shows that auto-rickshaws serve between 10 & 20 percent

of daily person trips made on motorized road transport modes. For these cities, auto-rickshaws constitute a

small percentage (2-11%) of the total number of motor vehicles, but they account for a higher percentage of

mode shares since they serve multiple users over the course of a day & night.

Note: Numbers in city brackets with city names represent 2010 population (estimated) in millions.

Source: 2010 city population data estimated (by interpolation) from 2001 census population (world Gazetteer,

2011). Auto Rickshaw market size (registration) data obtained from regional transport offices (RTOs) of

respective cities. Cities included here (Mumbai, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Delhi, Pune, Chennai, Jaipur, and

Rajkot) are those which market-size data could be obtained from RTO’s

Source: SIAM 2011a

Note: The mode share data in above table represents the percent of trips under each trip purpose that occur on

auto-rickshaws. For example, in Delhi, 10% of work trips & 23% of educational trips occur on auto rickshaws.

Source: iTrans 2009.

ROLE OF AUTO-RICKSHAW SECTOR IN PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT

Connectivity to Public Transport

Providing connectivity, among other parameters such as frequency, reliability, comfort, and safety, is an

important aspect of public transport to retain as well as attract users. Auto-rickshaw services, integrated as feeder

modes providing first and last mile connectivity for public transport services, help ensure that public transport is

accessible to all parts of the city. In this role, auto-rickshaws will also ensure accessibility to public transport for

commuters with special needs, such as the elderly and people with disabilities. Ahmadabad’s Bus Rapid Transit

(BRT) system, Janmarg, has demonstrated that successful integration of auto-rickshaw services as feeder

modes is a key aspect of ensuring accessibility and usage of the BRT system (Janmarg 2010).

Door-to-Door Service as Alternative to private Motorized Transport

The ability to make door-to-door (long-distance) trips is a clear benefit of private motor vehicles. Therefore,

strategies to mitigate private motorization growth in cities have to ensure that door-to-door motorized transport

alternatives are available. This is particularly important for (1) occasional trips such as trips to the airport, and

for shopping.

And recreation, and (2) emergency trips such as for health care, where door-to-door on-demand transport is

favorable. Public transport typically does not provide door-to-door connectivity in cities, and it mostly

operates on a fixed schedule. The door-to-door on-demand service provided by auto-rickshaw services can

help ensure that such transport needs in cities are met without the need to rely on private motor vehicles

(Mohan 2010). This has also been noted in the NUTP, which states that the primary role of auto-rickshaw

(and other types of contract carriage) services in cities is to serve “occasional trips such as trips to

airports or rail stations with excessive baggage, or emergency trips that have to be undertaken immediately

when it is not possible to wait for public transport” (MoUD 2006).

It is important to note, however, that while auto-rickshaws provide an alternative to private motor vehicles; this

paper does not assess whether they are replacing private motor vehicles or directly mitigating their usage in

Indian cities.

Challenges

To ensure that auto-rickshaw services are able to play their intended role—as feeder services to public transport

and as a door-to-door transport alternative to private motor vehicles—it is important to address the following

challenges:

COMPETITION OF AUTO-RICKSHAW SERVICES WITH PUBLIC TRANSPORT: Current trends

in urban transport (section 2) highlight the usage of IPT modes (auto-rickshaws and taxis) in cities for daily

commute trips, because of the poor quality of public transport. Thus, improving public transport in cities would

be a key strategy in ensuring that auto-rickshaw services fulfill their intended role as feeder services instead of

competing with public transport for long-distance trips (MoUD 2006).

CHALLENGES IN TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION FOR DISPATCH (DIAL-A-RICKSHAW)

SERVICES: Dispatch (dial-a-rickshaw) services in the auto-rickshaw sector would be important in making auto-

rickshaw services an attractive door-to-door transport alternative to private motor vehicles for occasional and

emergency trips. Fleet operations have been noted to be most effective

THE WAY FORWARD

Policy vision for the Auto-Rickshaw sector in cities

The National urban Transport Policy (NUTP) of the Ministry of Urban development, Government of India, is

the key guiding policy at the national level with the underlying rationale of people-based transport planning,

the NUTP framework focuses on planning & investments in public transport & NMT systems in cities. This

section presents the way forward for the auto-rickshaw sector in terms of a policy vision & targeted reforms

that should be pursued to ensure its role in promoting sustainable transport.

