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Sex-Segregation, Gender Stereotypes, and Emotional Labor:
And The Effects It Has Women In The Workplace
Crystal Redmon
Texas A & M University
Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
Abstract
Culture is the determining factor on what societies value and deem appropriate behavior.
Cultural perceptions influence gender stereotypes in the workplace and can guide the
career paths for individuals. This particular aspect of culture largely influences women in
the workplace and can contribute to the emotional strain placed on women. Although
societies ideas on what jobs women should partake in has changed over the years, women
still face challenges in their careers. Following the twentieth century there was a rise in the
number of female employees (Erickson & Ritter, 2001). This rise in women workers has
changed the dynamics of the workplace. Women are more prevalent in the labor force and
have stepped out of their traditional role as caretaker. Even though women account for
more of the workforce than in past years, they are still not given the same opportunities as
men (Erickson & Ritter, 2001). Sex segregation, emotional labor and stereotypes have
played a part in the devaluing of women in the workplace and have lead women to
experience emotional “burnout”. These factors are impeding the advancement of women
up the corporate ladder. Organizations and HRD professionals must implement programs
in order to combat the barriers that prevent women from achieving the same amount of
success as men, and must introduce ways women can overcome issues pertaining to
emotional labor.
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
Sex-Segregation, Gender Stereotypes, and Emotional Labor:
And The Effects It Has on Women In The Workplace
Although women have been present in the workforce for many years their position
in the workforce and society are still typically lower than their male counter parts. The
reason for this may be due to the fact that employers assign sex specific roles. Employers
tend to save upper level positions for men and place women in lower level positions. This
placement is due in part to stereotypes about workers and the jobs each sex is best suited
for (Reskin, 1984). Stereotypes are still prevalent in today’s society and although they may
be more indirect, their effects are still damaging. The outcome gender stereotypes and sex
segregation have on women workers is detrimental to society and tends to go unnoticed.
Since stereotypes about gender roles have become part of our culture, it is adopted as truth
and overlooked (Reskin, 1984). These stereotypes are absorbed by society and are
replicated through the socialization process. The beliefs and replication of gender
stereotypes has helped perpetuate sex-segregation in the workplace. Stereotypes prevent
women from obtaining jobs based on their education or experience, and women are
instead compartmentalized due to their sex. Although some women may find a way to
break through the stereotypes and move up the corporate ladder the challenges they face
are immense.
Understanding the implications sex segregation and stereotypes have on the
workforce will eliminate the improper placement of women based on their ascribed sex.
Women are not only unfairly placed based on their sex, but they are also forced to endure
enormous amounts of emotional labor due to sex segregation of labor. The ideals held
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
about women and their potential in the workplace are formed by cultural beliefs. Every
culture values women differently and in American culture strong stereotypes and
reservations about women have impacted their earning power and social status. The
purpose of this paper is to examine the implications gender stereotypes, sex segregation,
and emotional labor have on women in the workplace.
Gender Stereotypes and The Workplace
Today’s women are very different than the women of past centuries. In previous
years women were primarily found in the domestic sphere, while men were assigned to the
professional sphere. Men would work and gain prestige from their economic status and
occupation, while women gained power and recognition through their family (Wolf &
Fligstein, 1979). The segregation of men and women has been a staple in American culture.
Women were viewed as the caretakers of domestic life and men as the financial providers.
These traditional roles were assigned by culture and have recently begun to change.
Women are now more prevalent in the workplace and have been able to make the
transition from the domestic sphere to the professional sphere. This shift has allowed
women to rely less on their male counter parts and more on their own abilities to generate
income. The shift from the domestic sphere has also increased the social status of women,
but women have yet to catch up with men (Wolf & Fligstein, 1979).
Although women have emerged as economic contributors and are now participants
of paid labor, women are still less likely to hold positions of power. The fact that women
are less likely to hold positions of power impacts their earning abilities. Women are placed
in jobs that typically payless than their male counterparts and stereotypes play a major
role in this placement (Erickson & Ritter, 2001). Stereotypes are a perceived belief about an
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
individual based on a particular attribute that describes the individual in question. Stereotypes
about women are often perpetuated through the use of media. Television is a main source of
acculturation of these stereotypes. Although women have made huge strides in the paid labor
force they are still depicted by the media in domestic and subservient roles. Commercials and
televisions shows are notorious for representing women in traditional roles. These types of
depictions help create a culture that devalues the work of women in the labor force and
recognizes them only in the domestic sphere (Coltrane & Adams, 1997).
This depiction and devaluing of women has a negative impact on women in the
workplace. Due to the depictions of women by mass media, society is made to believe that
women are not capable of participating in the business world. These Stereotypes infer that
women are inferior to men in the workplace and should be in subservient roles. Even when
women produce the same work as men, their work is devalued (Heilman, 2001). Stereotypes
about women have lead to gendered work and have allowed employers to place women in
marginal roles. Stereotypes about women and their abilities put women at a disadvantage in
terms of acquiring managerial positions. The stereotypes about women imply that they are better
at being managed rather than being in management (Wolf & Fligstein, 1979).
