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Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
0
Understanding happiness: A look into the Chinese folk psychology
Luo Lu
Graduate Institute of Behavioural Sciences,
Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
Correspondence address: Dr. Luo Lu, Graduate Institute of Behavioural Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical
University, No. 100 Shih-Chuan 1st Road, Kaohsiung City 807, Taiwan, ROC.
Tel: +886-7-3121101 Ext. 2273 Fax: +886-7-3223445
E-mail: luolu@cc.kmu.edu.tw OR luolu@mail.nsysu.edu.tw
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
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Abstract
This qualitative study using a folk psychology approach explored what Chinese people think about
happiness. One hundred and forty-two undergraduate students wrote free-format essays in response to a
simple open-ended question, “What is happiness?” Using thematic analysis, four main themes were
found. (1) Happiness can be defined in terms of (a) a mental state of satisfaction and contentment; (b)
positive feelings/emotions; (c) a harmonious homeostasis; (d) achievement and hope; and (e) freedom
from ill-being. (2) Happiness is a harmonious state of existence, under the following conditions: (a) the
individual is satisfied or content; (b) the individual is the agent of his own happiness; (c) spiritual
enrichment is emphasized more than material satisfaction; and (d) the individual maintains a positive
outlook for the future. (3) The relationship between happiness and unhappiness is dialectical. These
two distinct entities are locked in a never-ending relationship of interdependence: each depends on the
other for contrast and meaning. Moreover, this relationship between the two opposites is also dynamic
and constantly changing. (4) Happiness can be achieved, provided that one has the following abilities:
(a) the wisdom of discovery; (b) the wisdom of contentment and gratitude; (c) the wisdom of giving;
and (d) the wisdom of self-cultivation. These themes were discussed in the contexts of Chinese
philosophical and folk views of happiness.
Key words: definitions of happiness, Chinese folk psychology, ways to achieve happiness
What is happiness?
This is a simple question. We all know the answer, or do we? As soon as we hear people talk
about happiness, we will be stunned how diverse each one’s ideas about happiness are! The differences
are even more substantial in the ways people from the East and the West think about happiness.
Regarded as a “basic building block, a value in terms of which other values are justified” (Braithwaite
& Law, 1985, p.261), happiness may be universal, but its meaning remains complex and ambiguous.
In English language, “happy” as an adjective has three broad meanings: (1) fortunate, lucky;
feeling or expressing pleasure, contentment, satisfaction, etc.; (2) (in polite formulas) pleased; (3) (of
language, conduct, suggestion) well-suited to the situation. “Happiness” is used as a noun to convey the
first meaning (Hornby, Gatenby & Wakefield, 1948). It is not difficult to understand then why in the
Western psychological studies, happiness is often implied as a psychological state following the
gratification of some important human needs or desires (Diener, 1984;Veenhoven, 1984).
Nonetheless, with a staunch conviction of scientific methods, Western psychologists have
generally left the question of “what is happiness” to philosophers for debate, and gone on to study the
perceived happiness and its correlates. In so doing, researchers gave achieved a general consensus to
operationalize happiness in terms of (1) positive affect; (2) life satisfaction; and (3) absence of negative
affect (Andrews & Withey, 1976; Diener, 1984; Argyle, 1987; Lu, 1995). However, such a working
definition is at most an attempt to identify components/elements of the happiness experience, which
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
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unravels little about the nature of happiness. Some researchers have criticized the lack of theoretical
sophistication and psychological depth entailed in the current mainstream happiness (or SWB) research
(Ryff, 1989). Although empirical study on happiness has won its legitimacy and recognition in the
mainstream scientific psychology, and flourished over the past three decades, the accumulation of data
has failed to push up the level of theoretical construction (Diener et al., 1999). Comparing the two
extensive reviews 15 years apart (Diener, 1984; Diener et al., 1999), we now know more, with more
confidence, about correlates of SWB, but we are no closer to the heart of this ultimate human
experience. The hard question of “what is happiness” is unavoidable, if we are to further our
understandings of human happiness. Breaking this deadlock can also hopefully enable us to direct our
scientific efforts more effectively.
Because meanings and concepts are molded by culture (Bruner, 1990), it seems necessary to
explore what people think about happiness as embedded in the world of meanings/values construed by
a unique cultural tradition. The Chinese culture, with its rich heritage, provides an interesting vantage
point to contrast the predominant Western cultural perspective in the SWB research. The present study
was thus undertaken as an exploration of folk psychology, in terms of “a cultures account of what
makes human beings tick” (Bruner, 1990, p.13). It is through shared meanings and values that a great
cultural tradition penetrates through human existence. Human lives thus are intertwinned with their
culture, both as a carrier of the culture, and as an active force of creation. It should be of no exception
that people make judgments and draw conclusions about the quality of their lives within the cultural
framework of meanings/values/concepts. Therefore, choosing to focus on people’s own spontaneous
accounts of their ideas about happiness, this study aimed to explore people’s conceptions of happiness
in a modern Chinese society.
Views of happiness in the Chinese culture
The word “happiness” did not appear in the Chinese language until recently. “Fu” or “fu qi” is
perhaps the closest equivalent of happiness in Chinese ancient thoughts. ”Fu” appeared as early as in
bone inscriptions from Shang Dynasty. It was spotted in records of oracle, meaning “presenting the
filled wine container at the altar” (Bauer, 1976). It is clear that the original meaning of fu is to worship
a god, to express human desires and prayers. What were these desires and prayers, then? The
escavation of Shang graves has offered us valuable insights. Ancient Chinese did not view death as an
absolute frontier, rather as a change of rhythm of life, like day and night. Therefore, the deads were
reckon to continue to possess human desires, which could be satisfied in the same ways as the living.
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
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Ancient burial gifts, hence, can be regarded as indicators of what constituted happiness at the very
beginning of the Chinese civulization. The interpretation of bone inscriptions and the luxurious burial
gifts point to a twofold fundamental conception of happiness: blessings from the supernatural, and
pleasures in human society.
