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Prepared in association with Teachers College, Columbia University. © 2012 TEFL-C International Ltd. All rights reserved.
0 TheDirectApproach
Unit
4
THEDIRECTAPPROACH
"Alanguagecannotbetaught.Onecanonlycreateconditionsforlearningtotakeplace."
–AlexandervonHumboldt
Prepared in association with Teachers College, Columbia University. © 2012 TEFL-C International Ltd. All rights reserved.
1 TheDirectApproach
THEDIRECTAPPROACH
Introduction
Inmuchthesamewaythatourunderstandingofcognitivedevelopmentandgeneraleducationhasevolved,sohasourunderstandingofhowbesttoteachasecondlanguage.Perhapsasevidencethatlanguageteachingisaninexactscience,trendsinteachingasecondlanguagehaveshiftedforcenturiesbackandforthfromfocusingonanalyzingthenewlanguage,especiallyintermsofitsgrammarandstructure,toconcentratingonhowthetargetlanguageisactuallyusedtocommunicate.Approachesthatteachthroughformalgrammaticalanalysisofalanguageareoftenreferredtoasdeductiveapproaches,whilethosethatfocusonlanguageuseratherthanlanguagestructureareoftencalledinductiveapproaches.
Aroundtheendofthe1800’s,thefieldwasimmerseddeepinadeductivelanguageanalysistrendthathascometobeknownastheGrammarTranslationApproach.Becausethisapproachwasnotalwayseffectiveinenablingstudentstotrulycommunicate,however,newapproachesforlanguageteachingbegantospringup.OneofthesewastheDirectApproach.TheDirectApproachincorporatedtechniquesdesignedtoaddressalltheareasthattheGrammarTranslationApproachdidnot.TheDirectApproachfocusedmuchmoreonoralcommunication,spontaneoususeofthelanguage,anddevelopingtheabilityto“think”inthetargetlanguage.AsadirectresponsetotheGrammarTranslationApproachorevenasovercompensationforthelimitationsofvarioustechniquestypicaloftheGrammarTranslationApproach,theDirectApproachimmediatelydistinguisheditselfinmanyways.Forexample,theDirectApproachavoidedusingthestudents’nativelanguage(L1)asthelanguageofinstruction.Itdownplayedtheimportanceof
Prepared in association with Teachers College, Columbia University. © 2012 TEFL-C International Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 TheDirectApproach
memorizinggrammaticalrulesandstrictlyavoidedtranslationbetweentheL1andthetargetlanguage.
WewillbeginthisunitbydiscussingthehistoryoftheDirectApproach.NextwewilldescribethegeneralfeaturesoftheDirectApproachandbrieflycomparethemtosomeotherapproachesusedinforeignlanguageorEnglishlanguageteaching(ELT)classrooms.ThenwewillconsidersomeofthepotentialproblemswithusingtheDirectApproach.Finally,wewillfocusonputtingsomeDirectApproachmethodsintopracticeintheclassroom.Inparticular,wewilllookattheRassiasMethod®toenrichingalessonandJamesAsher’sTotalPhysicalResponse(TPR)method,whichisstillheavilyusedtoday,especiallywithyounglearners.Anothermorerecentinnovation,TPRStorytelling(TPRS),willalsobeexplored.
HistoricalandTheoreticalBackground
ThepersoncreditedwithfirstdevelopingtheprinciplesoftheDirectApproachisFrançoisGouin,ateacherofLatinwholivedinFranceinthenineteenthcentury.Hisfirst‐handexperienceattemptingtolearnGermanasanadultencouragedhimtorethinkhisapproachtolanguageteaching.GouintraveledtoGermanytostudythelanguageattheUniversityofHamburg.Beingalanguageteacherhimself,hedecidedthatitwouldbevaluableforhimtofirstmemorizethegrammarrulesystemofGermanaswellasthelanguage’snearly250irregularverbs.Havingdoneso,hewenttotheuniversityandwasshockedtodiscoverthathecouldnotunderstandawordofspokenGerman.Gouinthendecidedthatitmaybehelpfultomemorizethe800wordrootsthatformthebasisofmostoftheGermanlanguageandtoreviewthegrammarrulesandirregularverbs.StillhefoundhecouldnotunderstandGerman.Next,GouinpracticedbytranslatingclassicsofGermanliterature.Thenhememorizedabookof
古安“系列法” 在课堂的使用 - 首先,学生看、听, 并理解系列句 - 学生在理解后自己造 句,边说边表演
理论和历史背景
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3 TheDirectApproach
GermandialoguesandeventuallytriedtomemorizeanentireGermandictionary.Afterayearofrotememorizationandgrammartranslationpractice,GouinreturnedtoFrance,stillunabletounderstandorspeakfluentGerman,onlytofindthathisthree‐year‐oldnephewhadbecomefluentinFrenchwhilehewasaway.
Afterstudyingearlychildhoodlanguageacquisition,GouindevelopedanewteachingmethodhecalledtheSeriesMethod.TheSeriesMethodwasanearlydirectapproachthatdidnotincludegrammartranslationorrotememorization.Gouinbelievedthatlanguagecouldbelearnedmoreeasilyifitwerepresentedorallyasasequenceofevents.AGouinseriesconsistsofsixtoeightcommandsorstatementsofuptosevenoreightsyllableseach.Thestatementsshouldincludeactionverbsofuniformtenseandpersonsothattheteachercanmodelwhatthestatementssaid,possiblywiththeaidofsimpleprops,tohelpthestudentscomprehend.Thefollowingisanexample:
TodayisTim’sbirthday.Hegetsapresent.
Heopensthepresent.Helooksinsidethebox.Heseesatoycar.
Hetakesoutthetoycar.Heplayswiththetoycar.Thetoycarbreaks.
Atfirst,thestudentswereallowedtosimplywatchandlisten,tryingtounderstandthelanguageintheseries.Eventually,studentsweregivenopportunitiestoproducethelanguageoncetheyfeltcomfortablewiththeirabilitytocomprehendit,oftenperformingthemodelingactionsthemselvesastheyspoke.Wenowrefertoapproachesthatinitiallyfocusonlyonlisteningcomprehensionas
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4 TheDirectApproach
comprehensionbasedapproaches.(Thosethatrequirelearnerstospeakor“produce”thelanguagefromtheverybeginningarereferredtoasproductionbasedapproaches.)Despitehisuniqueinsights,Gouin’sSeriesMethodneverenjoyedgreatpopularity,partlybecauseonlyagenerationlateritwasabsorbedintotheapproachofamoreflamboyantlanguage‐teachingbusinessmaninGermany,CharlesBerlitz,andrenamedtheDirectMethod(orDirectApproach).
