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Moliere’s The Misanthrope
It is hard to dislike politics without also disliking people. Like it or not, political dynamics are inevitable under conditions most managers face every day:
Ambiguity
Diversity
Scarcity
Five Propositions:Organizations are coalitions of various individuals and interest groups.Enduring differences among coalition members in values, beliefs, information, interests, and perceptions of reality.Scarce resources & enduring differences give conflict a central role & make power the most important resource.Goals & decisions emerge from bargaining, negotiation, & jockeying for position.
Concept of Power
Power - the ability to influence another person
Influence - the process of affecting the thoughts, behavior, & feelings of another person
Authority - the right to influence another person
Sources of Organizational Power: Interpersonal
Reward Power - agent’s ability to control the rewards that the target wants
Coercive Power - agent’s ability to cause an unpleasant experience for a target
Legitimate Power - agent and target agree that agent has influential rights, based on position and mutual agreement
Referent Power-based on interpersonal attractionExpert Power - agent has knowledge target needs
Using Power Ethically
Does the behavior produce a good outcome for people both inside and outside the organization?
Does the behavior respect the rights of all parties?
Does the behavior treat all parties equitably and fairly?
Successful Power Users
Have high need for social power; low need for affiliation
Have these power-oriented characteristics
belief in the authority system
belief in justice
preference for work & discipline
altruism
Sources of Organizational Power: Intergroup
Control of critical resources
Control of strategic contingencies - activities that other groups need to complete their tasks
Ways groups hold power over other groupsAbility to reduce uncertainty
High centrality - functionality central to organization’s success
Nonsubstitutability - group’s activities are difficult to replace
Influence Tactics
Consultation
Rational persuasion
Inspirational appeals
Ingratiation
Upward appeals
Coalition tactics
Exchange tactics
Pressure
Upward Influence the boss
Downward Influence an employee
Lateral Influence a coworker
Managing Political Behavior
Maintain open communicationClarify performance expectationsUse participative managementEncourage cooperation among work groupsManage scarce resources wellProvide a supportive organizational climate
Managing Up: The Boss
Make sure you understand your boss and his/her context including
Goals and objectives Pressures Strengths, weaknesses, blind spots Preferred work style
Assess yourself and your needs, including Strengths, weaknesses, & blind spots Personal style Relation to authority figures
Managing Up: The Boss
Using Power Effectively
Use power in ethical ways Understand and use all of the various types of
power and influence Seek out jobs that allow you to develop your
power skills Use power tempered by maturity and self-control Accept that influencing people is an important
part of the management job
Nature of Organizational Conflict
Conflict - any situation in which incompatible goals, attitudes, emotions, or behaviors lead to disagreement or opposition between two or more parties
Functional conflict - a healthy, constructive disagreement between two or more people
Dysfunctional conflict - an unhealthy, destructive disagreement between two or more people
Substantive and Emotional Conflict
substantive conflict: conflict that occurs in the form of a fundamental disagreement over ends or goals to be pursued and the means for their accomplishment
Emotional Conflict: conflict that involves interpersonal difficulties that arise over feeling of anger, mistrust, dislike, fear, resentment, and the like
Conflict
Conflict Intensity
Overt efforts to destroy other party.
Aggressive physical attacks.
Threats and ultimatums.
Overt questioning or challenging of others.
Minor disagreements or misunderstandings.
Relationship between Substantive Conflict and Effectiveness
Performance
High
Low
Low High
Intensity of Conflict
too little or too much conflict is destructive
moderate levels of conflictare constructive
Conflict Management Approaches
Indirect Conflict Management Approaches appeal to common goalshierarchical referralorganizational redesignscripts and myths
Direct Conflict Management Approaches win-lose conflictwin-win conflict lose-lose conflict (avoidance, accommodation/smoothing,
compromise)
Consequences of ConflictPositive
Consequences Negative
Consequences Leads to new ideas Diverts energy from work
Stimulates creativity Threatens psychological well-being
Motivates change Wastes resources
Promotes organizational vitality
Creates a negative climate
Helps individuals & groups establish identities
Breaks down group cohesion
Serves as a safety valve to indicate problems
Can increase hostility & aggressive behaviors
Causes of Conflict in Organizations
Structural Factors• Specialization• Interdependence• Common resources• Goal differences• Authority relationships• Status inconsistencies• Jurisdictional ambiguities
Personal Factors• Skills & abilities• Personalities• Perceptions• Values & ethics• Emotions• Communication barriers• Cultural differences
Interorganizational conflict - conflict that occurs between two or more organizations
Intergroup conflict - conflict that occurs between groups or teams in an organization
Interpersonal conflict - conflict that occurs between two or more individuals
Forms of Conflict in Organizations
Forms of Conflict in Organizations
Intrapersonal conflict - conflict that occurs within an individual
Interrole conflict - a person’s experience of conflict among the multiple roles in his/her life
Forms of Conflict in Organizations
Intrarole conflict - conflict that occurs within a single role, such as when a person receives conflicting messages from role senders about how to perform a certain role
Person-role conflict - conflict that occurs when an individual is expected to perform behaviors in a certain role that conflict with his/her personal values
Defense Mechanisms
Aggressive Mechanisms.Fixation - an aggressive mechanism in which an
individual keeps up a dysfunctional behavior that obviously will not solve the conflict.