Later, in the “Shang Shu”, the word “fu” was more clearly defined in mundane existence to
include “longevity, prosperity, health, peace, virtue, and a comfortable death” (Wu, 1991). “May the
five fus come to your door” is still a popular greeting at the Chinese New Year nowadays.
Another important ancient work, “Classic of ritual” gave “fu” yet another amendment. “Fu” was
“fortunate, lucky, smooth and free of obstacles”. Again popular greetings at the Chinese New Year,
such as “May everything work out as you wish”, “May wind and rain come in harmony”, and “May
God grant man’s wishes” express just such a view of happiness.
Roughly, the Chinese people’s conception of happiness can be traced back to the early days of
civilization, and has kept some of its core ideas while evolving with the great culture. In folk wisdom,
Chinese happiness seems to include material abundance, physical health, virtuous and peaceful life, and
relief from death anxiety.
The ancient Chinese society was a dual existence. At the top of the societal pyramid, the social
elite presided power and prestige, whose ideals were recorded and carried down through the writings
and teachings of great philosophers and scholars; the vast majority of working people were ruled
according to, and preached with those ideals, but conveyed them in folklores as described above.
Nonetheless, there is no denying that schools of great philosophy have profoundly shaped the Chinese
culture and the mentality of Chinese people for thousands of years. The Tripartite of Confucianism,
Taoism and Buddhism form the backbone of the orthodox Chinese culture, and each has distinct views
on human happiness.
Confucius was the first Chinese philosopher to formulate an earthbound thought system.
However, he did not talk about “fu”, in fact there is not a single utterance of it in “The book of
conversations”, the dialogues between Confucius and his disciples. “Li”, ritual, is the most important
concept in Confucian system instead, and Confucians valued ritual more than mundane happiness.
Confucius spent the best part of his life touring countries, preaching to each ruler his vision of Chinese
humanism. He insisted that a wise ruler must rule with “virtue” and make people equal by ritual. Virtue
and ritual can then make people accept social categories as a matter of personal concern. Hence, for the
Chinese elite, the ideals of humanity and equality are stabilization of the existing social order. Also for
the Chinese elite, happiness dose not lie in personal salvation or material accumulation, rather it is
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
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achieved through constant self-cultivation, maintaining a harmonious family, ruling a country wisely,
and keeping peace in the world, each progresses to a higher level and greater degree of happiness.
For ordinary people, Confucian philosophy presupposes that the life of each individual is only a
link in that person’s family lineage and that an individual is a continuation of his ancestors. This
teaching puts one’s family right in the center of one’s life and everyday existence. Ancestor worship is
an integral part of the Confucian ritual for the mass, and many of the practices are still followed today.
Confucian philosophy advocates that one should strive to preserve and expand the prosperity and
vitality of one’s family. Happiness is to achieve this ultimate life goal through hard working and
frugality to accumulate material resources, through intellectual labour and passing exams to obtain
respectable social status, through suppression of selfish and earthly desires to lead a virtuous life, and
ultimately through fulfillment of one’s social duties.
To sum, for Confucians, happiness is no longer a set of living conditions, it is the psychological
state or spiritual world of a living individual. Happiness is not transient, shallow sensual pleasures, it is
an eternal, deeply meaningful world of reason. Confucians regarded happiness as spiritual, not material;
as moral, not circumstantial; as self-identified, not other-judged.
Yang and Cheng (1987) divided the Confucian values, still well preserved in Taiwan, into four
groups. (1) Family factors include family responsibilities and obedience to one’s elders. (2) Group
factors include accepting the hierarchical structure of society; trust in and obedience to authority; and
commitment to the solidarity, harmony, and norms of the group. (3) Job-orientation factors include
education, skill learning, hard work, and frugality. (4) Disposition factors include austerity, calmness,
humility, and self-control. Putting these values into practice should lead to happiness in life.
Wu (1992) asserted that the Confucian happiness is achieved through “knowledge, benevolence,
and harmony of the group” (p.31). Confucian philosophy stresses the collective welfare of the family,
or clan (extending to society and the entire human race) more than individual welfare. Under this
collectivist orientation, Chinese culture emphasizes sharing the fruits of individual success with the
group. Contributing to society is the ultimate happiness, whereas hedonistic striving for happiness is
regarded as unworthy and even shameful.
Taoism opposes to the idea of happiness as a product of material satisfaction, it also opposes the
Confucian idea of happiness as a constant self-cultivation to achieve moral greatness. Taoists assert that
everything in the universe must follow “Tao”, the great Natural force that starts everything in the first
place. Taoism is also termed the philosophy of “not–doing” (“wu wei”), for it insists that perfect
happiness is the absence of happiness, and perfect glory is the absence of glory (Chiang, 1976).
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
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Happiness in Taoism is the personal liberation from all human desires, through following the Natural
force, not doing anything, accepting fate calmly, and facing life with a peaceful mind. In so doing, one
may reach the ultimate happiness of merging with the universe, termed “tian ren he yi”. Happiness in
Taoism, therefore, is not an emotional feeling of joy, rather, it is a cognitive insight and transcendence.
Taoists practice a life style of withdrawal, isolation and quietness. The ultimate goal is to achieve
anonymity, vanishing into the Nature, transcending the Nature, and merging with the Nature.
Unlike Confucianism and Taoism, Buddhism is not an indigenous Chinese philosophy. However,
Buddhism has incorporated many of the Chinese philosophical thoughts and cultural traditions over
thousands of years since its first introduction from India in Tang Dynasty. Buddhism asserts that there
is no such thing as absolute, lasting happiness in life, all existence on earth was poisoned by
unhappiness from the very start, and only “nirvana” can offer salvation (Chiang, 1976). Buddhism not
only turn away from the world, but also from happiness itself. Happiness in Buddhism can only be
found in the “Paradise of the west” after nirvana, which promises eternal bliss beyond everyday misery
of this world. Physical exercises, meditation, doing charitable deeds, eliminating all human desires are
all ways to lift up the soul to reach nirvana and eternal happiness.
