Steps in Student Learning Outcomes Assessment

Steps in Student Learning Outcomes Assessment• Define intended educational outcomes • Identify methods of measuring outcomes:

– Where in the curriculum or program would we expect that learning to occur?

– When and how data are collected• Administer assessments• Review results and use to make decisions regarding program improvement• Repeat assessments in subsequent cycles to track improvements, change, trends,

relevancy

There are many ways to approach the evaluation of student learning. The characteristics of good evidence of student learning include considerations teaching methods used.

A commitment to the assessment of student learning requires a parallel commitment toensuring its use. Perhaps the most difficult part of assessing student learning is the process ofeffecting change in teaching and learning as a result of information gained through assessment practices. It is pointless simply to “do assessment”; the results of assessment activities should come full circle to have a direct impact on teaching and learning and on the institution’s strategic plan to fulfill its mission. Continuous improvement can occur in an upward spiral if an institution’s structure is flexible, and if faculty members are committed to the assessment plan and are willing to integrate the results of assessing student learning into their collective vision of what the institution is doing well and what it could do better.

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Lesson 8 - Instructional Strategy

Lesson 8 Readings Read Chapter 8, Developing an Instructional Strategy, from Dick and Carey.

Background Information

Well, you�ve come a long way in the instructional design process. You�ve defined a need that you want to address with instruction, decided on a goal, and broke that goal down into steps, substeps, and subskills. In addition, you should have a good idea of who your learners are, the context they will learn these new skills in, and the context they will use these new skills in. Finally you created a list of objectives indicating what you want them to be able to do at the end of your instruction, along with items that will help you determine whether they can do it or not. With all of these broad planning and analysis steps finished, it is time to think about planning individual lessons. This is accomplished by creating an instructional strategy. As you see this is the sixth step in the Dick and Carey model.

Dick and Carey use the term Instructional Strategy to describe the process of sequencing and organizing content, specifying learning activities, and deciding how to deliver the content and activities. An instructional strategy can perform several functions:

It can be used as a prescription to develop instructional materials. It can be used as a set of criteria to evaluate existing materials. It can be used as a set of criteria and a prescription to revise existing materials. It can be used as a framework from which to plan class lecture notes, interactive group

exercises, and homework assignments.

The planning of an instructional strategy is an important part of the overall instructional design process. Gagne calls the planning and analysis steps the "architecture" of the course, while the instructional strategies are the "bricks and mortar". This is where you deal with how to actually instruct the student. Previous steps in the instructional design process have deliberately left out any discussion of how the instruction would be done.

Elements of an Instructional Strategy

Creating an instructional strategy involves taking all of the information you have accumulated to this point and generating an effective plan for presenting your instruction to your learners. At this point you must be able to combine your knowledge of learning and design theory with your experience of learners and objectives. Creating a strategy is not the same as actually developing your instructional materials. The purpose of creating the strategy before developing the materials themselves is to outline how the instructional activities will relate to the accomplishment of the objectives (Gagn�, 1988). This will provide you with a clear plan for subsequent development. Dick and Carey describe four elements of an instructional strategy:

1. Content Sequence and Clustering2. Learning Components3. Student Groupings4. Selection of Media and Delivery Systems

Let�s take a brief look at each one.

Element 1 - Content Sequencing and Clustering

Content Sequencing

The first step in developing an instructional strategy is deciding on a teaching sequence and groupings of content. Whether you are developing a lesson, a course, or an entire curriculum, decisions must be made regarding the sequencing of objectives. The best way to determine the sequence is to refer to your instructional analysis. You will generally begin with the lower level subordinate skills on the left and work your way up through the hierarchy until you reach the main goal step. It�s not a good idea to present information about a skill until you have presented information on all related subordinate skills. Work your way from bottom to top and left to right until you have covered all of the skills. Then you�ll want to provide instruction on integrating all of the steps in the instructional goal (attainment of the terminal objective).

Clustering Instruction

The next important consideration is how you will group your instructional activities. You may decide to present information one objective at a time, or cluster several related objectives. Dick and Carey recommend taking the following factors into consideration when determining how much or how little instruction to present at any given time:

1. The age level of your learners2. The complexity of the material3. The type of learning taking place4. Whether the activity can be varied, thereby focusing attention on the task5. The amount of time required to include all the events in the instructional strategy for

each cluster of content presented.

Element 2 - Learning Components

The next element in an instructional strategy is a description of the learning components for a set of instructional materials. Here Dick and Carey mention Gagn�s Nine Events of Instruction, which is a set of external teaching activities that support the internal processes of learning. Back in Lesson 2 we discussed Gagn�s theory of instruction, and introduced its three main components: learning categories (domains), learning conditions, and the nine events of instruction. We have already discussed the learning categories, and in this lesson we will look at the events of instruction, and his conditions of instruction.

In order for instruction to bring about effective learning, it must be made to influence the internal processes of learning. Gagn� believes that instruction is "a deliberately arranged set of external events designed to support internal learning processes" (pg. 11), and is interested in what kinds of events can provide such support. Therefore, to tie his theory of instruction together, he formulated nine events of instruction that are needed for all learning processes and learning outcomes. When followed, these events are intended to promote the transfer of knowledge or information from perception through the various stages of memory. Gagne derived these events from an understanding of the cognitive processes that go on in the brain (you should remember learning about cognitive information processing in your Education Psychology course). In brief, the kinds of processing presumed to occur during any single act of learning are summarized by Gagn� as follows:

1. Attention: Determines the extent and nature of reception of incoming stimulation.2. Selective Perception (sometimes called pattern recognition): Transforms this

stimulation into the form of object-features, for storage in short-term memory.3. Rehearsal: Maintains and renews the items stored in short-term memory.

4. Semantic Encoding: Prepares information for long-term storage.5. Retrieval, including search: Returns stored information to the working memory or to a

response generator.6. Response Organization: Selects and organizes performance.7. Feedback: Provides the learner with information about performances and sets in

motion the process of reinforcement.8. Executive Control Processes: Select and activate cognitive strategies; these modify

any or all of the previously listed internal processes.

As stated earlier, these internal processes can be influenced by external events, which is what makes instruction possible. For example, Selective Perception may be influenced by particular arrangements of instructional materials. A simple technique for this would be to highlight or underline a block of text you wanted learners to focus on.

Gagn�s events of instruction are designed to help learners get from where they are to where you want them to be. Here�s a list of the events, in the order they are typically employed:

1. Gaining attention2. Informing learner of objectives3. Stimulating recall of prior learning4. Presenting the stimulus material5. Providing learning guidance6. Eliciting the performance7. Providing feedback about performance correctness8. Assessing the performance9. Enhancing retention and transfer

Keep in mind that each of these events may not be provided for every lesson. Sometimes, one or more of the events may already be obvious to the learner and may not be needed. Also, one or more of the events may be provided by the learners themselves, particularly experienced self-learners. Older, more experienced learners may provide many of the events on their own, while for young children the teacher would arrange for most of them.

Dick and Carey rearrange Gagn�s events to fit into five categories. However, since Gagn�s nine original events are so widely known we want to focus on those for now. Here's a closer look at each one:

1. Gaining Attention

Many different kinds of techniques are employed to gain learner�s attention. Often this is done using some sort of attention getting device, such as quick cutting in a video. However, the best way to gain attention is to appeal to the learner�s interests. This can be done using probing questions, such as, "What do you think makes a leaf fall from a tree?"

Gaining attention ties in directly with the concept of motivation. Teachers know all too well the difficulties involved in motivating student to take an interest in their instruction. John Keller has tried to deal with this by developing the ARCS Model of motivation. ARCS is an acronym for:

= Attention= Relevance= Confidence

S = Satisfaction

The ARCS Model is a method for improving the motivational appeal of instructional materials. This model is based on research related to motivation that indicates that people are motivated to engage in an activity if it is perceived to be linked to the satisfaction of personal needs, and if there is a positive expectancy for success. According to Keller (1988), these four conditions must be met in order for people to become and remain motivated.

1. Attention � Having students� attention is a prerequisite for learning. You should be concerned with getting and maintaining attention. Getting attention is usually pretty easy, however, sustaining it can be difficult.

2. Relevance � This involves making the instruction seem relevant to learners� present and future needs. It�s not always enough to tell students, "You�ll need this in the future". Many students, especially younger ones, live in the present and are not concerned with future needs, so you must seek ways to make your instruction seem relevant to their present needs.

3. Confidence � Confidence can influence a student�s persistence and accomplishment. Confident people tend to attribute their successes to their ability and effort instead of luck, and believe that they can accomplish their goals through their actions. Unconfident people have a greater fear of failure. Strategies must be employed that give students the impression that if they put forth effort they can succeed.

4. Satisfaction � This involves making people feel good about their accomplishments. People will feel more confident if they are made aware of the task and the reward for success, and if an appropriate reinforcement schedule is used (sounds like Ed Psych stuff again, doesn�t it?) It�s also important to make students feel they have control over the behaviors that lead to the reward.

If these four conditions are met one can assume to have made a reasonable attempt at gaining and maintaining motivation in their learners. In order meet these four conditions a designer must be aware of the learners� needs and interests. A good way to do that is to revisit your learner analysis. Dick and Carey discuss each of the ARCS factors, and provide a nice diagram on page 191 that indicates how these factors relate to their five learning components.