Displacement - An aggressive mechanism in which an individual directs his/her anger toward someone who is not the source of the conflict.
Negativism - an aggressive mechanism in which a person responds with pessimism to any attempt at solving a problem.
Defense Mechanisms
Compromise MechanismsCompensation - a compromise mechanism in which an
individual attempts to make up for a negative situation by devoting himself/herself to another pursuit with increased vigor
Identification - a compromise mechanism whereby an individual patterns his or her behavior after another’s
Rationalization - a compromise mechanism characterized by trying to justify one’s behavior by constructing bogus reasons for it
Defense Mechanisms
Withdrawal MechanismsFlight/withdrawal - a withdrawal mechanism that
entails physically escaping a conflict (flight) or psychologically escaping (withdrawal)
Conversion - a withdrawal mechanism in which emotional conflicts are expressed in physical symptoms
Fantasy - a withdrawal mechanism that provides an escape from a conflict through daydreaming
Managing Intrapersonal Conflict
Person-role conflictsIntrarole or interrole
conflictsAsk role
senders what they expect
of you
Find out as muchas you can about
the company’s values
Win-Lose versus Win-Win Strategies
Strategy Dept. A Dept. B Organization
Competitive Lose Lose LoseLose Win LoseWin Lose Lose
Cooperative Win- Win- Win
Ineffective Techniques forDealing with Conflict
Nonaction - doing nothing in hopes that a conflict will disappear
Secrecy - attempting to hide a conflict or an issue that has the potential to create conflict
Administrative orbiting - delaying action on a conflict by buying time
Due process nonaction - a procedure set up to address conflicts that is so costly, time-consuming, or personally risky that no one will use it
Character assassination - an attempt to label or discredit an opponent
Effective Techniques forDealing with Conflict
Subordinate GoalsSubordinate Goals
ConfrontingConfronting&&
NegotiatingNegotiating
Expanding Expanding ResourcesResources
Changing Changing StructureStructure
Changing Changing PersonnelPersonnel
ConflictConflictX
Dimensions of Conflict-Handling Intentions
Ass
erti
vene
ss
Cooperativeness
Una
sser
tive
Ass
erti
ve
Uncooperative Cooperative
Competing Collaborating
Compromising
AvoidingAccommodating
Conflict Management Styles
Avoiding - deliberate decision to take no action on a conflict or to stay out of a conflict
Accommodating - concern that the other party’s goals be met but relatively unconcerned with getting own way
Competing - satisfying own interests; willing to do so at other party’s expense
Compromising - each party gives up something to reach a solution
Collaborating - arriving at a solution agreeable to all through open & thorough discussion
Avoidance Is Appropriate When...
You have no chance of satisfying your concerns
let people cool down
Accommodation Is Appropriate When ...
You realize you are wrong
Issue is much more important to other party
To build up credit for later negotiations
To preserve harmony
Competition Is Appropriate When...
No long term relationship
To protect yourself against untrustworthy parties
Unpopular courses of action need implementation
Issues are vital to your welfare
Collaboration Is Appropriate When ...
Both parties’ concerns are too important to be compromised
To gain commitment
Time is not an issue
Compromising Is Appropriate When ...
Goals are less important to you than collaboration
Mutually exclusive goals
To achieve temporary settlements
Under intense time pressure
Summary and Implications for Managers
Conflict can be either constructive or destructive to the functioning of a group.
An optimal level of conflict:prevents stagnation.
stimulates creativity.
releases tension.
and initiates the seeds for change.
Summary and Implications for Managers
Inadequate or excessive levels of conflict can hinder group effectiveness.Don’t assume there's one conflict-handling intention that is always best.
Use competition when quick, decisive action is vital.Use collaboration to find an integrative solution.Use avoidance when an issue is trivial.Use accommodation when you find you’re wrong.Use compromise when goals are important.