AlthoughBerlitzwasresponsibleforpopularizingtheapproachinEurope,itwasafollowerofGouin,EmileB.deSauzé,whofirsttooktheDirectApproachtotheUnitedStates.Intheearlytwentiethcentury,deSauzétraveledtoCleveland,Ohiotoconsultwiththecity’spublicschools,tryingtoensurethatallforeignlanguageteachingtherefollowedthebasictenetsoftheDirectApproach.Theapproach,however,nevercaughtoninAmerica,largelybecausetherewasashortageofforeignlanguageteacherswhowerefluentenoughinthelanguagestheytaughttousetheapproacheffectively.Thisdifficulty,alongwiththefactthattheDirectApproachrequiredmanyexpensivepropsanddidnotworkwellinlargeclasses,wouldlaterleadtoitsgeneraldownfallworldwide.
AlthoughthetraditionalformoftheDirectApproachwouldneveragainenjoythetypeofpopularityitonceheldinEurope,partsofithavebeenresurrectedinthelasthalf‐centuryintheformofnewmethodsthatusemanyofitsbasicprinciples,buthaveavoidedsomeofthemajordrawbacksthatledtoitsdecline.AmongthesenewmethodswerethoseoftwoAmericans,JohnRassiasandJamesJ.AsherwhodevelopedtheRassiasMethodandtheTotalPhysicalResponsemethod,respectively.ThesetwomethodsarediscussedingreaterdetailinthesectiononOvercomingtheDisadvantagesoftheDirectApproach.
comprehension-based approaches (以理解为基础的教学法) production-based approaches (以运用为基础的教学法)
以贝列兹命名的“直接教学法” 在欧洲推广
艾米莉·索斯 - 将直接法介绍到美国 - 未能在美国推广:缺 乏外语教师,需贵重的道具,不能在人数多的班级推广
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5 TheDirectApproach
CharacteristicsoftheDirectApproach
ThebasictenetsoftheDirectApproachwereasfollows:1)Allinstructionwasdeliveredinthetargetlanguage;2)Grammarwastaughtusinganinductiveapproach;3)LessonsbeganwithdialoguesorshortstoriesresemblingaGouinseries;4)Actions,props,andillustrationshelpedstudentstounderstand;5)Commonconcretevocabularywastaughtusingpicturesandrealia;6)Abstractwordsweretaughtthroughassociationandcontext;and7)Ateacherwithnative‐likeproficiencyinthetargetlanguagewasrequired.
Thenewschoolofthinkingatthetimewasthatforeignlanguageteachingshouldtakeplaceonlyinthetargetlanguage.Notranslationordescriptionofgrammarwasgiveninthestudents’nativelanguage.Studentswouldhavetosurviveinforeignlanguageclassastheywouldiftheyvisitedthecountrywherethelanguagewasspoken.Thestudentswereexpectedtoinductivelydiscovertherulesofthelanguage.TheDirectApproacharosefromthisfadofmonolingualteaching,whichwaspopularduringthebeginningofthetwentiethcenturyinprivatelanguageschoolsinEurope.
ThoughtheDirectApproachisanimmersionapproach,thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanitisacommunicativeapproach.AsRichard‐Amato(1996)pointsout,theDirectApproachmerelymakesanefforttoimmersestudentsinthetargetlanguage.Teachermonologues,formalquestionsandanswers,anddirectrepetitionoftheinputarefrequentandmaynotaccuratelyreflectthetypeoflanguageexchangethatistypicalofeverydaynative‐speakercommunication.(TheCommunicativeApproachisdiscussedinmuchgreaterdetailintheunitbythattitle.)
Ingeneral,therearefourimportantfeaturesthatdistinguishtheDirectApproachfromotherlanguage‐teaching
直接教学法的特点
直接教学法的原则 - 全部使用目的语教学 - 采用归纳法教语法 - 采用对话或类似古安 系列法的小故事开始课程 - 用动作、道具和插图 帮助学生理解 - 通过图片和实物道具 教授实词 - 通过联想和上下文教 授虚词 - 需有能熟练掌握目的 语的教师
immersion approach ( 沉浸式教学法 ) communicative approach ( 交际教学法 )
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6 TheDirectApproach
approachescoveredinthiscourse.Whenweobserveteachersusingthisapproach,weusuallyseethefollowingclassroominteractions:
1)Whentheyarefirstlearningthetargetlanguage,studentsfrequentlyrelyontranslationfromtheirfirstlanguagetonegotiatethemeaningfornewvocabulary,muchlikeweseeinthemoretraditionalGrammarTranslationApproach.However,theDirectApproachteacherconsistentlystrivesfromtheoutsettoredirectthewaystudentslearnsothattheyuseasmuchofthetargetlanguageaspossibletoassignmeaningtonewwords.Studentsarestronglyencouragedtousenewvocabularyinameaningfulcontextwithoutresortingtotranslation.
2)TheDirectApproachteacheroftenisthesolesourceofinputofthenewlanguageandthereforeretainsastrong,somewhatauthoritarianroleasateacherandlanguageresource.Theteacherenforcesthe“targetlanguageonly”rule,andthisrequiresalotofteachercontrol.However,asuccessfulDirectApproachteacherquicklylearnstocedecontrolofthelanguagelearningprocesstothestudents.Theirenthusiasmandactiveparticipationinaskingquestionsandinteractingwithoneanothershouldbeencouraged.Theyaretaughttoexperimentwiththetargetlanguage,ratherthanrelyingsoexclusivelyontheteacherasthesoleproviderofcontentandvocabulary.
3)AllDirectApproachlessonsandactivitiesaredesignedaroundmeaningfulcontextswithanauthenticrealworldapplication.Forexample,dialogues,role‐plays,orlearningsituationsmightbebuiltaroundstudents’experiencesattheplayground,inthesupermarket,atthedoctor’soffice,orinthecafeteria.Insteadof
直接教学法有别于其他语言教学法的四个特征 - 尽量使用目的语,不 求助于翻译 - 学生掌控自己的语言 学习;学生自己用目的语实践 - 要求学生先练习目的 语或其语言结构,然后引导学生通过归纳自己发现语言规则和语言模式 - 更注重口头交际
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7 TheDirectApproach
teachinggrammarpointsdirectlybypresentingrulesandassigningwrittenexercisesordrills(methodscommonlyseenintheGrammarTranslationApproach),studentsaretaughttopracticethetargetlanguageorstructurefirstanddiscovertheruleorlanguagepatternthemselvesbyinduction.Thispracticalapproachmeansthatstudentswillinternalizethestructuresandbeabletousethemmorereadily.
4)Amongthefourskills,theDirectApproachfocusesmuchmoreonoralcommunicationthantheotherskills,especiallywriting.Arich,ongoingdialoguetakesplaceintheDirectApproachclassroomandhasmanyaspects.Precedenceshouldbegiventoauthenticspeakingpracticebetweenandamongstudentsinpairsorgroupsaswellasbetweentheteacherandthestudents.Thecontentoftheirreadingandthetopicsoftheirwritingassignmentsaredirectlyrelatedtotheconversationaltopicsthatformthecoreofthecurriculum.Thisfocusonoralcommunicationmeansthatvocabularyandpronunciationareemphasized.Explicitgrammarinstructionisminimizedortieddirectlytodailyconversationalpractice(Larsen‐Freeman,2001).
AdvantagesoftheDirectApproach
OneofthegreatestadvantagesoftheDirectApproachisthatitmaximizesthestudents’exposuretothetargetlanguage.ProponentsoftheApproachsuggestthatevenbasicinstructionsshouldnotbetranslated.Theteachershouldnotshieldthestudentfromthestruggleformeaningbyprovidingfirst‐languagesupport.Instead,theteacherandstudentshouldbothembracethestruggletomakemeaningoutofanewlanguage,tocommunicatebothclassroomlanguageandthecontentofideas,andtobemutuallyunderstood.Thisis
直接教学法的优点 - 让学生最大限度地接 触目的语,尽量在陌生的语言中了解其含义 -大量使用道具、图片 和插图来展示实词,帮助学生准确了解词义 - 听说领先,读写让路
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8 TheDirectApproach
whenmostofthereallearningtakesplace.
Also,theApproach’sheavyuseofpropsandphotosorillustrationstorepresentconcretevocabularyhelpstomakethemeaningofwordsunmistakablycleartostudents.Props,images,andactionsalsohelpthestudentstoaccuratelydeductthemeaningofmoreabstractsurroundingwords.Havingstudentsinteractwiththesepropsandimagesastheypracticespeakingthemselvesalsohelpsthemtorememberorretainthelanguage.
TheDirectApproachadvocatesfocusingfirstonlyonlisteningandspeakingskillsratherthansharingclasstimewithreadingandwritingpractice.Thismayhelpthestudentstoimprovetheiroral‐auralskillsmorequickly.Somehaveargued,however,thatafourskillsapproachthatteacheslistening,speaking,reading,andwritingsimultaneouslyisactuallybetterforstudents’Aural–Oralprogressbecausetheothertwoskillshelptoreinforcethelearningthroughdifferentformsofdeliveryandpractice.
Manyresearchershavearguedthatinductivelearningapproaches,suchastheDirectApproach,alsofacilitategreaterstudentfluencythandeductivelearningapproachesthatfocusagreatdealonformallylearninggrammaticalrules.Theseresearchersproposethatstudentswholearndeductivelymustfirstprocesstheapplicationofagrammaticalrulementallybeforetheyspeak,butthatspeakingcomesmorenaturallytothosewhohavelearnedinductivelybecausetheycanskipthementalprocessofconsciouslyapplyingaformalrule.
DisadvantagesoftheDirectApproach
TheDirectApproachwasfeasibleforprivatelanguageschoolsbutnotforpubliceducationwheretherewerenotmanyfluentteachersofvariouslanguages.Inthepublic
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9 TheDirectApproach
schools,GrammarTranslationenjoyed(andoftencontinuestoenjoy)itslongreignofpopularity.AlthoughtheGrammarTranslationApproachisoftenstronglycriticizedasbeingrelativelyineffective,thefactisthattheEnglishteachingpopulousdoesnothavethecommunicativeskillsrequiredtocarryouttheDirectApproach.WecanstillseethatmanyministriesofeducationandprivatelanguageschoolsencouragetheDirectApproach,butwhetherornotitiscarriedoutoftendependsontheteachers’speakingability.
Thegeneralgoalistobeabletoteachsolelyinthetargetlanguage,butchallengesremain.First,mostteachersarenotfluentenoughinthetargetlanguagetobeabletomanagetheentireclassinEnglish.Secondly,thereisanaturaltendencytoexplainandclarifydirectionsinthestudents’nativelanguage.Anotherdownfallofanon‐translationapproachisthatstudentssometimesdonotrespondatallwhentheycannotfollowinstructions.Inotherwords,they“tuneout.”Therefore,thechallengeofaDirectApproachteacheristoengagethestudentsusingappealingmethods.Inthenextsection,wewillexploresomewaysinwhichtheDirectApproachcanbemademorefun,exciting,andinteractive.
AnotherdrawbackisthatcoursebooksbasedontheDirectApproachoftenmovestudentssoquicklythroughnewsyntacticstructuresthattheirinternalizationbecomesdifficult,ifnotimpossible.Also,becausetheinputdeliveredbytheteacherintheDirectApproachoftentakestheformofanarrativemonologueorGouinseries,itmaynotaccuratelyreflectthesortofturn‐takingexchangemostcommonintruenative‐speakercommunication.Thismayleavestudentscapableofdescribingasetofinstructionsorseriesofevents,butill‐preparedtocarryonanormalconversation.
AnotherproblemisthattheDirectApproachrequirestheuseofmanyexpensivepropsandflashcards,makingit
直接教学法的缺点 - 对教师的语言熟练程 度要求高,不适用于公立学校 - 直接法面临的困难: 教师本身目的语不流利,必然用本族语阐释 - 有时学生不理解就无 反应
直接教学法的缺点(续) - 句法结构过快介绍给 学生,使其内在化产生困难 - 不能真实反映本族语 使用者的交际情况 - 使用昂贵的道具和抽 认卡,不够经济实用 - 可能造成学生的读写 能力滞后
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10 TheDirectApproach
financiallyinfeasibleformanyschools.Finally,becausetheDirectApproachfocusesprimarilyonlisteningandspeakingskills,studentsoftheApproachmaylagbehindothersintermsoftheirreadingandwritingskills.AlthoughtherearesignificantdisadvantagestothetraditionalDirectApproach,variationsonithavebecomepopularwithinthelastfewdecades.MostofthesevariationshavebecomesuccessfulbyfindingwaystoovercomesomeofthedisadvantagesoftheoriginalversionoftheDirectApproach.
OvercomingtheDisadvantagesoftheDirectApproach
InsteadofabandoningtheDirectApproachbecauseoftheproblemsdescribedabove,researchersandeducationspecialistshavedevelopednewmethodstoteachingEnglish"directly"orthroughimmersion.Onesuchmethod,theRassiasMethod,focusesontheuseofdramaorexaggeratedshowmanshipbytheteacher.Anothermethod,TotalPhysicalResponse(TPR),useslotsofphysicalaction,gestures,andbodylanguagetoconveymeaning.AvariationonTPR,TotalPhysicalResponseStorytelling,(TPRS)includesthesesamegesturesandbodylanguage,buttiesthemalltogetherintoamorecoherent,connected,ornarrativecontext.