2. Informing Learners of the Objectives

The learner should be informed of the kind of performance that will be used to determine if they have learned what they are supposed to learn. In some cases it may not be necessary to specifically inform learners of the objectives because they already know (e.g., a tennis lesson). However, in many cases it is necessary in order to clarify to learners what they should be attempting to learn. For example, if students are studying the U.S. Constitution, should they be able to recite the Preamble, or should they be able to state the main ideas? If students know which one they can better attend to the accompanying instruction. It also helps them avoid undue stress resulting from them thinking that they have to know everything relating to a topic. In general it is best not to assume that learners know what it is they should be learning. Communicating objectives takes little time, and may even help the instructor stay on track.

3. Stimulating Recall of Prerequisite Learning

According to cognitive information processing theory, most new learning depends on

connections made to prior learning. For example, certain concepts and rules must have been previously learned in order to learn new higher-order rules. When new learning is about to occur, relevant prior information should be made internally accessible so that it can be made part of the learning event. This accessibility is assured by having the old information recalled just prior to presenting the new information. This can be done by asking recognition or recall questions. For example, you might ask something like, "Do you remember when you learned about�" This line of questioning recalls previously learned information and leads to a new strand of learning. In this way learners see the relationship between what they have already learned and what they will be learning. This also lends relevance to the entire process.

4. Presenting the Stimulus Material

This event is when the new information is presented to the learner. For example, if learners must learn a series of facts then those facts must be communicated to them in some form. If they must learn a motor skill then the skill must be demonstrated. It is important at this point that the proper stimuli are presented as part of the instructional events. For example, if you want the learner to acquire the ability to answer questions delivered orally in French, you should not present them with questions in English or printed questions in French. If you do not use the proper stimuli then you may end up teaching the wrong skills.

Stimulus presentation often emphasizes features that encourage learners to select what you want then to attend to. This can be done using italics, bold print, underlining, or pictures with arrows or circles or highlighting. Stimulus presentation for the learning of concepts and rules requires the use of a variety of examples. For example, if you are teaching about squares you should present big squares, small squares, squares of different colors, squares made out of different materials, and squares in everyday life. Likewise, if students are learning how to apply the formula for finding the area of a square, they need to be given several examples to make sure that they understand and can use the relevant rule. The third component of Gagn�s learning theory relates to his conditions of learning, which describes a set of strategies that can be used when presenting information in different learning domains. We will look closer at these strategies a little later in this lesson.

Another important element in presenting instruction is that you should present a variety of examples and non-examples. A non-example is deliberately chosen for its non-relevance to the concept that is being taught. For example, not only is it important to present a variety of squares, it is also important to present a variety of examples of what is not a square (circles, triangles, rectangles). This aids in the discrimination process and further supports the acquisition of the concept. It is also important not to present too much information at one time, especially if it is not related to the objectives.

5. Providing Learning Guidance

Learning guidance usually takes the form of communications between teacher and student that help guide the learner to the attainment of an objective. These communications stimulate a direction of thought and help keep the learner on track, leading to a more efficient learning situation. Their sole purpose is to aid in the process of learning, and to move students from one state of mind to another. This does not involve telling the learner the answer; rather, it involves suggesting a line of thought that will presumably lead to the desired outcome. Try to avoid thinking about it in terms of simply presenting information � what you are really trying to do it facilitate learning.

The amount of guidance given will depend on the type of learning desired. It will also vary according to the kinds of learners you have. Some require less guidance, and even shun such

guidance, while others require a great deal and can become frustrated when it is not present. We have all encountered students who seem to need constant attention during an activity, while others prefer to keep to themselves and manage their own learning. In any event, it is important to be aware of the needs of your different students for varying levels of guidance.

6. Eliciting the Performance (Practice)

The next event allows the learner to communicate to the instructor whether or not they can perform the skill they are trying to learn. This is done by providing the learner with practice exercises. Usually, the initial practice is done using the same example with which the learners were shown the skill. This is followed by more examples that differ from the original. All practice items must match the performances and conditions indicated within your objectives.

Good practice items should include the following elements:

They should clearly specify the practice format and nature of the student response. They should be relevant to the objective. They should elicit the exact performance stated in the objective. The exact conditions stated in the objective should be present. Individuals versus groups should get practice. They should be provided as frequently and immediately following instruction as

possible.

To illustrate, suppose you had the following objective:

Students will construct a line graph and properly plot data presented in a given data table or chart.

Now, look at the following options for providing practice:

1. You could have a blank graph drawn on the board along with a corresponding data chart. Each student would be asked to go up to the board and plot one of the data points.

2. You could present a data chart to the class and discuss which elements should be included in a graph that could display the data.

3. You could prepare a worksheet that contains a variety of graphs that each display data from a given table differently. The students must circle the graphs that properly display the data.

4. You could give each student a data chart along with a blank piece of graph paper and instruct them to construct a line graph and plot data from the chart into the graph.

In this case the best practice over the skills stated in the objective would be number 4. It is the only choice that demands the exact performance of every student under the exact conditions stated in the objective.

Here are a couple more examples of practice exercises:

Objective: The students will write a descriptive essay of at least 300 words.

Bad: Have students read several examples of good examples.Bad: Write a descriptive essay in class by having each student contribute a sentence.Bad: Have each student orally describe an unknown object until the other students can guess

what the object is.Good: Have students choose a topic and write an essay describing it.

Objective: The student will balance a checkbook containing an initial balance and 10 unregistered check amounts.

Bad: Have students solve subtraction problems on a worksheet.Bad: Have students describe how to balance a checkbook.Good: Give students a checkbook with an initial balance and 10 checks, and have them balance the checkbook.

7. Providing Feedback

Not only should learners be provided with practice exercises, they should be given feedback about their performance. Feedback can be verbal, written, computerized, or given in other forms. Regardless of the form you choose, the feedback should inform the learners about the degree of correctness in their performance so that they may improve on subsequent attempts. It should also be given as soon after the performance as possible. In many cases feedback is automatically provided. For example, if you touch a hot stove you get burned � you don�t need anyone else to tell you that you just got burned, or to tell you not to do it again. However, in many cases the feedback is not automatic and must be provided by the instructor in some form. For example, if you are learning how to hit a golf ball, you can usually tell after you swing whether or not you hit it. However, an instructor would still be necessary to provide feedback as to why you missed it, and what corrections should be made to improve your performance. Feedback can also be used as positive reinforcement when learners perform correctly.

Good feedback should include the following elements:

It should provide comments about the student�s performance. It should be immediate and frequent. It should have students correct their own mistakes if possible. It should consider using a variety of feedback types: knowledge of results, knowledge

of correct results, analytical (related to criteria), motivational (reinforcement).

8. Assessing Performance

In Gagne's eighth event you elicit a performance from the learners to determine if the desired learning has occurred. Students are assessed to determine whether the instruction has met its design objectives, and also to learn whether each student has achieved the desired objectives. Most of the time this results in some sort of grade being assigned to each student. In the last lesson we discussed the various types of assessments and assessment items. Now you should determine which of these assessments you will use and how you will administer them. Keep in mind that your assessments should match the stated objectives in order to provide an accurate judgment.

9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer

Many people feel that when the test is over so is the course. However, as a last step it is important to figure out ways to increase the chances that the skills you have taught will be used properly by learners when they use them outside of the learning context. Learners may be able to recall new knowledge and skills in the classroom, but what about when they get into

the real world?

Because learning is generally situation-specific, the best way to aid in retention and transfer is to provide a meaningful context in which to present your instruction. If the skills to be learned represent skills used in the real world, try to establish a "classroom" learning environment that approximates this real world context as close as possible. Then the jump to the real world will be less of a change for learners. For example, consider the following goal:

Students will write a descriptive paragraph free of grammatical errors.

Since writing descriptive paragraphs is often part of communicating with other people via letters, an excellent overall context for this outcome would be establishing email correspondences between students and people they care about. This closely matches what they would be doing in the real world, and as such will make it easier for them to transfer the skills they learn to that real world.

It is also important to make sure that the most effective conditions for learning the specific type of performance are part of the learning environment (see the section below on learning conditions). Beyond that, another good way to enhance retention is through a review of the material at the end of the instruction. Reviews allow learners to practice retrieving new information, and also help to strengthen the network of relationships in the brain. For longer units it is often good to have reviews spaced periodically throughout the instruction.

Assisting learners with the transfer of new skills is aided greatly by presenting students with new varieties of tasks that are related to what they have already learned. These tasks should require the application of what has been learned in situations that differ substantially from those used for the learning itself. For example, if you are teaching a set of rules for making verbs agree with a pronoun subject, you may have assessed learners� performance by presenting examples in which you varied the verb and the pronoun. However, to aid in transfer you would want to vary the situation even more. This might be done by having learners write sentences where they supply the verb and pronoun themselves instead of having them supplied to them. Or, you might have them compose sentences using verbs and pronouns based on events depicted in pictures. The important thing is to created varied examples that will help learners use the skills at a later date.