For scholars, Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism are three entirely different, and even
contradictory philosophical systems. For ordinary people, however, they have been merged and utilized
to promote a good life. Differentiation between them is no longer necessary nor possible in mundane
life of the mass. People may act in accordance with Confucianism when they are interacting with other
people, with Taoism when they are faced with the nature, and with Buddhism when they are confronted
with themselves. The three great thought schools have been synthesized, reinterpreted and applied to
different realms and different living circumstances. This is the ultimate achievement of “Chinese
utilitarianism” (Quah, 1995). The present study thus set out to explore folk, as opposed to scholarly
theories of the nature of happiness and ways to achieve happiness.
Folk theories are shared by certain subgroups of the human population, in this case, the Chinese
people. Almost no empirical study has focused on the conception of happiness, although there have
recently been one study looking at the folk theories of causes of happiness across cultures (Chiasson,
Dube & Blondin, 1996), and one at lay theories of causes of happiness in the British culture (Furnham
& Cheng, 2000). These efforts are valuable and are forming new frontiers in the SWB research,
however, both still leaves the fundamental issue of happiness conception untouched. The purpose of
this study was then to move towards bridging this gap between scholarly theories of SWB and ordinary
people’s day-to-day experiences and their deeply held believes, concepts about human happiness.
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
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Being the first effort of this kind, this study is inevitably exploratory in nature. Nonetheless, a
concerted effort to attack important philosophical questions, such as “what is happiness?” with
scientific methods and empirical evidence is worthwhile.
Method
Participants
One hundred and forty-two undergraduate students, age 19 to 25, participated in the study. The
students were in their second to fourth year, enroling on a health psychology course at a medical
university in a metropolitan city in southern Taiwan. These students were majored in medicine (N=60),
other heath–related disciplines (N=60), social sciences (N=9), and natural sciences (N=13).
Procedure
To reflect the exploratory nature of the present study, a qualitative approach was adopted. Data
were collected through a free-format essay writing exercise that took place in January 2000.
Participants were given a simple open-ended question, “what is happiness?”, to write an essay. There
was no restriction on perspectives, topics, materials, formats, length, and time of completion. However,
it was stressed that participants should freely and fully express their views and thoughts about
happiness.
All the essays were then coded using thematic analysis. This analysis of the data was then
communicated back to the participants at a later class session. The researcher explained her
interpretations of themes emerged from these essays, elaborated on her major findings, and answered
any queries. This communication exercise thus served as a debriefing act in accordance with research
ethics, especially in qualitative research. This exercise also served as a validation of data and analysis
to actively engage participants as co-researchers. Participants were invited to provide any further
insights, comments, amendments, modifications or clarifications they wish to make. Participants agreed
in general with researcher’s interpretations of and conclusions drawn from the data. Yet, some
participants took up this opportunity to offer more detailed contextual, background information to the
statements they initially made. In general, participants were pleased to have this feedback session, and
enthusiastically engaged in the discussion. This exercise hence further strengthened the
“trustworthiness” of the study, through the attempt to achieve intersubjectivity between the researcher
and participants.
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
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Results and Discussion
The results are presented below and are grouped into sub-headings that reflect the main themes to
arise from the essays. As the purpose of this study was to explore the folk psychology of Chinese
happiness conceptions, no content analysis or frequency courts were conducted. Instead, qualitative
summary methods were employed to present the results. As the amount of materials were considerable,
only example quotes were given to illustrate each point made below. To protect anonymity, only
participants codes were given following each quotation.
Definitions of happiness
Many scholars think that happiness is too illusive and abstract to be pinned down, and defining it
is only possible at the operational level. Some participants expressed similar agitation and hesitation
when confronted with the direct, almost sharp inquiry of “what is happiness?”. One participant began
his essay with the comment: “This is really a very difficult question to answer!” (P33). Another one
doubted: “Very few people will even attempt to define it” (P65). Someone confessed that: “I do not
know how to give it a definite definition” (P.5). Yet another one claimed that: “There could be no
definite linguistic definition” (P117).
The failure to commit oneself to a clear definite definition of happiness was due to two
fundamental aspects of the happiness experience. First, happiness is abstract, hence its meaning is hard
to be captured by language. P42 remarked that: “Happiness exists only in a split of thought”. P29 and
P59 both wrote that: “Happiness is very abstract, and it only dwells in everyone’s mind. It is thus
difficult to express in language”. Second, happiness is subjective, hence there could be considerable
individual differences in definitions of happiness. P11, P30 and P140 all recognized that: “Happiness is
a very subjective kind of personal experiences and feelings”. Other participants shared a similar view:
“The feelings/interpretations/definitions of happiness are largely dependent on the individual’s
subjective consciousness” (P13, P28, P36, P.38, P.82). P12 and P14 collaborated to provide a summary
for this “no definition is possible” stance: “Personal happiness has no fixed criterion, and need not be
restricted to a single model. Happiness is simply based on the individual’s psychological feelings. This
is the very nature of happiness”.
The majority of participants took up the challenge to define happiness, albeit in their own ways.
A total of 67 distinct definitions of happiness were identified, collaborating the above observation that
happiness is subjective, so is its definition. Nonetheless, all these diverse definitions pertained to five
underlying themes, although no single definition dealt with all five.
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
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1.Happiness as a mental state of satisfaction and contentment
Many participants referred to happiness as a profound mental state of satisfaction and
contentment. This mental state of happiness can be evoked from fulfillment of needs and desires. One
participant was blunt in stating that “Happiness is the gratification of personal desires” (P134). Some
elaborated to cover various realms: “Happiness is the spiritual and material satisfaction” (P11, P62);
“Happiness is the physical, psychological and social satisfaction.” (P17); or simply: “Happiness is the
satisfaction with the current life circumstances” (P6, P79). Whether specific or general, these views of
happiness are quite in agreement with the long-held scholarly telic theories, that maintain happiness is
gained when some state, goal or need is fulfilled (Diener, 1984).