PROMOTING PUBLIC TRANSPORT USAGE THROUGH IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY: In

addition to serving occasional and emergency trips, auto-rickshaw services can play an important role in making

public transport accessible to all parts of the city, and encouraging daily commute trips on public transport by

providing first and last mile connectivity. As feeder services, auto-rickshaws will ensure that public transport is

accessible to commuters with special needs, such as the elderly and people with disabilities.

REDUCING PRIVATE MOTOR VEHICLE USAGE AND PROVIDING QUALITY DOOR-TO-

DOOR TRANSPORT ALTERNATIVES:

While the NUTP recognizes the role of auto-rickshaw services in serving occasional and emergency trips, it does

not acknowledge that auto-rickshaws provide a door-to-door transport alternative to private motor vehicles. As

discussed earlier, reducing private motor vehicle usage while providing quality transport alternatives is an

integral part of the ASI framework to promote sustainable urban transport.

Thus, the policy vision should recognize that provision of quality auto-rickshaw service in cities is an important

part of the strategy to help reduce private motor vehicle usage. It should also highlight the need to improve auto-

rickshaw services to make them an attractive door-to-door transport alternative to private motor vehicles in serving

occasional and emergency trips.

In addition to the role of the type of service (contract carriage), the policy vision should present the way forward

for the type of vehicle (motorized three-wheeler) in the auto-rickshaw sector, as part of the Improve strategy of

the ASI framework. The findings in this study highlight the need for vehicle-related reforms in the auto-rickshaw

sector to meet emissions and road safety challenges.

Figure 5 depicts the policy vision for the auto-rickshaw sector to promote sustainable urban transport in cities,

looking at both the type of service (contract carriage) and the type of vehicle (motorized three-wheeler).

As indicated in Figure 5, regulatory and vehicle- related reforms are needed in the auto-rickshaw sector to

ensure its role in promoting sustainable urban transport. These reforms are presented in the following

subsection.

Reform Needs

Recommendations for both regulatory and vehicle-related reforms are summarized in table 4.

Regulatory Reforms to introduce Dispatch Services

Contract carriage services in cities can be separated into dispatch and “walk-up” services (e.g., use of cab stands

or street hail) (Schaller 2007). In accordance with the policy vision (figure 5), in order for auto-rickshaws to

fulfill a role as both a feeder service for public transport and a door-to-door alternative to private motor vehicles,

both dispatch and walk-up service must be readily available (this is because feeder services to public transport

would typically be walk-up services at public transport stations, while dispatch services, as noted earlier, would

be important to enable auto-rickshaws to serve as an attractive door-to-door alternative to private motor

vehicles).

The majority of Indian cities have walk-up services but lack dispatch (dial-rickshaw) services, because the auto-

rickshaw sector is not organized (having individual owner-operators) and lacks fleet-based operations, which

would enable implementation of technology for dispatch services.

Policy vision for the Auto-rickshaw sector in Cities

Source: ITRANS 2012 c

Several case studies from different cities Shivaji Nagar, Kothrud {Pune}, Ahmedabad {Gujarat}, Bangalore.

A 2nd Case study of Paratransit in Indore

Additional details profile of driver:

Education

Educational background & training of the drivers is one of the primary indicators which were used to assess

the knowledge of safety (including passenger safety) amongst drivers. The Table 8-1 shows the educational

qualification of drivers in PTS. This indicator was also stressed by the RTO officials and traffic police.

According to them, low literacy levels among drivers are one of the major issues in creating awareness

programs and to improving safety. Poor adherence of traffic rules leads to traffic jams and accidents in the

city.

Table -1: Qualification of PTS Drivers (Based on Surveyed Samples)

EducationLevel

Auto-rickshaw Magic Taxi Van Sample Total

Illiterate 1 - - - 1

Primary 8 10 - 6 24

Secondary 3 6 4 4 17

Higher Secondary 1 - 1 3 5

Graduate & Above 1 - 2 - 3

Total 14 16 7 13 50Source: Sample Size 50; TAR Analysis, 2010

In most cases, the drivers are educated, except for 2% who are illiterate. Out of 50 drivers interviewed, 24

drivers have primary education (up to 5th standard) and 17 have secondary education (up to 10 th standard).

Basic qualification for new drivers is a minimum of secondary school education (10th standard or above).

