The Nation at War 1901–1920

American Stories:American Stories:A History of the United States

Second Edition

Chapter

American Stories: A History of the United States, Second EditionBrands • Breen • Williams • Gross

The Nation at War1901–1920

24

A Fateful Torpedo A Fateful Torpedo With the sinking of the With the sinking of the LusitaniaLusitania, the American people learned firsthand of , the American people learned firsthand of the horrors of total war. President Wilson’s decision the horrors of total war. President Wilson’s decision to protest the incident through diplomacy kept the to protest the incident through diplomacy kept the United States out of the war—but only temporarily.United States out of the war—but only temporarily.

The Nation at WarThe Nation at War1901–19201901–1920

• A New World Power• Foreign Policy Under Wilson• Toward War• Over There• Over Here• The Treaty of Versailles• Conclusion: Postwar Disillusionment

The Sinking of the The Sinking of the LusitaniaLusitania

• Germans sink British luxury liner• Americans sifted through British,

German claims and hoped for peace• Wilson hated war but diplomacy failed• April 1917, U.S. enters World War I

A New World PowerA New World Power

• American foreign policy aggressive, nationalistic since late 19th century

• Colonialism drew U.S. into international affairs

Building the Panama CanalBuilding the Panama Canal

• 1903: Colombian senate refused to allow U.S. to build Panama Canal

• Roosevelt abetted revolution to separate Panama from Colombia

• Independent Panama permitted construction

Building the Panama Canal Building the Panama Canal (cont’d)(cont’d)

• HayBunau–Varilla Treaty with Panama granted U.S. control of canal zone; 1914: canal opened

• “Roosevelt Corollary”: U.S. would ensure stability of Latin American finance

• Roosevelt Corollary spurred intervention in, Cuba, Panama, Dominican Republic

Map 24.1 Map 24.1 The Panama Canal Zone Construction The Panama Canal Zone Construction of the canal began in 1904, and despite landslides, of the canal began in 1904, and despite landslides,

steamy weather, and yellow fever, work was steamy weather, and yellow fever, work was completed in 1914.completed in 1914.

Ventures in the Far EastVentures in the Far East

• 1905: Roosevelt mediated the Russo-Japanese War

• Taft-Katsura Agreement Korea under Japanese influence Japan to respect U.S. control of Philippines

• 1907: “Gentleman's Agreement” Japan promises to stop immigration

Ventures in the Far East (cont’d)Ventures in the Far East (cont’d)

• 1908: Root-Takahira Agreement Maintain status quo in Far East Accept Open Door and Chinese

independence

• 1915: Japan seized German colonies in China and claimed authority over China

Taft and Dollar DiplomacyTaft and Dollar Diplomacy

• Taft substituted economic force for military

• American bankers replaced Europeans in Caribbean

• Taft's support for U.S. economic influence in Manchuria alienated China, Japan, Russia

Foreign Policy Under WilsonForeign Policy Under Wilson

• Wilson inexperienced in diplomacy• Tried to base foreign policy on moral

force

Troubles Across the BorderTroubles Across the Border

• 1913: Huerta led coup in Mexico• Wilson denied Huerta recognition

Revolutionary regimes must reflect “a just government based upon law”

• Wilson blocked arms shipments to Mexico

• 1914: U.S. seized Vera Cruz • 1916: U.S. Army pursued “Pancho” Villa

across U.S., Mexican border

Map 24.2 Map 24.2 Activities of the United States in Activities of the United States in the Caribbean, 1898–1930 the Caribbean, 1898–1930 During the first During the first

three decades of the twentieth century, the United three decades of the twentieth century, the United States policed the Caribbean, claiming the right to States policed the Caribbean, claiming the right to

take action when it judged Latin American countries take action when it judged Latin American countries were doing a bad job of running their affairs. During were doing a bad job of running their affairs. During

the first threethe first three

Toward WarToward War

• 1914: War in Europe Central Powers headed by Germany Allied Powers headed by England, France