Depictions created by mass media of women in stereotypical gender roles perpetuate the
belief that women are better suited for the domestic sphere. This depiction is detrimental to
women and continues to prolong the belief that men are better suited for the paid workforce.
These media depictions of women in domestic roles and societies stereotypical beliefs about
women have helped shaped the type of job employers find suitable for women.
Stereotypes about women along with media depictions have lead employers and society
to view women as having greater emotional control and are seen as better caretakers. Although
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
this presumption might be seen at first as a positive trait, this is not the case in the workforce.
This assumption allows employers to segregate employees based on sex stereotypes. Women
tend to be placed in positions of lower social status that require more emotional labor. The
assumption that women are able to perform more diverse forms of emotional labor is what puts
them at a disadvantage. Women are depicted and stereotyped as having high levels of emotional
control and are seen as having the ability to suppress negative emotions.
This idea focuses on the fact that women are seen as having a better handle on negative
emotions such as anger and hostility. This depiction of emotional control is what keeps women
in lower positions within organizations. Women are stereotyped as being so good at controlling
their feelings of anger that they are strategically placed in lower status positions. The placement
of women in lower positions is primarily due to the fact that men in higher positions are valued
for being able to express their feelings of anger and frustration. Since men in upper positions are
expressing such negative feelings, women are supposed to “grin and bear it” (Erickson & Ritter,
2001). Women are often placed in lower positions, so that the higher positions typically held
by men have an outlet for their anger. Since women are believed to have greater emotional
control they are thought to be good at taking the negative emotions in stride. Since society and
the media depict women as subservient caretakers, our cultural beliefs about women are shaped
by those depictions. The perceived idea that women are able to control their negative emotions
has hindered women from advancing up the corporate ladder.
Stereotypes about women depicted in the media continue to interrupt the advancement of
women in the workplace. The devaluing of women in the workplace has allowed employers and
members of society to interpret the same behaviors displayed by men and women differently
(Heilman, 2001). It is the depiction and assumptions placed on women by society that creates a
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
dichotomous way of thinking. One behavior depicted by two actors will be perceived in two
different ways. The social constraints society places on emotion is what helps shape the way
society views emotions and in what context emotion is appropriate for each gender (Hochschild,
1979). This presumption in conjunction with cultural stereotypes aids in the devaluing of
women’s work and prevents women from achieving a higher status in society (Heilman, 2001).
Sex-Segregation, Emotional Labor and The Wage Gap
Stereotypes are part of the reason women are placed in certain work roles, but another
reason why women are primarily found in certain positions is due to the amount of emotional
labor it takes to perform the job requirements (Guy & Newman, 2004). This type of segregation
creates “gendered work”. Gendered work is when certain jobs are primarily held by one
particular gender. Many women in the workforce hold positions that require frequent interactions
with individuals. These interactions may include face-to-face interactions or voice-to-voice
interactions. These types of positions generally require high intense levels of emotional labor.
Such jobs include teachers, health care workers, clerical workers, customer service
representatives, social workers and jobs that place a heavy emphasis on assisting other
individuals (Guy & Newman, 2004).
Jobs that require high levels of emotional labor are predominantly held by women and
tend to be occupations at the lower end of the pay scale. Men tend to occupy jobs that require
less emotional labor and can be found at the higher end of the pay scale (Guy & Newman, 2004).
Gendered work creates a labor market that places a lower emphasis on jobs held by women. This
type of devaluing and discrimination of women in the workplace leads to a significant wage gap
between the earnings of men and women (Petersen & Morgan, 1995). Both men and women
partake in emotional labor, but women are expected to perform emotional labor to a greater
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
extent than men (Pugliesi, 1999). The link between emotional labor and gendered work points
out the fact that women’s jobs are typically devalued (Petersen & Morgan, 1995).
Women workers who engage in emotional labor are seen as having an inherent ability to
care for others. This idea that women have an inherent ability to care for others is what
contributes to their lower pay. The emotional labor provided by women in the workplace is not
seen as additional work. It is seen as a “women being a women”. The perceived ability that
emotional labor is natural for women is what hinders them from receiving additional pay for the
emotional labor they provide. Since this is seen as “natural” ability, women who do not provide
good emotional labor and support are seen as not doing their job correctly (Guy & Newman,
2004).
This assumption that women have a natural ability to care is why employers do not
recognize emotional labor as a skill requirement. Since it is not considered a skill women are not
recognized for the amount of emotional labor they contribute to a job. Therefore, additional pay
is not provided. The idea that women inherently provide emotional labor is what encourages sex
segregation in the workforce, and creates a wage gap between men and women (Guy &
Newman, 2004). Gendered work is prevalent in today’s society, and it is justified by the belief
that women are better at providing emotional labor. Women are thought to be better at
expressing happy emotions and keeping negative emotions internalized, whereas men are
rewarded and perceived as being strong if they display negative emotions such as anger
(Erickson & Ritter, 2001). Gender stereotypes and perceived beliefs about women are what have
helped perpetuate the wage gap and have created sex segregation in the workplace. `
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
Women in Upper Management and Emotions
Although women are less likely to be found in upper management positions due to
stereotypes, sex-segregation, and acculturation there are some women who have made it up the
corporate ladder (Heilman, 2001). