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The cult of Lord Guan. motivations for this project. eternal problem of documentation for Chinese temple cults partly quantitative problem normative info lack of concrete (local, personalized) info in most sources Lord Guan relative exception state recognition=>preservation sources - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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The cult of Lord Guan
motivations for this projecteternal problem of documentation for Chinese
temple cults◦ partly quantitative problem◦ normative info◦ lack of concrete (local, personalized) info in most
sourcesLord Guan relative exception
◦ state recognition=>preservation sources◦ spread of cult=>many (types of) sources◦ 20th century fieldwork◦ many anecdotal sources
not the most interesting cult◦ much rather know more about Wutong and other cults
with mediums◦ strong normative nature sources
aims projectlong term history cult allows
asking some types of questions◦changing hagiography cult◦analysis spread over time and space◦multiple origins◦impact (or not) written traditions◦changes in social appeal◦role medium practices (esp. spirit
writing)
historical figureGuan Yu 關羽 (?-219)
◦fled home in Xiezhou 解州 because of a killing◦ joined Liu Bei 劉備 in 涿州 , withZhang Fei 張飛
among his most loyal supporters◦captured and service Cao Cao 曹操 200 CE◦rejoined Liu Bei, several epic battles◦captured by forces Sun Quan 孫權 and
beheaded 219 CEparagon of loyalty 忠 (to Liu Bei) and
righteousness 義 , really a rebel to the rulers of that moment and possibly a murderer
in a HK temple
from the movies
how Sun Quan would have seen it
his modern fate?
EARLY STAGES
originsmemorialist cults
◦Chengdu (immediately after death)◦Luoyang (head)◦Yueyang (ordinary temple)
not listed in derogatory attacks on medium cults by Daoist writers
largely out of sight until the Tang period
Zhiyi’s arrival at Jade Source Mountain2 events
◦ founding of monastery by Zhiyi and a miracle of divine support
◦ local cult for hungry ghosts, which later turns out to be Lord Guan
Zhiyi 智顗 (530-598)◦ connected southern elite◦ patronage Sui prince forced upon him◦ retreats to Jade Source Mountain in ca. 592 (in the hills)◦ builds monastery
explicitly with support local people (pre-617) his pupil Guanding’s bio (pre-632) mentions divine (but
dragon!) support (event 1.)◦ monastery flourishes
center Tiantai and later early Chan Buddhism many monks and laypeople pass through
a local cult on Ju Riverlocation execution and grave-hill on 沮 river
(far from later monastery)=> close to road (no dates, beyond 219 CE)
general phenomenon cults for hungry hosts (attested in pre-Sui Daoist writings)
first mentions◦ 802 CE temple for Lord Guan near monastery,
deity associated with miraculous building monastery
◦ late 9th century same temple for Third Lad Guan 關三郎 , same link monastery
somewhere in 7th-8th century dragon replaced by Lord Guan
modern picture of his not so old grave
Jade Source Monastery by early Song monastery and cult intimately
connected◦ the most prestigious cult for the deity◦ possession dragon relics (associated with the salt
ponds, more on which later!)◦ Guan Yu’s historical (?) seal
treasures for advertising◦ literati
Buddhist origin cult?◦ local cult incorporated by Buddhist monastery◦ limited number of early Buddhist foundations◦ one of the protector deities of B. monasteries by
late Ming ≠ Buddhist origins
a demonic figure (early evidence)original local cult must have been
demonic/hungry ghosts, but not properly recorded
860-873 scare of Third Lad Guan with his demon soldiers causing epidemics
meaning “Third Lad”◦Second Lad (erlang)◦Young Prince from Triad lore◦power of youth
story of violent demonic deity crucial
DAOIST ORIGINS
the defeat of Chiyou 蚩尤Chiyou= saltponds of Xiezhou (alr. 3rd century BCE)miracle Guan Yu (as a general)
◦ Huizong version: dragon, flooding, destroyed, Heavenly Master 張繼先 (1092-1127)
◦ Zhenzong version: Chiyou, Yellow Emperor, drought, destroyed, an anonymous Heavenly Master
Huizong version older◦ floods were a real problem, happened in 1105◦ story is not a local story=> dragon (relics at Jade Source
Monastery!)Zhenzong version newer drought fit the Chiyou
story, not the local circumstances◦ Chiyou/Yellow Emperor fits cultic history northern Song◦ textual reworking of the dragon story
1907年拍攝的南旺蚩尤塚
鹽池鹽池
漢代的蚩尤
temples with Daoist connection1166 Hangzhou 1324 Beijing
1174 Suzhou 1329 Wuyuan
1185-1219-1242 Xiangning 1334 Anyang county
(Zhangde prefecture)
long before a
separate temple was
founded with official
support in circa
1308-1311 and
restored in 1336
Nanxiong (northern
Guangdong)
1336 Yanchuan
1308 Huizhou 1341 Jiyuan county
(Huaiqing prefecture,
in), both Dingxiang
and Jiyuan are to the
east of Xie on the
route to Beijing
1314 Changxing 1353 separate temple in
Xiangning county
(slightly north of Xie
Prefecture)