• Wilson sympathized with England, sought U.S. neutrality

The Neutrality PolicyThe Neutrality Policy

• Progressives saw war as wasteful, irrational

• Suspicion that business sought war for profit

• Immigrants prefered U.S. neutrality• A long tradition of U.S. neutrality • Americans saw little national stake in

war

Freedom of the SeasFreedom of the Seas

• England blockade of Germany• U.S. ships to Germany seized • Wilson accepted English promise of

reimbursement at war's end

Freedom of the Seas (cont’d)Freedom of the Seas (cont’d)

• Germans used U-boats to interrupt trade with Allies

• U.S. trade with Allies boomed, but was increasingly financed by loans from American banks

• Allies owed U.S. banks $2 billion by 1917

The U-Boat ThreatThe U-Boat Threat

• German submarines violated international law by shooting without warning

• Bryan advised Wilson to ban travel, Wilson refused

• 1915: Lusitania sunk by U-Boat Wilson demanded Germans protect

passenger ships and pay for losses Bryan resigned, replaced by Robert

Lansing, who favored Allies

The U-Boat The U-Boat A new and terrifying weapon of the A new and terrifying weapon of the war was the German U-boat, which attacked silently war was the German U-boat, which attacked silently

and without warning.and without warning.

The U-Boat Threat (cont’d)The U-Boat Threat (cont’d)

• April, 1916: Wilson issued ultimatum: call off attacks on cargo and passenger ships or U.S.-German relations would be severed

• May, 1916: Sussex Pledge—Germany pledges to honor U.S. neutrality

The Election of 1916The Election of 1916

• 1916: Wilson campaigned on record of neutrality

• Republican Charles Evans Hughes campaigned on tougher line against Germany

• Wilson won close election Won large labor, progressive vote Won majority of women's vote

The Final Months of PeaceThe Final Months of Peace

• Feb., 1917: Germany renewed U-Boat attacks

• Zimmerman Telegram• Wilson's response

Ordered U.S. merchant vessels armed Ordered U.S. Navy to fire on German U-

Boats

• April 6, 1917: War declared on Germany

Over ThereOver There

• U.S. allies were in danger of losing war Germans sunk 881,000 tons of Allied

shipping during April, 1917 Mutinies in French army British drive in Flanders stalled Bolsheviks signed separate peace with

Germany; German troops to West Italian army routed

• Allies braced for spring, 1918 offensive

Map 24.4 Map 24.4 European Alliances and European Alliances and Battlefronts, 1914–1917 Battlefronts, 1914–1917 Allied forces suffered Allied forces suffered

early defeats on the eastern front (Tannenberg) and early defeats on the eastern front (Tannenberg) and in the Dardanelles (Gallipoli). In 1917, the Allies in the Dardanelles (Gallipoli). In 1917, the Allies were routed in the Alps (Caporetto); the western were routed in the Alps (Caporetto); the western front then became the critical theater of the war. front then became the critical theater of the war.

MobilizationMobilization

• No U.S. contingency plans for war• 200,000 troops at war's beginning• Selective Service Act created draft

Conscripted 2.8 million by war's end African Americans drafted as well

War in the TrenchesWar in the Trenches

• Teaming of U.S., English navies halved Allied losses to submarines

• June, 1917: U.S. troops arrived in France

War in the Trenches (cont’d)War in the Trenches (cont’d)

• Spring, 1918: U.S. forces helped halt final German offensive Battle of Chateau Thierry Battle of Belleau Wood

• September: Germans out of St. Mihiel

Map 24.5 Map 24.5 The Western Front: U.S. The Western Front: U.S. Participation, 1918 Participation, 1918 The turning point of the war The turning point of the war came in July, when the German advance was halted came in July, when the German advance was halted

at the Marne. The “Yanks,” now a fighting force, at the Marne. The “Yanks,” now a fighting force, were thrown into the breach. They helped stem the were thrown into the breach. They helped stem the tide and mount the counteroffensives that ended tide and mount the counteroffensives that ended

the war.the war.