However, there is another dimension to this seemingly straightforward satisfaction/contentment
definition of happiness. More participants remarked that happiness is the ability to be content. For
instance, “Feeling content is the genuine happiness” (P135); “Happiness is the ability to feel content
from the bottom of one’s heart” (P24, P41, P21). Underlying these definitional statements is the distinct
Chinese view that “one should be content with one’s lot, and sincerely feel thankful for whatever life
brings”. This calm, meditating Chinese mentality may seem passive, even pessimistic in surface, it is
nonetheless a proactive way of re-channeling psychological energy to maintain control when control is
seemingly unattainable. Clearly, it has a reflection of the Confucian preaching of accepting and
maintaining the existing social order; of the Taoists’ urge to desire nothing and entrust everything to
Nature’s rules; even of the Buddhists’ ideal of living a desireless life and cultivating a clear mind. For
Chinese, the bliss-like state of contentment and deeply-felt inner happiness need not be the product of
actual satisfaction of needs and desires, the happiness is more profound and long-lasting when one
adopts a different psychological perspective of accepting and welcoming the fate with gratitudes and
heart-felt thankfulness. P91 gave a vivid account of such a state: “Happiness is to be truly content with
whatever one has at the moment, and naturally feels moved and touched from the bottom of one’s
heart”.
2.Happiness as positive feelings/emotions
Satisfaction/contentment often goes hand in hand with various positive feelings and emotions in
the happiness experiences. Some participants defined happiness as simple joy (P33, P50, P53, P69),
whereas some used more general terms, referring happiness to “feelings of a subjective and positive
nature” (P18, P34, P44, P48, P97, P100). Some were more specific in listing these positive emotions:
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
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“Happiness is a feeling of sweetness, joy, safe, comfortable, being ordinary and feeling comfortable
with oneself” (P74). Although researchers have often operationalized happiness as positive affectivity
and the two constructs are almost synonymous in many SWB studies (Bradburn, 1969; Diener, 1984;
Argyle, 1987), “being ordinary” and “feeling comfortable with oneself ” have never been on the list of
“happy emotions”.
Yet more participants mentioned similar feelings of this type of warm, relaxed, long-lasting,
heart-touching, deep emotions, as opposed to more exciting, intense, transient, shallow emotions such
as joy and elation. P4 wrote: “Happiness is a positive feeling of being loved and feeling content”. P26
agreed: “Happiness is the feeling of being loved and cared about”. P27 gave a neat summary of this
view of happiness: “Happiness is when I am happy, and people around me are happy; when I feel warm,
and can give warmth to other people”. For Chinese, intense hedonic emotions are not stressed, although
they are recognized as part of the happiness experience. Instead, “being at ease with oneself” reflects
the Buddhist wisdom of self retrospection and self transcendence; “being loved and loving others” is a
life practice of the Confucian ideal of promoting group welfare starting from one’s most intimate circle
of people.
3.Happiness as a harmonious homeostasis
Happiness can be defined as a state of harmony within the individual as well as between the
individual and his surroundings. P13 wrote: “Happiness is to achieve a harmonious balance between
one’s body and mind”. Others thought that: “Happiness is a quality of the mind, is a spiritual state of
fitness” (P32, P141). The concept of harmonious homeostasis seems to capture the core implication of
happiness being a dynamic process of achieving and maintaining a good fit from within to outward.
P98 declared that: “Happiness is the ability to pursue a balanced satisfaction between one’s ideals and
physical, psychological realities”. P99 defined happiness as “a physical, psychological and social
(interpersonal) equilibrium”. P111 elaborated on this view, saying that: “Happiness is the inner
well-being and contentment, as well as the feeling of harmony with the external world. It is also trust,
safty and stability”.
Headey and Wearing (1989) proposed a dynamic equilibrium model to explain individual
differences in SWB. However, their key interest was to synthesize the top-down theories (e.g.
personality effects) and the bottom-up theories (eg. life events influences). Hence, mechanisms of
fluctuation on stability of SWB were their focal concern, rather than the nature of happiness. The
Chinese concept of homeostasis, however, has a philosophical depth. According to the ancient
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
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Yin-Yang theory, homeostasis is the ideal state for the entire universe, a state of harmony with the great
natural principles (Hong, 1944). The Yin-Yang theory of great Chinese antiquity, is a life philosophy
and a dualistic cosmic theory, which explains all activities of the universe, including human life. The
centre thesis is that the universe consists of two basic principles of nature, Yin and Yang; through the
change of relationships between these two opposing forces, all creations were born and are still
constantly changing, hence keeping a state of homeostasis in nature, societies and human beings.
Happiness is but one particular domain submissive to the influences of Yin and Yang. The above
presented view of happiness corresponds nicely to this Yin-Yang philosophy, stressing a state of
homeostasis in the human mind and body, in the individual and his social, spiritual and natural
environment. This holistic view of happiness thus surpasses the Western view of equilibrium as a
process mechanism. Harmony between Heaven, Earth and People is also the ultimate happiness aspired
by Taoism.
4. Happiness as achievement and hope
Some participants stressed the sense of achievement and worth as a defining feature of happiness,
which often leads to satisfaction and contentment. P8 wrote that: “Happiness is a sense of achievement
and satisfaction in one’s interested realms”. This state of happiness is usually brought about through the
attainment of goals and rewards for efforts. P67 viewed happiness as “the dreams coming true”, while
P45 viewed happiness as “a sense of achievement, rewards for one’s efforts”. This view of happiness
can be seen as another form of the telic theories (Diener, 1984), emphasizing happiness as an end state,
as a product of goal fulfillment. Among Chinese, such a view of happiness is unusually uplifting, active,
initiating, and focuses on individual agency and autonomy. As P125 put it “Happiness is a feeling of
joy and contentment gained in the process of striving for one’s ideals and goals”.
This view of happiness also has a future dimension to it. P76 wrote that: “Happiness is a feeling
of worth in the present life, and a longing towards the future”. P118 agreed: “”Happiness is satisfaction
with the present circumstance, and holding positive outlook for the future development”. Happiness is
not only focused on the present, but also oriented towards the future. Therefore, the common practice
of using (present) life satisfaction as a proxy for happiness is restricting and incomplete (Diener, 1984;
Argyle, 1987). Furthermore, if happiness inherently implies an optimistic approach towards the future,
the finding that optimism as a personality trait consistently correlates with reported happiness is to be
expected (Myers & Diener, 1996).
