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john a. powellExecutive Director
Andrew Grant-ThomasDeputy Director
KIRWAN INSTITUTE
FOR THE STUDY OF RACE AND ETHNICITY
THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY
School Integration Framing & Messaging: Toward a Transformative Conversation
Becky RenoSenior Research Associate
Baris Gumus-DawesPostdoctoral Researcher
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SchoolIntegrationFraming&Messaging:TowardaTransformativeConversation
I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 2
II. THEIMPORTANCEOFINTEGRATION&THENEEDTOREFRAME .............................................. 3
III. INTRODUCTIONTOMESSAGING&FRAMING .................................................................................. 4
IV. MEDIAREVIEW........................................................................................................................................... 6NEWSREPORTS..........................................................................................................................................................................7NEWMEDIA............................................................................................................................................................................. 10
V. FOCUSGROUPRESULTS..........................................................................................................................11DEFININGDIVERSITY ............................................................................................................................................................. 12INTEGRATIONVS.ACADEMICACHIEVEMENT.................................................................................................................... 12DIVERSITY/CULTURALCOMPETENCYINSCHOOLS......................................................................................................... 12LIMITATIONSTOACHIEVINGINTEGRATION ...................................................................................................................... 13CONFLICTBETWEENPERSONAL&PROFESSIONALVALUES .......................................................................................... 13THEAPPEALOFCHOICE ........................................................................................................................................................ 13DISAGREEMENTONMESSAGES ............................................................................................................................................ 14
VI. REVIEWOFPROFESSIONALLITERATURE.......................................................................................14FOCUSONRACE....................................................................................................................................................................... 15RECOGNITIONOFTHEROLEOFNEIGHBORHOODS........................................................................................................... 15FOCUSONCLASS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 15
VII. TALKINGABOUTRACE&INTEGRATION:THEIMPORTANCEOFFRAMING.......................16BASICRULESOFEFFECTIVEFRAMING ............................................................................................................................... 16EMPIRICALRESEARCHONEFFECTIVEFRAMESREGARDINGRACE.............................................................................. 17TOWARDATRANSFORMATIVEDISCOURSEONRACE&INTEGRATION:TRUEINTEGRATION ................................. 19MINNEAPOLISFOCUSGROUPFINDINGS:HOWTOFRAMETHECONCEPTSOFRACEANDINTEGRATION? .......... 20
VIII. THEWAYFORWARD ...........................................................................................................................24NEEDFORFURTHERFRAMINGRESEARCH ........................................................................................................................ 24THENEEDFORASPECIFICAGENDA ................................................................................................................................... 25THENEEDFORANEXEMPLARYCASETODEMONSTRATEPOSSIBILITIES................................................................... 26THETWINCITIESMETROPOLITANAREA:“THERIGHTPLACEATTHERIGHTTIME”TOFACILITATECOLLECTIVEACTIONAROUNDINTEGRATION........................................................................................................................................... 27
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I. IntroductionDespiteamountingbodyofevidencedemonstratingtheacademic,social,psychologicalanddemocraticbenefitsofeducatingstudentsinadiverseenvironment,integrationhasbeenatoughselllately.Oneof
thenation’smostlaudedeconomicintegrationprogramswasdisbandedinMay2010,andintegrationhaslargelybeensupplantedbychoiceprogramsandin‐placestrategiesundertheObamaadministration.Despitethetirelesseffortsofcivilrightschampions,legalandeducationadvocates,
parents,communitygroupsandothers,thefightfortrueintegrationremainsanuphillbattle,andgroundisslippingbeneathourfeetdailyacrossthenation.Attheoutsetofthisprojectwethoughtthismaybeduetosomecombinationofagenerallackofawarenessofthebenefitsofdiversity,the
perceivedcoststoachieveitbeinggreaterthanthebenefits,integrationexhaustion,oralackofclarityaboutwhatintegrationmeans.
Whenreceivinginformation,peoplegenerallyhaveatendencytoboilitdownassimplyaspossibleinordertoprocessitefficiently.Informationgetsdistilledintosoundbitesandcomplexissuesare
reframedintopithysegments.Educationisnoexceptionanditcertainlyisn’tshortoncomplexity.Newspapersandblogsacrossthecountryaredailyaddressingtheachievementgap,schools’and
students’academicperformance,budgetcrises,teachershortages,theroleofunions,etc.Thelistofeducationalwoesgoesonandon,andintegrationisframedasjustanotherdrumbeatinthemarchofeducationalreform.Itisoftenregardedasanimpedimenttoand/ordistractionfromreform,rather
thanasolutiontomanyoftheeducationchallengeswefacetoday.
Inthiseraofaccountability,nearlyeverythingthatisn’tastandardizedtestorroteinstructionisbeingcastasideforfearofloweringstandards.Integrationisnoexception.Despiteabroadbodyofresearchlinkingintegrationtoacademicachievement,theissueisstillframedasachievementvs.diversity.This
typeofzero‐sumthinkingisn’tlimitedtoacademicachievement;italsoexistsinpolicyreformalongtopicssuchasschoolchoice.Wecanhaveintegratedschools,orparentscanhavechoices,butnotboth.Similarly,wecanpursuemobilitystrategiesorwecanimplementin‐placeinterventions,butnotboth.
Thistypeofdichotomousthinkingislimitingournation’sabilitytoreformschoolsinawaythatcanbringoureducationsystemintothe21stcentury,yetthisistheframethatisheardandtoooftenaccepteduncriticallyacrossthecountry.Untilintegrationadvocatescanmeetpeoplewithintheir
currentrealmofunderstanding,wewillhavelittlechancetomovepeopletowardintegration,orevenengagepeopleinconversationaboutthebenefitsofeducatingstudentsinatrulydiversesetting.
ThisprojectsoughttounderstandhowthepublicthinksaboutdiversityandintegrationinK‐12educationinordertobeginworkingtowardthedevelopmentofframesandmessagesthatwouldextol
thebenefitsofdiversityforeducationinwaysevenskepticsmightfindpersuasive.Toachievethis,weconductedamediaanalysisandacademicliteraturereview.Wealsoreviewedbestpracticesonhowtotalkaboutraceandeducationreform.Finally,weconductedfocusgroupsandheldroundtable
discussionsinMontclair,NJ;PittCounty,NC;Minneapolis,MN;Archbold,OH;Cincinnati,OH;Carroll,OH;andNiles,OH.Thisreportsummarizesourfindingsandsuggestsfurtherframingresearchonthe
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conceptofintegration,aswellassomerecommendationsonthetypeofworkthatneedstobedoneinordertocollectivelyorganizeattheregionallevel.
II. TheImportanceofIntegration&theNeedtoReframeBringingtogetherstudentsofdifferentbackgroundstolearnfromoneanothershouldremainacentralobjectiveofAmericaneducation,especiallyaswemovetowardamajorityminoritysociety.Intoday’s
globalizedworld,educationmustincreasecross‐culturalcompetenceessentialtoperforminginaglobalmarketplaceandparticipatingintheever‐growinghumanconversation.Italsomustinculcatefundamentalvaluesnecessaryfortheconstructionofanequitablemulti‐racialandmulti‐ethnic
democracy.Ifwefailatintegration,thecountryfails;segregationmakesitverydifficulttodevelopgoodcitizens.Yetourschoolsareincreasinglysegregated,withdiminishededucationalopportunitiesintheareasofteacherquality,classsize,facilities,andavailabilityofadvancedcourses.Studentsofcoloralso
facedisadvantagesindesegregatedschoolswhereteachersmaintainlowerexpectationsofthemandoftenconcentratetheminlowerachievementtracks.
SegregationliesattheheartoftheracialdisparitiesthatcontinuetoplagueAmericansociety.Segregationisnotjustthespatialexclusionofpeople,butitisthelimitationoftheiropportunitiesand
resources.Thisincludesallstudents.Asmuchofthefocusonintegrationhasalsobeenonitsbenefitsforblacks,Latinos,andotherstudentsofcolor,littleattentionhasbeenpaidtowhywhitesshouldcare
aboutintegration,orhowpeopletodaytalkand/orthinkaboutintegration.Weneedtoraiseupthebenefitsofintegrationtowhites,aswellastononwhites,andchallengethediscoursethatplacesintegrationintensionwithacademicexcellence.Inordertodothis,weneedtocreateauniform,
consistentmessageonwhatwemeanbytrueintegrationanditsdemands.
Theconceptofintegrationhasmanynegativeconnotationsduetoitsstrife‐riddenhistoryinAmerica.Infact,manypeopleassociateitwithdesegregation,assimilation,anddiversity—noneofwhichcapturethetruemeaningofintegration.Itiscritical,therefore,tobeginbyexploringhowthepublicthinks
aboutintegration,andhowtomovethemfromthinkingaboutdesegregationtotrueintegration.Whilethereisgeneralagreementthatintegrationispositive,thereismuchlessagreementorevenunderstandingofwhatitis,andwhenitisconceptualized,itisoftentoonarrow,andmistakenfor
desegregationorassimilation.Whiledesegregation,atbest,attemptstoassimilate"minorities"intothemainstream,trueintegrationtransformsandenrichesthemainstreamandencouragesrelationsbasedonmutuality,equalityandfairness.Desegregationisaboutachievingnumericaldiversitywhiletrue
integrationseekstoallowthosehistoricallyexcludedtore‐imagineandredesigntheeducationsystem.Trueintegrationhasimplicationsforeverythingthatgoesonwithinthewallsoftheeducationsystem‐discipline,curriculum,abilitygrouping,etc.‐aswellashowthosewallsareevenconstructedwith
schoolsiteselection,districtboundaries,schoolopeningsandclosings,andstudentassignmentpolicies.Desegregationmaybringpeopletogether,butitlacksthelastingandprofoundbenefitsthattrueintegrationhasforoursocietyandforusasindividuals.
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Advocates,scholars,practitionersandothersmustworkcollectivelytodefineintegrationinthe21stcentury,distinguishingitfromalltheotherconceptsthathavebeeninappropriatelyassociatedwiththe
word.ItisessentialtorearticulatetheconceptinlightofthenewrealitiesofamorecomplexAmericansociety.Howwetalkaboutintegrationcanentrench,uprootandreconfigurepolicypreferencesandattitudes.Anytransformativeconversationonracethushastoaddressthisissueandhonestlydescribe
thegoalAmericansocietyshouldstrivetoward.Unlessadvocatesexplicitlyarticulatethesocialgoaloftheirefforts—theyettobefulfilledpromiseofintegration—lookingforeffectivewaysofframingtheirmessagescouldeasily“devolveintoasearchfortheframethatbest‘sells’tothepublic,limitingthe
long‐termeffectivenessofracialjusticeorganizing.”1
Itisespeciallycrucialtocontinuetalkingaboutintegrationinfresh,transformativewaysgiventhecontextof“integrationfatigue”thatisprevalentamongcommunitiesofcolor.Communitiesofcolorremainfrustratedthat,despiteallthepasteffortsandtalkaboutintegration,theboatsofpeopleof
colorhavenotbeenlifted.Moreimportantly,perhaps,theythinkthatthepoliticalwilltotakeontheissueofintegrationsimplydoesnotexistinthiscountry.Thisiswhyin‐placeeducationstrategiesthatemphasizetheneedtoachieveeveninraciallysegregatedhigh‐povertyschoolsarepopularamong
peopleofcolor.Eventhosewhovalueintegrationareimpactedbythis“integrationfatigue,”whichcreatesageneralconfusionaboutthevalueofintegration.Forinstance,peoplewhobelieveinthevalueofintegrationoftencannotdecidewhethertheyvalueintegrationasanendinitselforasameansto
anotherendsuchasequity.Undertheinfluenceof“integrationfatigue,”theyfrequentlychoosetoemphasize“equity”overintegration,insomecasesattheexpenseofintegrationaltogether.Advocatesneedtoclearlyarticulatetheimportanceofintegration,explaininghowandwhyintegrationinvolves
somethingmuchbroaderthanequity.