Now that we�ve looked at each of Gagn�s events of instruction, here�s how each of the events relates to the internal learning processes that we previously listed:

Instructional Event Relation to Learning Process

1. Gaining attention Reception of patterns of neural impulses

2. Informing learner of objectives Activating a process of executive control

3. Stimulating recall of prior learning Retrieval of prior learning to working memory

4. Presenting the stimulus material Emphasizing features for selective perception

5. Providing learning guidance Semantic encoding; cues for retrieval

6. Eliciting the performance Activating response organization

7. Providing feedback about performance correctness

Establishing reinforcement

8. Assessing the performance Activating retrieval; making reinforcement possible

9. Enhancing retention and transfer Providing cues and strategies for retrieval

This wraps up the discussion on the second element of an instructional strategy � the learning components. Now on to element three.

Element 3 � Student Groupings

The next element of an instructional strategy is a description of how students will be grouped during instruction. The main things to consider are whether there are any requirements for social interaction explicit in the statement of your objectives, in the performance environment, in the specific learning component being planned, or in your own personal views. Student groupings can hinder individual learning, but at the same time they can motivate students and keep them interested. Also, keep in mind that your delivery system can affect the amount of social interaction possible. As you all know, a distance-delivered course makes it hard to promote social interaction between students. Similarly, computer-based instruction can be hard to do with groups of students.

Element 4 � Selection of Media and Delivery Systems

This is the fourth and final element of an instructional strategy. Once decisions have been made about content sequencing and clustering, and the learning components have been planned, it�s time to turn your attention to selecting a delivery system for your overall instructional system, along with the media you will use to present the information in your instruction. According to Gagn� (1988), the selection of a delivery system indicates a general preference for emphasizing certain instruments to accomplish instructional events. Within this general preference, specific agents or media can be assigned, event-by-event, objective-by-objective to accomplish the intended goal.

The overall delivery system includes everything necessary to allow a particular instructional system to operate as it was intended and where it was intended. Some examples of delivery systems include:

Classroom delivery Lecture Correspondence Videotape Videoconference Computer-based Web-based

Once you have chosen a delivery system, various media can then be chosen to deliver the information and events of your instruction. Media constitutes the physical elements in the learning environment with which learners interact in order to learn something. The choice of media is done as part of the instructional strategy. For example, in a distance-delivered program such as this one, the decision was made at the beginning to use a web-based delivery system. Within this program, however, various media can be chosen to deliver the instruction, as long as they are compatible with the original delivery system.

The choice of a delivery system is generally made at the course or curriculum level. For most teachers, the delivery system is usually already chosen � you will likely deliver your instruction in a classroom. However, the ideal way would be to base the decision on your goal, learner characteristics, learner and performance contexts, objectives, and assessment requirements � basically, all the stuff you�ve done up until now. With this in mind, though, you should turn your attention to selecting media to deliver your instruction. In today�s world, even if your delivery system is chosen beforehand, it�s not a major setback because most media formats are available for use in most delivery systems.

Different instructional media have different capabilities for providing the various events of instruction. For example, teachers are great for providing learning guidance and feedback; however, videotape can be used effectively to present stimulus situations that would be hard for a teacher to present in any other way (for example, a tour of Alaska).

Dick and Carey discuss several issues to consider when selecting media:

Media Selection for Domains of Learning

Different types of media should be chosen based on the type of learning your objectives fall in to. Verbal information requires less elaborative feedback, so there is less need for interactive media. With intellectual skills elaborative feedback is more important, so some form of interactive media would be a better choice. Examples include direct instructor feedback, tutors, or interactive computer. Motor skills eventually require a performance of some sort from the learners, so the instruction should include the actual physical environment or the actual equipment that will be used for the assessment. When teaching attitudes it is usually desirable to have a model of some sort who chooses to exhibit the desired attitude. In this case visual media, such as television or video, can be used. Keep in mind that a single lesson or course may involve instruction in several domains, so you may end up selecting several different forms of media. Or, you may have to make a single form of media fit in with the various domains.

Other Considerations in Choosing Media

When deciding on media to use you should of course make sure that the media you select will be available in the learning environment. If you design your instruction to require a certain type of media then it�s up to you to make sure that it will be available when the time comes. If you can�t do this then you should limit your selections to those which can reasonably be expected to be available. Also, make sure that learners will be able to access the materials in the medium you select. Will the materials be needed at home? If so, can you give them out? Will students need to access a computer lab or learning center to get at the materials? If so, what hours will it be accessible?

Finally, if you select a particular medium to present your information, you should make sure that you are able to produce materials for that medium, or that you have access to people who can. For example, many designers would like to create instructional materials that feature Director movies because Director allows you to combine audio and visual elements in unique and exciting ways. However, the reality is that this can be a difficult and time-consuming process if you are not skilled in using Director. You will likely want to limit your selections of this type of media to those you can create materials for, or set aside time to learn the required products.

That is the last of the four elements in an instructional strategy. But before we discuss how to create an instructional strategy, let�s briefly look at the final aspect of Gagn�s theory of instruction: his conditions of learning.

Conditions of Learning

Gagn� believes that the purpose of all instruction is to provide the events of instruction mentioned earlier. These events can be performed by teachers or by the materials themselves, as long as they are successfully performed. The nine events of instruction are applicable to all domains of learning outcomes. However, the details of how they are presented imply different sets of conditions for learning. The conditions of learning are a set of factors that influence learning that must be taken into account during the design of instruction. Gagne distinguishes between two types of conditions, internal and external.

Internal conditions of learning refer to the learner�s internal states and cognitive processes. These internal states consist of prior knowledge, motivation, attitudes, etc. Cognitive processes refer to the ways in which the learner interacts with their environment.

External conditions refer to the things taking place in the learning environment, and include the arrangement and timing of stimulus events. Gagn�s theory proposes that learning takes place at all times, because learners are constantly engaged with their environments.

We obviously cannot directly control the internal conditions. However, Gagn�'s theory has led to a set of strategies for providing external support for learners as they attempt to achieve a goal. These strategies differ depending on the domain of learning. The following chart will help you decide on effective strategies for each domain as you create your instructional strategy (adapted from Essentials of Learning for Instruction by R.M. Gagn� and M.P. Driscoll, 1988).

Verbal Provide a meaningful context for effective encoding of information.

Information

Draw attention to distinctive features by variations in print or speech. Use terms or definitions in a sentence. Present information so that it can be made into chunks. Relate the information (term or definition) to preexisting knowledge. Present all terms clearly using the fewest number of words to convey

the meaning. If more than five terms or units of information are to be presented in one lesson, group related terms or units into five or fewer clearly defined categories.

Use a variety of concrete (observable) examples when possible, emphasizing the clear and well defined features that relate directly to the information.

Explain clearly how learners will be expected to recall the information while it is initially presented.

Make information readily accessible to learners, and provide opportunities for them to explore "nice-to-know" information associated with the knowledge.

Practice with immediate feedback!

Provide cues for effective recall and generalization of information.

Intellectual Skills

Encourage learners to recall previously learned information or examples that illustrate concepts or rules being presented.

Clearly communicate the definition of defined concepts, using the fewest number of words.

Call attention to distinctive features. Stay within the limits of working memory. Present verbal cues to the ordering or combination of component

skills. Break down the process of performing or applying rules into steps,

and clearly communicate these steps to the students. Demonstrate an application of the rule for the students. Present varied examples or instances of concepts and rule

applications, calling attention to the distinctive features of examples, definitions, and procedures.

Present nonexamples or non-instances of the concept if they will help to clarify the concept.

Schedule occasions for practice and spaced review. Provide learners with opportunities to "play" with concepts and rules

within simulated or "real" environments, identifying and selecting their own examples and nonexamples of concepts and rule applications if possible.

Present a variety of contexts or experiences that allow the students to practice applying the rules or identifying/describing concepts (transfer), providing guidance throughout early stages of practice.

Cognitive Strategies

Recall relevant rules and concepts. Describe or demonstrate the strategy. Provide a variety of occasions for practice using the strategy.

Provide information feedback as to the creativity or originality of the strategy or outcome.

Attitudes Establish an expectancy of success associated with the desired

attitude. Assure student identification with an admired human model. Make students aware of the personal benefits gained by making

choices based on attitudes (preferably by someone the students admire).

Clearly identify examples of choices made by people who possess the desired attitude (credible and attractive-similarity, familiarity, appearance).

Clearly identify instances in the students� lives in which making choices are based on the attitude being presented.

Allow students the opportunity to practice making choices associated with the desired attitude (role-playing, group discussion, etc.) and give them feedback.

Arrange for communication or demonstration of choice of personal action.

Positive feedback for successful performance; or allow observation of feedback in the human model.

Motor Skills

Verbally guide learners through routine. Visually present example of routine execution. Encourage the use of mental practice. Arrange repeated practice.

Furnish immediate feedback as to the accuracy of performance.

Creating the Strategy

Now that we�ve discussed the elements contained in an instructional strategy, it�s time to take a look at the process of actually creating the strategy. Even if you plan to use existing instructional materials, you should create an instructional strategy before you select, adapt, or develop instruction. In creating a strategy you will utilize all of the materials you have generated up to this point, including your needs analysis, instructional analysis, learner and context analysis, objectives, and assessment items.

Within the previous discussion we looked at Gagn�s nine events of instruction. These events were sequenced according to how they would be addressed during instruction. However, Dick and Carey suggest following a different sequence when you are actually creating your instructional strategy. Their process has five steps:

1. Sequence and cluster objectives.2. Plan preinstructional, assessment, and follow-though activities for the unit.3. Plan the content presentations and student participation sections for each objective or

cluster of objectives.4. Assign objectives to lessons and estimate the time required for each.5. Review the strategy to consolidate media selections and confirm or select a delivery

system.