For Chinese, hope and keeping faith is even more important than actual achievement and goal
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fulfillment. Confucian, Taoism and Buddhism all preach a philosophy of submission to, rather than
conquering the environment. Hope and faith thus become important strategies of maintaining personal
control, albeit psychological, in the face of hardship and uncertainty. It is understandable that hope
should be intricately related to Chinese happiness.
5.Happiness as freedom from ill-being
So far, the four accounts of happiness all adopt a perspective of possessing or achieving
something, be it a fulfillment, a feeling/emotion, an accomplishment or hopeful outlook. However,
happiness can also be defined from the opposing perpective of not having something bad, unpleasant,
undesirable or unsettling. For instance, P68 stated that: “Happiness is a life without worries”. P119
gave a more detailed account: “Happiness can be defined in four aspects: (1) free of physical sufferings,
illnesses or disabilities; (2) being socially acceptable, getting along well with other people, being
respected and cared for, not being isolated; (3) free of worries and hardships, being able to live a
carefree and joyful life; (4) possessing a healthy, normal mind, being accepted by the society”. This
elaborate definition of happiness actually alternates between two opposing perspectives yet managed to
convey a rather coherent and meaningful view. It seems that “having” and “not having” may be equally
important in people’s thoughts about happiness. The scholarly debate of whether happiness and
unhappiness are two conceptually distinct constructs or two sides of a coin (Diener, 1984; Argyle, 1987)
seems irrelevant in the folk psychology theories of happiness. It is proposed that the relationship
between happiness and unhappiness is dialectical, each dependent on the other for contrast and
meaning, and under certain conditions, each can transform into the other. This point will be further
discussed later.
Happiness is a harmonious state of existence
Happiness is a state of being where one maintains a harmonious relationship with oneself, and
with the environment. This harmonious relationship is of fundamental importance to one’s survival and
well-being. However, this relationship is also dynamic and has to be diligently kept. In order to
maintain this harmonious relationship, several conditions have to be met.
1.The individual has to be satisfied or content
From previous discussions on the view of “happiness as satisfaction/contentment”, we can
conclude that one way to attain satisfaction and contentment in life is through the gratification of
human needs and the fulfillment of personal goals and desires. Needs, goals, and desires can reside in
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every realm of the human existence, but the following were specifically mentioned by our participants:
(1) to be loved, cared about, especially in one’s cardinal relationships with family members, friends,
and lover/spouse; (2) material abundance; (3) health; (4) biopsychosocial equilibrium; (5) self-worth;
(6) peace; (7) free of ill-being; and (8) self-actualization.
Previously, using qualitative interviews, Lu and Shih (1997) found a similar list of sources of
happiness among Chinese community adults. These prominent sources are: (1) being respected; (2)
harmonious interpersonal relationships; (3) material gratification; (4) work achievement; (5) being at
ease with life; (6) self-control and self-actualization; (7) pleasure and positive affect; (8) health; and (9)
downward social comparisons. Adopting a folk psychology approach, Chiasson, Dube and Blondin
(1996) found more similarities than differences in factors people perceived as contributing to happiness
across French-speaking Canadian, English-specking Canadian, American, and Salvadoran student
groups. The most often mentioned factors were family relationships, pursuing and reaching valued
goals, having a positive attitude toward self, and having friends. From a somewhat different perspective
of lay theories, Furnham and Cheng (2000) found six general factors in their 38-item “Causes of
happiness questionnaire” in a group of British students. They were: mental strength and personality
traits, personal advantages, achievement and freedom in life and work, social support and self-esteem,
security, optimism and contentment. While this study used pre-determined “lay beliefs”, the present
study, Lu and Shih (1997), Chiasson, Dube and Blondin (1996) all allowed free-range responses from
participants, hence lending more credits to the trustworthiness of revealing what people truly think
about happiness, both college students and community adults. It thus seems that conditions people
perceive as conducive to happiness are rather similar across age/cohort and cultural groups. They
broadly include interpersonal factors, such as money, achievement, health and self-worth, as well as
interpersonal factors, such as harmonious relationships, being loved, respected, and cared about, .
For Chinese, however, interpersonal goals are the most important to subjective well-being,
underlined by a desire for solidarity and loyalty so deeply woven in the cultural tradition (Lu, 1998).
The Confucian “wu lun”, five cardinal relationships, form the backbone of a Chinese person’s social
world, and were repeatedly mentioned by our participants in relation to happiness. They are one’s
relation with the emperor (supervisor being his modern proxy), with father, with spouse, with brother,
and with friends. Harmony on these realms virtually ascertains one’s harmonious relationships with the
self and the external environment, as other life domains are but servents serving the master: family and
clan. For example, making money is to prosper the family, and career achievements are to glorify the
family name.
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
13
However, for the Chinese there is yet another way of feeling satisfied and content: not desiring
and being sincerely grateful to life. Human desires can be fulfilled through hard-driving and persistent
striving, as highly valued in the Western culture; or desires can be eliminated through even harder
suppression and self-cultivation. When a simple life style is adopted, a clear mind is set, a desireless
state finally breaks the vicious circle of reproduction of desires, frustration, and misery. Happiness then
can be truely long-lasting and peaceful. The spiritual cultivation and mind work preached by all schools
of Chinese philosophy open up another passage to the depth of happiness, which is generally
unavailable to the Westerners.
2.The individual is the agent of his own happiness
There is often a false belief that traditional Chinese philosophies are passive and pessimistic. In
fact, even the Taoists “not doing” (wu wei) is not “doing nothing”, rather doing things according to the
Nature’s force. The Confucian system asserts that fate determines while man strives. Many of our
participants took this more uplifting view and assumed more personal responsibility in formulating
their happiness conceptions. Three aspects of the human agency were mentioned. First, the individual
is dynamic, and should strive to create a meaningful life for himself. For instance, P125 wrote that:
“Happiness is not a given fact, it is created through personal striving”. He went on to claim that
“Happiness is a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction, after one has done what one should and tried one’s
best”. P111 agreed that: “A human life is a constant pursue of happiness. Putting one’s ideas into
practice is one way of pursuing happiness”.