Inordertocreatea“politicalwillforintegration,weneedtodefineinnew,transformativewayswhatexactlywemeanbyintegration;howitbenefitseveryone(notjustpeopleofcolor);andwhy“true
integration”isavalueinitselfthatisworthpursuing.Unlesswecanarticulatethisstrongcasefortrueintegrationthroughthedevelopmentofeffectiveframesandmessages,itwillbedifficulttogarnersupportforstudentassignmentplansthatseektoachieveintegrationandexcellenceinourschools.
Transformingthisdiscoursearoundintegrationrequirescoordinatedandextensiveresearchandstrategizingtounderstandwherepeopleare,andhowtomovethemtoamorecomplex,comprehensiveunderstandingofintegrationsothatwemaybegin,forthefirsttimeinhistory,totruly
integrateourpublicsystemofeducation.
III. IntroductiontoMessaging&FramingTodayitishardtotalkaboutraceinthesametermsAmericanstalkedaboutitduringtheCivilRights
movement.Today’sracismislessvisibleandimplicitlyembeddedinvariousinstitutionalarrangementsthatcontinuetoreinforcesocial,economicandpoliticaldisparities.Thepervasivenessoftheseinstitutionalarrangementsoftenmakesconversationsaboutracedivisiveandpolarizing.
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Asaresult,peopleoftenavoidtalkingaboutraceortakeacolor‐blindapproach,arguingthatweshouldfocusinsteadonclass.Thisapproachisbasedonthenotionthatbringingattentiontoracedivides
peopleandtriggersracistattitudes.Thecolor‐blindapproachisevenpopularamongsomeracialequityadvocates,whoarguethattheissueofracewillhavemorepublicsupportifpoliciesandcommunicationsareframedinmorerace‐neutralterms.
Researchreveals,however,thatpeopleoftenthinkaboutraceunconsciouslyevenwhentheyarenot
talkingaboutit,andthatourimplicitracialattitudesarelikelytobemorebiasedandnegativethanourexplicitopinions.2Sincedivertingattentionfromtheissueofraceissimplyimpossible,itisbettertotalkaboutracethansimplytoavoidit.Buthowwetalkaboutracematters.Forinstance,talkingaboutrace
inrace‐neutraltermscouldeasilydegenerateinto‘color‐blindracism,’whichoriginatesfromone’signorance/denial/minimizationofexistingracialdisparitiesandtheinstitutionalarrangementsthatmaintainthesedisparities.3
Unlesseffectivelychallengedbyrace‐consciousmessages,thistypeofracismreinforcesexistingracial
hierarchiesbytrivializingthesocial,economic,andpoliticaldisparitiesdrivenbyrace.4Socialscienceresearchshowsthatsucharace‐consciousapproachtoraceislikelytobemoreeffectivethanacolor‐blindapproachinreducingracialbias.5Bytalkingaboutraceinatransformativefashion,wecan
illuminatetheinstitutionaldynamicsthatgeneratesocial,economicandpoliticaldisparitiesinourcommunities,andwecanthenmovetowardeliminatingtheseracialdisparities.
Moreover,socialpsychologyresearchonmulticulturalismshowsthatitispossibletotalkaboutracewithouttriggeringprejudiceanddiscrimination.6Infact,aneffectivelyconstructedrace‐conscious
messagecouldfosterawarenessofracialandethnicdifferencesandpromoteanappreciationofdiversityasacomponentofsocietalhealth.Asresearchersdemonstrate,whenamulticulturalapproach
toraceisused,peopleoftenreplacethepridetheytakeinbeingamemberofthe“best”groupwiththepridethatcomeswithmembershipinagroupwithsomethinguniqueandvaluabletocontributetothelargersociety.7
Framingresearchalsoshowsthatpeopleoftenhaveconflictingframesystems,especiallywhenitcomes
to“highlevelmoralframes.”8FramingresearcherGeorgeLakoffidentifiestwomaincompetingframesystems–progressiveandconservativeframesystems,notingthattheactivationof“theconservativeframesystemweakenstheprogressiveframesystem—bothindividualframesforparticularissues,but
alsothesystemasawhole.”9LakoffdescribestheimportanceofthisnotionforcontemporaryAmericanpolitics:
Forimportantdomainsofthought,likemorality,religion,andpolitics,itiscommonplaceforpeopletohavetwoinconsistentframesystemsthatinhibiteachother.Whenthoseframes
applytodifferentissuesandindifferentcontexts,wespeakof‘bi‐conceptuals.’Whenyoucanshiftbackandforthonanissue,youarebi‐conceptualonthatissue.Thatis,youcanframetheissueintwoways,usinginconsistenthigher‐levelframesystems…Importantpoliticalconcepts
are‘contested,’overlappinginsomeclassiccases,butdivergingincontentdependingonthe
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moralsystem.Thus,vitalpoliticalconceptslikelife,freedom,responsibility,government,accountability,equality,fairness,empathy,property,security,andsoonarecontested.Amajor
goalofpoliticalframingistogetyourversionofcontestedconceptsacceptedbythevoters.Messagingcanthenusetheseconceptsandtheirlanguagefreelyandeffectively.Thatishowframingworksgenerally—independentofwhethertheframesareusedinpolitics.Inpolitics,bi‐
conceptualvoterscanshiftbackandforthonanissue,dependingonhowtheissueisframedintermsofhigher‐levelpoliticalsystems.10
Whatdoesthatmeanforpoliticalmessaging?Lakoffexplains:
Messagesusewords.Thewordsactivateframes.Inpoliticalmessages,youhaveadoubleintention:togetvoterstothinkusingyourframesandtokeepvotersfromthinkingusingthe
otherside’sframes,whichcontradictyours.Yourmessagewillbemoreeffectiveifitfitsexistinghigh‐levelframesinthebrainsofvoters,andlesseffectiveifitcontradictssuchhigh‐levelframes.Yourgoal,withbi‐conceptualvoters,istoactivateyoursystemofpoliticalframesand
inhibittheotherside’ssystemofpoliticalframes.Yourmessageshould,therefore,fityourhigh‐levelframesystemanditshouldnotfittheotherside’shigh‐levelframesystem.Ifitfitstheotherside’shigh‐levelframesystem,yourmessagewillbehelpingtheotherside,becauseitwill
tendtomakevotersthinkusingtheirframesystem.11
Thismeansthatracialjusticeadvocatescannotsimplypreachtothechoir.Theyneedtorecognizetherealityof“bi‐conceptuals”andmakesuretoconstantlyworktotriggertheprogressiveframesintheirminds.AdvocatescanonlybegintocreateatransformativeracialdiscourseinAmericawhentheir
progressivehigh‐levelmoralframesaremorereadilyinvokedthantheconservativeones.Thismeansthattheyneedtoworkrelentlesslytosetupanelaboratemessagingsystemwhichcancompete
effectivelywiththesuccessfulsystemcreatedbyconservativeadvocates.12Todoso,itiscriticaltofirstexaminethedominantmessagesbeingpresentedthroughvariousmediaandacademicoutlets,tothepublicregardingintegratededucation.
IV. MediaReviewInworkingtounderstandhowthebroaderpublicconceptualizesanyissue,itisimportanttoconductamediaanalysistoidentifythepredominantmessagesthatarebeingcommunicatedthroughtraditional
andonlinenewsoutlets.Whilemediacannotinandofitselftelluswhattothink,itcaninfluencewhatwethinkabout,andhowwethinkaboutit.13Anindividualconstructstheirschemasaroundagiventopicthroughmultiplesources,oneofwhichistheframespresentedinthemedia.Intentionallyornot,
themediashapeshowpeoplethinkaboutintegrationbyselectingtheangleofthestory,andconnectingstoriestothepublic’sownexistingschemas.14Researchacrossthepastthirtyyearsoninformation‐processingtheoryhelpsusbetterunderstandhowexistingframesdynamicallyinteractwithincoming
information.Peoplemaybemoreattentivetoinformationthatisofinteresttothem,andmostareabletoincorporateincominginformation,evenifitconflictswithexistingbeliefs,thatis,aslongastheinformationisdeemedrelevant.Oneotheritemofnoteregardingcognitiveresearchdemonstratingthe
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impactofmediaonexistingbeliefs,iftheinformationpresentedisrelativelynewtoanindividual,themorelikelyitistobeabletochangetheperson’sperceptionorviewsonthetopic.15Thisissalientto
thisanalysisasdesegregationhasbeenextensivelydiscussedacrossthepasthalf‐century,andthelessnovelanewspieceis,themorelikelyanindividualistofititwithinanexistingschema.Thissuggestsaneedtoanalyzethedominantframesthatexistinthemediaaroundintegrationandanevaluationof
howtheissuecanbereframedthroughstrategicmessagingtomovepeoplefromtheircurrentschemasofschooldesegregation.
Toexaminetherepresentationofdesegregation,integration,anddiversityineducation,theKirwanInstitutereviewednewsarticlespublishednationallyacrossthepast3years.Giventhe2007Supreme
CourtCaseParentsInvolved,theresultingscrambletorevisestudentassignmentplans,theelectionofPresidentObama,andtheeconomicdownturn,thissearchresultedinhundredsofarticlesdiscussingintegration.Inaddition,wealsoincludedinourreviewanumberofonlineblogsincludingThe
HuffingtonPost,EducationWeek,EducationNews,EduWonkandThisWeekinEducation.Whiletheseblogsrepresentedatheoreticalstraddlebetweenthenewsoutletsandprofessionalliterature,theywereincludedinthissectionastheaudiencefortheseblogstendstobewiderandmoreinclusivethan
journalarticlesorpolicyreports.
Certainlytheissueofintegrationiscomplex,andthearticlesandblogentriesreflectedthis.Focuswithinthearticlesandblogentriesrangedfromtheshort‐termimpactsonindividualstothelong‐termimplicationsforthenation.Whilethecomplexitycapturedwithinthearticlesandblogsisdifficulttoboil
downtoafewgeneralizations,afterthesystematicreviewafewdominantthemesemerged,thoughthesethemesvariedbetweenthe“traditional”andthe“new”media.Thus,thesetwomediumsarediscussedseparatelybelow.
NewsReportsNewspiecesandreportsfromperiodicalswereidentifiedutilizinganumberofonlinedatabases,usingacombinationofwordsandphrasesincludingintegration,schoolintegration,economicintegration,
desegregation,schooldesegregation,andeconomicdesegregation.Acrossthesearticlesandreportstherewerefarmoreframesusedtopromoteorjustifyareturntoneighborhood(segregated)schoolsthanthereweretosupportintegration.Thebulkof
thearticlesidentifiedtheimpedimentstoachievingintegration.Thoughsomeattentionwaspaidtowhyintegrationwasnecessary,therewaslittle
coveragehighlightingencouragingexamplesorschoolsordistrictssuccessfullydesegregating.Thefollowingrepresentsanoverviewofthemost
prominentthemes.
Bussing/NeighborhoodSchoolsFirst,byandlargethemostoft‐mentionedaspectrelatedtointegrationwasbussing.Bussingis
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mentionedinthevastmajorityofarticlesastheonetrueimpedimentstandinginthewayofsuccessfulintegrationandalackofsupportwasdemonstratedacrossavarietyofgroups.Articlesciteparents
opposedtolongbusridesfortheirchildrenaswellasschoolboardmemberswhoareadamantthatthedistrictcannotaffordthetransportationcosts.
Thesemessagesincludeafocusontheexpresseddesiresofparentsandcommunitymemberstoreturntoneighborhoodschools.Theissueoflocalcontrolisraisedconsistently,andmanyarticlescite
suburbanparents’reluctanceto“importoutsiders”andurbanparents’concernsabouttheirchildrennotfittingintoasuburbanschool.Whilecivilrightsadvocatesarecautioningagainstthereturnto“separatebutequal”(thelatterneverbeingthecase),bothsuburbanandurbanparentsalikeare
expressingadesiretohavehighqualityschoolsregardlessoftheracialorclasscomposition.AfricanAmericanfamilieslamentthelossofteachersandadministratorsofcolorwhocanrelatetotheirchildrenandserveasrolemodelswhilewhiteparentsexpresstheirconcernaboutresourcesbeing
filteredtootherschoolsandtheimpactofbussingstudentsoncommunitysupportandlocalownershipoftheschools.