Over HereOver Here

• Victory depended on economic, emotional mobilization at home

• Wilson moved quickly to organize war production

• Recognized need to enlist American emotions

The Conquest of ConvictionsThe Conquest of Convictions

• Wartime laws to repress dissent Espionage Act: Outlawed acts to aid the

enemy, even encouraging disloyalty Trading with the Enemy Act: Government

can censor foreign language press Sedition Act: Criticism of the war made a

crime 1500 dissenters imprisoned, including

Eugene Debs

The Conquest of Convictions The Conquest of Convictions (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Summer, 1918: Anticommunism prompts deployment of U.S. troops to Russia

• 1918–1919: “Red Scare” resulted in domestic suppression of “radicals”

A Bureaucratic WarA Bureaucratic War

• War Industries Board and other agencies supervised production, distribution to maximize war effort

• Government seized some businesses to keep them running

• Cooperation between government and business the norm

• Business profits from wartime industry

Labor in the WarLabor in the War

• War Labor Board standardizes wages, hours, offered women equal pay

• Corporations recruited Southern blacks• Growing competition for housings, jobs

increased racial tensions and blacks fought back

Women at Work Women at Work Housewives did not leave home Housewives did not leave home for the factory en masse in 1917 as they did during for the factory en masse in 1917 as they did during World War II, but many women already employed World War II, but many women already employed

outside the home found new, well-paying outside the home found new, well-paying opportunities in jobs previously held by men.opportunities in jobs previously held by men.

Labor in the War (cont’d)Labor in the War (cont’d)

• Labor shortage prompts entry of Mexican Americans to war-related work force

• U.S. emerged from war strongest economic power in the world

Heroes of the War Heroes of the War The 369The 369thth infantry regiment infantry regiment returning from the war on the returning from the war on the StockholmStockholm in in

February 1919. France awarded them its highest February 1919. France awarded them its highest medal for valor, the Croix de Guerre, for bravery in medal for valor, the Croix de Guerre, for bravery in

the Meuse-Argonne.the Meuse-Argonne.

The Treaty of VersaillesThe Treaty of Versailles

• Common concern about Bolshevik revolution

• Wilson's 14 Points call for non-punitive settlement

• England and France balk at 14 Points Want Germany disarmed and crippled Want Germany's colonies Skeptical of principle of self-determination

TABLE 24.1 TABLE 24.1 Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points, Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points, 1918: Success and Failure in Implementation 1918: Success and Failure in Implementation

SourcesSources: Data from G. M. Gathorne-Hardy, : Data from G. M. Gathorne-Hardy, The The Fourteen Points and the Treaty of Versailles Fourteen Points and the Treaty of Versailles (Oxford (Oxford Pamphlets on World Affairs, no. 6, 1939), pp. 8–34 ; Pamphlets on World Affairs, no. 6, 1939), pp. 8–34 ; Thomas G. Paterson et al., Thomas G. Paterson et al., American Foreign Policy: American Foreign Policy: A History Since 1900A History Since 1900, 2, 2ndnd ed., vol. 2, pp. 282–293 . ed., vol. 2, pp. 282–293 .

A Peace at ParisA Peace at Paris

• Wilson failed to deflect Allied punishment of Germany in treaty

• Treaty created Wilson's League of Nations Article X of League charter required

members to protect each others' territorial integrity

• League's jurisdiction excluded member nations' domestic affairs

Map 24.7 Map 24.7 Europe after the Treaty of Europe after the Treaty of Versailles, 1919 Versailles, 1919 The treaty changed the map of The treaty changed the map of

Europe, creating new and reconstituted nations. Europe, creating new and reconstituted nations. (Note the boundary changes from the map on p. (Note the boundary changes from the map on p.

618.)618.)

Rejection in the SenateRejection in the Senate

• William Borah (R-ID) led “irreconcibles” who opposed treaty on any ground

• Senator Henry Cabot Lodge (R-MA) led “strong reservationists” demanded major changes; “Article X”

• Wilson takes case to the people; October, 1919: Stroke disables Wilson

• November: Treaty fails in Senate

Rejection in the Senate (cont’d)Rejection in the Senate (cont’d)

• Wilson hopes democratic victory in 1920 election would provide mandate for League of Nations

• Harding wins election• January, 1920: Final defeat of Treaty• July, 1921: U.S. peace declared by joint

Congressional resolution

Conclusion: Postwar Conclusion: Postwar DisillusionmentDisillusionment

• To the next generation the war seemed futile, wasteful

• The progressive spirit survived but without enthusiasm or broad based support

• Americans welcomed Harding's return to “normalcy”

TimelineTimeline

Timeline (continued)Timeline (continued)