As you see, each of the events of instruction is included here, except they are arranged in a

way that facilitates the creation of an instructional strategy. Let�s look closer at each step.

These first two steps relate to the overall unit of instruction, and not to individual objectives within the lesson.

1: Sequence and cluster objectives.

To begin with you should indicate the sequence of objectives and how you will cluster them for instruction. Consider both the sequence and the size of clusters that are appropriate for the attention span of students and the time available for each session. Dick and Carey suggest using a form similar to the one shown in Table 8.5 on page 215 of the book. Indicate the clusters and then the objectives you will teach within each cluster. If you are designing a short lesson you may only have one cluster. However, you may still have small groupings of objectives that you want to divide up with review and/or practice activities.

2: Plan preinstructional, assessment, and follow-through activities for the unit.

Once you have the sequence of objectives and have clustered them, you should indicate what you will do with regards to preinstructional activities, assessment, and follow-through activities. During this step you will also make decisions about student groupings and media selection. Dick and Carey suggest that you address each of these considerations in narrative form using the following headings:

1. Preinstructional Activitiesa. Motivation � Explain how you will gain learners� attention and maintain it

throughout instruction.b. Objectives � Explain how you will inform the learners about what they will be

able to do when they finish your lesson. Explain why this is important to the learners.

c. Student Groupings and Media Selection � Explain how you will group students for the preinstructional activities (e.g., individualized, small subgroups, total group). Also, describe the media selection for this activity (e.g., live lecture, videotape, print, Web-based).

2. Assessmenta. Pretest � Explain whether you will test for entry behaviors and what you will

do if a learner does not have them. Explain also whether you will test for skills you will teach.

b. Practice Tests � Explain how you will use practice tests and rehearsal activities and where they will be located in the instruction.

c. Posttest � Explain when and where the posttest will be administered.d. Student Groupings and Media Selection - Explain how you will group students

for the assessment activities (e.g., individualized, small subgroups, total group). Also, describe the media selection for this activity (e.g., paper and pencil, product development, live performance, computer-administered).

3. Follow-Through Activitiesa. Memory Aid � Describe any memory aids that will be developed to facilitate

retention of information and skills.b. Transfer � describe and special factors to be employed to facilitate

performance transfer.c. Student Groupings and Media Selection - Explain how you will group students

for the follow-through activities (e.g., individualized, small subgroups, total

group). Also, describe the media selection for this activity (e.g., live lecture, videotape, print, Web-based).

Note that the actual information you will present is not listed here, and the objectives and entry behaviors are not written out.

These next two steps relate to individual objectives or clusters of objectives within the unit of instruction.

3: Plan the content presentations and student participation sections for each objective or cluster of objectives.

Now it�s time to indicate the content to be presented for each objective or cluster of objectives. Dick and Carey suggest using a form similar to the one shown in Table 8.4 on page 213 of your book. Start by listing the objective (and number) at the top of the form. Underneath that should be two main sections:

1. Content Presentationa. Content - Describe the content you will present for each objective.b. Examples � Describe some examples (and non-examples) you will present

for each objective. Make sure they are congruent with the objective.c. Student Groupings and Media Selection - Describe how you will group

students for this activity, and your media selection for this activity.2. Student Participation

a. Practice Items � Describe some sample practice exercises.b. Feedback � Describe the feedback you will provide for the practice exercises.c. Student Groupings and Media Selection - Describe how students will be

grouped for this activity, and your media selection for this activity.

Don�t forget to include a strategy for teaching your terminal objective when completing this step.

4: Assign objectives to lessons and estimate the time required for each.

In this step you review your sequence and clusters of objectives, along with the preinstructional activities, assessment, content presentation, student participation, and student groupings and media selections. Using all of this information, along with the timeframe for your overall instructional unit, you then assign objectives to individual lessons. In a large unit of instruction the first lesson generally contains preinstructional activities, while the last generally contains the assessment and/or follow-through activities. Make sure to include time for presentations, review, and participation activities. Of course, if you are only developing a single lesson then this step will be pretty short. However, this process can be performed for extended instructional units or for semester-long planning.

5: Review the strategy to consolidate media selections and confirm or select a delivery system.

As you have created your instructional strategy you have been considering what media to use in covering each objective. these decisions have been based on the domain of learning, the behaviors and conditions stated in the objectives, and the learning and performance contexts. In this final step you should review your strategy to consolidate your media selections and to make sure that they are compatible with your delivery system. Look over all of your selections to see if there are patterns or common media prescriptions across the objectives. Then see if

these patterns fit with the chosen delivery system.

Keep in mind that you should not write your entire lesson within your instructional strategy. Your sections should be short and to the point. The purpose is to think through the entire lesson before you develop or select your instruction.

Conclusions

Once your strategy is complete you should have the prescriptions necessary to begin developing your instructional materials. We'll finish up this lesson with a quote from Gagn� (1988):

The planning of an instructional strategy is an important part of the instructional design process. It is at this point that the designer must be able to combine knowledge of learning and design theory with his experience of learners and objectives. Needless to say, creativity in lesson design will enhance this other knowledge and experience. Perhaps it is this component of creativity that separates the art of instructional design from the science of instructional design. It is clear that the best lesson designs will demonstrate knowledge about the learners, the tasks reflected in the objectives, and the effectiveness of teaching strategies (pg. 28).

Examples

If you have been following along with the example presented by Dick and Carey in the book appendices, you should now check out Appendix E and Appendix F. They contain most of the components of an instructional strategy relating to a portion of their project on story writing.

Instructional Design Project Part Five

In this lesson you will attempt to identify ways to present your instruction to your learners. It�s now time to look back over all the instructional design work you�ve done up to this point, and use that information to construct a strategy for presenting your instruction. We are going to closely follow the procedure outlined in Dick and Carey.

To help you through the process, we have created a template for you to use in developing your own strategy. It is a Word file containing pre-formatted charts that you can just fill in with your instructional strategy information. This should make it easier for you to keep up with the requirements and easier for us to grade.

Link to Instructional Strategy Template

Once you have the template downloaded, perform the following steps to create your instructional strategy:

Step 1: Sequence and Cluster Objectives

The first thing to decide is how you will cluster and sequence your objectives. Remember to consider both the sequence and the size of clusters that are appropriate for the attention span of your students and the time you have available. Since you are designing a single lesson you may only have one cluster. However, you may still want to have small groupings of objectives, and you will still need to indicate the order in which you will address your objectives. Use the first chart in the instructional strategy template to indicate the clusters you will have along with the objectives you will cover within each cluster. Be sure to include all of your objectives. Also, indicate the time you have tentatively allotted to each cluster. If you need more room simply add cells to the table.

Step 2: Preinstructional, Assessment, and Follow-Through Activities

In this section indicate what you will do with regards to preinstructional activities, assessment, and follow-through activities. Also include any decisions regarding student groupings and media selections for each of these activities. The second chart in the template has all of the necessary section headings. In particular, when thinking about the motivation aspect of your preinstructional activities, consider each of the components of Keller�s ARCS Model. It can be especially difficult for teachers to motivate students and provide relevance to the instruction. How will you overcome this difficulty?

Step 3: Content Presentation and Student Participation

In this section you will indicate the content to be presented for each objective or cluster of objectives, along with the activities you will have your students participate in. For each instructional chunk, your students should be actively involved in doing things that will help them learn. You do not have to include content and activities for all of your objectives. Rather, include a sequential set of 10 of your objectives. What does this mean? Well, examine your design evaluation chart from the last activity and pick 10 objectives in order from that list to include here. If you have less than 10 objectives include them all. There are ten charts for you to use in the template for your content and activities. If you need fewer than ten you may delete the extras. If you want to include more than ten use the copy and paste functions to duplicate one of the blank tables.

Step 4: Assign Objectives to Lessons

Review the progress you�ve made up to this point. Considering all of the information you have, you should now decide how many lessons will be required, the events and objectives you will cover in each lesson, and the time that will be allowed for each lesson. If you followed the initial suggestions in this course you should only have a single instructional session, within which you will cover all of the instructional events. However, if you chose to break free and design something larger in scope you will likely have more than one session. Once again, use the chart that has been provided in the template.

Step 5: Review of Strategy and Consolidation of Media Selections

Review the media selections you have made for each activity and objective. Make sure your media selections are compatible and realistic, and look for any commonalities. Also, review your delivery system. It is likely that your delivery system may already be set in stone. However, if you have some flexibility you may want to reconsider your options at this point based on your media selections. The chart in the template contains all of the necessary section headings. Once again, since you probably only have one instructional session this will

be a short section, but it is still good for you to think about for when you begin to design larger instructional units.

Submitting Part Five of Your ID Project

Part Five of your ID Project should be typed up in Microsoft Word. At the top of the paper type "ID Project Part Five: Instructional Strategy". Underneath that include your name, email address, and the date. When you save the file name it "strategy.doc". When you have completed your activities, upload the Word document to the "instrdes" folder in your Filebox. When you have finished uploading your file, proceed to the online student interface to officially submit your activities for grading.

