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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
BRIS soils are made of marine sand deposits. BRIS is actually an acronym for
Beach Ridges Interspersed with Swales. In Peninsular Malaysia, BRIS soils are found
along the east coast states of Peninsular Malaysia, from Kelantan to Mersing in Johor.
Based on the USDA Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2006), BRIS soils are classified
into 2 orders, Entisols and Spodosols. Entisols are soils which are characterized by their
young nature. This means the soil have an A/C profile, whereas the B horizon has not
formed yet. Spodosols are soils that have undergone podzolization process to form the
spodic horizon. There are already 24 soil series recognized as BRIS soils in Peninsular
Malaysia (Department of Agriculture, 2003).
Right now, the survey conducted by Soil Survey Section from Department of
Agriculture is only on semi-detailed level. Based on the semi-detailed soil map of the
area, we can perform detailed soil survey in order to get more accurate information of
BRIS soils in that particular area. This soil survey was conducted in Cherating area which
is situated in Mukim Sungai Karang, Kuantan, Pahang. This area was chosen because it
has at least 4 different soil series based on semi-detailed soil map by the Department of
Agriculture. The soil series are Merchang, Jambu, Rudua and Baging series.
1
The distance between survey points for detailed soil survey was 200 m
(Department of Agriculture, 1986) which gave the mapping density of 4 ha per survey
point. The objective of the study was to cover 400 ha. Therefore, the minimum survey
points needed was 100 points. After the survey was completed, soil pit for each soil series
was dug to do profile description. This is for the purpose of soil classification based on
USDA Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2006). Samples were taken according to the
number of horizon described for analysis. Besides soil classification, soil analysis is
important to study the fertility status of the soils and suitable soil amendments required.
We can also study the soil genesis and the soil forming processes that occurs.
After survey was completed, a detailed soil map was plotted, using GIS
(Geographical Information System) software. From the map, we can get information
about soil series distribution, boundary between soil series and total area covered by each
soil series. Combined with the laboratory analysis, we can determine suitable crops for
the area, problems that occurs, fertility status and proper soil management practices.
2
1.1 The Objectives
The objectives of the study were :
1. To perform a detailed soil survey of the area for future development,
2. To study BRIS soils characteristics such as physical, chemical and mineral properties
for land evaluation and fertility status, and
3. To study the genesis and classification of the BRIS soils.
Research Justification
Malaysia is facing the problem of insufficient land for agriculture sector. Therefore, we
must use all available land resources wisely including marginally suitable soils such as
BRIS soils. By studying the distribution and characteristics of BRIS soils, we can suggest
the suitable crops which can tolerate the soil condition and the proper soil management
required.
3
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 BRIS Soils
BRIS soils are soils that are developed on beach ridges interspersed with swales,
which consist of 2 sets of parallel beach ridge, and swale. They are found along the east
coast states of Peninsular Malaysia, from Kelantan to Mersing in Johor (Figure 2.1). In
the east coast states of Peninsular Malaysia, especially in Kelantan, these two sets of
beach ridges and swale are separated by a large peat swamp (Figure 2.2). The young
beach ridges and swales are characterised by sandy soils with an A/C profile and which
have not undergone podzolization. The soils of old beach ridges are characterized by
sandy textures, excessive drainage and the presence of spodic horizons. The swale
consists of very heterogeneous soils, which are collectively mapped as Rusila Complex
(Department of Agriculture, 2003). There are 95,371 ha of BRIS soils area in Peninsula
Malaysia (Department of Agriculture, 2007). Some of the BRIS soils area has been
cultivated successfully for tobacco, cashew, roselle and other annual crops (Lim, 2002).
4
Figure 2.1 : Distribution of soil types along coastal areas in Peninsular Malaysia
(source : Department of Agriculture, 2005)
5
Figure 2.2 : Simplified diagram of BRIS soil landscape (source : modified from
Shamshuddin, 1990)
A soil survey describes the characteristics of the soil in the given area, classifies
the soils according to a standard system of classification, plot the boundaries of the soils
on a map, and makes predictions about the behavior of the soils. The different uses of the
soils and how the responses of management affecting it are considered. The information
collected in a soil survey helps in the development of land-use plans and evaluates and
predicts the effects of land use on the environment. (Soil Survey Staff, 1993). A detailed
soil survey is often carried out on a small area for specific purposes, for instance, to
determine the uniformity of soils for fertilizer programs (Paramananthan, 1987).
2.2 Characteristics of BRIS soils
BRIS soils are considered as problem soils for agriculture. According to Lim
(2002), the BRIS areas contain infertile soils which are composed predominantly of inert
6
sand particles. The sandy nature of these soils results in low inherent soil status, poor
nutrient and water holding capacities, excessive drainage, high surface temperatures and
evapotranspiration and a very high moisture stress. The lowlying swales are prone to
flooding during the monsoon. Although some of the BRIS areas have been cultivated
successfully for tobacco, cashews, roselle and other annual crops, they constitute some of
the most under-utilized land in the country.
2.2.1 Physical properties
Texture class of BRIS soils is mostly sand. Faridah and Abdullah (1991), found
that BRIS soil texture is sandy to loamy sand and contains more than 90% sand, while the
percentage of clay is low i.e. less than 10%. According to Shamshuddin (1990), BRIS
soils contain 90.8% sand, 5.8% silt and 3.4 % clay and have single grains structure or
better known as structureless. The consistency of this kind of texture is loose. All these
criteria will make the drainage of the soil excessive. According to drainage classes used
by Department of Agriculture Peninsular Malaysia, this would fall into class 9, i.e. water
removed very rapid from the soils. At 0.1 bar tension, the water holding capability of
Munchong series (Oxisols) in 50 cm depth is 51.6% (volume/volume), while for BRIS
soils in the same depth are only 12.7% (Mohd Zainuri, 1981). The comparisons between
physical characteristics of different BRIS soil series are shown in Table 2.1.
7
Table 2.1 : The physical properties of BRIS soils
Soil Series
Sand (%)
Silt (%) Clay (%)
Depth to
spodic
layerCoarse Medium Fine
Baging 0.56 61.85 35.8 1.54 0.25 -
Rudua 2.38 21.20 71.98 4.11 0.33 0.5-1.0
Rusila 27.04 11.33 27.40 12.32 21.91 -
Rompin 2.70 2.30 94.70 0.10 0.20 -
Rhu Tapai <0.50 20.25 72-75 1-4 <0.50 <0.50
Jambu 33.57 62.15 2.92 1.04 0.32 >1.50
Source : Wahab (1982)
Organic matter content in BRIS soils is differentiated by the presence of spodic
horizon. Entisols which does not have spodic horizon has low organic matter. Spodosols
in the other hand have high organic matter content in their spodic horizon (Bh, Bir or Bs).
2.2.2. Chemical properties
Very low clay content and organic matter in BRIS soils results in low cation
exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil. Therefore, available nutrients for plants are also
low. pH of these soils is around 5 which is relatively normal for soils in Malaysia.
Salinity is not a problem in BRIS soils as this study proves that the electrical conductivity
8
of few series is low. Like CEC, the exchangeable bases of BRIS soils are also low. Table
2.2.1 and 2.2.2 shows chemical characteristics of few BRIS soils.
2.3 Formation of BRIS soils
BRIS soils are formed from marine sediments and can be found mainly along the
coastal states of Peninsular Malaysia (Faridah and Abdullah, 1991). They are at the
elevation between 1 to 5 meters above sea level. The BRIS landscape is common in
Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak. In Peninsular Malaysia, it forms the dominant
landscape in the coastal areas of the east coast states of Peninsular Malaysia, stretching
from Kelantan in the north to Johor in the south. The alternating sandy beach ridges and
swales are found as far inland as 10 km from the present-day coastline. The BRIS
landscape is not extensive and is not well developed along the west coast of Peninsular
Malaysia and is poorly expressed except on the Island of Langkawi.