Skills of the Manager as Politician
Agenda Setting
Mapping the Political Terrain
Networking & Building Coalitions
Negotiation
Negotiation - a joint process of finding a mutually acceptable solution to a complex conflict
Useful under these conditionsTwo or more parties
Conflict of interest between the parties
Parties are willing to negotiate
Parties prefer to work together rather than to fight openly, give in, break off contact, or take the dispute to a higher authority
NegotiationAn exchange relationship between two parties where it is determined what will be exchanged and the rate of exchange.NET OUTCOMES: Benefits minus costs (hassles, stress and what you have to give up).ASPIRATIONS: What each party reasonable expects to get out of the negotiation.BEST ALTERNATIVE TO A NEGOTIATED AGREEMENT (BATNA): If you walked away from the negotiation, the worst that could happen to you.
The Negotiation Process __ Seller’s BATNA
__ Seller’s Net Outcomes
__ Seller’s Comparison Level (Aspiration)
__ Buyer’s Net Outcomes
__ Buyer’s Comparison Level (Aspiration)
__ Buyer’s BATNA
Seller
Aspiration: To make a sale of $1.50 per unit
Comparison Level: She can sell to another client for $1.00 per unit
Buyer
Aspiration: To pay $.80 per unit
BATNA: She can buy them from another seller at $1.60 per unit.
The Negotiation Process __ Buyer’s BATNA ($1.60)
__ Seller’s Net Outcomes
__ Seller’s Comparison Level/Aspiration ($1.50)
__ Buyer’s Net Outcomes
__ Buyer’s Comparison Level/Aspiration ($.80)
__ Seller’s BATNA ($1.00)
Will we Negotiate?
The bargaining range will fall between the salesperson’s and the purchaser’s limits. In this case there is overlap. If there is no overlap, then the negotiation will not be successfully concluded.
How do you know when you start if there is any overlap?
Distributive Bargaining
Fixed Pie Mentality
We normally frame as Distributive, leads to bargaining over issues.
We like to cut to the chase
We like to ignore the interpersonal
Maximizing Joint Outcomes
Instead of bargaining over each individual issue, try to bargain in ‘packages’
Each issue does not carry the same level of importance to all
Give concessions of things that are not important to you, but are important to the other
Joint Outcomes
We almost never get maximized joint outcomes by bargaining sequentially (now this issue, now that issue)It’s hard to calculate the importance of issues for ourselves, and othersWhen we view the ‘other’ as the ‘opponent’ all of a sudden every issue seems importantSo, we are not honest about our issues
Linking Issues
Find ways to link issues (what’s important to me with what’s not important to me but IS important to the opponent)
Is the Process Complex?
People tend to see negotiation as complex, and see it as undefined CHAOS
We try to package simply
Or tend to separate each issue
The Best Way to Negotiate
Cognitively figure out packages (Planning)Come up with 4-5 items that I give that the other wantsAnd where the other gives that I wantGet some momentum by getting some up front agreementsTry not to maximize EACH ISSUE but maximize the ENTIRE PACKAGE
Planning
Yes, negotiation requires planning and patience
Know issues to keep in mind
Know the levels of each issue
Know the value of each issue
Get the other guy to agree on issues (find a way of thinking about same issues)
Do’s and Don’ts
Do develop more than 1 alternative, actually enough so you are ambivalent to current alternative
Do negotiate over as little as possible
Don’t negotiate with friends
2 Negotiating Approaches
Integrative Negotiation -Integrative Negotiation -focuses on the meritsfocuses on the meritsof the issues & seeksof the issues & seeks
a win-win solutiona win-win solution
Distributive Bargaining -Distributive Bargaining -the goals of the parties the goals of the parties are in conflict, are in conflict, & each party seeks& each party seeksto maximize its resourcesto maximize its resources
What Makes Integrative Negotiation Different?
A focus on Commonalities (Frames)
An attempt to address needs and interests (Covey)
Commitment to meeting the needs of all parties
Exchange of information and ideas
Invention of options for mutual gain
Objective criteria for standards of performance
Issues in Negotiation
Personality TraitsGender DifferencesCultural DifferencesThird-Party Negotiations
MediatorsArbitratorsConciliatorsConsultants
What is Ethical? (Lax & Sebenius, 1986)
Are you following rules that are understood and accepted?Are you comfortable discussing and defending your action?Would you want someone to do it to you?What if everyone acted that way?Are there alternatives that rest on firmer ethical ground?
Organizations as Arenas
Arenas house contests
As such, the help determineWhat game will be played
Who will be on the field
What interests will be pursued
What is often ignored
LowerarchyGroups in lower positions devise a host of creative and maddening ways to resist, divert, undermine, ignore, or overthrow change efforts.
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