Second, the personal striving must be governed by moral principles, and a meaningful life is a
virtuous life. For example, P10 thought that: “Not harming others was the pre-condition for striving for
personal goals and happiness”. P2 wrote that: “A moral belief system is the foundation of one’s
happiness”. P14 also believed that: “Our happiness must be judged with the criterion of moral
obligations”. Morality has a central place in the Confucian philosophy and is held as a defining feature
of “becoming a man” (zuo ren). It is with morality, the Chinese culture battles the self-destructive
pursuit of hedonic pleasures, thus maintaining harmony and stability in the greater society.
Third, the individual should assume autonomy, but at the same time accept whatever fate may
bring him. As several participants mentioned that “Happiness is to be free to adopt one’s own life style
and do what one wants with life, however, one has to be open-minded and accept whatever life has
installed for one with great ease” (P65, P72, P90, P98, and P105).
In conclusion, the Chinese notion of human agency is fundamentally different from that
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
14
advocated in the Western culture, and is pre-determined by fate. The Chinese strategies of executing
human agency are also different from the Western ones, as they focus on accepting and coming to terms
with the results, no matter good or bad. When man has done his work, the rest is up to the Heaven.
3.Spiritual enrichment should be more emphasized than material satisfaction
As many of our participants believed that happiness is fundamentally a quality of the mind. The
human mind perceives, interprets, interacts with the external world, and generates various positive
feelings if relationships between the individual and himself, between the individual and his
environment are harmonious. A large majority of our participants noted that happiness is more of some
inner feelings than a mere reflection of the objective world. It is of course not likely that happiness can
bread in a material vacuum for most ordinary people, however, the dignity and peace accomplished by
Buddist munks under extreme material and physical hardships do provide a striking demonstration of
mind power. Chuan-Tzu, the great Taoist philosopher, sang and danced joyfully to celebrate the death
of his wife, for Taoism views death as a dreamless sleep, a transition to a new life, a purification of
imperfect human form, and a passport to eternal happiness. Confucian philosophy too stresses mind
work to suppress selfish desires and irrational demands in order to be virtuous and serve the group. All
these Chinese traditional teachings place great emphasis on spiritual enrichment, and play down, even
deny the role of material gratification, physical comfort, and hedonic pleasures in the happiness
experience. P122 ascribed to this solemn view of happiness: “Only when the spirit is rich, the mind is
peaceful and steady, happiness is then possible. Happiness is an inner feeling, not resides in the
external material world”. P40 agreed that “Happiness is a feeling generated by one’s mind, not a
judgement imposed from the outside”. P55 was certain that “If the mind is not content, happiness will
not exist”.
It should be said that referring happiness as an individual mental state and spiritual-focused is not
a monopoly of the Chinese cultural tradition, such viewpoints can be found in the
philosophies/religions of other cultures too. For instance, ancient Greek philosopher Democritus
(461-371 B.C.) asserted that the basis for the ultimate human happiness is the peace of soul and
self-discipline with moral and reason. In the eyes of ancient Greek philosophers, “virtue” is almost
synonym of “happiness”, and only through virtuous human activities can happiness be achieved. In the
East, India is another great cultural heritage which adopts a predominant spiritual and transcendental
approach to life in general, including happiness conceptions of course. Bearing in mind such
pan-cultural consensus on viewing happiness as a mental and spiritual state, it is thus worthwhile for
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
15
scholars to re-evaluate our SWB research paradigms. If happiness is believed to be mainly the work of
the human mind, which is largely independent of, if not irrelevant to the external conditions, then the
search for objective indicators of a happy person is doomed to be futile (Andrews & Withey, 1976;
Diener, 1984; Argrle, 1987; Myers & Diener, 1996). Instead, we should pay more attention to how
people interpret and generate meanings from the external world, for instance, in the track of judgement
theory (Rim, 1993).
4.The individual has to maintain a positive outlook for the future
Happiness is not just “here and now”, to achieve a harmonious relationship with oneself and with
the external world, one has to set the mind towards future too. For if future is gloomy, the preseat
happiness will only be short lived; if the mind is unsettling, happiness will not dwell.
The future orientation of happiness can be secured through: (1) acceptance of gaps between
realities and ideals (P79); (2) having courage to face the reality (P106, P123); and (3) keeping faith and
hope, opening up the mind towards future and staying optimistic disregarding external circumstances
(P6, P76). “Optimism keeps happiness alive and lasting” (P84).
As discussed earlier, amending the existing SWB research programmes to capture this future
dimension in happiness is necessary. To find out how people manage to maintain a positive outlook
under some exceptional hardships will be particularly insightful for our understanding of human
happiness (Carver et al., 1993).
The dialectical relationship between happiness and unhappiness
Philosophers and psychologists have long debated on the nature of relationship between
happiness and unhappiness. Buddhist philosophy cuts a deep breach between happiness and
unhappiness: unhappiness or misery is the truth of human existence, whereas happiness can only be
found in the “Paradise of the west”. Taoist philosophy too casts happiness and unhappiness in a
“all-or-none” relationship. Chuan-Tzu claimed that “perfect happiness is in the absence of happiness”.
In other words, if one searches for happiness, unhappiness results; if one does nothing, happiness is
found. In Taoism as well as Buddhism, happiness and unhappiness can not co-exist.
However, Chinese folk wisdom takes a more flexible stance on the relationship between
happiness and unhappiness. As briefly discussed earlier, the ancient Yin-Yang philosophy takes a
cosmological view that everything from the cosmos to human life is a never-ending, cyclic process of
change, between good and bad, happiness and misery, well-being and ill-being. In the Book of Change,
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16
the ancient but still influential philosophical work, good things are said to be inevitably followed by
bad things; misfortune will be replaced by blessing. This cyclic view of life is best expressed in the
case of happiness/unhappiness: “Happiness is dependent on unhappiness, while unhappiness is hidden
in happiness” (Lu, 1998).
It is probable that the relationship between happiness and unhappiness can be a dialectical one.