9
Table 2.2.1 : Chemical properties of BRIS soils
Soil series
Electrical
conductivity
(ds/m)
pHOrganic
carbon (%)
Total nitrogen
(%)C/N ratio
H2O (1:1) CaCl2 (1:2) KCl (1:1)
Rompin 0.01 5.4-5.8 5.2-5.6 5.1-5.5 0.08-0.61 0.010-0.500 8-16
Baging 0.01 4.2-5.0 4.2-4.7 4.1-4.8 0.02-0.11 0.002-0.140 10-20
Rudua 0.01 4.1-5.5 4.0-4.9 4.0-4.8 0.09-5.59 0.010-0.090 5-30
Jambu 0.01 4.5-5.8 4.3-4.9 4.3-4.7 0.07-1.11 0.010-0.025 13-40
Rusila 0.01 4.1-5.2 4.0-4.7 4.1-4.8 0.01-3.80 0.010-0.120 1-30
This data use compiled from Ives (1967), Othman and Carlisle (1986) and Wong (1979)
10
Table 2.2.2 : Chemical properties of BRIS soils (cont.)
Soil series
Exchangeable basesTotal
exchangeable
bases
Extractable
acidityCEC
Base
saturationCa Mg Na K
---------------------------------------------------------cmolc/kg--------------------------------------------------------- %
Rompin 0.05-0.48 0.02-0.54 0.07-0.11 0.03-0.11 1.71-4.80 nd 1.71-4.80 14-26
Baging 0.05-0.60 0.16-0.40 0.01-0.30 0.01-0.40 1.00-5.30 6.0-14.5 1.96-3.74 10-38
Rudua 0.02-1.40 0.01-1.56 0-0.28 0-0.34 0.70-2.20 1.8-334.0 1.52-33.61 1-38
Jambu 0.18-12.4 0.02-0.58 0.02-0.20 0-0.20 1.00-18.60 1.3-162.3 2.30-16.36 1-44
Rusila 0.16-1.20 0.05-1.60 0.10-0.97 0-0.82 0.80-3.60 10.0-339.5 2.55-34.18 1-20
These were summarized from Ives (1967), Othman and Carlisle (1986) and Wong (1979)nd = not determined
11
2.4 Mineralogy
Study by Mohd Zainuri (1981) using X-ray diffraction method showed that the
main mineral present is mica (3.33, 5.0 and 10 Å) in the A horizon of Baging and Rhu
Tapai series. In the A horizon of Jambu Series, quartz (4.26 and 3.33 Å) is the main
mineral. According to Wong (1979), the expected main mineral in BRIS soils is quartz,
followed by feldspars, hornblende, opaque and mica.
2.5 Soil suitability
Soil suitability classification used in Malaysia is based on system developed by
Wong (1986). According to this system, the soils are divided into 5 classes (Table 2.3)
and many subclasses. Soil suitability classes were determined based on the degree of
severity of soil limitations. The degrees of severity are shown in Table 2.4.
Table 2.3 : Description of soil suitability classes
Suitability classes Description
Class 1 Soils without limitation or just minor limitations to plant growth.
Class 2 Soils that have one or more moderate limitations to plant growth.
Class 3 Soils that have one serious limitation to plant growth.
Class 4 Soils that have more than one serious limitation to plant growth.
Class 5 Soils that have at least one very serious limitation to plant growth.
(source : Wong, 1986)
12
Table 2.4 : Degree of severity of soil limitations
Degrees of severity Descriptions
Very serious Limitations that stops plant growth and unsuitable for crop
production.
Serious Limitations that not affect all plants. Only few sensitive plants can
not grow in this type of soil.
Moderate Limitations that only affect few very sensitive plant. For other
plants, this limitation can be overcome with good soil management
practices.
Minor Limitations that only influence few crops. It only affects the yield
but not the plant growth.
(source : Wong, 1986)
The subclasses show the characteristics of soil limitations that classified into nine
factors. The factors are shown in Table 2.5.1 and 2.5.2. There are three level of soil
suitability for crop production. The levels are Suitable (S), Moderately Suitable (M) and
Unsuitable (U). The descriptions of soil-crop suitability levels are shown in Table 2.6.
13
Table 2.5.1 : Soil limitations to plant growth
Symbol Kind of LimitationDegree of Severity
Very Serious Serious Moderate Minor
a Depth to acid sulfate layer
- 0-25 cm (0-10 inches) from soil surface
>25-50 cm (10-20 inches) from soil surface
>50-100 cm (20-40 inches) from soil surface
c Depth to compact layer
0-25 cm (0-10 inches) from soil surface
>25-50 cm (10-20 inches) from soil surface
50-75 cm (20-30 inches) from soil surface
75-100 cm (30-40 inches) from soil surface
D
Drainage-
Excessively drained to somewhat excessively drained
- -
d Very poorly drained to somewhat poorly drained
Imperfectly drained to somewhat imperfectly drained
Moderately well drained
G Gradient >200 slope >12-200 slope >6-120 slope >2-60 slope
N
Nutrient imbalance
- Toxicity caused by high content of certain elements
- -
n - - CEC <10 cmol(+)/ kg soil CEC >10-15 cmol(+)/ kg soil
o Thickness of organic horizon
- >125 cm thickness from soil surface
>50-125 cm thickness from soil surface
>25-50 cm thickness from soil surface
(source : Wong, 1986)
14
Table 2.5.2 : Soil limitations to plant growth (cont.)
Symbol Kind of LimitationDegree of Severity
Very Serious Serious Moderate Minor
R
% of rock abundance at ≥ 25 cm layer
>80% from soil surface
>55-80% from soil surface till >50 cm depth
>35-55% from soil surface till >50 cm depth
>15-35% from soil depth till 100 cm depth
r - >80% from 25 cm below soil surface
>75% from 50 cm below soil surface
or>55-80% from 25 cm below soil surface
>80% from 75 cm below soil surface
or>55-80% from 50 cm below soil surface
or>35-55% from 25 cm below soil surface
S Salinity >4 ds/m >2-4 ds/m >1-2 ds/m >0.5-1 ds/m
T
Texture and structure
- Coarse texture and structureless or weak structure
Medium to coarse texture and weak structure
-
t - Fine texture and massive structure, coarse and firm structure
Moderate to fine texture and weak structure
-
(source : Wong, 1986)
15
Table 2.6 : Level of soil-crop suitability
Symbol Description
S Suitable
Soils that did not have any limitation or only have few limitations to crop
growth and yield. Only moderate kind of management needed e.g.:
application of fertilizers and soil amendments.
M Marginally Suitable
Soils that have few limitations which can affect plant growth and
production. High management inputs are needed to get good yield. E.g.:
areas that have poor drainage condition need good drainage system to
overcome the problem.
U Unsuitable
Soils that have serious limitations for plant growth and production. Only
acceptable yield produced with high level of management and huge capital.
E.g.: very steep area or flooding area.
(source : Wong, 1986)
16
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Location
The study was conducted in Cherating, Mukim Sungai Karang, Kuantan, Pahang
(Figure 3.1 and 3.2). The area is situated at Malaysian RSO coordinate from 451000 mN
to 452800 mN (4o 04’ 44.0” to 4o 05’ 42.7” N) and from 596800 mE to 599400 mE (103o
21’ 58.9” to 103o 23’ 23.1” E). Total area surveyed was about 400 hectares. This area
was chosen because it has at least 4 different soil series based on semi-detailed soil map
from Department of Agriculture Peninsular Malaysia. This area also has good access as it
is close to main road and there is also off road tracks within the survey area.
Figure 3.1 : Location of the study area
17
Figure 3.2 : Topography map of study area (Source : Department of Survey and Mapping
Malaysia, 1992)
3.2 Soil Survey Method
To perform detailed soil survey, the distance between survey points is 200 m, making a
density of 4 hectares per survey point (Figure 3.3). For an area of 400 hectares, at least
100 survey points are needed to complete the detailed soil survey. These survey points
were plotted on a map using Geographical Information System (GIS) software. The
software used was MapInfo Professional 7.0 available at the Department of Land
Management, Faculty of Agriculture, UPM. The plotted coordinates of survey points then
was transferred to handheld Global Positioning System (GPS). The GPS used was
18
Garmin GPSMap 60CSx. To transfer the coordinates from computer to the GPS, Garmin
MapSource software was used. Using the GPS, survey points in the area can be found
easily. At each survey points, soil sample was taken using auger. According to Tables to
the Identification of Soils in Peninsular Malaysia (Department of Agriculture, 2003) in
order to determine the soil series for BRIS soils, 3 main characteristics are used. Those
characteristics are the soil texture, depth to spodic or buried horizon and drainage class. A
soil map was plotted using MapInfo Professional 7.0 software based on the information
get from the survey points.
Figure 3.3 : Location of survey points within study area
19
3.3 Soil Pits
Soil pit or pedon for each soil series was dug after the soil survey was finished. The soil
pit was used to do soil profile description. This is for the purpose of soils taxonomy
classification based on system developed by United States Department of Agriculture
(Soil Survey Staff, 2006). The dimension of the soil pits is about 1.5 m x 1.5 m x 1.5 m.
Features that being described were soil colour, soil texture, soil structure, pedological
features and the boundary between the soil horizons. Samples from each horizon were
taken for laboratory analyses.
3.4 Soil Analyses
3.4.1 Sample Preparation
Soil samples were air-dried for a week. The dried soils then were ground and passed
through 2 mm sieve. This was to separate the soil from gravels and coarse roots.
3.4.2 Particle Size Distribution
This analysis was to determine the percentage of clay, silt and sand in the soil for soil
texture determination. Organic matter was removed from the soil by heating with 30% of
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). For dissolution of iron and aluminium oxides, 1M
hydrochoric acid (HCl) was used. Sand fraction was seperated by using 50 µm sieve.
20
Dispertion of silt (2 µm – 50 µm) and clay (<2 µm) was done using calgon solution. The
fraction was separated successive sedimentation.
3.4.3 Soil pH
Soil pH was determined both in water and 1M KCl. For pH water, ten grams of soil was
mixed with 25 ml of deionized water in plastic vials. The plastic vials were shaken for
about 1 minute and left standing overnight (24 hours). The next day, the samples were
shaken for a while and after the soil had settled, the pH was determined using calibrated
pH meter. Same method was used for pH KCl.
3.4.4 Exchangeable Al
Five grams of soil was mixed with 50 ml 1N of potassium chloride (KCl) in plastic vials.
The mixture was shaked for 30 minutes. The supernatant was filtered with Whatman no.
42 filter paper. The extractant was analyzed using atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS)
3.4.5 Exchangeable Cations and Cation Exchange Capacity
Ashless floc and a cut of filter paper were put inside leaching tube. Ten grams of
soil was added on the top of filter paper. Then, another cut of filter paper was put on the
top of the soil. The soil was leached using 100 ml of 1N ammonium acetate (NH4OAc),
pH 7.0 for about 6 to 7 hours. The leachate was collected in 100 ml volumetric flask. At
21
the end of leaching, the volume was make up to 100 ml. Ca, Mg, Na, and K were
determined using AAS.
The same soil in the leaching tube was leached using 100 ml of 80% etahnol. The
ethanol lechate was discarded. The soil was leached again this time with 1N potassium
sulphate (K2SO4) for 5 to 6 hours to remove the adsorbed NH4+ ions from the soil
colloidal surface. The leachate was collected in 100 ml volumetric flask. Amount of NH4+
ions which equals the CEC was determined using auto analyser.
3.4.6 Total Nitrogen
One gram of soil and 10 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) was mixed in
digestion tube (Kjeldahl Method). The mixture was let to stand for 30 minutes with
constant shaking. Then, 0.3 g of sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) were added to the tube
and heated in fumehood till smoke can be observed at the neck of digestion tube. The
tube was cooled down before 1 tablet of Kjeldahl catalyst was added and the digestion
continued till the mixture become grayish white. After the mixture cooled, 5 ml of
deionized water was added. All the mixture then poured in 100 ml volumetric flask. The
digestion tube then, rinsed few times using deionized water and the rinsed solution
poured in the same volumetric flask. Finally, the mixture was filtered with filter paper
and the total N determined using auto analyser.
22
3.4.7 Available P
Available P was determined by the method of Bray and Kurtz. Two grams of soil were
put in test tube. Fourteen ml of extracting solution (0.03N NH4F and 0.1N HCl) were
poured in the test tube. The test tube was closed with parafilm. Then, the test tube was
shaken for about 45 seconds using wrist inversion technique. The extracts were filtered
using whatman no. 42 filter paper into plastic vials. The P was determined using auto
analyser.
3.4.8 Total Carbon
Total carbon was determined using carbon analyser (LeCO).
3.4.9 Micronutrients and Heavy Metals
Five grams of soil were put in conical flask. Then, 25 ml of extracting solution (0.05N
HCl in 0.025N H2SO4) were added in the flask. The flask was covered with parafilm and
shaked using shaker at 180 oscillations per minute for 15 minutes. After that, the
suspensions were filtered through Whatman no. 42 filter paper. Using AAS, the filtrate
can be analysed for Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Ni, and Cd.
23
3.4.10 Mineralogical Analysis
Clay and silt from mechanical analysis were taken for X-ray diffraction. Both particles
were mixed together since the clay content is very low i.e. less than 2.1%. X-ray was
conducted using X-ray diffractometer (Philips X’pert Pro).
24
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Soil Types
There are 4 soil series found in the study area (Figure 4.1). The soil series are Baging,
Jambu, Merchang and Rhu Tapai series. Merchang series is the most dominant soil series
in this area followed by Jambu, Rhu Tapai and Baging series. The distribution of the soil
series are shown by Figure 4.1 and Table 4.1.
Figure 4.1 : Detailed soil map of the study area
25
Table 4.1 : Legend of soil map
Symbol Soil Series Terrain Area (Ha) %
BGG/1 Baging 1 61.62 15.40
JBU/1 Jambu 1 91.05 22.75
MCG/1 Merchang 1 168.75 42.16
RTI/1 Rhu Tapai 1 78.82 19.69
TOTAL 400.24 100.00
The terrain class in this area is very uniform i.e. only flat terrain. According to
Department of Agriculture (2003), standard terrain classes used in Malaysia are as shown
in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 : Standard terrain classes used in Malaysia
Terrain Class Slope (0) Topography
1 0-2 Flat
2 2-6 Undulating
3 6-12 Rolling
4 12-20 Hilly
5 20-25 Very hilly
6 25-30 Steep
7 >30 Very steep
(Source : Department of Agriculture, 2003)
26
Soil profile description was done for all the soil series. Samples were taken from each
horizon for analyses. The location of soil pedons are shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2 : Location of soil pedons
4.2. Soil Physical Properties
4.2.1 Colour
Soil colour is the first indicator when doing soil profile description. There are 2 factors
influencing the soil color i.e. organic matter and iron (Fe) content. Table 4.3 shows that
higher organic matter content results in darker soil colour. Soils with high Fe content
tends to have more brownish colour. This is shown by Table 4.4. In Rhu Tapai series,
27
although Bir horizon has higher Fe content (14.3%) than Bs horizon (7.49%), the colour
of Bs horizon is darker. This is because the organic matter content of Bs is higher
(1.07%) compared to Bir horizon (0.32%)
4.2.2 Texture
Mechanical analysis showed that all soil series have more than 95% of sand and less than
5% clay. According to texture classes used by Department of Agriculture (2003), all the
soil series have sandy texture. The results are shown in Table 4.5.
4.2.3 Structures
Because of the sandy texture, all soil series are structureless or also known as single
grained, except for the spodic horizon in Rhu Tapai Series which has sub-angular blocky
structures. This is because of the accumulation of organic matter and Fe at that horizon
that formed cementation in that horizon.
4.2.4 Consistency
Consistency of all soil series is loose. This is due to the sandy texture of the soil.
However, there is an exception in the spodic horizon in Rhu Tapai Series. The
consistency of this horizon is firm due to the accumulation of organic matter and Fe.
28
Table 4.3 : Soil Colour and Organic Matter contents
Merchang Series Jambu Series Rhu Tapai Series Baging Series
Horizon ColourO. M.
%Horizon Colour
O. M. %
Horizon ColourO. M.
%Horizon Colour
O. M. %
A Dark gray
(10YR 4/1)
0.45 A Dark gray
(10YR 4/1)
0.49 A Gray(10YR
6/1)
0.38 Ap Grayish brown
(10YR 5/2)
1.76
C1 Grayish brown (10YR
5/2)
0.17 E1 Gray(10YR
6/1)
0.16 E Light gray(10YR
7/2)
0.18 C1 Brown (10YR 5/3)
0.61
C2 Grayish brown (10YR
5/2)
0.07 E2 Light gray
(10YR 7/1)
0.07 Bs Dark yellowish
brown (10YR
3/4)
1.07 C2 Yellowish brown
(10YR 5/6)
0.34
C3 Light gray
(10YR 7/1)
0.05 E3 White(10YR
8/2)
0.03 Bir Yellowish brown (10YR
5/6)
0.32 C3 Brownish yellow
(10YR 6/6)
0.25
C4 Brownish yellow
(10YR 6/6)
0.17
29
Table 4.4 : Soil Colour and Iron (Fe) contents
Merchang Series Jambu Series Rhu Tapai Series Baging Series
Horizon ColourFree iron (%)
Horizon ColourFree iron (%)
Horizon ColourFree iron (%)
Horizon ColourFree iron (%)
A Dark gray
(10YR 4/1)
0.27 A Dark gray
(10YR 4/1)
0.41 A Gray(10YR
6/1)
0.93 Ap Grayish brown
(10YR 5/2)
12.56
C1 Grayish brown (10YR
5/2)
0.16 E1 Gray(10YR
6/1)
0.38 E Light gray(10YR
7/2)
0.37 C1 Brown (10YR 5/3)
10.99
C2 Grayish brown (10YR
5/2)
0.11 E2 Light gray
(10YR 7/1)
0.18 Bs Dark yellowish
brown (10YR
3/4)
7.49 C2 Yellowish brown
(10YR 5/6)
10.21
C3 Light gray
(10YR 7/1)
0.24 E3 White(10YR
8/2)
0.57 Bir Yellowish brown (10YR
5/6)
14.30 C3 Brownish yellow
(10YR 6/6)
8.61
C4 Brownish yellow
(10YR 6/6)
9.02
30
Table 4.5 : Result of mechanical analysis
Soil Series
HorizonDepth (cm)
Granulometric Composition (%)
Clay <2 µm
Fine silt 2-20 µm
Coarse silt 20-50 µm
V. fine sand 50-100 µm
Fine sand
100-250 µm
Medium sand 250-500 µm
Coarse sand 500 µm - 2
mmTexture
Merchang A 0-10 0.7 0.0 0.6 0.8 5.7 36.2 56.0 SandC1 10-30 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.4 4.6 34.1 60.2 SandC2 30-70 0.5 0.0 0.3 0.5 6.2 32.2 60.3 SandC3 70-100 0.6 0.0 0.3 0.2 4.0 33.0 61.9 Sand
Jambu A 0-15 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.5 10.0 23.7 64.9 SandE1 15-35 0.5 0.0 0.6 0.9 10.8 29.6 57.6 SandE2 35-70 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.4 7.8 30.5 60.0 SandE3 70-100 0.8 0.1 0.3 0.5 11.9 30.2 56.2 Sand
Rhu Tapai
A 0-10 0.1 2.1 0.3 0.8 46.3 47.0 3.4 SandE 10-45 0.1 1.8 0.2 0.4 37.0 56.0 4.5 SandBs 45-55 0.7 0.0 0.3 0.7 65.5 32.1 0.7 SandBir 55-100 0.8 0.0 0.1 0.4 55.5 42.3 0.9 Sand
Baging Ap 0-10 2.1 0.0 0.3 1.2 84.1 12.2 0.1 SandC1 10-20 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.7 87.1 11.1 0.0 SandC2 20-50 0.9 0.0 0.1 0.9 86.0 12.0 0.1 SandC3 50-75 0.8 0.1 0.2 0.6 78.2 20.1 0.0 SandC4 75-100 0.6 0.0 0.2 1.0 85.1 13.0 0.1 Sand
31
4.3 Soil Chemical Properties
Soil chemical properties are very important in order to evaluate the fertility status of
the soil. The soil chemical properties of the soils are shown in Table 4.6 and 4.7. The
comparisons was done with data by Department of Agriculture (Table 4.8)
32
Table 4.6 : Result of Chemical Analyses
Soil Series Horizon Depth1N NH4OAc cmol (+)/kg soil Base
saturation (%)
Exchangeable Al cmol(+)/kg soilCEC
Exchangeable cationTEB
Ca Mg K NaMerchang A 0-10 1.95 0.08 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.16 8.14 0.25
C1 10-30 0.80 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.10 12.09 0.28C2 30-70 0.54 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.10 17.58 0.34C3 70-100 0.22 0.14 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.18 83.46 0.26
Jambu A 0-15 1.96 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.13 6.82 0.32E1 15-35 0.38 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.07 17.46 0.28E2 35-70 0.37 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.06 16.30 0.34E3 70-100 0.29 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.08 28.41 0.31
Rhu Tapai A 0-10 1.41 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.07 4.78 0.43E 10-45 0.70 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05 7.27 0.47Bs 45-55 7.29 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.67 0.52Bir 55-100 2.13 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.06 2.80 0.52
Baging Ap 0-10 5.18 0.06 0.11 0.04 0.03 0.23 4.54 0.72C1 10-20 2.79 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.11 3.86 0.66C2 20-50 2.75 0.07 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.13 4.71 0.57C3 50-75 2.46 0.11 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.16 6.58 0.56C4 75-100 2.29 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.13 5.61 0.64
33
Table 4.7 : Result of Chemical Analyses (cont.)
Soil Series Horizon DepthAvailable P
(ppm)C
(%)N
(%)O. M. (%)
C/N ratio
pH Electrical Conductivity
(dS/m)
Free iron (%)H2O KCl
Merchang A 0-10 1.54 0.26 0.03 0.45 8.70 4.89 3.50 0.131 0.014C1 10-30 1.66 0.10 0.02 0.17 3.98 5.16 3.92 0.107 0.009C2 30-70 1.74 0.04 0.03 0.07 1.51 5.95 5.15 0.082 0.006C3 70-100 1.70 0.03 0.03 0.05 1.02 6.58 6.54 0.140 0.013
Jambu A 0-15 1.58 0.28 0.04 0.49 7.95 4.80 3.49 0.079 0.022E1 15-35 1.71 0.09 0.03 0.16 3.51 5.13 4.07 0.067 0.020E2 35-70 1.55 0.04 0.03 0.07 1.48 5.28 4.45 0.091 0.010E3 70-100 1.57 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.68 5.60 4.58 0.062 0.031
Rhu Tapai A 0-10 1.87 0.22 0.03 0.38 6.35 5.25 4.07 0.078 0.050E 10-45 1.78 0.11 0.03 0.18 3.72 5.35 4.47 0.074 0.020Bs 45-55 2.13 0.62 0.04 1.07 14.49 5.36 4.45 0.083 0.402Bir 55-100 1.70 0.19 0.03 0.32 6.01 5.56 4.65 0.091 0.768
Baging Ap 0-10 1.80 1.02 0.06 1.76 17.99 4.88 3.56 0.171 0.674C1 10-20 1.83 0.35 0.04 0.61 8.04 5.21 4.11 0.128 0.590C2 20-50 1.86 0.20 0.04 0.34 5.60 5.24 4.34 0.110 0.548C3 50-75 1.56 0.15 0.03 0.25 4.85 5.26 4.39 0.093 0.462C4 75-100 1.56 0.10 0.03 0.17 3.16 5.40 4.37 0.114 0.484
34
Table 4.8 : Chemical Properties of a Fertile Soil
Chemical Properties Norm
pH 5.5
Organic Matter (%) >5
N (%) >1
Available P (ppm) >45
K* >1.4
Ca* >4
Mg* >10
Fe* >15
CEC* >20
Base Saturation (%) >75
*cmol(+)/kg soil
(Source : Department of Agriculture, 2005)
4.3.1 pH
Soil pH influences plant growth by controlling the nutrient availability. Most nutrients
are available at pH 5.5. The lowest pH value is 4.8 in the A horizon of Jambu Series.
The highest pH is 6.6 in the C3 horizon of Merchang Series. Overall, the pH values
for these soils are considered good.
35
4.3.2 Exchangeable Bases
Calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and potassium (K) are macronutrients that really
important in plant growth. Based on data from Department of Agriculture (Table 4.8),
the Ca, Mg and K content in these soils are very low.