Integrationv.SchoolChoiceAseparatebutrelatedframewoventhroughoutthemediacoverageisthefocusonschoolchoice‐beitvouchersforprivateeducation,chartersorpublicschoolcompetition.Rarely,ifever,isthefocusonhow
integrationcouldbeasuccessfulcomponentofschoolchoice,butratherhowinsteadofintegration,parentsareoptingforotheroptions.16Asub‐dialogueabouttheimpactthatteachers’unionshadinstiflingcreativityandinnovationintheclassroomwaspresentthroughoutthesearticlesaswell.Few
mentionsweremadeoftheroleofcharterschoolsincreatingamoresegregatedsystemofeducationorthepossibilitiesofcreatingasystemofcontrolledchoice.17
Integrationv.AcademicAchievementNotsurprisingly,mostdiscussionsofintegrationcenteredontheissueofraisingacademicachievement.Achievementhasbecomemorenarrowlydefinedovertheyears,andpublicdiscoursearoundhighqualityeducationfocusesonthisonecomponenttoafault.Therelationshipbetweenacademic
achievementandintegrationwassetupmostoftenasabinaryone.Exampleswereoftenhighlightedofdiverseschoolswithacorrespondingcautionarytaleofhowtheschoolisindeclineorsufferingfromdepressedacademicperformance.18Parentsquotedinarticlesoftenexpressedtheirdesiretosend
theirchildrentoahighqualityschool,regardlessofwhetheritwasintegrated.
IndividualAgencyThesourcefortheexistingachievementgapmostoftenwasnotattributedtosegregation,ordisparateeducationalopportunitiesbetweendifferentsegmentsofthepopulation,butrathertoindividualagency.Academic
achievementwassuggestedtobetheresultofneighborhoodcomposition,familialstatus,oritwascloakedinsubtlereferencestodifferencesinculturalnorms.Similarly,individualagencywasalsoimplicatedin
residentialsegregation.Newsarticlesreportedontheideologythatit’san
“Schoolscanonlyworkwithwhattheyhave,there’salreadyan
achievementgapbeforethechildrenputtheirfirstfootinthekindergarten
door.”LindaLanier,FloridaTimes
Union.
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individual’schoicetolivewhereheorshewantedto,andthatschoolsorthegovernmentdonothavetherighttointervenewhenpersonalpreferencewasatplay.
Political/LegalImpedimentsNotsurprisinglygiventherecencyoftheParentsInvolved(PICS)case,thepoliticalandlegalimpedimentswereemphasizedinmanyarticles.CoverageonPICSoverwhelminglyidentifieditasa
decisionthatlimitedschooldistricts’powerstoraciallydesegregate.19Whilethisisn’twhollyinaccurate,littleifanymentionwasgivenofthelegallypermissiblewaysthatracecouldstillbeused.Similarly,
manynewsoutletshighlightedthecountlesswaysthatschoolboards,teachers’unionsandotherfederaleducationpoliciesimpedeintegration.Alsoincludedwithinthisframewasadiscussionoftheachievementof“unitarystatus”bypreviouslysegregateddistricts.Whileoccasionallythiswasexamined
critically,oftenarticlescelebratedtheachievementofunitarystatusasadecisivemovetowardequalityineducation,evenifthedistrictstatisticsdidn’treflectintegration.
MulticulturalismIndefenseofintegration,multiculturalismwasoftenraisedasajustificationfortheneedfordiversity.20Authorsrecognizedthegrowingpopulationsandshiftingdemographicsthatrequireschoolsanddistrictstoaddresslanguage
barriers,andtoensureteachersaretrainedtoworkwithculturallyandraciallydiversepopulations.Afewarticlesrecognizedthattheissuecannotbeignored,andthatthisisacriticalissuethatwillhavelongtermeconomic
impactsforournationifnotfullyaddressed.
SourcesofContinuedSegregationAfewmorenuancedarticlescoveredthehistoricallegacyofsegregationanddiscussedthedefacto
segregationpresentinourneighborhoodsandreflectedinourschools,orthemorerecentreturntosegregationduetothePICSdecision.ArticlescoveringParentsInvolveddiscussedmanyschooldistricts’focusonsocioeconomicintegration,ortheirabandonmentofstudentassignmentpoliciesaltogether.
FactorsExcludedSurprisingly,despitethemultitudeofarticlesdedicatedtothetopicofintegration,therewereanumber
offactorslargelyabsentfromtheiranalyses.Statisticsdocumentingthedegreeofsegregationwithinand/oracrossdistrictswerescarceandsegregationwasdiscussedmoreasanacceptedfactaboutthestateofeducationasopposedtoameasurablephenomenon.21Despitetheinherentracialimplications
indiscussingsegregation,authorsoftensteeredclearofspecificmentionsofraceandfocusedinsteadonsocioeconomicstatus.22Finally,therewaslittleacknowledgementthattrueintegrationhasneverbeenachieved.Integrationwasconceptualizednarrowlywithanalmostsingularfocusonstudent
assignmentplans.Therewaslittletonorecognitionofintegrationplansordiversitybestpracticeswithinbuildings.Similarly,largelyabsentintheliteratureistherecognitionofpracticesthatfunctiontoseparatestudentswithinbuildings.
“…amodelfor
resegregationwilldamagenotonlyour
state,butthebasicprinciplesofournation."
Rev.WilliamBarberIICNN.com
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Acursoryglanceattheaboveframesilluminatesthefactthatthepredominantmessageaboutintegrationinthemediaisthatitisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,toachieveduetofamily/culturalvalues,
neighborhoodstructures,politicalandlegalforces,theneedforhighperformingschools,whetherpublicorprivate(aneedthatisincompetitionwith,andsupersedes,diversity),andthesteepsocialandeconomiccostsofintegration.Whilesomesourcesnamethecauses,benefits,andsuccessfulmodelsof
integration,theemphasisismoreoftenplacedonthechallenges.Takentogether,thesemessagesinterwoventhroughoutthemediaarecontributingtoa20thcenturyunderstandingofdesegregation,nota21stcenturyvisionofintegration.Theemphasisisplacedonahistoricalideaofdesegregation,not
amoderndayoneoftrueintegration.Itfeedsintoaframethatpitsintegrationagainstchoice,againstacademicachievement,andagainstpoliticalwill.
NewMediaNotsurprisingly,giventheincreasedsophisticationoftheauthorsandaudiences,theblogentriesrepresentamuchmorenuancedlookatschooldesegregationwhichincludesthecomplexitiesand
challengesschoolsanddistrictsface,butalsoplacesgreateremphasisonitsimportance.
RecognitionoftheComplexityofIntegrationAmongtheblogpoststhereseemedtobeagreaterrecognitionofthecomplexityofintegration,withoutthedismissivenessorpessimismfoundinthenewsarticles.Authorsdididentifysomeofthechallengesincludinglegal,political,andsocialones.Authorsalsooftenframedtheissueofschool
desegregationasacontroversialone,discussinghowcertainschoolofficialsandpoliticiansspecificallyavoidconversationsaroundintegrationbecausethistopicistoopoliticallycharged.Nonetheless,withsomeschooldistrictsdeclaredtohaveachievedunitarystatusandcriesthatassigningstudentsto
schoolonthebasisofraceisactuallydiscriminatory,therewasasenseofurgencyinsomepoststhatseemedtobesayingthisissueisonthebrinkofbeingrenderedobsoleteorunimportant.Therewasdiscussionastohowsomearguefor“race‐neutrality”andsayinsteadthefocusshouldbeon
socioeconomicintegration,whichwouldhelpachieveracialintegration.However,othersarguethatschoolsareclearlylosinggroundwithrespecttodiversitybybeing“race‐neutral.”
Language&FramingAmyriadoftermswereusedindiscussingdesegregationinschools.Somepostsfocusedontermslike“busing”and“neighborhoodschools,”termswhichcarriednegativeconnotationsintheirdiscussion.Otherstalkedaboutschoolchoice,income‐basedmagnetplans,publiccharters,andstudent
reassignmentplansandthepromisethesepracticesheldforintegration.Indiscussingthemeritsofintegrationefforts,mostframeditasanissueofethicsandequalopportunity,oremphasizedthesocial
valuethatintegrationholds.Othersfocusedontheacademicachievementofstudentsandhowintegrationisanecessarycomponenttofurtherequalizingstudentoutcomes.
Inschool&ResidentialSegregationSomeblogpostsframedthisissueinawiderlens,discussingotherfactorsthatcontributetosegregationinschools.Forexample,multiplepostsdiscussedthelargerproblemofresidentialsegregationandtheimportancethatholdsforschools.Therewerealsodiscussionsabouttheneedtoensuresegregation
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didnothappenwithinschoolbuildings.Authorssupportedtheideathatdesegregationeffortswithinschooldistrictswereoflittleworthifstudentswithinaschoolweresegregatedthroughtracking
practicesorcourseassignments.
LegalanalysisOnetrendpresentinpostsaboutschoolintegrationrelatedtothecentralityoflegalmandatesto
enforcedesegregationefforts.Numerousauthorsbrieflymentionedthesocialoracademicargumentsfordesegregation,butthenframedthisasanissuethatultimatelylieswiththecourts.Ifschooldistricts
werenolongerunderdesegregationordersorfederalcourtsupervision,severalauthorsfeltthatdistrictswouldnotwillinglycontinuetocarryoutintegrationplans.Theextenttowhichschooldistrictsworktowardintegrationappearsdirectlylinkedtocourtmandatesasopposedtothebestinterestof
students. Generallyspeaking,theblogpostspresentamorenuancedargumentforschoolintegration,and
authorsframedintegrationasanecessitytoensuretheopportunityforequaloutcomesforallstudents.Authorsalsocautionedagainstreturningtoasegregatedsystemofeducation.Manyexpressedafearthatschoolsaremovingbackwardsandreturningtotheeraofwidespreadsegregation,andillustrated
thispointwithstatisticsshowingsomeschoolsaremoresegregatednowthantheywereafewyearsago.Concernwasconsistentlyvoicedaboutthereturntoneighborhoodschoolsandwhatthatwouldmeanforintegration.
Lookingatthemediabothonandofflineisincrediblyuseful,howeveritcannottelltheentirestory.Asmentionedpreviously,individualshaveideasandschemasthatfiltertheincominginformation,andtheyprocessitthroughmanyfilters,includingbothimplicitandexplicitcognitions.Furthermore,peopleare
complex.Theycansupportintegrationintheory,butstillplacetheirchildinasegregatedschool.Theycanevenacknowledgethebenefitsofdiversity,whilestillinsistingthatwemaintainasystemofneighborhoodschools.Themediaisonlyasinfluentialasitsconsumers.Thus,tounderstandthepublic’s
perceptionofintegration,wehavetoturntothepeople.
V. FocusGroupResultsToengagethisquestionofhowpeoplethinkandfeelaboutdiversity,weconductedanumberoffocusgroupsacrossthecountry.InMontclair,NJ;PittCounty,NC;Minneapolis,MN;Archbold,OH;Cincinnati,OH;Carroll,OH;andNiles,OHweengagedover250peoplewithavarietyofdifferentrelationshipsto
thepubliceducationsystem.Inhomogenousandheterogeneousgroupswefacilitateddiscussionsbetweenstudents,teachers,parents,schooladministrators,schoolboardmembers,businessleaders,policymakers,lawyers,religiousleadersandmore.Wedeliberatelyworkedtoensureparticipantswere
racially,ethnicallyandeconomicallydiverseaswellasfromrural,urbanandsuburbanareas.Wealsotrainedmorethan20focusgroupfacilitators,withadeliberateefforttoensurethefacilitatorsreflectedthediversityoftheparticipants.