TheRassiasMethod
TheatricalanddramatictechniquesarenotnormallytaughttofutureELTteachersaspartoftheirstandardpreparation,butforDirectApproachteacherstheyreallyshouldbe,atleastaccordingtoDr.JohnRassiasofDartmouthUniversityintheU.S.HedevelopedhisRassiasMethodasanintensivelearningmethodforstudentsofforeignlanguagesintheU.S.Rassiasbecameahighlysoughtafterteacherofshort‐termimmersionprogramsthatwouldquicklytakestudentsfromanabsolutebeginnerleveltoafunctionallevel.The
克服直接教学法的缺点 - 拉夏氏法:采用戏剧 或教师的夸张表演 - 整体动作反应法:通 过身体动作、手势和肢体语言表达含义
拉夏氏法 - 要求教师学习掌握一 定的戏剧技巧 - 该方法建立在全沉浸 式教学法基础上
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11 TheDirectApproach
RassiasMethodwasusedtotrainPeaceCorpsworkers,missionaries,orstudentswhowereplanningtostudyabroad.
LikethetraditionalDirectApproach,theRassiasMethodisbasedontotalimmersion,butitvariesfromotherimmersionapproachesbecauseitreliesmoreondramaandtheatricaltechniquesthanrealiaandpicturestoliterallymovestudentstounderstanding.Rassiasdescribeshisapproachasuniqueinthat“itincludessomefiftydramatictechniquesthatbanishinhibitions,whichretardtheacquisitionofforeignlanguages.”Rassiasisfamousforhisshowmanship.Anexampleisthatwhenheteacheshisownstudentsthewordegghecracksanimaginaryeggoverhishead,andwhenteachingthepluralofthisword,hehasthestudentsthrow“eggs”athim.
BecausetheRassiasMethoddemandssomuchshowmanshipfromitsteachers,actorsaregoodpotentialRassiasteachers.TheRassiasMethodisthuscurrentlytaughtatactingschoolstogiveactorsback‐upcareerskillsasEnglishlanguageteachers.MostteachersinthefieldofEnglishasaForeignLanguage(EFL)haveneverheardaboutRassiasbecausethisapproachismorecommonlypracticedinU.S.highschoolsanduniversitiesforteachingAmericansforeignlanguagessuchasFrenchandSpanish.TheapproachhasnotyetmadearealcrossovertoEFL.However,itisamodeltobeconsideredwhenplanningtousetheDirectApproach.ImmersionEFLteachersareusuallysimply
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12 TheDirectApproach
encouragedtousestrongvisualsandmeaningfulconversationstoimpartmeaningofnewwordsorexpressions,butmostlanguageteachersarenotadeptintheatricaltechniques,whichRassiasteachersconsideraveryimportanttool.
ThekeylessonfromRassiasisthatDirectApproachteachersmustbeverycreativetoengagetheirstudentsandinvolvethemdirectlyinthelearningprocess.LikeRassias,theyneedtodevelopsomesortofdramaticmethodorasenseofshowmanship.(ThetopicofusingdramamethodstoteachEnglishasaforeignlanguageisdiscussedinmuchgreaterdetailintheunitofthiscourseentitledTeachingThroughDrama.)
TheTotalPhysicalResponseMethod
TotalPhysicalResponse(TPR)isanotherinteractiveDirectApproachmethodusuallycreditedtoDr.JamesJ.AsherofSanJoseStateUniversityintheU.S.stateofCalifornia.However,AsherattributessomeofhisideastotechniquesoriginallydevelopedbyHaroldandDorothyPalmerin1925.Inthe1960’s,AsherintroducedtheideaofteachinglanguagesusingTotalPhysicalResponsetomakeinputmorecomprehensible.HedevelopedtheTPRtechniquebecausehethoughttheAudio–LingualMethod(ALM)invogueatthetimehadmany
整体动作反应法 - 教师先给出指令, 随后结合指令做、 示范,最后学生完 成动作
Figure 2: James J. Asher
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13 TheDirectApproach
drawbacks.(ALMisdiscussedingreaterdetailintheunitofthiscourseentitledTheAural–OralApproaches.)
Initssimplestform,TPRisawaytomakekeywordsandexpressions,particularlyactions,moremeaningfulandmoreeasilyunderstood.Ashershowedhowlanguagescanbetaughtusingaseriesofcommands.Theapproachwasverystructuredandsystematic.Firsttheteachergivesthecommand,thentheteachermodelsthemovementassociatedwiththecommand,andfinallythestudentperformstheaction.InthepureformofTPR,studentsarenotaskedtospeak,butonlytrytounderstandandobeythecommand.Theteacher,forexample,says,“Raiseyourhand,”andthenraiseshisorherhand.Allthestudentsraisetheirhandsaccordingly.Theteachersays,“Putyourheaddownonthetable,”andputshisorherheadonthetable,whilethestudentsimitatetheactionexactly.Graduallythecommandsgetmorecomplicated(e.g.,“IfPeteriswearingaredshirt,thenraiseyourhandandknockonthetabletwice.”)(Asher,1965)
Byincorporatinggesturestorepresentnounvocabularyorevenadjectives,prepositions,andsooninadditiontoactions,someteachersuseTPRforlanguagepracticebeyondactioncommandstructures.(Forexample,whentheteachersays,“It’ssunnytoday,”everyoneshadestheireyesasiftoprotectthemfromthebrightsun.)Oftenothercuessuchasvisuals,pictures,realia,andevencostumesareusedtoreinforcethemeaningofnewwordsorexpressions.ThroughroleplaysTPRcanalsobeappliedtomoreauthenticcontextssuchasstartingthefirstdayofschool,takingafieldtrip,goingtothedoctor’sofficeororderinginarestaurantratherthanonlytoclassroominteractions.
Regardlessoftheformittakes,thekeyfeaturesofTPRarethatalllanguageinputispresentedonlyinthetargetlanguage,thatstudentsdemonstratecomprehensionby
整体动作反应法的特征 - 语言输入全部为目的 语 - 学生通过肢体动作表 达是否理解 - 指令由简到难 - 给学生更多情感帮助 :提高学习动机,加强学生自信,提高学生自我评价,降低情感障碍,为以后更具挑战性的课程做准备 - 学生在接触大量实例 后,归纳语法规则和语言形式 - 遵循循序渐进的语言 发展过程
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14 TheDirectApproach
performingsomeactionorphysicalresponse,andthatthecommandsorotherstructuresproceedfrommoresimpletomorecomplexoverthecourseofseverallessons.