4.3.3 Cation Exchange Capacity
Generally, the CEC of these soils is low i.e. less than 10 cmol(+)/kg soil. This is
because of the soil texture which is dominated by sand that has no charge. Low
organic matter content also makes CEC low. The highest CEC obtained from the
analysis is from spodic horizon of Rhu Tapai series which is 7.29 cmol(+)/kg soil.
This is because of accumulation of organic matter in that horizon. Low CEC means
that the capacity of the soil to hold nutrients is very low. This makes the soil infertile
for agriculture activities.
4.3.4 Organic Matter
All A horizons of the soil series have higher organic matter content compared with
other horizons, except for the spodic horizon in Rhu Tapai Series. Higher organic
matter content in A horizons is from addition process i.e. decomposition of litter and
dead plant roots in the soil surface. For the spodic horizon (Bs) in Rhu Tapai Series,
the organic matter is high due to the accumulation of organic matter that leached out
from the E horizon. The lowest organic matter content is at E3 horizon in Jambu
Series (0.03%) while the highest is at Ap horizon in Baging Series (1.76%).
36
Department of Agriculture (2005) suggested that the organic matter content of a
fertile soil should be more than 5% (Table 4.8). Therefore, the organic matter content
in these soils is considered low.
4.3.5 Nitrogen
Nitrogen (N) content that considered sufficient for plant growth is 0.2%
(Shamshuddin, 1990), while Department of Agriculture, (2005) suggested that N
content in soil should be more than 1% to consider the soil as a fertile soil (Table 4.8).
Results of analysis shows that the lowest N content is at horizon C1 of Merchang
Series and horizon E3 of Jambu Series (0.025%), while the highest is at Ap horizon in
Baging Series (0.057%). This means that the N content in these soils is very low.
4.3.6 Available P
High organic matter in spodic horizon results in high available P in that horizon
(Shamshuddin, 1990). This explains why the highest available P (2.13 ppm) is found
at Bs horizon in Rhu Tapai Series. Fifteen ppm of available P is considered enough
for plant growth (Shamshuddin, 1990). Department of Agriculture (2005), suggests
that a fertile soil should have more than 45 ppm of available P (Table 4.8). Based on
these two statements, we can conclude that the available P content of these soils is
also very low.
37
4.3.7 Exchangeable Al
Aluminium (Al) is also known as acid metal because it can increase the soil acidity.
To overcome acidity caused by Al, soil pH must be raised to more that 5. This is
because, at pH 5 and above, Al will be precipitated to form gibbsite [Al(OH)3].
Referring to the soil analysis, the exchangeable Al in these soil is low i.e. less than 1
cmol(+)/kg soil. The highest value is 0.723 cmol(+)/kg soil at Ap horizon in Baging
Series while the lowest is 0.246 cmol(+)/kg soil at A horizon in Merchang Series.
This means that Al is not a problem in these soils.
4.3.8 Free Iron
Iron (Fe) is one of the micronutrients for plant growth. However, excessive content of
Fe can also increase the soil acidity. Lowest Fe content is at C2 horizon in Merchang
Series (0.006%) while the highest is at Bir horizon in Rhu Tapai Series (0.768%). Fe
also influences the colour development of soil profile. The relationship between Fe
content and soil colour has been discussed earlier (Section 4.2.1).
4.3.9 Electrical Conductivity
The electrical conductivity or better known as EC measures the salinity of the soil.
For optimal plant growth, the value of EC in soil must be less than 2 dS/m. The
highest EC value recorded for these soils is only 0.17 dS/m. Therefore, salinity is not
a problem in these soils.
38
4.3.10 Micronutrients
Besides Fe, three other micronutrients were also determined. The micronutrients are
manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu). Micronutrients are only needed by plants
in small amount. The content of micronutrients in these BRIS soils is low.
4.3.11 Heavy Metals
Four elements of heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Ni, and Zn) were analyzed and compared
with the ‘Malaysian Investigation Level’ (Zarcinas et al., 2004). The results show that
the heavy metals content in these soils do not exceed the ‘Investigation Level’
meaning that the soils are not contaminated. The comparisons between heavy metal
content in the A horizons of the soils with ‘Malaysian Investigation Level’ are shown
in Table 4.9.
Table 4.9 : Comparisons between heavy metals content in A horizons of BRIS soils
with Malaysian Investigation Level
ElementsMerchang
Series
Jambu
Series
Rhu Tapai
Series
Baging
Series
Investigation
Level
mg/kg
Cd 0.0357 0.056 0.054 0.078 0.30
Cu tr 0.013 0.011 0.070 50
Ni 0.0848 0.015 0.089 0.062 45
Zn 0.135 0.152 0.081 0.155 95
*tr : Traced
39
4.4 Soil Mineralogical Properties
X-ray diffraction from top soils (A horizons) were done using silt plus clay as the clay
content of these soils was very low i.e. less than 2.1 %. This sample was dominated
by silt. Therefore, there was no clay minerals such as mica and kaolinite detected. The
x-ray diffactograms are shown in Figure 4.3 to 4.6 while the summary of minerals
presents in the samples is shown in Table 4.10.
Table 4.10 : Type of Minerals present in The A Horizon of BRIS Soils
Soil Series d-spacing (Å) Mineral
Merchang 3.34 Quartz
2.80 Ilmenite
3.45 Anatase
6.87 Feldspar
Jambu 3.33 and 4.38 Quartz
2.80 Ilmenite
6.49 Feldspar
Rhu Tapai 3.34 and 4.25 Quartz
2.80 Ilmenite
6.52 Feldspar
3.45 Anatase
Baging 6.91 and 6.81 Feldspar
3.45 Anatase
3.35 Quartz
40
41
Figure 4.3 : X-ray diffractogram of silt plus clay from the A horizon of Merchang Series
42
Figure 4.4 : X-ray diffractogram of silt plus clay from the A horizon of Jambu Series
43
Figure 4.5 : X-ray diffractogram of silt plus clay from the A horizon of Rhu Tapai Series
44
Figure 4.6 : X-ray diffractogram of silt plus clay from the Ap horizon of Baging Series
45
4.5 Soil Classification
Besides soil classification system used by Department of Agriculture (2003), BRIS soils
can also be classified using USDA Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2006).
Classification of soils using this system is determine by :
1. Diagnostic surface horizon / epipedon
2. Diagnostic sub-surface horizon
3. Order
4. Suborder
5. Great group
6. Subgroup
7. Classification for family
7.1. Texture class
7.2. Mineralogy
7.3. Soil moisture regime
7.4. Soil temperature regime
4.5.1 Soil Moisture Regime
Malaysia has hot and humid climate and rain almost throughout the year (Malaysian
Meteorological Department). These match the criteria of udic moisture regime which
require the soil not to dry in 90 cumulative days in normal years with well distributed
rain.
4.5.2 Soil Temperature Regime
According to Malaysian Meteorological Department, the mean daily temperatures on
March 2010 were between 26.4ºC and 31.3ºC. Therefore, the soil temperature regime in
Malaysia is isohyperthemic which means the soil temperature is more than 22ºC.
4.5.3 Merchang Series
This soil series has an A/C profile which means it is a young soil. This is because
the B horizon is not formed yet. Therefore, it will fall into order Entisols. Because of the
high water table, this soil matched the criteria of aquic condition. So, the suborder is
Aquent. The texture of Merchang series is sand that is coarser than loamy fine sand and
has less than 35 percent of rock fragment. This matched the criteria of Great Group
Psammaquent. Because this soil did not match any criteria of Psammaquent, the subgroup
is Typic Psammaquent.
Texture class is sand while the mineralogy is siliceous. Therefore, the
classification of Merchang Series according to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2006)
is :
Sandy, siliceous, isohyperthemic, Typic Psammaquent
47
4.5.4 Jambu Series
This soil has spodic horizon. But the horizon is below 125 cm from soil surface
i.e. not in the control section. Therefore, it is classified in Order Entisols. Since the
texture of Jambu Series is sand that is coarser than loamy fine sand and less than 35
percent rock fragment, it falls into Suborder Psamment. This soil has 90 percent resistant
minerals i.e. quartz the 0.02 to 2.0 mm in fraction within the particle-size
control section. That made it into Quartzipsamment Great Group. As this
soil did not match any criteria of other Subgroup, it was put in Subgroup Typic
Quartzipsamment.
Texture class is sand and there is no coating. The mineralogy is siliceous.