1.2 Experience

The drivers come with different years of driving experience. The level of education in comparison with

year of driving experience is presented in the Table 1-2

Table 8-2 Education and Driving Experience

Year ofOperation

IlliterateUp to 5th

StdUp to 10th

StdUp to 12th

StdGraduate &

AboveTotal

Sample

1-2Yrs - 9 1 1 - 11

3-4Yrs - 3 - 1 1 5

5-10Yrs - 6 10 - 1 17

>10Yrs 1 6 6 3 1 17Source: Sample Size 50; TAR Analysis 2010

1.3 Age of the PTS Drivers

Maximum drivers are in the age group of 25 to 40 years. Auto-rickshaw drivers (relatively low proportion)

seem to be the oldest, i.e. above 50 years in age.

Table 1-3: Age Group of PTS Drivers

PTS Type Age Group (in year) Sample Total<25 25 to 40 40 to 55 > 55

Auto Rickshaw 14% 50% 21% 14% 14

Tata Magic 13% 63% 25% 16

Taxi 14% 71% 14% 7

Maruti City Van 8% 77% 8% 8% 13

Reason of Driving: - PTS gave different reasons for choosing their current occupation. They better income.

About 38% an alternate employment opportunity. Most people (40%) drive because this professions

guarantee of the people is in this occupation because they do not have any other employment opportunities.

Source: Sample size 50; TAR U Analysis 2010

PASSENGER CHARACTERISTICS

Majority of the people use PTS for commuting to their work place or educational institutions. Table 1-1 shows

the distribution of survey sample, i.e. PTS usage by people under different age classification.

Table 1-1: Classification of PTS Passenger by Age

PassengerAge

Group inYears

Reported PTS Usage Period Sample Total

6Month

6 Month to 1 Year

1-2 Years >2Years

<25 10% 27% 32% 31% 81

25to40 14% 9% 17% 60% 87

40 to 55 33% 11% 22% 33% 18

>55 7% 21% 14% 57% 14

Source: TAR Analysis, 2010; Sample size: 200

Passenger Trip Details

The average length of trips and number of responses for each paratransit trip were analyzed from the surveyed

samples. The results are presented in Table 11-2 and Table 11-3.

Table 1-2 Classification of PTS Passengers by Purpose and Mode of Travel

Purpose ofTravel Auto

Tata Magic Taxi

MarutiVan

Nos. ofRespondents

Business 46% 31% 8% 15% 13Education 50% 24% 2% 24% 50

Connecting with Bust Train stations & Airport 67% 33% 3Health 83% 17% 6Shopping 55% 25% 20% 20Social Visits 38% 38% 25% 8Work 44% 19% 7% 30% 90Others 80% 20% 10Total 50% 23% 4% 24% 200Source: TAR Analysis, 2010; Sample size: 200

From the Table 1-2, it is evident that most people commute (using PTS) for work followed by education. The

results also indicate that Auto-rickshaws are the most preferred (50%) mode of transportation while taxis are

least preferred (4%). Since Tata Magic and Maruti van usually operate over different routes, in general,

commuter's preferences are mostly divided between route based transportation system (Maruti van or Tata

Magic) or meter based transportation system (Auto-rickshaws). Permits time and privacy. Women and

children try to avoid PTS mainly for these reasons.

Purpose oftravel

Auto Tata Magic

Private 2 Wheeler

PrivateCar

Taxi MarutiVan

Bus Total

Social 3 1 9 2 1 5 21Work 7 10 13 7 3 11 8 59Other 1 1 10 3 15Average trips by mode of transport 33 34 83 13 21 30 29 243Source: TAR Analysis, 2010; Sample size: 200

Advantages and Disadvantages of PTS

The passenger response on the advantages and disadvantages of PTS is presented in the Figure 1-1 to Figure

1-3.

Source: Passenger survey, TARU

Figure 2: Overcrowding in PTS

Source: Chimanbagh Road location

From the analysis it is evident that people are comfortable using PTS and find it convenient. Except for

economy, Auto-rickshaw was found to be relatively more convenient, safe, ensures privacy, accessible and

easily available (24 hours a day). Issues that need attention includes, lack of safety, overcrowding,

pollution, travel time, travel without license & permits time and privacy. Women and children try to avoid

PTS mainly for these reasons.

Source: Passenger survey, TARU 2010

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study was conducted to understand paratransit system in the context of its overall mobility. It

collected spatial information and non spatial information through primary survey supplemented by Auto-

drivers & daily commuters interviews. The results provide a snapshot of the situation. Some of the issues

identified through this study are as follows:

Core areas with narrow roads limit the access of public transport buses. This increases the reliance on PTS.