1324 Xie prefecture.
1. only pre-Ming temples connected to Guan Yu’s Daoist titles2. note southern dominance (except Xiangning): artefact sources or real phenomenon?
possible historical trajectoryproblems of datinga possible trajectory
◦ Guan Yu as violent deity suited for dealing with demons
◦ Guan Yu adopted as Daoist exorcist general (extensive use in D. ritual manuscripts, no clear early dates)
◦ source of inspiration for recruitment by HM◦ feedback into use as exorcist general, leading to
foundations (small) temples and shrines◦ like Buddhist connection of minor importance
even less important over time◦ result growing spread cult and dominance local
communities over cultic image◦ higher titles of king and even emperor made
subordinate role in Daoist ritual difficult
LOCAL CULT
starting with datesas always problem of data, but at
least we have many dates (for a northern cult)
dates and places allow verification and falsification certain types of hypotheses
preliminary database North per year South per year nationwide960-1126 (Song) 8 0.047 3 0.017 111126-1276 (Southern Song/Jin)
11 0.062 8 0,052 19
total Song/Jin 19 11 301277-1307 6 0.193 4 0.129 101308-1334 20 0.692 8 0.296 281335-1367 22 0.666 5 0.151 27total Yuan 48 17 65grand total 67 28 95
a northern cult • Xie centre early cult• Jingmen near Jade Source Mountain• Haiyan has Daoist connection• Shaowu (Fujian) no evidenceLocation N/S date Location N/S date
Linjin 臨晉 , close to Xie
N 976 Ronghe 榮河 , close to Xie
N 1104f
Xie 解 N Founding 1008-1016 is most likely mythical; 1092 first restoration
Wenxi, close to Xie
N 1109
Shaowu S 1078-1085 Zhangqiu 章丘 N 1113
Qin 沁 N 1080 Ningzhou 寧州 N 1123f, 1139r
Ruicheng 芮城 , close to Xie
N 1092 Jingmen S 1125
Haiyan S 1110f
analytical comments northern spread tied to
traderoutes (salt-trade?)few connections to military
background, but some to local defense
spread prior to rise vernacular narratives and in regions with low (assumed) literacy
how meaningful are the growth rates vs. economic growth (disc. next slide), based on same sources
North per year South per year nationwide
960-1126 (Song) 1 0.101 22 0.131 391126-1276 (Southern Song/Jin) 4 0.026 37 0.229 41total Song/Jin 21 59 801277-1307 7 0.225 3 0.096 101308-1334 6 0.222 2 0.074 81335-1367 8 0.242 4 0.121 12total Yuan 21 9 30grand total 42 68 110
“Pre-Ming attestations of local Eastern Marchmount temples”(preliminary count)
North per year South per year nationwide960-1126 (Song) 8 0.047 3 0.017 111126-1276 (Southern Song/Jin)
11 0.062 8 0,052 19
total Song/Jin 19 11 301277-1307 6 0.193 4 0.129 101308-1334 20 0.692 8 0.296 281335-1367 22 0.666 5 0.151 27total Yuan 48 17 65grand total 67 28 95
“Pre-Ming attestations of Guan Yu shrines and temples”
comparing rate of spread of two prominent cults
continued spread of the cultnorthern cult
◦present down to rural level◦all social/educational groups
spread southward only with specific interest groups◦Daoist priests (above)◦military staff ◦merchants
Taiwan special case (still to be studied by me)
curious connections
FOLKLORE&MYTHOLOGY
terminologymythology?