Therefore, the classification of Jambu Series according to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey
Staff, 2006) is :
Uncoated, siliceous, isohyperthemic, Typic Quartzipsamment
4.5.5 Rhu Tapai Series
This soil has spodic horizon within 100 cm from soil surface. So, it falls in order
Spodosols. For suborders, Rhu Tapai Series did not match any criteria. Therefore, it falls
in suborder Orthods. Rhu Tapai Series also did not match any criteria in Great Groups.
48
So, it considered as Haplorthods Great Group. The same situation also happens in
Subgroups level. So, Rhu Tapai Series is put inside Typic Haplorthods Subgroup.
Texture class is sand while the mineralogy is siliceous. Therefore, the
classification of Rhu Tapai Series according to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2006)
is :
Sandy, siliceous, isohyperthemic, Typic Haplorthods
4.5.6 Baging Series
This soil is another soil series that has an A/C profile. Therefore, it falls into order
Entisols. Since the texture of Baging Series is sand that is coarser than loamy fine sand
and less than 35 percent rock fragment, it falls into Suborder Psamment. This soil has 90
percent resistant minerals i.e. quartz the 0.02 to 2.0 mm in fraction within the
particle-size control section. That made it into Quartzipsamment Great
Group. As this soil did not match any criteria of other Subgroup, it was put in Subgroup
Typic Quartzipsamment.
Texture class is sand. The mineralogy is siliceous and there are coatings on the
sand surface. So, the Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2006) for Baging Series is :
Coated, siliceous, isohyperthemic, Typic Quartzipsamment
49
4.6 Soil Genesis
BRIS soils were origin from deposits of sand from sea. Strong sea current removes silt
and clay particles while the sand was left. This is why the soil particles are dominated by
sand. The current is strong in the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. This is because the
beach is in open sea (South China Sea). The soil forming processes occurs in BRIS soils
are addition, eluviation and podzolization.
4.6.1 Addition
Addition is the process that formed the A horizon in a soil profile. Organic matter is
added to the soil during this process. Example of the organic matter source is the leaf
litter. The leaf litter will decompose and mixed with the soil to form the A horizon with
darker colour and higher organic matter content compared with the other soil horizons.
Table 4.3 shows that the A horizon contains highest organic matter compared to other
horizons except in the Rhu Tapai Series where the highest organic matter content is in the
spodic horizon.
4.6.2 Eluviation
50
Eluviation is defined as the movement of materials out of the soil horizon. The materials
involved are clays, humus or organic matter and sesquioxides. This process will form E
horizon which is basically composed of a light coloured layer of sand. The E horizon is
found in Rhu Tapai and Jambu Series. The eluviation process occurs together with
another process called podzolization.
4.6.3 Podzolization
Podzolization is defined as the process of accumulation of materials that leached out from
E horizon to form the spodic horizon. These materials include clays, organic matter and
sesquioxides. Acidic conditions in tropical region combined with sandy texture of the soil
promote this process. The evidence of this process can be seen clearly in Rhu Tapai
Series profile. This process also occurs in Jambu Series but the spodic horizon is located
below 125 cm of the soil profile.
4.7 Soil Suitability
The soil suitability of the soils for crop growth according to soil-crop suitability
classification (Wong, 1986) is as follows:
4.7.1 Merchang Series
51
The drainage of Merchang Series is class 4 i.e. imperfectly drained. Although the
texture of the soil is 98% sand, the drainage is not become excessive due to the high
water table at the area. As a result, drainage is considered a moderate limitation. Texture
of this soil is a serious limitation as it has coarse texture and structureless. Nutrient
imbalance is also a moderate limitation as the CEC value is less than 10 cmol(+)/kg soil.
These limitations make this soil in class 3 because there is only one serious limitation.
Therefore, the soil-suitability class for this soil is 3T(dn). There are few suitable crops for
this soil based on soil-crop suitability system (Wong, 1986). The suitable crops are
tobacco, vegetables, water melons, and pastures.
4.7.2 Jambu Series
The drainage of this soil is class 9 i.e. excessively drained. Therefore, drainage is
a serious limitation in this soil. The texture also a serious limitation in this soil as it has
coarse texture with no structure or single grained. CEC of this soil is less than 10
cmol(+)/kg soil. So, it is considered as moderate kind of limitation. Two serious
limitations makes the soil falls in class 4. The soil-crop suitability class for this soil is
4DT(n). According to Wong (1986), there is no suitable crop for this land in its original
condition. However, a few crops are considered marginally suitable in this soil. The crops
are coconut, cashew, tobacco, water melons and vegetables.
4.7.3 Rhu Tapai Series
52
The soil drainage class is class 6 i.e. moderately well drained because of the
presence of spodic horizon before 50 cm from soil surface. Therefore, drainage is just a
minor limitation. The spodic horizon is a compacted layer but the consistency is just firm,
not hard. Therefore, the compact layer is not a limitation in this soil. Texture of this soil
is coarse texture and structureless that makes it a serious limitation. The CEC also less
than 10 cmol(+)/kg soil which make it a moderate limitation. This soil is in class 3
because it has only one serious limitation. Therefore, the soil-crop suitability class for
this soil is 3T(n). Wong (1986), suggested that there is no suitable crop for this soil with
the original conditions. However, many crops are considered marginally suitable in Rhu
Tapai series. The crops are tobacco, cashew, coconut, watermelons, vegetables, mango,
starfruit, citrus and pastures.
4.7.4 Baging Series
This soil drainage is class 8 i.e. somewhat excessively drained. Although no
spodic horizon occur in this soil profile, the drainage is considered slightly better than
Jambu Series because the brownish soil color that indicates more clay contents. Drainage
class 8 is a serious limitation to plant growth. The texture of Baging Series is sand so, it is
also considered as serious limitation. The CEC is less than 10 cmol(+)/kg soil which
makes it a moderate limitation. Therefore, the soil-crop suitability class for this soil is
4DT(n). Based on soil-crop suitability system (Wong, 1986) there is no suitable crop for
this soil in its original condition. On the other hand, four crops are identified as
marginally suitable for this soil. The crops are coconut, cashew, tobacco and vegetables.
53
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
BRIS soils are alluvial soils that are formed from marine deposits. It can be
classified into two orders based on USDA Soil Taxonomy. The orders are Entisols and
Spodosols. Entisols are very young soils and no spodic horizon within 125 cm from soil
surface. Spodosols are soils that undergone illuviation and podzolization process that
forms spodic horizon within 125 cm from soil surface. Among 24 soil series that have
been established by Department of Agriculture, four of them (Merchang, Jambu, Rhu
Tapai and Baging Series) are found in the study area. Merchang series dominate the study
area occupying 42.16 %, followed by Jambu series (22.75 %), Rhu Tapai series (19.69
%) and Baging series (15.4%). Only Rhu Tapai series belongs to order Spodosols, while
others are Entisols. The location of soils influences the soil series for example, soils with
spodic horizon can only be found in older beach ridges.
Generally, BRIS soils are not suitable for agriculture. Limitations for plant growth
in BRIS soils can be divided into two categories, physical and chemical properties. The
properties are :
54
Physical properties
Sandy texture with more than 90% sand particles.
Low water holding capacity.
Excessively drained.
High leaching rate.
Flood risk for BRIS soils with spodic horizon.
High evapotranspiration rate makes plant lose water rapidly.
Chemical properties
Very low organic matter content.
Low cation exchange capacity (<10 cmol(+)/kg soil)
Low macro and micronutrients.
Low base saturation.
Low pH.
However, with proper soil management practices and suitable crops BRIS soils
have potential for agriculture production. BRIS soils need more fertilizers compared with
other soils. Fertilizers must be applied frequently but in small quantity at a time. Slow
released fertilizer is very suitable to minimize loss of nutrient through leaching. Organic
fertilizers such as manure and compost also needed in BRIS soils. This can help improve
soil structures, increase water-holding capacity and promotes microorganism activity.
Palm oil mill effluent (POME) is one good example of organic source of fertilizer.
55
Addition of organic matter can also increase the soil CEC. Mulching also needed in BRIS
soils. It can help in reducing water loss through evapotranspiration and cooling the soil
surface. Organic mulch such as rice straw can also increase organic matter in soil.
Efficient irrigation system also needed as water is very critical factor in BRIS soils.