12
Theviewsexpressedinthefocusgroupswerewidelydivergent,thoughnearlyeveryparticipantvoicedappreciationfortheopportunitytoengageinthedialogue.Theinfluenceofregionalparticularitieswas
visibleacrossallfocusgroups;participantsfrequentlycontextualizedtheconversationswithhistoricalorrecentlawsuits,studentassignmentplans,localpolitics,schoolclosures,thepresenceofdifferentracialandethnicsubgroups,etc.Thefollowingrepresentssomeofthedominantthemesthatemergedfrom
thedialogues,andsomeofthevariancesexpressedtherein.Amorein‐depthexaminationoftheMinneapolisfocusgroupsappearsinsectionVIIofthisreport.
DefiningDiversityFocusgroupparticipantsbroadlydefineddiversitywiththerecognitionthatitismultivariateandcomplex.Individualsmentionedrace/ethnicity,gender,religion,socioeconomicstatus/poverty,culture,
abilitylevel,sexualorientation,languageandfamilialcharacteristicssuchaseducationlevel,blendedfamiliesandsingle‐parenthouseholds.23Whilesomedefineddiversityastheabilitytorecognizeand
toleratedifferences,otherspushedbackonthis
languageandinsistedthatdiversityincludesrespectingdifferences,notjusttoleratingthem.Oneparticularlyinterestingaspectoftheseconversationswasthe
assertionandrecognitionthatdiversityisfluid;themeaningofdiversityshiftswithinanygivenregion,andaschoolcanneverhave“achieveddiversity”butrather
itmustbeanongoingprocessthatisperiodicallyrevisited.
Integrationvs.AcademicAchievementAsinthemediareview,thetensionbetweendiversityandacademicachievementalsoaroseinthefocus
groups.24Eitherbecausefacilitatorshadgivenabriefpresentationonthepositiverelationshipbetweenthetwo,orbecausefocusgroupparticipantsholdamoresophisticatedanalysisthanthemediamessagesconvey,theunderstandingoftheconnectionsbetweendiversityandacademicachievement
weremuchmorenuanced.Overwhelmingly,participantsmentionedtheneedforallschoolstobehighperformingasoneoftheirleadingpriorities.Parentsalsoemphasizedtheimportanceofschoolranking
whenmakingadecisionaboutwheretosendtheirchild.Otherparents,however,recognizedthatthecurrentconceptualizationof“highperforming”islimited,anddoesn’tformallyrecognizetherolethat
diversityplaysinpreparingstudentsforlivingandworkinginthe21stcentury.
Diversity/CulturalCompetencyinSchoolsNearlyeveryfocusgroupspentsometimediscussingtheimportanceofhavingaculturallycompetentteachingforce,administration,andschoolstaff.Formany,thiswasevenprioritizedoverintegration,as
theyfeltculturallyrelevant/responsiveteachingwasamoreimportantfactorinraisingacademic
“Diversityis
overhyped,thefocusshouldbeonthe
qualityofeducationforallstudents.”
13
achievement.Participantsdiscussedtherolethatalackofdiversity/culturalcompetencyplayedinloweringexpectations,sortingstudentsofcolorandlowincomestudentsintoloweracademictracks,
andincreasingthenumberofstudentsofcolor,particularlymales,whoaredisciplined.
LimitationstoAchievingIntegrationGiventhevariedexperiencesandbackgroundsofparticipants,itisnotsurprisingthattheywereabletolistawiderangeoflimitationstoachievingintegration.Manyoftheseparticipantshavebeeninvolvedintheefforts“ontheground”fordecades.Focusgroupmembersacknowledgedthefinancialcostsof
integration,notonlyforbussing,butalsoforresourcesandsupporttomeettheneedsofadiversestudentbodysuchasacademicsupport,skillfulschoolcounselors,andtrainedsocialworkers.Individualsspokeopenlyaboutracialandethnicstereotypesandhowtheyimpedeintegrationeffortsas
wellasthewaysinwhichprejudiceandresistancearecouchedin“raceneutral”terms.Thosemorefamiliarwiththeinterworkingsoftheschoolalsomentionedthesortingmechanismsinplacewithinschoolsthatlimitintegrationevenwhennumericaldiversityisachieved.Finally,focusgroupparticipants
recognizedthatschoolswerelargelyreflectingresidentialsegregation.Peopleexpressedafrustrationabouttheinabilitytodisruptresidentialsegregation,andhowentrenchedracialisolationinneighborhoodsnecessitatessomelevelofbussing.Somediscussionsfocusedoninterandintradistrict
segregationaswell,andthedifficultiessomeschooldistrictshaveinachievingdiversitywithoutregionalintegrationplans.
ConflictbetweenPersonal&ProfessionalValuesOneofthemoreunder‐theorizedareasofintegration,andonethatappearstobecriticaltoframingand
messagingstrategies,istheconflictmanypeoplehaveexpressedbetweentheirpersonalandprofessionalvalues.Overwhelmingly,participantsexpressedanappreciationfordiversity,andtheneedforamoreintegrated,equitablesystemofeducation.However,manyparentsspokeupaswelland
admittedthat,despitetheirsupportofanddesirefordiverseenvironments,ultimatelytheywouldand/ordochoosetosendtheirchildtoahigh‐performing,butsegregatedschool.Unfortunately,thepoorimplementationofdesegregationhistoricallyhasparentsfeelingthatadiverseschoolwiththe
presenceofahighneedpopulationmayhavetoomanychallengesandnotenoughresources,thereforeconcludingthatitmaynotbethebestoptionforeducatingtheirchild.Thissuggestsaneedtofurtherexplorethisissue,andbetterunderstandparents’perspectives,andtheirdecision‐makingmechanisms.
TheAppealofChoiceParentsandcommunitymembersalikeincludedvouchers,charters,andprivateschoolsintheir
discussions,thoughtheirsupportfororoppositiontothemvariedwidely.Someparticipantsexpressedconcernsaboutthewaysinwhichchoicefurthersegregateseducationbothalonglinesofrace/ethnicity,classorabilitylevelby“cherrypicking”thebeststudentsfromtheschools.Otherslaudedtheincreases
inchoice.Manyparentsfeltthat,whengivenchoices,theywerebetterequippedtofindaschoolthatcouldmeettheneedsoftheirchildandincreasehisorherlikelihoodofacademicsuccess.Wesawnoracialorethnicdifferencesregardingtheoverarchingsupportfororoppositionofvouchers,charters,or
privateschools,thoughthereasonsforsupportdidvary.Whiteparentsweremorelikelytosupport
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chartersormagnetsbecauseofthecurriculumflexibilityandthemevariabilitywithintheschools.Blackparentsmoreoftenmentionedtheacademicperformancelevelsoftheschool,andtheideathattheir
childrenwouldbemorecomfortableinaschoolwherethestudentbodyandschoolstaffmorecloselyreflectedtheirracialorethnicbackground.
DisagreementonMessagesAspartofthisprocesswesetouttounderstandhowpeoplefeltaboutandreactedtothevarioustermsutilizedwhentalkingaboutdesegregation,integrationanddiversityineducation.Here’swhatwefound:
Desegregationisapoliticallychargedtermwitharich
history.Tomanyitimpliesbussing(i.e.,reducedchoiceand/orforcedintegration),publicresistanceandournation’sfailuretofulfillitspromise.
Whileintegrationhasbeendefinedbythesocialand
educationjusticecommunitymuchmoreinclusively,andisusedtoindicatenumericalaswellastransformativediversity,theseconnotationsarenotwidelysharedamong
thepublic.
Importantly,wefoundthattomostpeople,thetermsdesegregationandintegrationareinterchangeableandtherewasnomeaningfuldifferencebetweenthetwo.
Finally,regardingdiversity,mostparticipantsfeltthiswasahollowwordwithnoreal
meaningbehindit.Peoplerejecteditasa“catchphrase”thatintegrationgatekeepersusetohidebehind.
VI. ReviewofProfessionalLiteratureExaminingmediareportsofintegrationandfocusgroupparticipants’perspectivesgivesusinsightintothedominantschemasofthepublic.However,itisalsocriticaltoexaminetheframesthesocialjustice
field(broadlydefined)isemploying.Inessence,itisimportanttoreviewwhetheracademicsandpolicyorganizationsareeffectivelycommunicatingtotheirtargetedaudiencesbymeetingthemwheretheyarecognitivelyandemotionally.Itcouldbewellarguedthattheoutputsoftheseindividualsand
organizationsarenotdirectedtothelargerpublicbutrathertootheracademicsorpolicymakers,butnonetheless,theyareinpartresponsibleforsettinganationalagendaonintegration,definingtheframesthatareused,andthemessagesthatultimatelyarecommunicated.Whilecertainlythe
conversationamongtheseaudiencescanbemoresophisticatedandnuanced,thereisarealneedtoensurethattargeted,effectivemessagesarenonethelessdevelopedthatcanbringthebroaderpublicintotheconversation.
“Integrationisaforcedenvironment;peopledon’twantto
gothere.”
WhiteParent,MontclairNewJersey
15
FocusonRaceAscomparedtothemedia,researcharticlesandpolicyreportsaremuchmoreupfrontaboutrace,theracializedcomponentofsegregation,andthehistoricalandpresentdaycontributorstoit.Not
surprisingly,thereisalsonolackofdataorstatisticsutilizedtosupporttheauthors’pointsabouttheextentornatureofsegregation.Finally,inregardstorace,someauthorshavebecomeincreasinglycriticalofthefocusonracialintegrationbeingprimarilyonblack/whitepopulations.Theseauthors
recognizethecomplexityofdiversityandarguethatourintegrationpoliciesshouldbemuchmoreinclusiveandcomprehensive.
RecognitionoftheRoleofNeighborhoodsThearticlesandreportsreviewedidentifiedthechallengesthatresidentialsegregationpresentsandhowitcontributestosegregationwithinandacrossdistrictsandschools.Furthermore,theyalso
recognizedtheracializedprocessesinvolvedinthehistorical(andevenpresentday)drawingofdistrictandschoolboundaries.Despitethisclearlinkage,thesewritingsstopshortofsuggestingpolicysolutionstolinkresidentialandeducationalintegration.Whenresidentialintegrationhasbeenattempted,they
examinetheimpactofhousingmobilityandschoolchoiceprograms,typicallyreportingmixedresults.OnestudypublishedintheAnnualReviewofSociologyin2009,highlightedsomeofthelimitationsof
theseprograms,includingthefactthatstudentsinvolvedinthemobilityprogramsareoftennotrelocatedtohigherperformingschools.25
FocusonClassDespitethemorefrankdiscussionsaboutraceasrelatedtosegregation,andtherecognitionoftheracializednatureofthelinkbetweenresidentialandschoolsegregation,recenttrendsintheliterature
seemtobemovingtowardincreasedsupportofclass‐basedintegration.26ThismaybearesultofapoorunderstandingofthePICSdecisionorbecausetheresearchliteratureismoreconclusiveabouttheimpactofsocioeconomicintegrationonacademicachievement,thoughracialintegrationhasalso
demonstratedpositiveoutcomesonacademicachievement.Regardless,focusingsolelyontheacademicbenefitsofintegrationinherentlylimitstheconversationregardingthepurposeofeducationinademocracy.Thebenefitsofracialintegrationhavealsodemonstratedlong‐term,positivesocialand
psychologicalimpacts,andintegrationhasbeenlinkedtothedevelopmentofamorestableandsecurenation.Thebodyofliteraturereviewed,however,seemstobemuchmorenarrowlyfocusedonacademicachievement.
Overall,theacademicliteraturetakesamuchmorecriticalandanalyticalapproachtointegrationthat
emphasizesbroadeningoptions.Thisincludesopeningaccessthroughhousingmobilityandschoolchoicesfordisadvantagedfamiliesinlowopportunityareas,butalsoensuringmiddle‐classstudentscanbenefitfromintegratedenvironmentsastheygrowintoadultsandbeginworkinginincreasinglydiverse
workplaces.Authorsdescribeoptions:forfamiliescurrentlyresidingindistrictswheredesegregationplansarebeingimplemented;fordistrictstoadoptcomprehensivedesegregationplans;andforevaluatingtheprogressthatsuchplansexperience.Theacademicliteraturestronglydismissesthe
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media’sperceivedlimitationstointegrationandisn’tapprehensivetostudywhatsolutionsarepossible,thoughtodate,theproposedsolutionshavenottakenusfarenough.
Takentogether,theseanalysesrepresentthedominantframesandmessagesthatarebeing
communicatedacrossmultiplelevelstoawiderangeofaudiences.Theygiveussomeinsightastowherepeopleare,cognitivelyandemotionally,regardingthetopicofschooldesegregationandtrueintegration.Somepreliminaryconclusionscanbedrawnbyexaminingthemultiplechannelsof
informationbeingfilteredandhowtheyarebeingincorporatedintopeoples’existingschemas.First,clearlypeoplearemuchmoresophisticatedthanjustidlerecipientsofthenews.Theirunderstandingofintegrationdoesnotmeshsquarelywiththemessagesbeingcommunicatedinthemedia,although
thereissomeoverlap.Theirperspectivesaremuchmorenuancedandcomplex,byandlargebecauseoftheirexperiencesandtheregionalcontextsandhistoryoftheareaswheretheyreside.
Thisexaminationisinherentlylimited,however,becausewearelookingsolelyatwhatpeoplewillinglyself‐reportinconversationswiththeirpeers,whichmaypromptthemtogivemoresociallydesirable
responses.Thisalsodoesnottakeintoaccountimplicitorexplicitbias,orthecomplexityoffactorstakenintoconsiderationwhenpeoplemusttakeactionspertainingtointegration,eitherinselectingaschoolfortheirchildorinthevotingbooth.Thisanalysisisnotexhaustiveenoughtodrawconcrete,
prescriptiveconclusionsaboutwhatmessagesshouldbeemployedtomovepeopletowardssupportingintegration,buttheydorepresentacriticalfoundationuponwhichtobeginbuildingamorecomprehensiveunderstandingofhowintegrationisconceptualizedandactedupon.Whilewecannot
yetprescribespecificlanguagethatshouldbeutilizedregardingintegration,thereisabodyofliteraturepertainingtohowtotalkaboutracemorebroadly.Anexplorationofthiscansuggestpossiblenextstepsforresearchersandadvocatesalike.
VII. TalkingaboutRace&Integration:TheImportanceofFramingInordertomovepeopleandconvincethemtomobilizeresourcestoreduceandeventuallyeliminate
racialdisparitiesinaccessingopportunities,researchers,advocates,andpolicymakersneedtoshapetheirmessagesmoreeffectively.Framingresearchshowsthatvaluesandemotions,andnotnecessarily
factsandreason,shapetheseframes.Peoplefrequentlyencounteramessagethatisframedinawaythatdoesnotresonatewiththeirbasicvalues.Whenthishappens,theyaremoreresistanttoreceivingthefactsthatpertaintothemessage,nomatterhowpersuasivethefactsare.Itis,therefore,crucialfor
advocatestoframeanissueeffectivelyforittogaintractioninthepoliticalarena.
BasicRulesofEffectiveFramingFramingresearchrevealsanumberofrulesforeffectiveframing,whichalsoapplytotheissueofrace.Effectiveframesleadwithwidelyheldvaluesthatcuepeopletowhatisatstake.Sincepeoplefilterfactsthroughtheirvalues,advocatesneedtosignalasharedvaluesystem.Thisgivestheiraudience
permissiontoreachtheconclusionadvocateswantthemtoreachwiththefactsthattheyprovide.27Inadditiontoleadingwithwidelyheldvalues,effectiveframesalsoleadwithsolutions.Cognitiveresearchshowsthatwhenpeoplearticulateasolution,theirbrainsprepareacategoricalschemawithinwhich
17
receivedinformationisstoredandrecalled.28Intheabsenceofanarticulatedsolution,listenerscouldreachavastlydifferentconclusionwiththesamefacts.Articulatingasolutionalsomakestheproblem
lookmanageable,encouragingthelistenerstoacttosolvetheproblem.
Framingresearchadvisesagainstleadingwithconflictingfactsorstatements.Researchshowsthatdoingsocreatescognitivedissonanceinthelistener,triggeringthe“conflictingfacts”frame.Apersonwiththisframeofminddiscardsconflictingfactsaserroneous,choosinginsteadtoaffirmher/hispre‐existing
convictionsontheissue.29
Framingresearchalsosuggeststhatlistenersaremorereceptivetoasolutioniftheycanidentifytheproblemasonethattheycouldthemselvesface.Therefore,definingtheproblemassomethingthatcouldhappento“us”ratherthantosome“other”makesiteasierforlistenerstoidentifywiththeissue.
Forthisreason,itisimportanttodefineandcontrolthe“we”andtomakeitasinclusiveaspossible.30
Thefollowingsectionreviewsmanyoftheframesaboutracialinequalitythatcompetewitheachotherinthepoliticalarena.Thereviewsiftsthroughtheseframes,identifyingthosethatenableustotalkaboutraceinaconstructive,transformativefashion.Basedonthelatestframingresearch,thesection
concludesbycompilingtheelementsthatworktowardcreatingatransformativeframethatcouldeffectivelymovepeopleandresourcestoremovestructuralbarrierstoexpandingopportunityforall.
EmpiricalResearchOnEffectiveFramesRegardingRace
“OpportunityforAll”FrameFrameWorksInstitutefoundanumberofvaluesthatworkwellinmakingpeoplereceptivetoaconversationaboutracialequity.FramingtestsshowthatopportunityseemstobeavaluethatmostAmericanshold.Talkingabout“opportunityforall,”especiallyremovingthebarriersthatpreventall
peoplefromrealizingabetterlife,seemstomakeaudiencesmorereceptivetohearingaboutthestructuralbarrierstoopportunity.31Bysuggestingthatthecountry’sabilitytoachieveisunderminedwhennotenoughpeoplehaveaccesstotheresourcesandsocialnetworksneededtosucceed,this
framesuggeststhatenhancingopportunitywillresultinabetterqualityoflifeforall.
Framingresearch,however,suggeststhattheopportunityframeseemstoworkbestwhenitreferstoopportunityinsymbiotic,collectivewayssuchasthe“opportunityforall”frame.Forinstance,theopportunityframefailstobecomeeffectiveifopportunityisdescribedonlyintermsofpersonal
networks.Whendescribedlikethis,theopportunityframerunstheriskof“pushingthediscussionbackintothedominantframeofanindividual‐levelunderstandingofracialdisparities(‘whoyouknow’).”32Withoutthe“opportunityforall”frame,theopportunityframemayalsoinvokepeopletothinkthatthe
issueisallaboutcertaingroupsnottakingadvantageofopportunitiesthatalreadyexist—effectivelytriggeringa“blameframe.”33
Focusingonwhoorwhatisresponsibleforpresentinequitiescansimilarlytriggera“blameframe”andisnotaconstructiveplacetostartaconversationonrace.Socialpsychologyresearchrevealsthatmost
peoplegenerate“blameframes”todealwiththetensionbetweentheirsenseoffairnessandthe
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painfulrealitiesofinjustice.34Peoplefrequentlyresorttotheblameframeof“personalresponsibility”toshort‐circuitdiscussionsofstructuralracisminfavoroftheexplanationthatindividualsaretoblamefor
theirstationinlife.35
“Blameframes”oftendevaluetheconcernsofmarginalizedgroupsinsocietybyexplainingracialdisparitiesinaccesstoopportunitiesandresourcesbytheindividualchoicesandbehaviorsofthemembersofthesegroups,makinganystructuralanalysisoftheseunequaloutcomesimpossible.36By
framingopportunityinsymbioticandcollectiveways,advocatescouldpreemptindividualisticchoiceframesthatputtheblamesquarelyontheverypeoplewhoaremarginalizedbystructuralracism.Bydoingso,theycanalsoavoidthetrapofpittingpeopleupagainsteachother,emphasizingthecollective
goodthatresultsfromexpanding“opportunityforall.”
“FairnessBetweenPlaces”Frameandthe“ProsperityGrid”ModelResearchsimilarlyshowsthatwhenstartingatransformativeconversationonrace,thegenericnotionoffairnesscouldbeaproblematicvaluetoleadwithunlessitisspecificallyframedinnon‐individualisticterms.Peoplehaveatendencytohaveanindividualisticapproachtofairnessandtheytendtoequate
fairwithequal.Whentheplayingfieldisnotlevel,thisnotionoffairnessasequalitycanbeusedtoreinforceandlegitimizeexistinginequalities.Forinstance,manyoftheparticipantsintheMinneapolisfocusgroupsexpressedthattheystruggledtoexplaintotheirconstituentsthefactthatfairisnotequal,
suggestingtheimportanceofequitableoverequal.Evenwhenexplicitlyframedinnon‐individualisticterms,theconceptoffairnesscreatesmanyimpedimentstoatransformativeconversationonrace.Especiallywhenframedbyappealingtothevalueoffairnessbetweengroups,aracialconversation
quicklydegeneratesintozero‐sumthinkinginwhichscarceresourcesareredistributedfromonegrouptoanother.37
Whenframedbyappealingtothevalueoffairnessbetweenplaceshowever,aracialconversationtendstogeneratesupportforrace‐basedpolicies.Initsinvestigationofruralissuesandcommunityhealth,
FrameWorksInstitutefoundthat“situatingtheissueoffairnessnotinpersons,butinplacesorsystems,improvedsupportforredistributivepolicy.”38TheInstitute’sfindingssuggested“thefairnessbetweenplacesframeisimbuedwithsystemsthinking,andidentifiessolutionsthatwillreducedisparitiesacross
communities.Whenframedasbeingaboutplace,inotherwords,theconceptoffairnessworkstostructuralizetheissueofdisparities.”39The“fairnessbetweenplaces”framesuggeststhatcertaincommunitiesarestrugglingbecauseprogramsandservicesarenotfairlydistributedacross
communities.Thesolutionprovidedbythisframeistoleveltheplayingfieldsothatallcommunitieshaveequalaccesstotheresourcestheyneedinordertothrive.
FurtherresearchbyFrameWorksInstitutealsoshowstheeffectivenessofa“prosperitygrid”modelinencouragingconsiderationofdisparitiesinaccesstoresourcesbasedonplace.40Thismodel,which
drawsfromFrameWorks’investigationofsimplifyingmodels,providesametaphoricalideaofcommunitiesbeingonoroffthegrid.41FrameWorksresearchrevealedthatthesimplifyingmodelofthe“prosperitygrid”allowedresearchparticipantstodiscussstructuraldifferencesamongcommunities.
19
Themodelalsoincreasedthelikelihoodoftheseparticipantstosupporttheredistributionofsocialresourcesinwaysthatwouldplugallcommunitiesintothegrid.42
The“opportunityindex”modeldevelopedbytheKirwanInstitutefortheStudyofRaceandEthnicityis
verysimilartothismodelinexpressing“theneedtoincreasetheflowofopportunitythroughthegridofAmericaninstitutions,suchasschools,hospitals,banks,etc.”43The“opportunityindex”modelisverycompatiblewiththeprosperitygridmodel:bothofthesemodelsemphasize“thenotionofensuringthat
allareasofthecountryarepluggedintothegrid—orhavestrongconnectionstotheinstitutionsthatsupportcommunities”as“awaytoreduceracialdisparities.”44Thesefindingsconfirmtheusefulnessofthe“opportunityindex”modelasaregionalapproachtoopportunity—amodelthatsmoothlylends
itselftoaspatialanalysisofinequality.
ResearchalsodocumentsthatmostAmericansstillbelieveintheideasofindividualchoiceandmeritocracyandviewsuccessassomethingthatcomesthroughtheexerciseofpersonalresponsibilityandgoodchoice.45Explicitlychallengingthesewidelyheldbeliefsoftenpreventstheaudiencefrom
hearingthefactsofthecaseaspeopletendtoshutdownwhentheircloselyheldvaluesaretooforcefullychallenged.Steeringtheconversationtowardthepositiveresultsandoutcomesbeingsought(e.g.,qualityeducationforall)andofferinganalternativeframeworkthatcanhelpreducetheintensity
ofthischallengeinstead,couldbemoreeffectiveinjumpstartingatransformativeconversationonrace.