AnotherdistinguishingfeatureofTPRisthatitoffersmanyaffectivebenefitstostudents.Aclassinvolvinglotsofmovementandpraisecanbehighlymotivating.Studentsshouldfeelmoreconfidentaftertheyareabletorespondnaturallyandwithouthesitationtovariouscommandsofincreasingdifficulty.AneffectiveTPRteachershouldrecognizewhensomestudentsarestrugglingtocomprehend,andshouldadjustthemethodaccordingly.TheTPRteachermustbesensitiveandtunedintothesubtlevariationsinresponses,especiallythebodylanguageofhisorherstudents.Ifastudentisuncomfortableorhesitateswhenthecommandisgiven,forexample,thentheinstructormustfine‐tunetheinput,slowdownthecommands,andmakeaccommodationssothatallthestudentscanfollowalongandfeelasenseofinclusionandaccomplishment.Suchanapproachwillraisethestudents’self‐esteem,lowertheaffectivefilter(aconceptcoveredingreaterdetailintheunitofthiscourseentitledTheNaturalApproach),andpreparethemformorechallenginginteractionsinfuturelessons(Asher,1984).
InmuchthesamewaythattheDirectApproachrelatesthemasteryofgrammarstructuresasanaturalprocessthatcomesafterplentyofexposuretothetargetlanguage,studentsexposedtoTPRtechniqueslearntherulesofgrammarandforminductively,figuringitoutthemselvesafterhearingnumerousexamples.Althoughatfirstthefocusisonlisteningandrespondingtothetargetlanguage,Ashersuggeststhatstudentswillbeginspeakingwhentheyareready,inmuchthesamewaythatyoungchildrenfirstcommunicateorallyintheirfirstlanguage.Hereferstoresearchwithinfantsthatdemonstratehowtheyinteractedwiththeirparents.Ashernotesthatallresponsesareinitially
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15 TheDirectApproach
basedonlistening.Thebabycanonlyregisterunderstandingbyrespondingwithsomesortofmovementorgesture.Atfirstaparentmaygivesimplecommandssuchas“Taketherattle.”Then,thenextstepwouldbe“Taketherattleandshakeit,”then“Pickitupandputitdown,”andsoforth,sothataseriesofactionsaretaughtbyexample.Parentssystematicallybuildonthechild’slanguageawareness.
Gradually,childrenrespondattheirownpaceandthenspontaneouslybegintocreatetheirownlanguageandevenspeakafewwords.TheTPRapproachshouldfollowthissamegradual,incrementalprocessoflanguagedevelopment,accordingtoAsher.Hegoesontosuggestthatlisteningandspeakingskillsshouldcomplementreadingandwritingskills,whichshouldalsoarisespontaneouslyafterrepeatedTPRsessions.ThusovertimeatypicalTPRclassshouldallotsometimeforallfourskills,butnotequally,withperhaps70percentdevotedtolisteningcomprehension,twentypercenttospeaking,andjusttenpercenttoreadingandwriting(Asher,Kusodo,&delaTorre,1974).
AccordingtoAsher,“Instudyafterstudyfortwenty‐fiveyears,laboratoryexperimentsandclassroomobservationshavedemonstratedresultsthatwereextremelypositive.Whentheinstructorskillfullyusesthetargetlanguagetodirectthestudent’sbehavior,understandingoftheutteranceistransparent,ofteninonlyoneexposure.Also,theunderstandingisachievedwithoutstressandthenretainedforweeks,months,andevenyears”(Asher,1984).
SomeresearchersnotethattheTPRtechniquehasseveralmeritsbutalsomanydrawbacks.Objectivelyspeaking,perhapsTPRshouldonlybeusedforspecificpurposesandduringparticularstagesinalanguagelesson.ItcannotrealisticallyserveasthecornerstoneofanentireEFLprogram,aspractitionersaffiliatedwithAsherhave
要点 - 整体动作反应 法对层次较高 的学生依然有 帮助,使其在角 色扮演中情感 更丰富,交流更 自由
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16 TheDirectApproach
suggested.RatheritshouldbeconsideredasonehighlyeffectiveinstrumentintheELTteacher’stoolboxwhenusedinconjunctionwithothertoolsandtechniques.
RegardingthedrawbacksassociatedwithTPR,manycriticscitethemechanicalandrepetitiousnatureofthe“commandandresponse”techniqueasboringorcounterproductive,andverylimitingintermsofvocabulary.Also,byfocusingmosttargetlanguageontheimperativeformorrelatedlanguagestructures,thevastarrayofotherlanguageformsareautomaticallyexcluded.Inaddition,TPRisusuallyonlyeffectiveatthebeginnerleveloflanguageinstruction,sincemostdiscourseextendswellbeyondtheone‐wordresponsesandshortphrasestypicalofTPR.Also,sinceTPRteachersoftenlimittheircommandstonarrowlydefinedcontexts,studentsareoftenunabletoapplythetargetlanguageoutsidetheclassroom.Finally,gettingallstudents“onboard”andreadytomovefrompassivelanguageinput(listening)toactivelanguageoutput(speaking)isverydifficultinlargeordiverseclassrooms.
TPRdefinitelyhasitsplaceinanELTclass.Usingthismethodisalogicalfirststeptoreinforcebasiccommandformsandprepareformorecomplexfluencyactivitiesinfuturelessons.IfTPRisnotoverused,itcanmakeapowerfulimpressiononlanguagelearners.TPRisanespeciallyeffectiveteachingtoolwhenitisusedasawarm‐upactivity,tointroducenewcontent,orasthebasisforlanguagegamesorreviewactivities.
AnExpandedTotalPhysicalResponseMethod
Manyteachersandcertainlymanyparentsdisagreewiththeideaofallowingstudentstosimplypracticelisteningcomprehensionuntiltheyreachacomfortlevelthatallowsthemtospeakstructuresontheirown.Asaresult,someteacherspracticealesspureformofTPRthatbeginsmuch
整体动作反应法的缺点 - 仅适用于特定的目的 和语言课程某个特定阶段 - 仅仅是教师教学手段 中的一种 - 机械、重复的“命令 -回答”模式较枯燥 ,达不到预期目标,用词有限 - 很多语言形式被排除 - 仅在语言学习初期有 效 - 学生不会在课堂之外 应用目的语 - 班级大、学生程度参 差不齐难以采用
整体动作反应法的扩展
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17 TheDirectApproach
liketraditionalTPR,butthenencouragesstudentstobeginproducingthelanguagesoonerthantheymightattheirownpace.InalesspureversionofTPR,thestudentsbeginwithacomprehension‐basedapproach,butaftersomeexperiencewithitareencouragedtoproducethecommandsthemselves,eithertooneanotherinsmallgroupsorinwholeclasssituations.OnesuchexpandedapproachtoTPRrecommendssixsteps,takingstudentsfrompurecomprehension‐basedlearningthroughlanguageproduction.ThesestepsarereflectedinTable1.