Sprinkler and drip irrigation is very suitable to use.
Choosing suitable crops is important as not all crops can tolerate with the
condition of BRIS soils. Among suitable and marginally suitable crops for BRIS soils are
tobacco, coconut, vegetables, watermelons, pastures, mango, starfruit, citrus and cashew.
With proper soil management and suitable crops, BRIS soils have a high potential in
agriculture production.
56
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Wong, N. C. (1979). Micromorphology, mineralogy and humification properties in some
sandy soils in Kuantan area, Malaysia. Unpublished M. Sc. Thesis, State
University of Ghent, Belgium
Yaacob, O. and Shamshuddin, J. (1982). Sains Tanah. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Kuala
Lumpur
Zarcinas, B. A., Fauziah, C. I., McLoughlin, M. J. and Cozen, G. (2004). Heavy Metals
in Soil and Crops in Southeast Asia 1. Peninsular Malaysia. Environ. Geochem.
and Health, 26: 343-357.
60
APPENDICES
61
APPENDIX 1
Pictures in study area
Landscape of Merchang Series
62
High water table in Merchang Series
Landcape of Jambu Series
63
Landscape of Rhu Tapai Series
Flooded area of Rhu Tapai Series during rainy season
64
Landscape of Baging Series
APPENDIX 2
65
(Source : Soil Survey Staff, 2006)
APPENDIX 3
66
Calculations of Analytical Data
Total Exchangeable Bases (TEB) = ∑ of Ca, Mg, K and Na
Base Saturation (%) = TEB / CEC x 100
Organic Matter (%) = % Carbon x 1.724
Carbon / Nitrogen ratio (C/N ratio) = %C / %N
APPENDIX 4
PEDON 1
67
A. GENERAL INFORMATION
1. Map Sheet No. : 4361
2. RSO Coordinates : 598112 mE,
451048 mN
3. Location : Cherating, Kuantan
4. Elevation :7 m.a.s.l.
5. Date : 14 January 2010
6. Author : Wan Mohd Rusydan
7. Land Use : Shrubs
8. Soil Series : Merchang
9. Drainage : Imperfectly drained
10. Parent Material : Marine Sand / BRIS
11. Landform & Topography : Flat
B. PROFILE DESCRIPTION
Horizonation Depth (cm) Description
A 0-10 Dark gray (10YR 4/1); fine sand; structureless; loose;
many fine, medium and coarse roots; clear smooth
boundary.
C1 10-30 Grayish brown (10YR 5/2); medium sand; structureless;
loose; few fine and medium roots; diffuse boundary
C2 30-70 Grayish brown (10YR 5/2); medium sand; structureless;
loose; very few fine roots; clear smooth boundary
C3 70-100 Light gray (10YR 7/1); coarse sand; structureless; loose
C. MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA
Horizon Depth Granulometric Composition (%) Texture
68
Clay <2 µm
Fine silt
2-20 µm
Co. silt 20-50 µm
V. fine sand
50-100 µm
Fine sand 100-250 µm
Med. sand 250-500 µm
Co. sand 500
µm - 2 mm
A 0-10 0.7 0.0 0.6 0.8 5.7 36.2 56.0 SandC1 10-30 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.4 4.6 34.1 60.2 SandC2 30-70 0.5 0.0 0.3 0.5 6.2 32.2 60.3 Sand
C370-100
0.6 0.0 0.3 0.2 4.0 33.0 61.9 Sand
Horizon1N NH4OAc cmol (+)/kg soil Base
saturation (%)
Exc. Al cmol(+)/kg
soilCECExchangeable cation
TEBCa Mg K Na
A 1.95 0.08 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.16 8.14 0.25C1 0.80 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.10 12.09 0.28C2 0.54 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.10 17.58 0.34C3 0.22 0.14 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.18 83.46 0.26
HorizonAvailable P (ppm)
C % N %O. M.
%C/N ratio
pH Elec. Cond. dS/m
Free iron (%)H2O KCl
A 1.54 0.26 0.03 0.45 8.70 4.89 3.50 0.131 0.014C1 1.66 0.10 0.02 0.17 3.98 5.16 3.92 0.107 0.009C2 1.74 0.04 0.03 0.07 1.51 5.95 5.15 0.082 0.006C3 1.70 0.03 0.03 0.05 1.02 6.58 6.54 0.140 0.013
HorizonMn Zn Cu Ni Cd
mg/LA 0.030 0.135 0.000 0.0848 0.0357C1 0.007 0.144 0.269 0.0147 0.0413C2 0.012 0.367 1.497 0.0211 0.0490C3 0.008 0.259 1.034 0.0309 0.0476
APPENDIX 5
PEDON 2
69
A. GENERAL INFORMATION
1. Map Sheet No. : 4361
2. RSO Coordinates : 598385 mE,
451653 mN
3. Location : Cherating, Kuantan
4. Elevation : 9 m.a.s.l.
5. Date : 14 January 2010
6. Author : Wan Mohd Rusydan
7. Land Use : Shrubs
8. Soil Series : Jambu
9. Drainage : Excessively drained
10. Parent Material : Marine Sand / BRIS
11. Landform & Topography : Flat
B. PROFILE DESCRIPTION
Horizonation Depth (cm) Description
A 0-15 Dark gray (10YR 4/1); fine sand; structureless; loose; few
fine, medium and coarse roots; clear smooth boundary.
E1 15-35 Gray (10YR 6/1); fine sand; structureless; loose; very few
fine roots; diffuse boundary
E2 35-70 Light gray (10YR 7/1); fine sand; structureless; loose;
diffuse boundary
E3 70-100 White (10YR 8/2); fine sand; structureless; loose
C. MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA
Horizon Depth Granulometric Composition (%) Texture
70
Clay <2 µm
Fine silt
2-20 µm
Co. silt 20-50 µm
V. fine sand
50-100 µm
Fine sand 100-250 µm
Med. sand 250-500 µm
Co. sand 500
µm - 2 mm
A 0-15 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.5 10.0 23.7 64.9 SandE1 15-35 0.5 0.0 0.6 0.9 10.8 29.6 57.6 SandE2 35-70 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.4 7.8 30.5 60.0 Sand
E370-100
0.8 0.1 0.3 0.5 11.9 30.2 56.2 Sand
Horizon1N NH4OAc cmol (+)/kg soil Base
saturation (%)
Exc. Al cmol(+)/kg
soilCECExchangeable cation
TEBCa Mg K Na
A 1.96 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.13 6.82 0.32E1 0.38 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.07 17.46 0.28E2 0.37 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.06 16.30 0.34E3 0.29 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.08 28.41 0.31
HorizonAvailable P (ppm)
C % N %O. M.
%C/N ratio
pH Elec. Cond. dS/m
Free iron (%)H2O KCl
A 1.58 0.28 0.04 0.49 7.95 4.80 3.49 0.08 0.02E1 1.71 0.09 0.03 0.16 3.51 5.13 4.07 0.07 0.02E2 1.55 0.04 0.03 0.07 1.48 5.28 4.45 0.09 0.01E3 1.57 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.68 5.60 4.58 0.06 0.03
HorizonMn Zn Cu Ni Cd
mg/LA 0.146 0.152 0.013 0.015 0.056E1 0.013 0.060 0.004 0.025 0.057E2 0.004 0.051 0.041 0.000 0.058E3 0.004 0.042 0.013 0.039 0.064
APPENDIX 6
PEDON 3
71
A. GENERAL INFORMATION
1. Map Sheet No. : 4361
2. RSO Coordinates : 598757 mE,
451292 mN
3. Location : Cherating, Kuantan
4. Elevation : 10 m.a.s.l.
5. Date : 14 January 2010
6. Author : Wan Mohd Rusydan
7. Land Use : Shrubs
8. Soil Series : Rhu Tapai
9. Drainage : Moderately well drained
10. Parent Material : Marine Sand / BRIS
11. Landform & Topography : Flat
B. PROFILE DESCRIPTION
Horizonation Depth (cm) Description
A 0-10 Gray (10YR 6/1); fine sand; structureless; loose; many
fine, medium and coarse roots; clear smooth boundary.