Happiness and unhappiness are two distinct entities, but locked in a never-ending relationship of
interdependence: each depends on the other for contrast and meaning. Without happiness, unhappiness
will not be threatening and distressing; without unhappiness, happiness will not be precious and worthy
of pursuit. Moreover, this relationship between the two opposites is also dynamic and constantly
changing. Happiness and unhappiness are conflictual, but they each can transform, and integrate at a
higher level. However, the conflicts may still be present at this higher lever, hence integration and
resolution are always possibilities at an even higher lever. So goes on this process of conflict,
integration and resolution. Buddhist philosophy may be misinterpreted as escapist and pessimistic, it in
fact urges people to play down the significance of “here and now”, and to view everything from a
wider perspective and at a higher level. This is the Buddhist wisdom of “seeing a mountain as not a
mountain; seeing a mountain as a mountain again”. “Seeing a mountain as not a mountain” is to
transcend the reality of mountain; however, “seeing a mountain as a mountain again” is to further
transcend one’s mind set of “not a mountain”.
Some of our participants’ views on happiness reflected this dialectical relationship with
unhappiness. One characteristic of this dialectical relationship is the contrast between happiness and
unhappiness. P38, P49 and P100 all stated that happiness results from its contrast with unhappiness.
P97 went on to explain: “When someone loses freedom, he then realizes the happiness of having
freedom. When love is gone (especially those who are forced to be separated from loved ones), they
then painfully realize how happy they were being in love”. This is a case of contrasting the present
unhappiness with the previous happiness intrapersonally. The contrast can also occur interpersonally.
P100 explained: “”If someone has just been forsaken by his girlfriend, he will surely feel miserable;
however, if he realizes that there are more misery and tragedy in the ICU, he will feel less unfortunate”.
In any case, happiness must be set against unhappiness, and unhappiness is sharpened against
happiness. P38 thus concluded: “If we are to feel happiness, we must first go through life’s trial of
frustration. Because if everything goes smoothly, it is hard to feel the existence of happiness”.
Another characteristic of the dialectical relationship between happiness and unhappiness is its
dynamic and transformational nature. P47 noted that: “When we go through different stages of life, the
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
17
happiness we pursue will change constantly”. Transient but intense sensual pleasures may bring
happiness to a young man, but are carefully avoided when he grows older, as these may breed
unhappiness even danger. The central thesis of proposing a dialectical view is that both happiness and
unhappiness are relative, changeable, and interdependent. The views of happiness and unhappiness as
two parallels, or as two poles of a dimension may both be restrictive. Instead, the energy and
transformation mechanisms involved in this dialectical relationship deserve more concerted research
efforts.
Happiness can be achieved
Happiness may be difficult to define, and constantly changing, however, most people believe that
its pursuit is worthy and happiness can be achieved. Our participants listed four broad categories of
abilities, or “wisdoms” in Chinese term, to ensure a successful pursuit of happiness.
1.The wisdom of discovery
As happiness is a quality of the mind, a subjective and relative inner state of feelings, participants
believed that happiness should not be searched outward, but inward instead. P125 questioned: “If we
don’t know what we need, what we are searching for, what we are waiting for, and just live a life day
by day, how can there be any happiness?” P2 agreed that: “The foundation of happiness is in your mind:
having faith, and knowing what one is searching for. Happiness needs not be searched outside, instead
one needs to build up one’s own mind”. Therefore, the starting point of a search for happiness is
retrospection and mind work: to understand oneself, to work on oneself, and to focus one’s mind from
outward demands to inward search. P115 commented that: “”People regard happiness as brought by
external events, hence can be achieved through hard striving outward. They don’t realize that happiness
is in fact a subtle inner feeling, and can only be found through hard striving inward”.
2. The wisdom of contentment and gratitude
As discussed earlier under the notion of happiness definitions, “being content with one’s lot, and
feeling sincerely thankful for whatever life brings” is a distinct Chinese perspective in conceptualizing
happiness. Many participants highlighted this wisdom of contentment and gratitude as a key to genuine
happiness. “Those who feel content are often happy”, “One should be content for and treasure whatever
one has got” are two popular Chinese idioms most often quoted in our participants writings about
happiness (eg. P52, P53, P81, P114). According to Confucian, Taoism and Buddhism, the most
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
18
effective way to achieve psychological contentment is to eliminate excessive desires. P114 remarked
that “In the search for happiness, we might better start with reducing our greedy desires”.
3.The wisdom of giving
One way to express one’s gratitude for life is to give back, benefiting other people and the greater
society, P21 commented that: “”Discovering one’s own happiness, learning to be grateful, and finally
giving out to other people, is in the pursuit of a more divine happiness”. P114 also agreed that: “Giving
is more fortunate than receiving. Those who are not greedy, not selfish are truly happy people”. P64
was more specific: “As long as I treat people sincerely, doing my best to help friends and giving them a
sense of security, I then feel happy”. This altruistic way to achieve happiness is reminiscent of the
Confucian collectivist oriented conception of happiness.
4.The wisdom of self-cultivation
Traditional Chinese philosophers are more concerned with practical issues of being a man, as
opposed to Western philosophers’ intense interest on abstract knowledge. Self-cultivation is a prime
method of transforming ideas into action. Learning and self-constraint are Confucian ways of
self-cultivation, synchronizing with the Nature is the Taoist way of life practice, whereas meditation
and rituals are Buddhist ways of mind work. Regardless of schools and methods, common goals of
self-cultivation are to surpass selfish desires, to break out the constraints of here and now, and to gear
one’s mind to a broader and higher horizon. As P54 remarked that: “Happiness does not involve things
happening to us, it is actually about how we view these things”. P69 also remarked that: “Happiness is
dependent on our perspectives of seeing things”. Happiness and unhappiness are separated with a split
of thought. Keeping a clear mind to transcend reality is the task of self-cultivation.
Final reflections
Causes of happiness vs. conceptions of happiness
Throughout the discussions on happiness, both from a philosophical and a folk point of view, there
seems a prevailing propensity of including the “causes” of happiness in its conceptions. There might be
several causes responsible for such a phenomenon.
First, in some viewpoints of happiness, certain acts, beliefs or circumstances are seen as
preconditions for a state of mind to be categorized as “happiness”. Confucians hold “moral” as the
necessary condition for human happiness. Ancient Greek philosophers too regarded “virtue” as a
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
19
precondition for happiness.