Table1:SixStepsofanExpandedApproachtoTPR
Ascanbeseen,thefirsttwostepsinthisexpandedapproachtoTPRbasicallycomprisethestepsofpureTPR.Firsttheteachersaysacommandanddoesarelatedactionwhilethestudentswatch.Thentheteachersaysanddoesthecommandagain,watchingtoseethatthestudentsperformtheappropriatephysicalresponsetothecommand.Inthethirdstep,however,thestudentsareencouragedtonotonlywatchtheteacheranddotheactionsalongwithhimorher,butalsotospeakthecommandalongwiththeteacher.Fourth,theteachergivesthecommandandobservesthestudentstomakesuretheyrepeatandfollowtheappropriate
整体动作反应法的扩展分为六步(见表 1) -从学生纯粹的以理解 为基础的语言学习到其语言的运用
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18 TheDirectApproach
commandwithouthavingtheactionmodeledbytheteacher.Next,theteacherdoesanactionandthestudentsrespondbygivingtheoralcommandandrepeatingtheaction.Finally,studentstaketurnsintheroleoftheteacherandgivecommandsthattherestoftheclassisexpectedtofollowwhiletherealteacheronlyobservestomakesuretheclasscomprehendscorrectly.
TheTPRStorytellingMethod
Inresponsetosomeoftheproblemsmentionedpreviously,TPRStorytelling(TPRS)hasemergedandrapidlygainedpopularity.TPRSwasdevelopedbyBlaineRayofBakersfield,Californiain1990.It“fillsintheblanks”thatTPRteachersfoundtobeweaknessesintraditionallypracticedTPR.Themethodologycanbeincorporatedintoanycourseorsyllabusandrequiresfewmaterials.
TPRSembedsTPRintostorytelling.ThestoriescontextualizetheTPRcommandsandactions.Studentsfirsthearthestory,seeit(throughvisuals),actitout,retellit,reviseit,andfinallyrewriteit.Thismethodhasallthegoodcomponentsofafluencybuildingactivity.Themanyaspectsoftheprocessappealtostudentsofvarioustalentsandintelligences.Thephysicalaspectappealstokinestheticlearners,whichisoneofthemainattractionsofTPR,butthroughTPRS,wecanalsostimulatestudentswithotherlearningstylesorintelligences.
Thefollowingisastep‐by‐stepexplanationofatypicalTPRSlesson.ThisexamplelessoncomesfromabeginninglevelSpanishasaforeignlanguagetextbookcalled¡CuéntameMás!(TellMeMore!)
整体动作反应讲故事法
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19 TheDirectApproach
1)UseTPRpracticeandscenariostoteachvocabulary.TheteacherusesTPRtoteachasmallgroupofwords.Afterintroducingawordanditsassociatedaction,heorshe"playswith"thevocabularyinTPRpracticetoprovidemorecomprehensibleinput.Usinggestures,manipulatives,pictures,andfamiliarvocabulary,theteacherthenfurtherreinforcesnewvocabularybygivingstudentsaseriesofcommandstoexecuteandshortscenariostoactout.Forexample,inabeginning‐levelstorylessonfrom¡CuéntameMás!,thefollowingvocabularyitemsaretaughtviaTPR:thecoyote,sees,thebird,wantstoeat,grabs,offers.SampleTPRcommandsmightincludethefollowing:
Eat.
Eatabigplateofspinach.(Yuck!)Eatfouricecreamcones.(Yum!)Eatasmallbirdandabigcoyote.
Grabthecoyote.Offerittothestudentonyourright.
Thereisabigcoyote.Thereisalsoatinybird.Thecoyoteseesthebird.Thecoyotewantstoeatthebird.Thecoyotegrabsthebird.Ohno!Butthebirdoffersthecoyoteapeanutbuttersandwich.Whata
relief!
整体动作反应讲故事法课的五个步骤 - 采用整体动作反应和 故事情节教词汇 - 学生自己说和练习生 词 - 讲一个小故事让学生 修改和复述(教师采用的技巧:讲故事中中断,让学生补充或表演动作;故意犯错让学生纠正;提出简答题或主观题) - 讲一个主要故事让学 生修改和复述 - 学生用新旧词汇编故 事
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20 TheDirectApproach
Offerthatstudentabigbird.Grabacoyoteandputitonthatstudent'shead.
Afterpracticewithshortcommands,asamplescenario,whichstudentsactoutwhiletheteachernarrates,mightlooklikethis:
Thereisatinybird.("Studentbird"takesabowandsays"tweet,tweet.")
Thereisabigcoyote.("Studentcoyote"takesabowandhowls.)
Thebigcoyotehasfoursandwiches.Thetinybirdwantstoeatthesandwiches.Thecoyoteoffersthebirdtwosandwiches.Yum!
2)Studentsproduceandpracticevocabularywords.OncestudentshaveinternalizedvocabularywordsthroughTPRpracticeandscenarios,theclassdividesintostudentpairstopracticeproducingthewords.Onestudentinthepairreadsthewordandtheothergivesthecorrespondinggesture,thenviceversa.Next,onestudentdoesthegestureandtheothersaysthecorrespondingword.
3)Studentsproduceandpracticevocabularywords.OncestudentshaveinternalizedvocabularywordsthroughTPRpracticeandscenarios,theclassdividesintostudentpairstopracticeproducingthewords.Onestudentinthepairreadsthewordandtheothergivesthecorrespondinggesture,thenviceversa.Next,onestudentdoesthegestureandtheothersaysthecorrespondingword.
4)Presentaministorythatstudentsthenreviseandretell.Usingstudentactors,puppets,orpicturesfromthetext,theteachernarratesamini‐storycontainingthetargetvocabularywords.Themini‐storyandillustrationscorrespondingtotheabovevocabularywordsfollow:
Thereisabigcoyote.Thereisalsoatinybird.Thecoyoteseesthebird.Thecoyotewantstoeatthebird.Thecoyotegrabs
thebird.Ohno!Butthebirdoffersthecoyoteapeanutbutter
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21 TheDirectApproach
sandwich.Whatarelief!
5)Theteacherusesavarietyoftechniquestoincreaseexposuretothestoryandtohelpthestudentsstarttellingit:1)Heorshepausesinthestorytoallowstudentstofillinwordsoractoutgestures;2)Heorshemakesmistakesandencouragesthestudentstocorrectthem;3)Heorsheasksshort‐answerandopen‐endedquestions.(Isthecoyotebigorlittle?Whodoesthecoyotegrab?Whatisthecoyote'sname?Wheredoeshelive?etc.)Oncethestoryisinternalized,studentsthenretellittoapartner.Studentsmaytellthestoryfrommemoryormayuseillustrationsorguidewordswrittenupontheboardascues.Theclassthenreconvenesandstudentvolunteersretellthestoryfortheotherstudentstoactout.Theteachermayalsohelptheclassrevisethestory,changingafewdetailsabouttheplotorcharacterstocreateanewversionoftheoriginalstoryline.