Assignment: ID Project Part Five (cont.)Points: 30

Grading Criteria:

Objectives logically clustered and sequenced. (1) Preinstructional activities addressed, including motivational strategies,

description of how learners will be informed of objectives (if at all), and student groupings and appropriate media selections. (3)

Assessment activities addressed, including a decision on pretesting, description of the use of practice tests, a description of the posttest, and student groupings and appropriate media selections. (3)

Follow-Through activities addressed, including a description of any memory aids that will be provided, strategies used to facilitate transfer, and student groupings and appropriate media selections. (3)

Content Presentation described for at least 10 objectives. For each objective, should include a brief description of the content, examples that will be provided, and any student groupings and appropriate media selections. (8)

Student Participation described for at least 10 objectives. For each objective, should include sample practice items, feedback that will be provided, and any student groupings and appropriate media selections. (8)

Objectives and/or clusters assigned to individual lessons. Includes a brief summary of instructional events and objectives to be covered in each session. (2)

Chart outlining objectives and types of learning covered in each session, along with a consolidation of media selections for each session. Based on this, final decisions are made regarding the delivery system. (2)

Instructional Goals and Objectives

Writing Instructional Goals and ObjectivesThis site will introduce you to instructional goals, the three types of instructional objectives you may need to create to reach your goals, and the best way to write and assess them. Enjoy!

Writing Instructional Goals and Objectives

What is a Goal?

Goals are broad, generalized statements about what is to be learned. Think of them as a target to be reached, or "hit."

What is an Objective?

Objectives are the foundation upon which you can build lessons and assessments that you can prove meet your overall course or lesson goals.

Think of objectives as tools you use to make sure you reach your goals. They are the arrows you shoot towards your target (goal).

Why Bother With Goals and Objectives?

As you develop a learning object, course, a lesson or a learning activity, you have to determine what you want the students to learn and how you will know that they learned. Learning objectives, also called behavioral objectives or instructional objectives, are a requirements for high-quality development of instruction.

The purpose of objectives is not to restrict spontaneity or constrain the vision of education in the discipline; but to ensure that learning is focused clearly enough that both students and teacher know what is going on, and so learning can be objectively measured. Different archers have different styles, so do different teachers. Thus, you can shoot your arrows (objectives) many ways. The important thing is that they reach your target (goals) and score that bullseye!

Thus, stating clear course objectives is important because:

Objectives guide the content materials and the teaching methods. You can use objectives to make sure you reach your goals. Students will better understand expectations and the link between expectations,

teaching and grading. Assessment and grading should be based on the objectives.

Types of ObjectivesThere are three types of objectives:

Cognitive Affective Psychomotor

Cognitive Objectives

Cognitive objectives are designed to increase an individual's knowledge. Cognitive objectives relate to understandings, awareness, insights (e.g., "Given a description of a planet, the student will be able to identify that planet, as demonstrated verbally or in writing." or "The student will be able to evaluate the different theories of the origin of the solar system as demonstrated by his/her ability to compare and discuss verbally or in writing the strengths and weaknesses of each theory."). This includes knowledge or information recall, comprehension or conceptual understanding, the ability to apply knowledge, the ability to

analyze a situation, the ability to synthesize information from a given situation, the ability to evaluate a given situation, and the ability to create something new.

Affective Objectives

Affective objectives are designed to change an individual's attitude. Affective objectives refer to attitudes, appreciations, and relationships (e.g., "Given the opportunity to work in a team with several people of different races, the student will demonstrate an positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race, as measured by a checklist utilized/completed by non-team members.").

Psychomotor Objectives

Psychomotor objectives are designed to build a physical skill (e.g., "The student will be able to ride a two-wheel bicycle without assistance and without pause as demonstrated in gym class."); actions that demonstrate the fine motor skills such as use of precision instruments or tools, or actions that evidence gross motor skills such as the use of the body in dance or athletic performance.

Cognitive ObjectivesCognitive objectives are designed to increase an individual's knowledge. Many refer to Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive objectives, originated by Benjamin Bloom and collaborators in the 1950's.

Examples:

Given a description of a planet, the student will be able to identify that planet, as demonstrated verbally or in writing.

The student will be able to evaluate the different theories of the origin of the solar system as demonstrated by his/her ability to compare and discuss verbally or in writing the strengths and weaknesses of each theory.

Bloom describes several categories of cognitive learning.

Starting with basic factual knowledge, the categories progress through comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Knowledge - Remembering or recalling information. Comprehension - The ability to obtain meaning from information. Application - The ability to use information. Analysis - The ability to break information into parts to understand it better. Synthesis - The ability to put materials together to create something new. Evaluation - The ability to check, judge, and critique materials.

In the 1990's, Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, along with David Krathwohl, one of Boom's original partners, worked to revise the original taxonomy. The Anderson and Krathwohl Taxonomy was published in 2001 in the book "A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives."

Here is a comparison of the original and revised taxonomies:

Note that in the revised taxonomy, synthesis and evaluation are switched. Also, verbs are used in place of nouns to imply the action one takes in each level.

Remember - Using memory to recall facts and definitions. Understand - Constructing meaning from information. Apply - Using procedures to carry out a task. Analyze - Breaking materials into parts to determine structures and relationships. Evaluate - Making jugements based on checking against given criteria. Create - Putting materials together to form a unique product.

Whichever taxonomy you prefer, there are key verbs for each level you can use when writing cognitive objectives.

Key Verbs for the Cognitive Domain

Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create

Define Identify List Name Recall

Cite examples

Apply Demon

strate Dramat

Analyze

Appraise

Assess

Arrange

Assemble

Recognize

Record Relate Repeat

Underline/Circle

of Demo

nstrate use of

Describe

Determine

Differentiate between

Discriminate

Discuss

Explain

Express

Give in own words

Identify

Interpret

Locate

Pick Repor

t Restat

e Revie

w Recog

nize Select Tell Transl

Employ

Generalize

Illustrate

Interpret

Operate

Operationalize

Practice

Relate Schedu

le Shop Use Utilize

Initiate

late Categ

orize Comp

are Concl

ude Contr

ast Corre

late Critic

ize Dedu

ce Debat

e Detec

t Deter

mine Devel

op Diagr

am Differ

entiate

Distinguish

Draw conclusions

Estimate

Examine

Experiment

Identify

Infer Inspe

ct Inven

Choose

Compare

Critique

Estimate

Evaluate

Measure

Select

Validate

ct Com

pose Const

ruct Creat

e Desig

n Deve

lop Form

ulate Mana

ge Modi

fy Orga

nize Plan Prepa

re Prod

uce Prop

ose Predi

ct Reco

nstruct

Set-up

Synthesize

Systematize

Devise

Respond

Practice

Simulates

tory Predi

ct Relat

e Solve Test Diagn

Additional Links

Major Categories in the Taxonomy of Learning Objectives Bloom's Taxonomy (University of Georgia) Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain Learning Objective Verbs for Specific Disciplines Beyond Bloom - A New Version of the Cognitive Taxonomy

Offline References

Anderson, L.W., & Krathwohl (Eds.). (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman.

Bloom, B.S. and Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals, by a committee of college and university examiners. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. NY, NY: Longmans, Green.

Affective Objectives Affective objectives are designed to change an individual's attitude, choices, and relationships.

Example:

Given the opportunity to work in a team with several people of different races, the student will demonstrate a positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race, as measured by a checklist utilized/completed by non-team members.

Krathwohl and Bloom created a taxonomy for the affective domain that lists levels of commitment (indicating affect) from lowest to highest.

The levels are described as follows:

Affective Domain Hierarchy

Level Definition Example

ReceivingBeing aware of or attending to something in the environment.

Individual reads a book passage about civil rights.

RespondingShowing some new behaviors as a result of experience.

Individual answers questions about the book, reads another book by the same author, another book about civil rights, etc.

Valuing Showing some definite involvement or commitment.

The individual demonstrates this by voluntarily attending a lecture

on civil rights.

Organization

Integrating a new value into one's general set of values, giving it some ranking among one's general priorities.

The individual arranges a civil rights rally.

Characterization by Value

Acting consistently with the new value.

The individual is firmly committed to the value, perhaps becoming a civil rights leader.

Here are key verbs for each level you can use when writing affective objectives:

Key Verbs for the Affective Domain

Receiving

accept attend develop

recognize

Responding

complete comply cooperat

e discuss examine obey

respond

Valuing

accept defen

d devot

e pursu

Organization

codify discriminat

e display order organize systematize

Characterization

internalize

verify

Additional Links

Behavioral Objectives - Affective Domain

Krathwohl's Taxonomy

References

Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom,B.S. and Masia, B. B. (1964).Taxonomy of educational objectives, Book II. Affective domain. New York, NY. David McKay Company, Inc.

Psychomotor Objectives

This domain is characterized by progressive levels of behaviors from observation to mastery of a physical skill. Several different taxonomies exist.

Simpson (1972) built this taxonomy on the work of Bloom and others:

Perception - Sensory cues guide motor activity. Set - Mental, physical, and emotional dispositions that make one respond in a

certain way to a situation. Guided Response - First attempts at a physical skill. Trial and error coupled with

practice lead to better performance. Mechanism - The intermediate stage in learning a physical skill. Responses are

habitual with a medium level of assurance and proficiency. Complex Overt Response - Complex movements are possible with a minimum of

wasted effort and a high level of assurance they will be successful. Adaptation - Movements can be modified for special situations. Origination - New movements can be created for special situations.