“SharedFates”FrameAnotherframethatseemstotriggeratransformativeconversationonraceisthevalueofinterdependence.TalkingofAmericaas“anationofsharedfates”movespeopletoseethereductionofdisparitiesascriticaltothecommongoodandbeneficialforallmembersofthesociety.Conversations
framedthroughthelensofinterdependenceand“sharedfate”alsoencouragespeopletoenvisionsolutionsandchanges.46Byfocusingonthenotionof“sharedfate,”advocatescanovercomethelimitationsimposedbyindividualisticthinkingpervasiveamongAmericans.Thisallowsthemtotalk
abouttheinstanceswhenthesystemsallpeoplerelyonbreakdown,andtooffersolutionstofixthosesystems.
TowardaTransformativeDiscourseonRace&Integration:TrueIntegrationjohnpowellofferstheconceptoftrueintegrationasthefocalpointofatransformativeconversationonrace.47InthetraditionofMartinLutherKing,Jr.,hedescribesintegrationasthepositiveacceptanceof
desegregationandthewelcomedparticipationofpeopleofcolorintothetotalrangeofhumanactivities.powelldistinguishestrueintegrationfromdesegregation,describingthelatterasmerelynegativeandeliminative.
Forpowell,desegregation,atbest,attemptstoassimilatepeopleofcolorintothemainstream.In
contrast,trueintegrationistransformative,ratherthanassimilative.Itbothtransformsandenrichesthemainstream.Trueintegrationisnotjustaboutrepresentation.Itconstitutesthestructuresweinhabitandmakeuswhoweare—formingboth“thetableandthepeopleatthetable.”Trueintegrationis
creative;itrespectsinter‐grouprelationsbasedonmutuality,equality,andfairness.
20
Trueintegrationdoesnotmerelymeanthepresenceofdiversity.Diverseenvironmentscanstillbesegregated.Forinstance,diversifyingschoolsthroughsimpledesegregationeffortsoftenresultin
assimilation,in‐schoolsegregation,andtrackingofstudentsintodifferentacademicpathsinschools.Simplyseatingawhitestudentnexttoastudentofcolormightachievediversitybutnotintegration.powellconceptualizesintegrationbothasanexternalandinternalprocess,emphasizingthe“needto
integratenotonlythestudentsinsidethebuildingbuttheheartsandmindsofthestudentsaswell.”48
Trueintegrationisanimportantsocietalvalueworthpursuinginitselfforanumberofreasons.Trueintegrationiscrucialbecausecontinuingsegregationmakesitverydifficulttocultivateeffectivecitizensandsocialcohesion.TheAmericaneducationsystemneedstobringtogetherstudentsfromdifferent
backgrounds,expandtheiropportunities,andpreparethemforthemulticulturalrealitiesofthe21stcentury.Americawillloseitsprominenceinanincreasinglyglobalworldifitseducationsystemfailstoachievethis.
Trueintegrationineducationalsohasanumberofbenefitsthatimprovethechancesofallstudentsto
succeedinanincreasinglymulticultural,globalsociety.Trueintegrationimprovescriticalthinking;raisesacademicachievementandgraduationrates;fostersinter‐groupcontact;avoidstrackinganddisproportionatedisciplineandspecialeducationdesignationsacrossracialandethnicgroups;increases
parentalinvolvement;andreducesresidentialsegregation.
MinneapolisFocusGroupFindings:HowToFrameTheConceptsofRaceandIntegration?
Howcanwemaketheconceptofintegrationmorerelevanttothe21stcentury?InfocusgroupsheldinMinneapolis,someadvocatesofcolorarguedthatthewordintegrationfelttoo
anachronisticinthisdayandageandheldtoomanynegativeconnotationstobehelpfulinthefuture.Theysuggestedthatthetermreferredtoablackandwhiteeraanddidnotadequatelyspeaktothemulticulturalrealitiesof21stcenturyAmerica.
Manyexpressedtheneedtofindanotherconceptthatcouldcapturetheessenceofintegrationwithout
triggeringtheframesassociatedwithdesegregation,assimilation,anddiversity.Someofthefocusgroupparticipantssuggestedtheconceptof“inclusion”or“inclusivecommunities,”whileothersofferedtheconceptof“equity”or“equitablecommunities.”
Equityorintegration?Amongthosewhoproposedthe“equity”frame,therewassomeconfusionastowhethertheyvalued
integrationasanendinitselfornot.Someoftheseparticipantsviewedintegrationnotasanendinitself;instead,theyconceptualizeditassimplyonecomponent,amongmany,ofamoreequitableeducationsystem.Itmightbeusefulinthefuturetotesttheeffectivenessofthe“equity”frameand
explorewhatitmeanstohaveaninstrumentalapproachtointegrationwithinthe“equity”frame.
Otherparticipants,incontrast,reiteratedtheimportanceofholdingontotheconceptofintegration,suggestingthatitisavalueinitselfworthstrivingfor—avaluethatwehavenotyetachieved.Some
21
participantsofcolorstressedthattheconceptofintegrationanditsbenefitsweretenuousandvagueinpeople’sminds.Theseparticipantsexpressedtheurgentneedtobetterdefinetheconceptandits
benefitsforthepublicinanattempttoproactivelymakeitpartofthepublicdiscourse.
Howcanweresuscitatethenotionofintegrationinthecurrentpoliticaldiscourse?Someparticipantsalsoemphasizedtheurgencyofhavinganexplicitstatewideconversationonraceand
integration,especiallyinlightofcomingelections.Oneparticipantofcolorconcurred,reiteratingtheneedtomakeracepartofthecurrentpoliticaldomaininproactiveyetstrategicways.Shesuggested,
forinstance,thatfocusgroupmembersgeneratealistofquestionsthatcouldbeposedtopoliticalcandidatespriortoupcomingelectionstoshedlightontheirstanceonraceandintegration.
Manyparticipantsagreedthatpubliclyengagingthecandidatesspecificallyonracialissuescouldbeaneffectivestrategytoplaceracialintegrationonthecurrentpoliticalagenda.Oneparticipant,however,
warnedthegroupaboutthereluctanceofindividualcandidatestomakehoneststatementsaboutraceinpublic.Henoted,instead,thestrategicusefulnessofbringingracialissuestothepoliticalplatforminasystematicfashionwithoutputtingindividualcandidatesonthespot.Heencouragedracialjustice
advocatestocreateinnovativeandconstructivepublicplatformswherecandidatescouldarticulatetheirpositiononintegrationinthesafetyofacollectivesetting.
ChallengingandovercomingthecontextofNoChildLeftBehind:theneedtoreplace“achievementvs.integration”with“achievementthroughintegration”AnotherparticipantobservedthedifficultiesthattheNoChildLeftBehind(NCLB)policyandthe
accompanyingachievementgapdiscoursecreatedforthosewhowanttotalkaboutintegration.Sheclaimedtheachievementgapdiscoursehasnegativelyframedtheintegrationconversationbypitting
integrationagainstacademicachievement.Inasimilarvein,aparticipantofcolornotedthattheachievementgapdiscoursecreatedadeficiencyframeforstudentsofcolorbyportrayingthemaslessthanwhitestudents.Manyagreedontheneedtochallengetheachievementgapdiscourse,which
inappropriatelyportraysintegrationandacademicachievementasmutuallyexclusivegoals.
Otherswentbeyondtheneedtochallengethisdiscourseandemphasizedtheimportanceoftransformingthisframe.Theyemphasizedtheneedtoshiftthecurrenteducationalconversationfromthedeficiencyframeimpliedbytheachievementgaplenstoanew,morepositiveframeabout
integrationandachievement.Theyclaimedthatreframingintegrationasameanstoacademicachievementmightbeaneffectivewaytoframeandintroduceexistingevidenceontheacademicbenefitsofintegration.
Canintegrationsurvivethedominantframeofschoolchoiceinthenewcentury?Oneparticipantbroughtupthenotionofschoolchoice,suggestingthatitmakesanymeaningfulintegrationimpossibleincontemporaryschoolenvironments.Others,bycontrast,notedtheneedto
cometotermswithschoolchoiceintalkingaboutintegration.Theystressedtheneedtoacknowledgetheimportanceofschoolchoiceformanyfamilies,especiallyfamiliesofcolorwhoaretrappedinsegregatedneighborhoods.Itmightbeworthwhileinfutureresearchtoexploresomespecificframes
thatadvocatescouldusewhenthevaluesofchoiceandintegrationclashinpeople’sminds.
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Thisisespeciallyimportantincaseswherethedominantframesetsupthediscourseasonewherechoicetrumpsintegration.Forinstance,withinthedominantframeofcurrentpoliticaldebateon
charterschools,schoolchoicehasoftenimplicitlytrumpedintegrationasavalue.Charterschooladvocatesoftenrefertoschoolchoiceasthe“civilrightsissueofthe21stcentury,”explicitlyappealingtothepopularityofschoolchoiceamongparentsofcolorwhocontinuetobedissatisfiedwithracially
segregated,failingpublicschoolswhilesimultaneouslysufferingfromintegrationfatigue.
Howcanweovercomeintegrationfatigue?Conservativecharterschooladvocateshavebeeneffectiveinusingthe“choiceasthenewcivilrightsissue”frametoadvocateforthesteadyexpansionofschoolchoiceinpubliceducation,andtotapintotheindignationfeltbymanyincommunitiesofcolorwhoexperienceintegrationfatigue.Theyhave
beenespeciallysuccessfulinusingthisframetopromotein‐placeeducationalstrategiesthatsendthemessagethatstudentsofcolorshouldbeabletoachievewherevertheyare,eveninracially‐segregated,high‐povertyschools.Theyhavethusaggressivelychallengedtherelevanceofmobility‐based
educationalstrategiesthatemphasizetheneedtomovestudentsofcolortohigh‐opportunityschools,whichareoftenpredominantlywhite.
Byeffectivelyusingthe“civilrights”frame,conservativecharterschoolopponentshaveunderminedatransformativeraceconversationinthreesignificantways:
First,byframingschoolchoiceastheexclusivemeanstorealizecivilrightsandtoaccesseducational
opportunities,theyhavealmostsealedthefateofchoiceandintegrationasmutuallyexclusivenotionsthatcannotbereconciled.Second,theyhavealmostentirelydisplacedintegrationfromtheexistingcivilrightsdiscourse,replacingitwithaframethatsuggeststhatonlyschoolchoice,notintegration,can
delivercivilrightsforall.Third,theyhavereinforcedexistinginequalitiesbyeffectivelypittingin‐placeandmobility‐basededucationstrategistsagainsteachother,underminingtheirabilitytoworkintandeminattackingthestructuresthatshrinkopportunityforall.
Byreducingcivilrightstochoice,theseconservativeadvocateshaveeffectivelylimitedthepolitical
agendaofaddressingracialequitytoonesolution‐theunlimitedexpansionofschoolchoiceevenwhenthismeansintensifyingracialsegregationinpublicschools.Theyhave,therefore,rubberstampedthesimplepolicyofmovingstudentsofcolorfromraciallysegregatedtraditionalpublicschoolstoequally,if
notmore,segregatedcharterschools.
Tothisday,thispolicycontinuestounderminetheaccessofallstudentstohigh‐qualityeducationalopportunities.Ifracialjusticeadvocatesdonotatoncereframethemanyframesthatpitintegrationagainstschoolchoice(oftenatthetotalexpenseofintegration),itwillcontinuetodoso.Thereisan
urgentneedtoofferanewframewheretheconceptsofchoiceandintegrationcancoexist.Manyparticipantsinthefocusgroupsexpressedtheurgencyofthisneedinsophisticatedandelegantterms.
Canwehavechoiceandintegration?Oneparticipantsuggestedvoluntaryintegrationthroughmagnetschoolsasapossiblewayout.Anotheronedisagreedbyclaimingthatvoluntaryintegrationthroughmagnetschoolsisoftenconceivedas
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“movingchairsonTitanic’sdeck”ifitcannoteliminateexistingstructuralbarrierstoopportunity.Manyothersexpressedtheneedtomakesurethatmagnetschoolsarenotsimplyputtingstudentsof
differentcolorsnexttoeachotherwithouttrulyintegratingthem.