Inadequate public transportation in the fringe areas resulting in near complete reliance on Para Transit System.

The road networks within the city are limited.

Some of the roads are narrow, unpaved or poorly maintained A significant proportion of the right of the

way is infringed by vendors and unauthorized parking resulting in narrowing of the effective width of the

road.

Extremely congested roads with an incompatible mix of both motorized and non-motorized vehicles

traveling at widely different speeds

Most of livelihoods and economic activities are concentrated in and around the core (CBD) requiring high

proportion of population to travel to these areas on a daily basis. This results in peak hour congestion.

Maximum traffic congestion is found in busiest part for example in Pune Hinjewadi.

Para Transit system not accepted by the authorities as an integral part of transportation systems resulting in

growth of an informal demand and supply.

Limiting the number of PTS vehicles on road while inability to improve the public transport leads to high

reliance on private vehicles. This in turn leads to increased traffic congestion.

Overcrowding, unreliability, safety, timely availability and low value for money spent on PTS are the majors

concerns amongst users. The system therefore is perceived to be inconvenient and unsafe especially for

women and elderly.

Poor educational background of the drivers combined with lack of enforcement by regulatory authorities is

currently leading to poor safety within the PTS operations. Systems for traffic control & management is either

primitive or non-existent. Limited staff with the traffic department and lack of technology causing

inefficient and ineffective traffic control.

Increasing number of traffic accidents, especially among pedestrians and motorcyclists are evident

High densities of vehicles on road contribute to environmental impacts including air and noise pollution.

Mass transportation systems especially in a few metropolitan cities have moved from construction to the operational stage.

The government has taken half-a-step by preparing a draft National Urban Transport Policy. The next half-step would

be taken when regulatory reforms are put in place to provide comprehensive urban public transport services at an

affordable price to all. Due to increasing vehicular population, the carrying capacity of the roads within city

is highly reduced. Insufficient public transport and high reliance on the private vehicles are the main reasons

for this situation. The results indicate that two wheelers constitute majority of vehicles along with private

cars. Bicycle usage is moderate and contribution of public transport is very low, which is one of the main

reasons for traffic congestion.

Numbers of vehicles on the roads are high and increasing during morning peak hours, compared to evening.

The PTS vehicles are the only option of transportation for majority of lower income inhabitants. Due to

the lack of alternatives, they usually get the worst end of the bargain. They are often riddled with problems

like overcrowding, lack of safety and comfort. One of the major disadvantages quoted by PTS passengers is its

unreliability. The average monthly expenditure by household across all SECson transportation ranges from

Rs. 400 to Rs. 15,000. The share of PTS expenses ranges from Rs. 175 to 450. The upper SEC inhabitants

do spend very less on PTS compared to lower SEC inhabitants. This is due to their (upper SEC inhabitants)

high reliance on private vehicles.

PTS vehicles are mainly used for business/work purpose, education, followed by shopping and social visits.

Among the paratransit vehicles, Auto-rickshaws constitute the highest numbers, whereas Tata Magic carries

the maximum passengers. The surveys indicate that many of the route permit vehicles ply on routes, which

are not allocated to them. The rural PTS vehicles spend significant part of their operational travel within the

urban boundaries. Cream skimming is quite common among operators.

Recently, RTO has stipulated rural paratransit vehicles to be painted in a unique color to differentiate them

from urban permit vehicles. This system was introduced to prevent/monitor rural permit vehicles from plying on

urban routes. Most locations within the city are in proximity to an Auto-rickshaw stand (less than 500 m). The

availability of Auto-rickshaws is significantly less during nighttime; however, Auto-rickshaws drivers make

themselves available in case of need (medical emergencies).

The Auto-rickshaw operators mostly avoid following the metering system. They charge the passengers not

according to the fares stipulated by the RTO. While negotiations with the passengers are common practice

among the operators, the unions play an important role in fare fixing. Auto-rickshaws followed by Tata Magic

secured high rating among users for their convenience, accessibility and availability. Nevertheless, these two

paratransit modes charges high fare and follow poor safety standards.

The PTS vehicle union representatives indicated about 3000 unauthorized Auto-rickshaws (without permits)

plying in the city. The fuel station survey indicates that there may be more than 500 vehicles without valid

permits plying the city.