Dave (1970) developed this taxonomy:

Imitation - Observing and copying someone else. Manipulation - Guided via instruction to perform a skill. Precision - Accuracy, proportion and exactness exist in the skill performance

without the presence of the original source. Articulation - Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed

consistently. Naturalization - Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed

consistently and with ease. The performance is automatic with little physical or mental exertion.

Harrow (1972) developed this taxonomy. It is organized according to the degree of coordination including involuntary responses and learned capabilities:

Reflex movements - Automatic reactions. Basic fundamental movement - Simple movements that can build to more

complex sets of movements. Perceptual - Environmental cues that allow one to adjust movements. Physical activities - Things requiring endurance, strength, vigor, and agility. Skilled movements - Activities where a level of efficiency is achieved.

The following list is a synthesis of the above taxonomies:

Psychomotor Domain Hierarchy

Level Definition Example

ObservingActive mental attending of a physical event.

The learner watches a more experienced person. Other mental activity, such as reading may be a pert of the observation process.

ImitatingAttempted copying of a physical behavior.

The first steps in learning a skill. The learner is observed and given direction and feedback on performance. Movement is not automatic or smooth.

PracticingTrying a specific physical activity over and over.

The skill is repeated over and over. The entire sequence is performed repeatedly. Movement is moving towards becoming automatic and smooth.

Adapting

Fine tuning. Making minor adjustments in the physical activity in order to perfect it.

The skill is perfected. A mentor or a coach is often needed to provide an outside perspective on how to improve or adjust as needed for the situation.

Here are key verbs for each level you can use when writing psychomotor objectives:

Key Verbs for the Psychomotor Domain bend calibrates constructs differentiate

(by touch) dismantles displays fastens fixes

grinds handle heats manipulates measures mends mixes

operate

organizes perform

(skillfully) reach relax shorten sketches stretch write

Additional Links

Behavioral Objectives - Psychomotor Domain

Simpson's Psychomotor Domain

Offline References

Dave, R.H., in R. J. Armstrong et al., Developing and Writing Behavioral Objectives (Tucson, AZ: Educational Innovators Press, 1970).

Harrow, A.J. (1972). A taxonomy of the psychomotor domain. New York: David McKay Co.

Simpson, E. (1972). The classification of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain: The psychomotor domain. Vol. 3. Washington, DC: Gryphon House.

How To Write Instructional Objectives

Instructional objectives should specify four main things:

Audience - Who? Who is this aimed at? Behavior - What? What do you expect them to be able to do? This should be an

overt, observable behavior, even if the actual behavior is covert or mental in nature. If you can't see it, hear it, touch it, taste it, or smell it, you can't be sure your audience really learned it.

Condition - How? Under what circumstances will the learning occur? What will the student be given or already be expected to know to accomplish the learning?

Degree - How much? Must a specific set of criteria be met? Do you want total mastery (100%), do you want them to respond correctly 80% of the time, etc. A common (and totally non-scientific) setting is 80% of the time.

This is often called the ABCD's of objectives, a nice mnemonic aid!

Tip: Never use the word understand in an objective. It is too vague, and does not specific a measurable behavior.

Examples of Well-written Objectives

Below are some example objectives which include Audience (A), Behavior (B), Condition (C), and Degree of Mastery (D). Note that many objectives actually put the condition first.

Audience - GreenBehavior - RedCondition - BlueDegree - Pink

Psychomotor - "Given a standard balance beam raised to a standard height, the student (attired in standard balance beam usage attire) will be able to walk the entire length of the balance beam (from one end to the other) steadily, without falling off, and within a six second time span."

Cognitive (comprehension level) - "Given examples and non-examples of constructivist activities in a college classroom, the student will be able to accurately identify the constructivist examples and explain why each example is or isn't a constructivist activity in 20 words or less."

Cognitive (application level) - "Given a sentence written in the past or present tense, the student will be able to re-write the sentence in future tense with no errors in tense or tense contradiction (i.e., I will see her yesterday.)."

Cognitive (creation/synthesis level) - "Given two cartoon characters of the student's choice, the student will be able to list five major personality traits of each of the two characters, combine these traits (either by melding traits together, multiplying together complimentary traits, or negating opposing traits) into a composite character, and develop a short (no more than 20 frames) storyboard for a cartoon that illustrates three to five of the major personality traits of the composite character."

Affective - "Given the opportunity to work in a team with several people of different races, the student will demonstrate a positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race, as measured by a checklist utilized/completed by non-team members."

When reviewing example objectives above, you may notice a few things.

As you move up the "cognitive ladder," it can be increasingly difficult to precisely specify the degree of mastery required.

Affective objectives are difficult for many instructors to write and assess. They deal almost exclusively with internal feelings and conditions that can be difficult to observe externally.

It's important to choose the correct key verbs to express the desired behavior you want students to produce. See the pages on cognitive objectives, affective objectives, and psychomotor objectives to see examples of key words for each level.

Typical Problems Encountered When Writing Objectives

Problems in Writing Objectives

Problem Error Type Solution

Too vast/complexThe objective is too broad in scope or is actually more than one objective.

Simplify/break apart.

False/missing The objective does not list the Be more specific, make

behavior, condition, or degree

correct behavior, condition, and/or degree, or they are missing.

sure the behavior, condition, and degree is included.

Only topics listed

Describes instruction, not conditions. That is, the instructor may list the topic but not how he or she expects the students to use the information

Simplify, include ONLY ABCDs.

False performanceNo true overt, observable performance listed.

Describe what behavior you must observe.

Self Check

How well do you understand the basics of writing good instructional objectives? Try this self test and you'll find out!

Additional Links

A Quick Guide to Writing Learning Objectives

Assessment and Instructional ObjectivesAssessment and instructional objectives are ideally closely bound. A well-written objective should clearly illustrate the most important criteria for assessing if the individual has accomplished the objective.

This section illustrates how a well-written objective assists one in developing valid assessment instruments. Psychomotor, affective, and cognitive types of objective are illustrated here.

Psychomotor Performance Target

Walk the length of a balance beam.

Objective Derived From Goal

Given a standard balance beam raised to a standard height, the student (attired in standard balance beam usage attire) will be able to walk the entire length of the balance beam (from one end to the other) steadily, without falling off, and within a six second time span.

Purpose of Assessment

To partially determine placement on a high school gymnastics team. Other assessments using other gymnastic devices will be used in conjunction with this assessment to determine the final ranking/placement. The criterion for acceptable performance is thus irrelevant here; higher scoring individuals simply have a better chance of being selected for the team.

Possible Biases

As males do not use the balance beam in gymnastics, this assessment is for females only. Thus, some may consider this test gender biased; but the rules of gymnastics dictate this distinction is necessary. Testing male's performance on equipment they will not use is irrelevant.

This test is biased against people who are physically incapable of mounting a balance beam and/or walking. However, these people would be incapable of performing on a gymnastics team and thus would not attempt the assessment in the first place.

Assessment Procedure

Pretest

Not needed. This is a sorting type of assessment and is designed to rank individuals, not chart their improvement and/or change in behavior.

Sole Test

The student (attired in standard balance beam usage attire) must walk the entire length of a standard balance beam raised to a standard height steadily, without falling off, and within a six second time span. (Note how this part reflects the objective.) A team of no less than three judges will observe a given individual perform this task three times, using a given scoring rubric to assign a score for each trial. The trial score for each trial is the average of all the judge's scores. The overall score for the individual is the average of the three trial scores.

Rubrics for Assessment

5 - Walks the balance beam flawlessly. Does not need to check balance, does not pause. Completes the walk within six seconds.

4 - Walks the beam, but is somewhat unsteady. Completes the walk within six seconds.

3 - Walks the beam, but is somewhat unsteady. May pause one or more times. Takes more than six seconds to complete the walk.

2 - Walks the beam, but is very unsteady, almost falling off, may pause one or more times, and/or takes more than six seconds.

1 - Falls off the beam before completing the walk.

0 - Falls off the beam immediately.

Conditions of Assessment

Assessment occurs only during the walking phase, not during the mount/dismount phases.

The individual indicates when the assessment should begin. The assessment ends as soon as the individual reaches the other end of the balance

beam. A team of judges consisting of no less than three people will use the provided

rubric to assess a given individual. Additional judges are optional. Individual judge's scores are averaged to determine a composite trial score for a

given performance for a given individual. Each individual is given three chances to walk the beam. The combined time for

these three chances should not exceed three minutes per individual. The average of these three trials (as determined by the judges using the provided

rubric) is used to determine the overall score.

Validity Defense

The same psychomotor task is used to assess the desired psychomotor performance.

This type of assessment is easy to use and provides overt, non-ambiguous results.

Reliability Assessment

Three judges are used to improve reliability of assessors. (Inter-rater reliability). Three trials per individual are allowed to improve reliability over time. (Test-

retest reliability).

Assessment Package for Judges of the Balance Beam Exercise

Directions: Each individual must walk the balance beam. For each individual, use the following scale to assign a value to the individual's performance on the balance beam. Each individual will be given three trials or chances to walk the balance beam. Score each trial individually. After scoring each trial, hold up the numbered card in front of you that corresponds to the score you gave the individual for that trial. Your score will be averaged with the other judge's scores. Note that you must time the individuals; a maximum time of six seconds to walk the beam from one end to the other is permitted.

5 - Walks the balance beam flawlessly. Does not need to check balance, does not pause. Completes the walk within six seconds.

4 - Walks the beam, but is somewhat unsteady. Completes the walk within six seconds.