Participantsemphasizedtheimportanceofadditionalpoliciestoachievetrueintegration.Noteworthyamongthesesuggestionswere:diversifyingtheteachingforce;offeringeffectiveprofessionaldevelopmenttoteacherstoenhancetheirculturalcompetence;providingatrulyintegratedcurriculum
thatcanengagestudentsfromawidevarietyofbackgrounds;andcreatingopportunitiesthatcouldpromotesocialinteractionsamongstudentsfromdifferentracialandethnicbackgroundsoutsideofschools.
Shouldwediscussintegrationin“moral”or“economic”terms?Whichoneismoreeffective?Anotherinterestingthemethatcameupduringthefocusgroupdiscussionsconcernedtheuseof
“economic”vs.“moral”framesindiscussingintegration.Participantsdisagreedaboutwhichoftheseframeswasmoreeffective.Oneparticipantarguedthatintegrationisprimarilyamoralissueandshouldbeframedassuch.Incontrast,anotherparticipantnotedthatitwasimpossibleinhisexperienceto
changepeople’smindsoneducationpolicysimplybasedonmoralarguments.Quitethecontrary,hestatedtheneedtoframeintegrationexclusivelyfromaneconomicpointofviewtoconvinceskeptics,especiallyinthecontextofthecurrenteconomicrecession.
Basedontheirexperiencesworkingwithinreligiouscommunities,otherparticipantsemphasizedthe
usefulnessoftheconceptofintegrationinenablingwhitepeopletorootouttheirprivilegeandgivingthemanopportunitytoconfess.Alongsimilarlines,oneparticipantwhospecializedintrainingpeopleinculturalcompetencestressedthespiritualdimensionofracialjustice.Shearguedthatracialjustice
advocateswouldnotbedoinganyoneaservicebyavoidingareligiousframeonintegration.Eventually,oneparticipantexplicitlyrefusedtoformulatethetwoframesasmutuallyexclusiveones,suggestinginsteadtheneedtousebothinacomplimentaryfashion.Thesameparticipant,whooriginally
suggestedtheexclusiveuseofamoralframework,expressedthegroup’sconsensuselegantly:“Weneedtoprovidepeoplewithreasonstodothemorallyrightthing.”
Anotherimportantthreadwithinthisconversationwasthepotentialeffectivenessofthe“economicframe,”especiallywhenitwasexpressedinglobalterms.Manyparticipantsexpressedtheirskepticism
ofasimpleglobaleconomicframethatposesintegrationassomethingbeneficialtonationaleconomiesoperatinginanincreasinglyglobalmarketplace.Someparticipantsofcolorsuggestedthatwhitepeopledidnotreallybuythisframe.Otherparticipantsdoubtedthatthisglobalframewasnecessarilyeffective
fortransformingthemindsofthosewhodonotreallyunderstandtheimportanceofintegrationforahealthysociety.Theyarguedthatitwasdifficultforpeopletoimaginethecomplexglobalsystemofthe21stcentury.
Canavisuallyoriented,specific“regionaleconomicframe”bemorepersuasivethananabstractandgeneric“globaleconomicframe?”Itmightbeusefultofurtherexploretheeffectivenessofthisglobalframeworkinfutureframingresearch.Whiletheeffectivenessofaglobaleconomicframeworkmightbelimitedduetothedifficulty
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ofimaginingacomplexglobalsystem,framingtheeconomicimportanceofintegrationfromametropolitanperspectivecouldbeeasiertocomprehend.Byusingregionalrealestatevaluemapsthat
showerodingrealestatevaluesinraciallysegregatedcommunities,forinstance,advocatescanvisuallydemonstratetherealeconomicharmsracialsegregationimposesoninner‐ringsuburbsandurbancoresofmetropolitanareas.Byvisuallydemonstratingthegrowingeconomiccostsofracialsegregationfor
metropolitanareas,advocatesofracialjusticecouldthendiscusshowthesecostsunderminemetropolitangrowth.
Theycancarefullyinterpretthesemapsfortheiraudience,makingsuretoclarifythatitisnotthepresenceofpeopleofcolorbuttheprevalenceofstructuralracisminaregionthatsuppressesreal
estatevaluesinthesecommunities.Theycanattributetheseeconomiccostsspecificallytotheraciallymotivatedexclusivezoningpoliciesofsuburbancommunitiesandtothefederalpublichousingpoliciesthatleadtoadisproportionateconcentrationoflow‐incomehousinginraciallysegregatedcommunities.
Theycanshowthattheseveryrealcostsresultfromcontinuingracialsegregationinaregion’sschoolsthatconcentratepovertyinraciallysegregatedschoolsandneighborhoods.
Advocatescantalkspecificallyabouttheraciallybiasedlendingpracticesthatdeprivecommunitiesofcolorfromacquiringtheirfairshareofloansintheregion—loansthattheyneedtofixtheirhomes,to
buildtheirbusiness,andtoimprovetheircommunities.Theycanestablishtheindisputableresponsibilityofrealestateagentsinimposingthesecostsontheregionbyhighlightingtheirsteeringpractices.
Nationalfairhousingstudiessuggestthatrealestateagentsinnumerouscommunitiesstillcontinueto
steerwhitefamiliesawayfromraciallydiverseneighborhoodswhilesteeringfamiliesofcolorintotheseverysameneighborhoods.Theserealestatepracticesmakeitinevitablethatraciallydiverse
communitieseventuallybecomeraciallysegregated.Racialjusticeadvocatescandiscussspecificsteeringinstancesfromtheirownregionstodemonstratethecontinuingpresenceofthesedestructivepractices.Leadingwiththeseinstances,theycanadvocatefortheneedtoestablishregionalinstitutions
thatcouldmonitorthesesteeringpracticesthroughpairedtestingstudies.
VIII. TheWayForwardTrueintegrationisfarfrombeingtherealityofthe21stcenturyAmerica.Muchworkremainstobedonetomakeitareality.TheFordFoundationcouldplayasignificantroleinlayingthefoundationofthisworkbysponsoringthreetypesofactivities:
NeedforFurtherFramingResearchFraminghelpsusnavigatetheflowofinformationandsatisfiesourneedtomakesenseoftheworld,
particularlywhenweareconflictedoverissueslikeintegration.Racialjusticeadvocatesstillhavealongwaytogoinfiguringouthowtotalkaboutraceintransformativeways.
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Forinstance,thefindingsofthefocusgroupsconfirmedtheurgentneedtochallengetheachievementgapdiscourse,whichinappropriatelyportraysintegrationandachievementasmutuallyexclusivegoals.
Weneedtotalkaboutacademicexcellenceandintegrationinnewways,reframingintegrationasameanstoacademicachievement.Thismightbeaveryeffectivewaytointroduceexistingevidenceontheacademicandsocietalbenefitsofintegration.Butwecannotbesureuntilfutureframingstudies
confirmthis.
Infutureresearch,itmightbeusefultofurtherexploretheeffectivenessofaglobalvs.regionaleconomicframeworkinframingintegration.Expandingtherepertoireofracialjusticeadvocates,especiallybyexploringnewframessuchasreligiousones,couldalsobeausefulstrategy.Afterall,the
CivilRightsMovementwasborninfaithorganizationsanditismostlikelytoflourishintheseorganizationsinthenearfuture.Futureframingresearchcould,forinstance,exploretheeffectivenessofaredemptionframeintalkingaboutintegration.
Futureframingresearchshouldalsospecificallyfocusonthefollowingquestions:
• Howdoesthe“equity”frameinteractwiththe“opportunityforall”frameinpeople’sminds?
• Doesthe“equity”frameundermineorreinforce“theopportunityforall”frame?
• Inwhatformmightthe“equity”framerunintotheriskoftriggeringazero‐summindset?Howcouldtheconceptof“equity”beframedtoavoidsuchamindset?
• Howcanweframetheconversationeffectivelywhenthevaluesof“choice”and“integration”clashinpeople’smindstomakesurethatschoolchoicedoesnottrumpintegrationasavalue?
TheNeedforaSpecificAgendaFramingmustgohandinhandwithmanyothersocialinvestmentstobringabouttheinstitutional
changesnecessarytoachievetrueintegration.
• Weneedtostartoutbydefiningwhatatrulyintegratedcurriculum,classroom,school,district,region,state,andnationlooklikeandthenworktomaketheseareality.
• Weneedtocreatechallenging,engaging,andculturallyrelevantcurriculums.
• Weneedtoequipteacherswiththeskillsandknowledgetocreatesafe,supportive,andinclusiveclassroomsandschools.
• Weneedtotrainteachers,administratorsandstafftobeculturallycompetentinordertomake
themmoreresponsivetotheneedsofanincreasinglydiversestudentbody.
• Weneedtoharnessthegenuinebenefitsofdiversitywithinandacrossschools.
• Weneedtorealizemeaningfuldiversitygoalsinalleducationalinstitutionsbyaggressively
recruitingteachers/administrators/staffofcolorandbyworkingwithteachers’unionstoeliminateunionrulesthatdiscouragethehiringofteachersofcolor.
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• Weneedtocontinuetoclarify,inthepost‐ParentsInvolvedera,theoptionsthatarelegallyavailabletoschooldistrictsinpursuingtrulyintegratedschools;andweneedtodisseminatethis
informationwidely.Post‐ParentsInvolved,schooldistrictsarestillfreetopursuesocioeconomicintegration,usingindicatorssuchasincome,wealth,andanyindicatorofparentaleducationlevels.AccordingtotheSupremeCourt,schooldistrictscanalsoberaceconsciouswhenthey
drawschoolboundaries,choosesitesfornewschools,anddirectmoneytoparticularprograms.Buttheyarelimitedtotakingintoaccounttheracialcompositionofaneighborhoodratherthantheraceofanindividualstudent.Post‐ParentsInvolved,schooldistrictsstillhaveaccessto
numerousrace‐consciouspoliciesandpracticesincluding:theuseofrace‐consciousprograms(suchasmagnetschools)orattendancezones;thetargetedrecruitingofstudentsandfaculty;thetrackingofenrollmentandperformancebyrace;andtheoptionoftyingintegrationplans
closelytoeducationalgoals.Theycanalsouseinter‐districttransferprogramsordevelopinter‐districtmagnetschoolstoalleviateracialisolationandincreaseeducationalperformance.
ThankstoagenerousgrantbytheFordFoundation,theKirwanInstitutefortheStudyofRaceand
Ethnicityalreadysurveyedinstitutions/individualstoidentifythosewhoareworkingonintegrationinschooldistricts.Ithasalsobeguntakingstockofthenumerouswaysintegrationhasbeenusedbydifferentconstituencies.Inthisproject,theInstituteranfocusgroupsinmultiplecommunitiestobetter
articulatetheunderstandingofdesegregationandthemessagingandframingoftrueintegration.Amongthesecommunities,wehaveachievedmanyindicatorsofsuccess;theworkintheTwinCitiesmetropolitanareahasbeenespeciallypromising.
TheNeedforanExemplaryCaseToDemonstratePossibilitiesInordertocapitalizeontheextensiveworkithasdoneintheTwinCities,theKirwanInstituteisproposingtorunapilotprojectinthisregion.Thispilotprojectwouldinvolvethefollowingactivities:
1. TrainingregionalracialjusticeadvocatesonframingandmessagingbasedontheresultsofthefocusgroupsheldintheTwinCities.
2. Assistingracialjusticeadvocatesinconstructivelycreatingavenuestousethistrainingineducatingparents,electedcommunityleaders,andotheractiviststopromotetrueintegrationinupcomingschoolboardandgeneralelections.
3. Keepingtheimportantlinksbetweenhousingandschoolsinthefrontendofcurrentpoliticaldiscussions.Afterall,eliminatingsegregationfromcommunitieswillremainachallengeunlessweaddressitsimultaneouslyinschoolsandneighborhoods.