◦hard to find: historical record made mythological narratives invisible (absent)
◦the record partly mythological itself, but in historical format
my preference: narratives/stories that give meaning and explain beyond the specific local context
vernacular traditionsthe historical record not basis of the cult
◦ authors inscriptions often refer to the record (normative info)
the vernacular traditions largely postdate rise of cult◦ could be seen as one form of cult’s larger
mythology (only on more abstract level, see later on)
◦ have incorporated some cult-lore (Peach Garden, epiphany deity in Jade Source Monastery, Bluegreen Dragon halberd)
limited relevance vernacular traditions ◦ illustrate deity’s loyalty and righteousness ◦ do not explain deity’s miracles◦ also many other figures who are not deified
“folklore”surprisingly separate account from vernacular
traditions or historical record ◦ abundant data from 20th century (though not well-
recorded from academic perspective )earlier confirmations
◦ Christian source pre-1658: 關羽,乃漢時山西解梁人氏,姓施名壽昌。因拖欠差糧,官兵拘納,拒捕不完,殺死官兵,逃出關去,指關為姓,官兵盤詰,詐名關羽 .
◦ Liang Zhangju 梁章鉅 (1775—1849) records story of Guan Yu’s rescue of damsel in distress by killing local no-good and subsequent fleeing and adoption name Guan
◦ most elements confirmed in morality book early 19th century
similar narratives probably transmitted much earlier as well
making the deity present imagining the deity
◦ attested from the beginning◦ Example: “The general has a dark date-coloured face,
phoenix eyes, three fang-like whiskers and a long beard of one foot and three inches. A sky-blue band around his head and large red court robes, a belt with a jade buckle, dark court shoes, holding a dragon head, with a large halberd. He has the Red-Hare Horse following him. Normally he uses a joyous face, but when he is engaged in cutting off ears and arresting he has an angry face. He arrives from the Thundergate.” (Daoist ritual, anytime before 1400s)
enacting the deity◦ medium traditions (not well documented)◦ processions◦ exorcist ritual traditions (very real)◦ theatrical traditions (more than others, Lord Guan in
theatre is also imagined as a deity)
MIRACLES
rainunclear: brings rain because he does
everything or specifically bringer of rain?◦5: 13 associated with rain◦5: 13 deity’s birthday since early 13th century◦deity seen as bringing rain on 5:13 at least
since mid 16th century (proverb: whetting his sword)
◦throughout cult’s history able to ward of rain◦20th century folklore very explicit
how to solve this question◦more comparative work◦more data (unlikely)
martial figuregeneral in exorcist ritual practice
◦well-attested in ritual textsdrives away demons
◦expulsion Chiyou paradigmatic storyhelps against bandits etc.
◦from beginning cult’s history in the north
◦against wokou threat 1555s (led to further spread)
◦1813 Eight Trigram’s attack Forbidden Palace
places of contact
a literate deitysurprising: general who is literate
◦historical Guan Yu wrote one letter (according to 三國志 )
◦later commentary on 三國志 claims he could recite 左傳
◦his possible literacy played no role in his personal life or subsequent rise to divinity
prognostication slips ascribed to deity (since late Ming)
spirit writing (since late Ming)
MORAL AGENCY
divine punisherrole also inherent in other
activities (discussed before)case book of Xiangtan (1849-
1850, some 1851-1852)
morality booksgeneral phenomenon
◦太上感應篇◦功過格◦multiplication through recitation,
copying and printingoften revealed through spirit
writing
True Classic to Awaken the World by Imperial Lord Saint Guan 關聖帝君覺世真經
oldest extant version in Japanese ms as 關夫子經 (next slides)general ethicssupported by threat with retribution and
direct punishment◦ I made these words, and I wish that people
honour them. Although the words are shallow and obvious, they are of great benefit to your heart. If you ridicule and insult my words, you will be beheaded and dismembered.
◦common format for maledictions (see Triads)
Classic of Imperial Lord Saint Guan who Illuminates Saintliness 闗聖帝君明聖經revealed text
◦ explicit on its origins in spirit writing session as evidence on legitimacy as divine words
◦ often rambling text, but rhymed (not according to literary modes)
◦ origins in historical records and folklore (already discussed above)
◦ early 19th century text, always reprinted in 1840 version with a revealed commentary
◦ Guan Yu is given task of supervising morality all over the empire
develops later in even stronger morality texts in which only following his moral injunctions can prevent the end of the world at the command of the Jade Emperor
SOME CONCLUDING COMMENTS
commentshungry ghost and demonnot primarily a Buddhist or Daoist
cultlocal cultloyalty etc. secondary
consideration: first and foremost a violent, martial figure
development independent of vernacular traditions
regional basis
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