3 - Walks the beam, but is somewhat unsteady. May pause one or more times. Takes more than six seconds to complete the walk.

2 - Walks the beam, but is very unsteady, almost falling off, may pause one or more times, and/or takes more than six seconds.

1 - Falls off the beam before completing the walk.

0 - Falls off the beam immediately.

Assessment occurs only during the walking phase, not during the mount/dismount phases.

The individual indicates when the assessment should begin. The assessment ends as soon as the individual reaches the other end of the balance

beam. A team of judges consisting of no less than three people will use the provided

scale to assess a given individual. Additional judges are optional.

Individual judge's scores are averaged to determine a composite trial score for a given performance for a given individual.

Each individual is given three chances to walk the beam. The combined time for these three chances should not exceed three minutes per individual.

The average of these three trials (as determined by the judges using the provided scale) is used to determine the overall score.

Scoring Template for an Individual

Balance Beam Rubric

Judge 1

Judge 2

Judge 3

Trial Total (Sum of Judge's scores)

Trial Score (Trial Total/# of Judges)

Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

Overall Score (Sum of

Trial Scores/# of Trials) =

Affective Learning Target

Goal - Learner's perspective on civil rights will improve.

Objectives Derived From Goal

1. Given the opportunity to work in a team with several people of different races, the student will demonstrate a positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race, as measured by a checklist utilized/completed by non-team members.

2. Given the opportunity to choose/not choose to do so, the student will demonstrate a positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race, as demonstrated

by choosing to participate (at varying levels of responsibility) in the organization of a racial equality rally.

3. Given the opportunity to rank non-discrimination of race in relationship to other issues, the student will demonstrate a positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race, as demonstrated by ranking non-discrimination of race as more important than other issues.

To determine if an individual's attitude towards racial equality has improved. If the student's score increases at all on the posttest, they are considered successful.

Possible Biases

People from different cultures may use different body language and facial expressions to convey the same meaning. The assessor must take this into account when assessing an individual.

There may be other intrinsically-based (and thus difficult to quantify) motivations for participating in a rally.

Assessment Procedure - Objective 1

Objective 1 Pretest

The student being assessed would be part of a racially diverse group. The provided rubric would be employed by the instructor or by someone not actually participating in the group. To have a group member or members employ the rubric as a pretest device would invalidate it, for the individual's actions and mannerisms would change upon introduction of the rubric. This could interfere with or augment the instruction that would follow.

Objective 1 Posttest

The student being assessed would be part of a racially diverse group. The provided rubric would be employed by the instructor or by someone not actually participating in the group. Ideally, this assessor should be the same person who administered the pretest. To have a group member or members employ the rubric as a posttest device would invalidate it, for the individual's actions and mannerisms would change upon introduction of the rubric. Ideally, each student should be assessed at least two times with different groups.

Comparisons between pretest and posttest scores would be used to determine if a positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race has occurred.

Rubrics/Scoresheets for Assessment

Directions: For each individual, use the following scale to assign a value to the individual's performance on each item listed in the left column. Place an X in the most

appropriate square to the right of each item. Example: If you decide a student only rarely attended individuals with the same amount of interest, place an X in the box under the 2. Twenty-eight possible points. Observe each student for 10 minutes.

Affective Objective 1 Rubric

Student Name:

Most (90-

100%) of the time

Usually (60 -

89%) of the time

Somewhat (30 - 59%) of the time

Rarely (0 -

29%) of the time

Student attends to each individual with the same amount of interest.

Student uses the same respectful tone of voice when addressing each team member.

Student does not make culturally sensitive or degrading remarks. (Example: "You Brugians are always thinking about yourselves.")

When a disagreement occurs, the student addresses the disagreement and not the other team member(s). (Example: "I don't believe that is true because..." NOT "Maybe where you come from that's true, but...")

Student generally maintains the same body language and facial expressions for all other team members. (Example: The student

frowns at Xavier all the time, but smiles at Jessica all the time.)

Student maintains same level of eye contact with all other group members.

The student must be unaware s/he is being assessed. Pretest/posttest environmental conditions must be as similar as possible. Group size should remain constant for pre and posttests. Group topics should remain fairly consistent between pre and posttests.

Validity Defense

Overt, measurable actions are used to assess the student. All assessment tasks work together in that they are assessing verbal and non-

verbal responses (Internal structure evidence.) This type of assessment is easy to use and provides overt, non-ambiguous results.

(Practicality evidence.) No negative or unexpected side effects are foreseen when this assessment is used.

(Consequential evidence.)

The same assessor is used on the pretest and posttest. (Assessor reliability). Two trials per individual are allowed to improve reliability over time. (Test-retest

reliability). Environmental factors that may affect how a student reacts are neutralized. Group dynamics, such as size and topic, are made as consistent as possible to

neutralize possible external variations that might affect testing.

Pretest

Via a paper handout, students would be asked to volunteer to work on developing a rally for racial equality. Students would return the handout having checked how they would like to (or not to) participate in the rally. The provided scoresheet would be employed by the instructor to assign a pretest score to each student.

Posttest (After instruction)

Via a paper handout, students would be asked to volunteer to work on developing a rally for racial equality. Students would return the handout having checked how they would like to (or not to) participate in the rally. The provided scoresheet would be employed by the instructor to assign a posttest score to each student.

Comparisons between pretest and posttest scores would be used to determine if a positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race has occurred.

Scoresheet

Assign each individual a numeric score based on his/her indicated level of involvement on the completed handout.

5 - Master organizer of entire rally.4 - Organize a specific part of the rally.3 - Assistant for two or more organizers of a specific part of the rally.2 - Assistant for one organizer of a specific part of the rally.1 - Minimal involvement (i.e., man refreshment stand night of the rally).0 - No involvement.

No other external incentive must be provided/available to the student that might influence his/her choice of level of involvement.

Pretest/posttest environmental conditions must be as similar as possible.

Validity Defense

Overt, measurable actions are used to assess the student. This type of assessment is easy to use and provides overt, non-ambiguous results.

The same assessor is used on the pretest and posttest. (Assessor reliability). Environmental factors and covert incentives that may affect how a student reacts

are neutralized.

Pretest

Via a pencil and paper quiz, students would be asked to rank the relative importance of non-discrimination of race as compared to other social issues.

Posttest (After instruction)

Via a pencil and paper quiz, students would be asked to rank the relative importance of non-discrimination of race as compared to other social issues.

Comparisons between pretest and posttest rankings would be used to determine if a positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race has occurred.

Sample Quiz

1. You are the mayor of a large city. You have a budget surplus. Please rank the following programs in order of importance. The higher-ranking items will receive more money for programs that support them, and thus will be more successful.__ Additional Policemen__ Racial Equality Programs__ Spouse Abuse Shelters__ Pollution Control Programs

2. You are the new superintendent in an inter-racial school. Several gangs exist, and there is graffiti everywhere. Teachers are afraid of some of the students. No type of security measures are in place at this time. You have a plan to change things, but you need to decide what to do first, second, etc. Please rank the following programs in order of importance.__ Racial Tolerance Programs__ Gang Control__ Graffiti Cleanup__ Security Program

3. You are the social director in a small, rural town in mid-western United States. The population of your town was 100% white until this week. A Mexican family of 10 just moved into town. Rumor has it that the father of the family has no job at this time. The mother creates and sells crafts out of her house. The 8 children's ages span between 1 and 15. As social director, what do you think you should do? Please rank the following ideas in order of importance.__ Advertise Available Jobs Throughout Town__ Host an Open House for the Mother's Crafts__ Mexican Culture Awareness Social__ Do Nothing Unless Asked By Someone

4. You are in an airplane with your classmates, a group of Indians, and a group of Eskimos. The plane crashes in the water, but fortunately many of you survive. The plane is sinking. You are one of the least injured people. Each group is huddled near an exit, and will be equally easy (or difficult) to rescue. Some of the less injured will probably be able to rescue themselves, but you are not sure. You have to decide who to rescue first, second, and so on. You doubt you have time to rescue everyone before the plane sinks completely. Please rank the following groups in the order you would save them.__ Your classmates__ The most injured

__ The Indians__ The Eskimos__ The least injured__ Obviously dead bodies

5. You are in charge of a private golf club. It was open only to white people with low handicaps (10 or less). Recently, the clubhouse burnt down, and many of the members have left for other clubs. You have to rebuild the physical site, and also build up the number of members. Please rank the following decisions in order of importance.__ Raise membership fees to help pay for the new clubhouse.__ Open the club membership to anyone who can pay the membership fee.__ Place a handicap limit on perspective members. Those people with a handicap greater than 20 cannot join the club.__ Build a cheap, temporary clubhouse for use until the new clubhouse can be built.

Scoring

1. Item to examine for positive change is "Racial Equality Programs."2. Item to examine for positive change is "Racial Tolerance Programs."3. Item to examine for positive change is "Mexican Culture Awareness Social."4. Items to examine for positive change are "Most Injured" and "Least Injured."5. Item to examine for positive change is "Open the club membership to anyone who

can pay the membership fee."

No other external incentive must be provided/available to the student that might influence his/her rankings.

Pretest/posttest environmental conditions must be as similar as possible.

Validity Defense

Overt, measurable actions are used to assess the student. This type of assessment is easy to use and provides overt, non-ambiguous results.