The route permit vehicles and Auto-rickshaws operate about 12 hours or more in a day with minimum breaks

compared to taxis. The PTS operators have to struggle hard to break even with their investment and earn a

living. The uncertainty in incomes across seasons makes this situation further precarious. Under this

constrained environment, the PTS operators are forced to overcrowd or bypass the safety regulations

wherever possible to increase their earnings. On the other hand, overcrowding along with lack of basic safety

equipments increases the risk to the passengers.

Overcrowding is also one of the reasons that limit middle and upper segments of the society as well as older

people and women from choosing route permit paratransit vehicles. Poor education and dangerous behavior of

PTS drivers along with lack of enforcement of traffic rules results in lack of passenger safety.

In the current environment, the effective implementation of public transportation is constrained due to

financial availability, road width availability and lack of parking spaces for the passengers.

The acceptance of any public transportation system would depend upon a variety of social and economic factors

as well as effective integration of the multiple systems including paratransit, so that, regular commuters can

travel efficiently from their point of origin to destination without having to use their private vehicles.

The particular case study which I did being in Pune where I travelled across the city & outskirts of city the

particular place in Pune name Hinjewadi where I interviewed Auto drivers & came cross to daily commuters.

When I spoke to auto drivers came to know why they chose this profession.

Mainly when I spoke to auto drivers among one of them when I spoke to him the tears rolled out in my eyes

because, they choose this profession not by default but they were constrained to choose this profession. Being

a graduate or being a student some have choose this profession.

Our India is an agrarian country so one of the family members to earn i.e. to support their family one has to opt

other profession. Their financial status is highly poor. They drive their auto in night & continue their

education. Some have chosen this profession has a part time.

The place in Hinjewadi where paratransit is used for schools, colleges to come to city but still they face many

hurdles they have certain restrictions they can take their vehicle in particular limit only. Beyond that if they

take they are fined for same. The people are heavily depending on paratransit because public transport in Pune

is highly better than other modes i.e. private vehicles.

It has been observed that people who are affordable to buy they buy their own two wheelers because the

frequency of buses to commute from one place to another is highly poor. The fare charges are almost equal to

buses. The halts of paratransit are less than compare to bus.

The only disadvantage with paratransit I observed is of safety, no first aid in paratransit vehicle. The auto

drivers are not skilled compare to bus drivers because proper training after completing certain training the bus

driver gets a job but which is not in same as paratransit because, mainly their education level they are hardly

matriculate. The fuel which they use i.e. maintenance of vehicle is highly poor. As it is rightly said, there are

two sides of a coin. There are advantages as well as disadvantages in paratransit.

Way Forward:

Detailed GIS assisted origin to destination (OD) survey needs to be mapped. This will throw light on the

travel needs, pattern and choice of modes of transportation. This may be supported by socio-economic

survey to understand the current mobility patterns, costs and salient features across SECs.

Origin to destination solution is necessary to solve the problem of increasing private vehicles and ensuring last

mile connectivity. In order to achieve this, integrated transportation system will be required. Concerns raised

by passengers include safety and affordability issues.

Currently unions provide support in rate fixing and legal support. RTO need to work in tandem with unions

and increase their responsibilities to include issues such as ensuring passenger safety and providing

awareness to the operators at more regular intervals.

The police department is currently carrying out awareness program only once every year, especially during

traffic week. This should be a regular activity and safety certificates should be made mandatory to enforce the

implementation process.

Bibliography

1}www.embarq.org/en/a-study-para-transit-system-indore-city EMBARQ Report 2011, 03,January 2011.

2}http://www.embarq.org/en/sustainable-urban-transport-india-role-auto-rickshaw-sector

3}http://embarqindia.org/node/209

4}http://www.ltaacademy.gov.sg/doc/J10Nov-p13Singal_UrbanTransportIndia

5}http://www.itpi.org.in/pdfs/jan01_08.

6}http://www.globalride-sf.org/paratransit/Guide

7}http://www.nctr.usf.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/16.2_mccormick.pdf

8}http://www.nctr.usf.edu/2013/07/paratransit-business-strategies-a-birds-eye-view-of-matatus-in-nairobi/

9}http://www.nctr.usf.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/16.3_jiao.pdf

10}http://www.unep.org/transport/lowcarbon/Pdf's/BRT_Casestudies_India_fullreport.pdf