E 10-45 Light gray (10YR 7/2); fine sand; structureless; loose; few
fine roots; abrubt smooth boundary
Bs 45-55 Dark yellowish brown (10YR 3/4); hard spodic layer;
clear, smooth boundary
Bir 55-100 Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6); fine sand; structureless;
loose.
C. MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA
Horizon Depth Granulometric Composition (%) Texture
72
Clay <2 µm
Fine silt
2-20 µm
Co. silt 20-50 µm
V. fine sand
50-100 µm
Fine sand 100-250 µm
Med. sand 250-500 µm
Co. sand 500
µm - 2 mm
A 0-10 0.0 2.2 0.3 0.8 46.3 47.0 3.4 SandE 10-45 0.1 1.8 0.2 0.4 37.0 56.0 4.5 SandBs 45-55 0.7 0.0 0.3 0.7 65.5 32.1 0.7 Sand
Bir55-100
0.8 0.0 0.1 0.4 55.5 42.3 0.9 Sand
Horizon1N NH4OAc cmol (+)/kg soil Base
saturation (%)
Exc. Al cmol(+)/kg
soilCECExchangeable cation
TEBCa Mg K Na
A 1.41 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.07 4.78 0.43E 0.70 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05 7.27 0.47Bs 7.29 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.67 0.52Bir 2.13 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.06 2.80 0.52
HorizonAvailable P (ppm)
C % N % O. M. %C/N ratio
pH Elec. Cond. dS/m
Free iron (%)H2O KCl
A 1.87 0.22 0.03 0.38 6.35 5.25 4.07 0.08 0.05E 1.78 0.11 0.03 0.18 3.72 5.35 4.47 0.07 0.02Bs 2.13 0.62 0.04 1.07 14.49 5.36 4.45 0.08 0.40Bir 1.70 0.19 0.03 0.32 6.01 5.56 4.65 0.09 0.77
HorizonMn Zn Cu Ni Cd
mg/LA 0.023 0.081 0.011 0.089 0.054E 0.006 0.046 0.022 0.090 0.065Bs 0.033 0.058 0.050 0.107 0.073Bir 0.018 0.061 0.089 0.075 0.066
APPENDIX 7
PEDON 4
73
A. GENERAL INFORMATION
1. Map Sheet No. : 4361
2. RSO Coordinates : 598843 mE,
451204 mN
3. Location : Cherating, Kuantan
4. Elevation : 9 m.a.s.l.
5. Date : 14 January 2010
6. Author : Wan Mohd Rusydan
7. Land Use : Cleared land
8. Soil Series : Baging
9. Drainage : Somewhat excessively
drained
10. Parent Material : Marine Sand / BRIS
11. Landform & Topography : Flat
B. PROFILE DESCRIPTION
Horizonation Depth (cm) Description
Ap 0-10 Grayish brown (10YR 5/2); fine sand; structureless; loose;
many, medium and coarse roots; diffuse boundary.
C1 10-20 Brown (10YR 5/3); fine sand; structureless; loose; many,
fine and medium roots; diffuse boundary
C2 20-50 Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6); fine sand; structureless;
loose; few, fine and meduium roots; clear, smooth
boundary
C3 50-70 Brownish yellow (10YR 6/6); fine sand; structureless;
loose; very few, fine roots; diffuse boundary.
C4 70-100 Brownish yellow (10YR 6/6); fine sand; structureless;
74
loose.
C. MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA
Horizon Depth
Granulometric Composition (%)
TextureClay <2 µm
Fine silt
2-20 µm
Co. silt 20-50 µm
V. fine sand
50-100 µm
Fine sand 100-250 µm
Med. sand 250-500 µm
Co. sand 500
µm - 2 mm
Ap 0-10 2.1 0.0 0.3 1.2 84.1 12.2 0.1 SandC1 10-20 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.7 87.1 11.1 0.0 SandC2 20-50 0.9 0.0 0.1 0.9 86.0 12.0 0.1 SandC3 50-75 0.8 0.1 0.2 0.6 78.2 20.1 0.0 Sand
C475-100
0.6 0.0 0.2 1.0 85.1 13.0 0.1 Sand
Horizon1N NH4OAc cmol (+)/kg soil Base
saturation (%)
Exc. Al cmol(+)/kg
soilCECExchangeable cation
TEBCa Mg K Na
Ap 5.18 0.06 0.11 0.04 0.03 0.23 4.54 0.72C1 2.79 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.11 3.86 0.66C2 2.75 0.07 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.13 4.71 0.57C3 2.46 0.11 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.16 6.58 0.56C4 2.29 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.13 5.61 0.64
HorizonAvailable P (ppm)
C % N %O. M.
%C/N ratio
pH Elec. Cond. dS/m
Free iron (%)H2O KCl
Ap 1.80 1.02 0.06 1.76 17.99 4.88 3.56 0.17 0.67
75
C1 1.83 0.35 0.04 0.61 8.04 5.21 4.11 0.13 0.59C2 1.86 0.20 0.04 0.34 5.60 5.24 4.34 0.11 0.55C3 1.56 0.15 0.03 0.25 4.85 5.26 4.39 0.09 0.46C4 1.56 0.10 0.03 0.17 3.16 5.40 4.37 0.11 0.48
HorizonMn Zn Cu Ni Cd
mg/LAp 0.130 0.155 0.070 0.062 0.078C1 0.035 0.117 0.132 0.124 0.077C2 0.030 0.121 0.361 0.109 0.071C3 0.112 0.230 0.952 0.083 0.079C4 0.561 tr tr 0.063 tr
*tr (traced)
76
TABLE 7 : IDENTIFICATION OF SOILS DEVELOPED ON BEACH RIDGES AND RELATED DEPOSITS
TEXTURE CLASSDEPTH TO SPODIC/ BURIED HORIZON
DRAINAGE CLASS
VERY POOR
0
SOMEWHATVERY POOR
1
POOR
2
SOMEWHATPOOR
3
IMPERFECT
4
SOMEWHATIMPERFECT
5
MODERATELYWELL
6
WELL
7
SOMEWHATEXCESSIVE
8
EXCESSIVE
9
VERY FINE> 60% Clay
S
M LUBOK ITEK/B
D
FINE33-60% Clay
S
M CHENERING/B/gr NERUS/B PENAGA/o
D
FINE LOAMY
18-35% Clay
S
M NIBONG/ /B
D PERMATANG SENENG
COARSE LOAMY
<18% Clay
S
M IBAI/s/f
D MELAWI/f+ RESAM
+ BAKONG
SANDY<10% Clay
S RHU TAPAI/s
M MERCHANG/B/o RUDUA/sCERATING/wULAR/o
D KERPAH/f/ (Strong Brown)FIKRI (Brown, med sand)
+BEOH (Light Greyish Brown)+ PERMATANG TIMBUL (Brown, co & med sand)
ROMPIN/r+ PAUHBAGING
JAMBU/e
Prefixes and Suffixes used with Soil Series Name: Parent Materials (origin deposits) SOIL SERIES NAME/Sand Fraction/Others Features
Parent Materials (Origin Deposits) Sand Fraction Others FeaturesS = Shallow (0-50 cm) + = on old beach ridge f=Fine sand B = buried M = Moderate deep (50-100 cm) r = riverine influence o = enriched with illuviated humus D = Deep D = Deep(>100) w = wavy fragmental spodicAll soils are ‘Young Beach Ridge’ unless otherwise specified; soils on old beach ridges s = spodic are indicated by a ‘t’ in front of the soil services name written in italic. Soil influenced e = eluvial by riverine alluvium are indicated by latter ‘r’ after he soil series gr = gravellyAll soils consist of medium and coarse sand fraction except those indicating with ‘f’
Note1. The term "Rusila Complex" is used to describe complicated soil complexes which are found in the swales and which cannot be mapped as individual series even at detailed soil mapping.2. Hardness of the spodic horizon is considered at phase level i.e either hard (H), soft (S) or a mixture of hard and soft (HS). Example (i) Rudua/s/H (Rudua Series, hard spodic horizon); (ii) Rudua/s/S (Rudua Series, soft spodic horizon); (iii) Rudua/s/HS (Rudua Series with a mixture of hard and soft spodic materials in the same horizon). These of these 3 phases can be upgraded to soil series at a later when their occurrence and distribution become significant.
77
SOIL MANAGEMENT DIVISION DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREKUALA LUMPUR17/02/2003
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