Second, for ordinary people, philosophical and ethical contemplations are too removed from their
mundane existence, so is the abstract and illusive definitions of happiness. However, subjective
experiences of a happy state may be blessed, or observed on other people. Hence, beliefs on “causes”
of happiness are direct results of attributions made on such real happy experiences. In other words,
causes of happiness are the relatively concrete and tangible components of the generally abstract and
illusive conceptions of happiness. Not surprisingly, both lay people and scholars have found them
attainable and rewarding subjects of intellectual inquiries Chiasson, Dube & Blondin, 1996; Furnham
& Cheng, 2000; Lu & Shih, 1997).
Finally, both setting preconditions for happiness and making attributions on real happy
experiences may have utilitarian functions as well. Knowing/believing what causes happiness can serve
to guide concerted efforts in the pursuit of happiness. Having set moral as the precondition for
happiness, Confucians further point out that happiness can be achieved through “knowledge,
benevolence, and harmony of the group” (Wu, 1992, p.31). These are the three ways of self-cultivation
to accomplish the Confucian moral greatness. We should be aware that although “causes” of happiness
may be psychologically more accessible when people think about happiness, and scientifically more
operationalizable to explore, there are still much more to a comprehensive happiness conception.
Heritage vs. adoption in happiness conceptions
From the aforementioned limited extant empirical literature, we can tentatively conclude that the
propensity of including the causes of happiness in its conceptions may not be distinct in the Chinese
culture. In fact, the reflections made above are sufficiently general to be applied to other cultures too.
Furthermore, even with a focus deliberately set on the Chinese cultural contexts, some viewpoints
presented in this paper do not merely reflect Chinese traditions, such as referring happiness as an
individual mental and spiritual state, which can be found in other cultures too. Moreover, it can be
argued that in spite of Chinese background, Taiwanese society may no longer be a “pure” heritage of
Chinese traditional culture. As a matter of fact, neither Hong Kong nor Mainland China is. After
decades of economic globalization, political interactions, strategic alliance, and systematic cultural
communications, it seems that very few cultures in today’s world can withstand the strict test of being
“pure” to their heritages. With no doubt, the cultural asymmetry does exist, namely, the Eastern
cultures are faced with greater impacts and challenges brought by the invading Western cultures than
vice versa. However, against this background of vast scale imposed cultural evolution in Asian
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
20
territories, Taiwan stands out as a rather special and intriguing case.
First, Taiwan has the best preservation of the Chinese cultural heritages among Chinese dominated
societies in the world, due to historical and political reasons. Since 1949, the Communists took over
power in Mainland China and the Nationalist government expelled established their anti-Communist
base in Taiwan. The two sides are officially still at war with each other. Although the war of guns has
ceased for many decades, but the one with competing ideologies and fierce rhetoric still prevails across
the Taiwan Strait. The Nationalist government orchestrated a political campaign to preserve Chinese
cultural heritages, in order to rival the Communists’ anti-tradition stance. This political engineering has
far-reaching influences and consequently core Chinese values such as fillial piety still pervade through
every aspect of life in Taiwan. Materials on Chinese cultural heritages are part of the core curriculum in
statutory education for every Taiwanese, which is not the case in any other Chinese societies.
Second, Taiwan has been a major gateway for Western influences into Asia, besides Hong Kong.
The help and alliance of the Western world, especially the USA, secured the safety and survival of the
early exiled government. Consequently, Western influences are welcome and profound, which laid the
ground for the still ongoing democratization in Taiwan. American life style is also evident around every
street corner in big cities of Taiwan. Hence, the historical anti-communist stance of the Taiwanese
government has created a blend of traditional Chinese cultural heritages and Western capitalism in
modern Taiwan.
Living in a cross-stream of Chinese and Western cultural influences, contemporary Taiwanese
people exhibit an amazing capacity for both cultural preservation and cultural adaptation. A recent
study (Lu et al., 2001) has found that Taiwanese people possess traditional Chinese collectivistic values
(interdependent self-construal and harmony beliefs), as well as Western individualistic values
(independent self-construal and control beliefs). Furthermore, both sets of values contribute to
happiness. Hwang (1996) examined perceived generational value differences among Taiwanese college
students. He found very little changes on importance attached to core traditional values between the
two generations. However, some traditional values are receding among the younger Taiwanese.
Nonetheless, traditional and modern values can coexist in the process of societal modernization. They
may even integrate to form a new value system to guide modern life practice for contemporary
Taiwanese. It seems that in the face of the vast-scale cultural invasion from the West, and the rapid
transition from an agricultural and autocratic society to an industrial and democratic society, Taiwanese
people have not relinquished traditional Chinese ideology, philosophies, values and practices. Instead,
they have made pragmatic use of the Western culture, learning, adopting and assimilating useful
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
21
ideology, philosophies, values and practices to enhance adjustment in the modern world (Quah, 1995).
An attitude favoring both cultural preservation and cultural adaptation for dealing with the apparent
conflicts between strong traditionality and requisite modernity seems to be the most favorable outcome
for people in Taiwan. This should also be the case for happiness conceptions explored in this study. It
may not be very meaningful even possible to tease out “heritage” vs. “adoption” in happiness
conceptions, nonetheless, we need to be aware that the Taiwan’s young generation are living testimony
that “heritage” and “adoption” not only can coexist, but also are equally important for human
happiness.
A final quote
It is becoming to conclude this paper with a poem from one of our participants’ essays.
Where does happiness come from
Happiness is a warm feeling so attractive
everyone likes to get closer
but it is abstract, can not be touched
If you are to search for it
you don’t know where it comes from
Happiness is from your heart
just fill your heart with love
Looking at people with love
experiencing the encounter between people with love
You will feel happy
Happiness is inside everyone’s mind
Everyone’s thoughts control their existence
As long as you can experience, knowing to treasure
Happiness is no longer a privilege of the rich
ordinary people can possess happiness, even more
Understanding happiness Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432
22
Therefore, don’t say that you are not happy
You just don’t know how to experience
Happiness is from your heart
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