6)Presentamainstorythatstudentsthenreviseandretell.Smallgroupsofmini‐storiesaredesignedtopreparestudentstonarrate,read,andwritealongermainstorythatusesthevocabularyfromthemini‐stories.Onceanentiregroupofmini‐storieshasbeenmasteredbytheclass,theteacherrepeatsstepthreetointroducethemainstory.Afterthemainstoryhasbeenpresentedandactedout,itisreinforcedwithreadingsandexercisesfromthetextbook.Aswithmini‐stories,studentsbuilduponthemainstory,usingtheirexistinglanguageskillstoembellishtheplot,personalizethecharacters,andcreaterevisions.
7)Studentsusenewandoldvocabularytocreateoriginalstories.Capitalizingontheircreativity,studentsaregivenopportunitiestowrite,illustrate,actout,andshareoriginalstories.Activitiesmayincludedrama,essays,videotaping,creatingstudentbooklets,contests,grouporpairwork,
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22 TheDirectApproach
illustrationexercises,andback‐to‐backcommunicationactivities.
Thesearethesimplestepsattheheartofacompleteandcomprehensivemethodologythatallowsstudentstorapidlyacquire,internalize,andproducesophisticatedlanguage.TPRSisbeingusedwithgrowingnumbersofstudentsatalllevelsinforeignlanguageandbilingualclasseswithunparalleledsuccess.
Applications
BecausetheRassiasMethodandTPRareusefulwaystoimplementDirectApproachinstructionthatislow‐stressandengagingforstudents,herewewillofferavarietyofteachingtechniquesthatcanbeusedwiththesetwomethods.TheseactivitieswillalsohelptoclarifyhowthesetwomethodscanbeputintopracticeinarealEFLclassroom.AlthoughadditionalstorytellingactivitiesforusewiththeTPRSmethodarenotprovidedhere,awidevarietyofstorytellingactivitiesareofferedintheApplicationssectionoftheunitofthiscourseentitledTeachingThroughStories.
RassiasMethodActivities
BelowareseveralexamplesofhowtheatricaltechniquescanbeappliedtotypicallessonsforyounglearnersofEFLasadvocatedbytheRassiasMethod.(Additionaldrama‐basedteachingactivitiesareprovidedintheunitofthiscourseentitledTeachingThroughDrama.)
BalletNumbers—Theteachertellsstudentsthatheorsheisaballetdancerandisdancinginthepositionofeachnumber.Backgroundballetmusicisplayed.Theteacherstandselegantly(likeaballetdancer)intheformationofeachnumber(seeFigure2).Theclasslooksonandguessesthenumber.Theteachertheninvitesvolunteerstodothesame.
整体动作反应法活动
拉夏氏法活动 - 数字芭蕾
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23 TheDirectApproach
Volunteersareencouragedtodanceelegantlyintoandoutofeachnumberposition.
MusicalColors—Astheteacherholdsupflashcardstointroducethecolors,musicthatrepresentseachcolorissimultaneouslyplayed.Afterthecolorsarepresented,theteacherplaysthemusicagainandasksstudentswhichcolorwasintroducedwiththatmusic.Inthefinalstageofthisactivity,theteacherplaysothermusicandasksstudentstolistentothemusicandtellwhatcoloritelicitsintheirminds.
DrillSergeant—Whenteachingexpressionssuchasstandup,sitdown,turnaround,goleft,andgoright,theteachercandramatizetheroleofastrictdrillsergeant.Thestudentsbecomethe“soldiers.”Theteachercallsouteachcommand,andthestudentsfollow.Thenvolunteerstaketurnsbeingthedrillsergeant.
TheTeacherPuppet—Theteacherpretendstobeamarionettehangingonstrings.Thestudentsareallowedtomanipulatethepuppetbyorallytellingtheteacherwhattodo.Theteacherfollowsthestudentinstructionswithsomewhatsloppymotionsasifbeingoperatedbypuppet
- 军训教官
- 木偶老师
- 音乐、颜色联想 Figure2:BalletNumbers
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24 TheDirectApproach
strings.Asavariation,theteachercanpretendtobearobotthatrespondstoverbalcommands.
TPRMethodActivities
TheactivitiesthatfollowarespecificallydesignedforuseinaTPRlesson.Therearealsomanyotheractivitiesdescribedinotherunitsofthiscourse,however,thatcaneasilybeadaptedforTPRpractice.
VarytheSpeed—OncestudentshavepracticedafewTPRcommands,theteacherstartstogivesomeofthecommandsspeakingveryslowlyandothersspeakingveryquickly.Thestudentsperformtherequiredactionsatmatchingspeed—slowlywhentheteacherspeaksslowly,quicklywhentheteacherspeaksquickly.
ChainofCommands—AftersomeTPRpracticeinwhichthestudentsfollowonecommandatatime,theteacherbeginsgivingtwoorthreecommandsatatime.Studentsmustremembertheorderofthecommandsthenperformtheappropriatephysicalactionsinthecorrectorder.Theteacherthengiveslongerandlongerstringsofcommands,makingitmoreandmoredifficultforstudentstoaccuratelyrememberthesequence.
OnaRoll—AfterpracticewithanumberofTPRcommands,studentstaketurnsrollingadie.Thenumberresultingfromtherollindicateshowmanycommandsinaseriestheteacherwillgivethestudent.Ifthechildrollsaone,theteachergivesthatstudentonlyonecommand.Ifthestudentrollsasix,theteachergivesthatchildastringofsixcommandstofollow.
CorrecttheTeacher—AfteraclasshaslearnedanumberofTPRcommandsandtheappropriatephysicalresponses,theteacheroccasionallymodelsthewrongresponsetoanoralcommand.Thestudentsmustdeterminewhentheteacher
- 快动作,慢动作
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25 TheDirectApproach
hasmadea“mistake”andcorrecthimorherbysaying,“no”andperformingtheappropriateresponsetothecommand.
Who’stheLeader?—Onestudentleavestheclassroomandtheotherstudentsselectaleaderfromamongthosewhoareleft.Thenthechildisbroughtbackintotheroom.TheleaderbeginstoperformTPRactions.Theotherstudentswatchtheleader,dothesameactions,andspeaktheappropriatecommandastheydoso.Thestudentwhowastakenintothehallwaymusttrytofigureoutwhoisleadingtheactivity.Oncetheleaderiscorrectlyidentified,anotherstudentistakenintothehallwayandanewleaderischosenforanotherround.
Say“Please”—Thisgameisplayedmuchlikethepopularchildren’sgameSimonSays.TheteacherorastudentistheleaderandgivesTPRcommandsoneatatime.Theotherstudentsfollowthecommandsonlyiftheleaderstartsorfinishesthecommandwiththepoliteword,please.Ifaplayerstartstoperformacommandwhenpleasewasn’tused,theyareeliminatedfromplay.