4. Assistingracialjusticeadvocatesinstubbornlyreiteratingaregionalframethatclearlystatesthataslongashousingandjobmarketsremainregional,weneedtokeepseekingsolutionstosegregationthatareappropriatelyregionalinscope.TheKirwanInstitutewillalsoprovidethem
withassistanceinmakingthecasethatsolutionsthatfallshortofthisscopetendtotriggerthere‐segregationofneighborhoodsandschools,wipingoutanysignificantgainstowardtrueintegration.
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TheTwinCitiesMetropolitanArea:“TheRightPlaceattheRightTime”toFacilitateCollectiveActionaroundIntegrationTheTwinCitiesmetropolitanareaisaparticularlyappropriateregionforapilotproject.Theregionalreadyhasthreeuniqueinter‐districtintegrationdistrictsthatcontinuetomakeeffortstopromote
integrationintheurbancoreandtheincreasinglydiverseinner‐ringsuburbs.Moreover,theStateofMinnesotahasauniqueIntegrationRevenueProgram,whichallocatesstateaidtoschooldistrictsandthethreeinter‐districtintegrationdistrictstoassistthemintheirvoluntaryintegrationefforts.The
program,whichdistributesmorethan$80millionineducationdollarsstatewide,providessignificantresourcestotheseschooldistricts.
Inaddition,thepilotcouldyieldpositiveresultsimmediatelyduetothespecificcircumstancesintheStateofMinnesota.Recently,theveryexistenceoftheIntegrationRevenueProgramisjeopardizedand
thisprovidesuniqueopportunitiesfortheregion’sracialjusticeadvocatestobringupandreframetheissueofintegrationinatransformativefashion.Inthelastlegislativesession,staterepresentativestookontheprograminresponsetoastateauditoftheprogrambytheOfficeoftheLegislativeAuditor
(OLA).TheOLAnotedthepersistenceofsomesignificantconceptualandimplementationproblemsassociatedwiththeprogramandurgedthelegislaturetorestructuretheprogram.
Giventherecentsevererecessionandtheaccompanyingstatebudgetcuts,manyintheCapitolmoved
tokillthisprogram.Racialjusticeadvocatesmanagedtostallthesemovesbyrequesting,instead,theformationofataskforcethatcouldimprovetheexistingprogram.Butsofar,theformationofthistaskforcehasbeendelayed,anditisnotcertaintohappen.Manyconsultantsandadvocacyorganizations
workingwiththeKirwanInstitute(includingCatyRoyceandmembersofISAIAH—aregionalfaith‐basedorganizationthatworksforsocialjustice)andvariousKirwanstaffmembersarecollectivelyworkingtomakesurethatthetaskforceisconvened.49
Inaddition,theyarealsocurrentlyarrangingmeetingswithmanyofthefocusgroupparticipantsin
ordertoensurethatthemakeupofthetaskforcereflectstheopinionsoftheregion’sraciallydiversecommunity.Thebuy‐inofthesefocusgroupparticipants(importantmembersofthecommunity)willalsohelptheKirwanInstituteimpacttheframingofthemessagethatwillcomeoutofthistaskforce.
TheKirwanInstitutealsohasclosetieswiththeInstituteonRaceandPovertyinMinneapolis—anotherinstitutionalallyintheregionwhichrecentlyproposedacomprehensiveregional,incentive‐basedplantointegratetheregion’sschools.
FundingfromtheFordFoundationtosupporttheseactivitiescouldmakeacrucialdifferenceinbuilding
cruicialmomentumandmovingtheregiontoward‘trueintegration’.TheTwinCitiesmetropolitanareacanbecomeanexemplaryregiontodemonstratethepossibilityofrealizing‘trueintegration’atthenation’smetropolitanareaswithgeneroushelpfromtheFordFoundation.Thenationurgentlyneeds
suchanexampletoreallyturnAmericaintoa‘post‐racial’society.
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1TomRudd,AnnetteJohnson,CherylStaats,johna.powell,AndrewGrant‐Thomas,“TowardaTransformativeAgenda:ResourceNotebook,”KirwanInstitutefortheStudyofRaceandEthnicity,WorkingPaper,August2009,pp.7‐8.2DrewWesten,ThePoliticalBrain:TheRoleofEmotioninDecidingtheFateoftheNation.(NewYork,NY:PublicAffairs,2007).3Fordetailsof‘color‐blindracism’,seeEduardoBonilla‐Silva,RacismWithoutRacists:Color‐BlindRacismandthePersistenceofRacialInequalityintheUnitedStates.(Lanham,MD:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,2003).4Forastudythatshowsthat‘color‐blindracism’wasanextremelypowerfulpredictorofoppositiontoprogramssuchasaffirmativeaction,seePhilipJ.MazoccoandD.W.Newhart,“Color‐BlindRacismandOppositiontoProgressiveRacialPolicy:ANewScaleandSupportiveFindings,”2006(unpublishedmanuscriptavailableuponrequestfromtheKirwanInstitutefortheStudyofRaceandEthnicity).Forastudythatshowsthatrace‐consciousmessageswillberesistedbysome,especiallyconservativegroups,butonlyifthesemessagesarenotcarefullyconstructed,seePhilipMazzocco,“TheDangersofNotSpeakingAboutRace:ASummaryofResearchAffirmingtheMeritsofaColor‐ConsciousApproachtoRacialCommunicationandEquity,”(Columbus,Ohio:KirwanInstitutefortheStudyofRaceandEthnicity,May2006).Thestudyshowsthatmerelytalkingaboutracialdisparitiesactuallyreducessupportforprogressivepolicyamongconservatives.However,whenallthecolor‐blindframesareaddressedsimultaneously,oppositiondeclinesappreciably.5Formoreresearchontheineffectivenessofrace‐neutralstrategiesandexamplesofactualpoliticalcampaignsthatsucceededwithrace‐consciousmessages,seeTheCenterforSocialInclusion,ThinkingChange:Race,FramingandthePublicConversationonDiversity.WhatSocialScienceTellsAdvocatesAboutWinningSupportforRacialJusticePolicies.(NewYork,NY):2005.6PhilipMazzocco,“TheDangersofNotSpeakingAboutRace:ASummaryofResearchAffirmingtheMeritsofaColor‐ConsciousApproachtoRacialCommunicationandEquity,”(Columbus,Ohio:KirwanInstitutefortheStudyofRaceandEthnicity,May2006),p.3.7PhilipMazzocco,“TheDangersofNotSpeakingAboutRace:ASummaryofResearchAffirmingtheMeritsofaColor‐ConsciousApproachtoRacialCommunicationandEquity,”(Columbus,Ohio:KirwanInstitutefortheStudyofRaceandEthnicity,May2006),p.3.8‘High‐levelframes,’whicharedeepervaluesinanindividual’scognitivesystem,tendtomattermoretopeople.GeorgeLakoffarguesthat“inpolitics,thehigh‐levelframesarethemoralsystemsthatdefinewhatis‘right’foraconservativeorprogressive.”Formoreon‘high‐levelmoralframes’and‘framesystems,’seeGeorgeLakoff,“DisasterMessaging,”HuffingtonPost,July8,2010,availableathttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/george‐lakoff/disaster‐messaging_b_639040.html(accessed07/23/2010).9GeorgeLakoff,“DisasterMessaging,”HuffingtonPost,July8,2010,availableathttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/george‐lakoff/disaster‐messaging_b_639040.html(accessed07/23/2010).10GeorgeLakoff,“DisasterMessaging,”HuffingtonPost,July8,2010,availableathttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/george‐lakoff/disaster‐messaging_b_639040.html(accessed07/23/2010).11GeorgeLakoff,“DisasterMessaging,”HuffingtonPost,July8,2010,availableathttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/george‐lakoff/disaster‐messaging_b_639040.html(accessed07/23/2010).
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12Foradiscussionofwhatthissuccessfulconservativemessagingsystementails,seeGeorgeLakoff,“DisasterMessaging,”HuffingtonPost,July8,2010,availableathttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/george‐lakoff/disaster‐messaging_b_639040.html(accessed07/23/2010).13RobertM.Entman.HowtheMediaAffectWhatPeopleThink:AnInformationProcessingApproach.TheJournalofPolitics(1989),51:347‐370CambridgeUniversityPress.14RobertM.Entman.2007.Framingbias:Mediainthedistributionofpower.JournalofCommunication,57(1):163–173.15RobertM.Entman.2007.Framingbias:Mediainthedistributionofpower.JournalofCommunication,57(1):163–173.16Seeforexample:Hacker,HollyK.,Hobbs,TawnellD.(2010,June6).BlackflightchangingDISDmakeup.TheDallasMorningNews.http://www.dallasnews.com.17Oneplacethisdidappearwasinareviewofanacademicreportat:Chang,C.(2010,June8).MinnesotareportblastsracialsegregationinNewOrleanspublicschools.TheTimes‐Picayune.http://www.nola.com/education/index.ssf/2010/06/minnesota_report_finds_racism.html18Seeforexample:Poulou,P.(2010,June10).DiverseHighSchoolBattlesLowTestScores,HighDrop‐outRate.VoiceofAmerica.http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/education/Diverse‐High‐School‐Battles‐Low‐Test‐Scores‐High‐Drop‐out‐Rate‐95789904.html19Seeforexample:LawsuitchallengesJCPSstudentassignmentplan.June16,2010.www.fox41.com.20Seethiswellrepresentedbytwohighschoolstudentsat:Durrani,Haris,Manely,Cole.(2010,June14).Bubble‐Wrapped:BeyondStaples,StudentsFaceHigherLevelsofDiversity.InklingNews.Retrievedfrom:http://inklingnews.com/archives/678621Foranexampleofanarticledocumentingschooldisparitiesmorecomprehensivelysee:Palka,MaryKelli.(2010,June18).OneDuvalschoolgetsleftbehind,whileanotherthrives.TheFloridaTimesUnion.Retrievedfrom:http://jacksonville.com/news/metro/2010‐06‐04/story/one‐school‐gets‐left‐behind‐while‐another‐one‐thrives.22Seeforexamplethisarticlewhichsuggestsraceisafactorbutneverdirectlyaddressesit:Buist,Steve.(2010,June17).Incomeintegrationneedstobeaddressed.TheSpec.com.Retrievedfrom:http://www.thespec.com/printArticle/790583.23TheKirwanInstitute.FinalReportonDiversityStrategiestotheOhioStateBoardofEducation.Draftinprogress.24Seeafulldiscussionofthisat:TheKirwanInstitute.(2010,March10).MontclairPublicSchools:FocusGroupsFinalReport.Onlineat:http://kirwaninstitute.org/publicationspresentations/publications/.25DeLuca,Stefanie,Dayton,Elizabeth.(2009).SwitchingSocialContexts:TheEffectsofHousingMobilityandSchoolChoiceProgramsonYouthOutcomes.AnnualReviewofSociology,35,457‐491.26Kurlaender,Michal,Yun,JohnT.Measuring.(February2007).MeasuringSchoolRacialCompositionandStudentOutcomesinaMultiracialSociety.AmericanJournalofEducation,113,213‐242.27BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.414.28BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.419.
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29BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.420.30BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.420.31BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.416.32FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.8.33FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.8.34JonHansonandKathleenHanson,“TheBlameFrame:Justifying(Racial)InjusticeinAmerica,”HarvardCivilRights‐CivilLibertiesLawReview,vol.41(2006),especiallypp.413,416‐417,427‐428.35BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.414.36BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.414.37FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.10.38FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.10.39FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.10.40FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.10.41ForadefinitionofsimplifyingmodelsandanexplanationofFrameWorks’researchmethods,seehttp://www.frameworksinstitute.org/methods.html.42FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.10.43FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.10.44FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.10.45BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.415.46FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.8.47johnpowell,“ANewTheoryofIntegratedEducation:TrueIntegration,”inJohnCharlesBogerandGaryOrfield(eds.)SchoolResegregation:MusttheSouthTurnBack?(ChapelHill,NC:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2005),pp.281‐304.
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48johnpowell,“ANewTheoryofIntegratedEducation:TrueIntegration,”inJohnCharlesBogerandGaryOrfield(eds.)SchoolResegregation:MusttheSouthTurnBack?(ChapelHill,NC:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2005),pp.281‐304.
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