The same assessor is used on the pretest and posttest. (Assessor reliability). Environmental factors and covert incentives that may affect how a student reacts

are neutralized.

Cognitive Learning Target: Problem Solving/Synthesis Level

Goal - Students will be able to create a cast (using cartoon characters, modern entertainers, etc.) which reflect the personalities of the characters in a piece of literature, and explain why they have chosen the particular cast members. (The cast would be those characters, cartoon figures, entertainers, etc. that they choose to play the role of each character in an upcoming TV show, movie, play, etc.)

Objective

Given two cartoon characters of the student's choice, the student will be able to list five major personality traits of each of the two characters, combine these traits (either by melding traits together, multiplying together complimentary traits, or negating opposing traits) into a composite character, and develop a short (no more than 20 frames) storyboard for a cartoon that illustrates three to five of the major personality traits of the composite character.

To determine if a student in a high school setting can construct a composite character based on the personality traits of two given characters, can depict the composite character's personality, and can logically defend the composite character's personality and actions. This is a pass/fail assignment. Student receiving a score of 26 or more on the provided rubric have passed this test.

Possible Biases

Some students may not be familiar with certain cartoon characters, due to cultural differences, or simply because of lack of exposure to the cartoon genre. In these cases, the instructor may want to assist the student in choosing two characters (cartoon or otherwise, fictional or non-fictional) the student is familiar with, so the student can complete the assignment without negative bias.

The student will list five major personality traits of each of the two characters. These are perceived traits, and are not judged by the instructor as to their correctness. The student must then combine the traits of the two characters in a logical, defensible manner. Each new trait must be defended by the student either verbally or in writing. The following three examples illustrate this:

1. Melding traits - Garfield loves lasagna. Green Lantern receives his power from a green lantern. His power is focused through a ring he wears. The ring must be recharged by the lantern every 24 hours. In the composite character, it may be

necessary to recharge the Ring of Pasta with the Lasagna of Power every 24 hours.

2. Multiplying together complimentary traits - If you have two characters that both fight for justice, the composite character would fight for justice as well, perhaps at a level some would consider fanatical.

3. Negating opposing traits - If one character is good and the other evil, the composite character would be neutral. Thus he/she/it might respond to a bank robbery not because it is the right thing to do, or to share in the loot, but perhaps to collect a reward.

Then the student would develop short (no more than 20 frames) storyboard for a cartoon that illustrates three to five of the major personality traits of the composite character. The storyboard could be plain text (one paragraph would comprise a frame), rough sketches (one sketch per frame), colored drawings (one drawing per frame), or any combination thereof.

The instructor(s) would assess the storyboard by examining the listing of original personality traits and their combinations into a new composite character. The storyboard must reflect at least three of the composite traits in a story that fits the composite character. If the student offers a verbal defense, the instructor(s) must listen to this defense. If the defense is in writing, the instructor(s) must consult it at this time. The instructor(s) must use the provided rubric to assign a score to the student. Students must complete this assessment in two hours.

Student must be in an environment that supports paper and pencil activities. Optionally, sketching and coloring tools may be available for students wishing to express themselves with these tools.

Ideally, two or more instructors would assess a given student, as the assessment is partially subjective in nature.

Validity Defense

Overt, measurable actions are used to assess the student. All assessment tasks work together in that they are assessing a synthesis task.

(Internal structure evidence.) This type of assessment is easy to use and provides overt, non-ambiguous results.

Subjectivity is minimized through the use of a rubric.

Two or more judges are recommended to improve reliability of assessors. (Inter-rater reliability).

Read the following to the students. Also, have this available in print form:

A. Choose two cartoon characters. List five major personality traits of each of the two characters. Combine these traits (either by melding traits together, multiplying together complimentary traits, or negating opposing traits) into a composite character, and develop a short (no more than 20 frames) storyboard for a cartoon that illustrates three to five of the major personality traits of the composite character. Melding traits together, multiplying together complimentary traits, and negating opposing traits are defined in this way:

1. Melding traits - Garfield loves lasagna. Green Lantern receives his power from a green lantern. His power is focused through a ring he wears. The ring must be recharged by the lantern every 24 hours. In the composite character, it may be necessary to recharge the Ring of Pasta with the Lasagna of Power every 24 hours.

2. Multiplying together complimentary traits - If you have two characters that both fight for justice, the composite character would fight for justice as well, perhaps at a level some would consider fanatical.

3. Negating opposing traits - If one character is good and the other evil, the composite character would be neutral. Thus he/she/it might respond to a bank robbery not because it is the right thing to do, or to share in the loot, but perhaps to collect a reward.

B. After you have your combined traits list, develop short (no more than 20 frames) storyboard for a cartoon that illustrates three to five of the major personality traits of your composite character. The storyboard can be plain text (one paragraph would comprise a frame), rough sketches (one sketch per frame), colored drawings (one drawing per frame), or any combination thereof. (Show examples). You will be evaluated on how logical your combined traits are, how well you can explain/defend these traits, and how well your storyboard utilizes and illustrates those combined traits. This is a pass/fail test. You must score at least 26 out of 36 possible points to pass. (Explain rubric). You have two hours to complete this task.

Assessment Package for Judges of the Cartoon Melding Assessment

Directions: For each individual, use the following scale to assign a value to the individual's performance on each item listed in the left column. Place an X in the most appropriate square to the right of each item. 36 possible points. This is a pass/fail test. Students receiving a score of 26 or better have passed this test.

Rubric for Creation/Synthesis Cognitive Level

Name of Student:

3 - Excellent. The combination of traits is logical.

2 - Fair. The combination of traits is somewhat logical, but other interpretations are more so.

1 - Poor. The combination of traits is not logical.

Student combo of Traits 1

3 - The student’s defense of the combination is

2 - The student’s defense of the combination is

1 - The student’s defense of the combination is weak.

flawless. adequate, but open to argument.

3 - Excellent. The student used at least three of the combined traits in the storyboard.

2 - Fair. The student used one or two of he combined traits in the storyboard.

1 - Poor. The student used at most one of the combined traits in the storyboard.

Storyboard construction

3 - The story fits the composite character - i.e., it is believable for that character.

2 - The story fits the composite character but is somewhat artificial or contrived.

1 - Poor. The student used at most one of the combined traits in the storyboard. The story does not fit the composite character and is somewhat artificial or contrived.

Storyboard coherence

Total Score:

Activities and Instructional Objectives

Dwyer, 1991 – "If your final objective is to have learners engage in problem-solving,you inspect the instructional unit to make sure that the content contains the appropriate facts, concepts, rules/principles, etc. which are a prerequisite for that intended learners to engage in successful problem-solving."

Activities can include writing papers, doing projects, solving problems, discussing issues, etc. Activities should flow naturally from your objectives. Here are some questions to ask yourself:

What do the students need to do in order to achieve the course goals and objectives? Is it only memorization of concepts? Probably not. Then what activities are necessary to achieve the level of learning you expect?

What do students need to memorize in order to perform higher-level tasks? What is the most basic? Can other information be looked up as needed or does the student need to know the information "on demand?"

What is the ideal way to learn course content if money, time, location were not of concern? What of those ways can be incorporated into this course?

What kind of knowledge/skills do you want to the students to apply in later courses or in their internship or jobs? Problem-solving, analysis, or what?

What learning activities will motivate students; that is, what will convey your passion about the content?

What will the students do in class, out of class and in recitation/small group sessions?

What must the students, teaching assistants, and you do to support students as they learn?

What is the nature of the class and how might that impact the range of student activities?

You want to select student activities based on the level of the objectives. Following are some examples of student activities related to different levels of cognitive learning.

Matching Objectives With Activities

Level of Learning

Student Activities

Facts Self-check quizzes, trivia games, etc.

ConceptsHave students show examples/non-examples, student generated flowchart, etc.

Rules/PrinciplesDesign projects and prototypes, simulations, etc.

Problem SolvingCase study, small group discussion, critical thinking, teamwork, etc.

Additional Links

How to Write Learning Objectives that Meet Demanding Behavioral Criteria

TEDI Learning Activities

UMUC Teaching and Learning Activities

EKU TLC Teaching Tips

Michigan State on Objectives and Assessment

Offline References

Dwyer, F. M.(1991). A paradigm for generating curriculum design oriented research questions in distance education. Second American Symposium Research in Distance Education, University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University.

Heinrich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J.D., Smaldino, S.E. (1996). Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.

Aligning Instructional Objectives, Activities, and AssessmentA well-written objective will assist you in aligning the objective to activities and assessment.

The graphic below (Adapted from Dwyer 1991) shows a mismatch of the objectives, instruction and assessment. In this case:

Objectives were set to problem-solving, The students were assessed with problem-solving. However, only lower levels of learning, such as concepts, were presented to

students.

Because of this students who have not been exposed to problem-solving techniques related to the course will more than likely have low-achievement when working on problem-solving assignments or problem-solving questions on an exam.

In contrast, the graphic below (Adapted from Dwyer) shows one example of matching your objectives with instruction.

Set your objectives to teach problem-solving. Design your instruction and learning activities to teach or demonstrate problem-

solving. Assess the students at the problem-solving level.

Offline References

Dwyer, F. M.(1991). A paradigm for generating curriculum design oriented research questions in distance education. Second American Symposium Research in Distance Education, University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University.

Heinrich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J.D., Smaldino, S.E. (1996). Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.

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