Conclusions
WehaveexploredthehistoryandtheoreticalunderpinningsoftheDirectApproachtolanguageteaching.WethendiscussedtheprimarycharacteristicsoftheApproachanditsadvantagesanddisadvantages.BeforelearninganumberofDirectApproachclassroomactivities,wethendescribedseverallanguageteachingmethodsthatstrivetogenerallyfollowtheDirectApproachwhileeliminatingsomeofitsdisadvantages.
FrançoisGouindiscoveredtheunderlyingprinciplesoftheDirectApproachthroughhisownempiricalresearchandobservationwhilelearningGerman.CharlesBerlitz,averyenterprisingGermanteacher,thendevelopedtheBerlitz
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26 TheDirectApproach
method,oftensynonymouswiththeDirectApproach,whichcontinuestobetaughtinmanyschoolsaroundtheworld.BothGouinandBerlitzpavedthewayforotherinductuctivelearningapproachesinthetwentiethcentury,largelyreplacingtheolddeductivelearningparadigmusedheavilyinpreviousapproachessuchastheGrammarTranslationApproach.
ThemostdistinguishingfeatureoftheDirectApproachisitsdistainfortheuseofthestudents’firstlanguageintheclassroom,butstrictadherencetothisrulehasbeenmodifiedsomewhatinpractice.LikeothermonolingualteachingapproachestheDirectApproachisanimmersionapproachthatstrivestoexposestudentstoasmuchofthetargetlanguageaspossible.IntheDirectApproach,lessonsoftenbeganwithdialoguesorshortstoriesresemblingaGouinseries.Actions,props,andillustrationsareusedtohelpstudentstounderstandconcretewordswhileabstractwordsaretaughtthroughassociationandcontext.Amongthefourskills,listeningcomprehensionisgivenfirstpriority,followedbyspeakingskillswithlittleemphasisonreadingandwritingpractice.
DrawbacksoftheDirectApproachincludeitsdependencyonteacherswithnative‐likefluency,expensiveprops,andflashcards.Also,somestudentstendtotuneoutiftheycannotcomprehendinaclassthatistaughtentirelyinthetargetlanguage.Restrictinginstructiontothetargetlanguagealsomakesitdifficultfortheteachertoconveymeaningandconcepts.Often,inputprovidedintheDirectApproachdoesnotaccuratelyreflectthesortofturntakingexchangecommonoftruenativespeakercommunicationandstudentsareintroducedtonewsyntacticstructuressorapidlythattheyneverhavethechancetointernalizethem.
Dr.JohnRassiasdevelopedtheRassiasMethod,which
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27 TheDirectApproach
employsawidevarietyoftheatricaltechniquestomakeinstructionintheDirectApproachmoreengagingforstudents.Similarly,Dr.JamesJ.AsherdevelopedtheTotalPhysicalResponse(TPR)method,whichallowschildrentodemonstratecomprehensionofcommandsandotherstructuresbyperformingsomephysicalaction.Asherarguesthatbynotrequiringstudentstoproducethelanguageinitially,theaffectivefilterisloweredandtheylearnmoreeffectively.BlaineRayadaptedtraditionalTPRintoatechniqueknownasTPRStorytelling(TPRS).InTPRS,studentsfirstpracticekeystoryvocabularyusingTPR,thenperformactionsalongwiththelinesofanumberofmini‐storiesthatbuilduptoamainstorythatthestudentsreviseandretellbeforecomposingtheirownstories.ItisuptotheclassroomteachertodecidewhichoftheseDirectApproachmethodscanbeeffectivelyincorporatedintohisorherclassroom.Onething,however,seemscertain—thattheDirectApproachorthemorerecentmethodsthatemployitarebestusedincombinationwithotherlanguageteachingapproachesratherthanbeingusedexclusivelyorevenasthecornerstoneofthecurriculum.ItisuptotheclassroomteachertodecidewhichoftheseDirectApproachmethodscanbeeffectivelyincorporatedintohisorherclassroom.
Notes
1) deductiveapproach(演绎教学法):向学习者讲授语言规则及具体语言知识的教学方法,如语法教学法。
2) inductiveapproach(归纳教学法):这种教学法与演绎教学法形成对比,主张不把语法研发或其他规则教给学习者,而是让他们通过运用语言,自己去发现、掌握原则,如直接法,交际教学法等。
3) SeriesMethod
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28 TheDirectApproach
(系列法):由法国心理学家古安创立,他在探索儿童语言学习的过程中发现他们是通过一系列的动作来学习语言的。古安的系列法,不使用语法翻译法和死记硬背,每个系列包括六到八个命令句或陈述句,每句含七到八个音节,使用统一的时态和人称。系列法是直接教学法的前身。
4) RassiasMethod(拉夏氏法):由美国教师拉夏氏创立。该方法是建立在全浸式教学基础上,要求教师学习掌握一定的戏剧技巧,在授课过程中用较为夸张表演的帮助学生理解。”注解6:维果茨基的建架理论。
5) TPRstorytellingmethod(整体动作讲故事法):由美国人布莱因·雷在1990年创立,将整体动作反应法融于讲故事中,故事中包含了整体动作反应法的命令和行为。该教学法要求学生听、看(通过视觉教具)、表演、复述、修改,最后改写故事;包含了培养语言流利度练习的各要素;能吸引有各种天赋和才能的学生。
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Asher,J.(1984).Incontext,“languagebycommand.”Summer1984.
Asher,J.,Kusudo,J.,anddelaTorre,R.(1974).Learningasecondlanguagethroughcommands:Thesecondfieldtest.ModernLanguageJournal,58,24–32.
Bowen,T.OneStopMagazine.“TotalPhysicalResponse.”RetrievedfromtheWorldWideWebat
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Krashen,S.D.(1998).TPR:stillaverygoodidea."Novelty,Volume5,Number4.December1998.
Larsen‐Freeman,D.TechniquesandPrinciplesinLanguageTeaching.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
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Marsh,V.“TotalPhysicalResponseStorytelling:ACommunicativeApproachtoLanguageLearning.”Retrievedonlineathttp://www.tprstorytelling.com
Richard‐Amato,P.(1996).Makingithappen:Interactioninthesecondlanguageclassroom:Fromtheorytopractice,secondedition.WhitePlains,NY:Addison‐WesleyPublishingCompany.
Thanasoulas,D.TheChangingWindsandShiftingSandsoftheHistoryofEnglishLanguageTeachingby“WrongWay”FrancoisGouin.RetrievedfromtheWorldWideWebathttp://lists.ibiblio.org/pipermail/b‐greek/1999‐December/oo8833.html
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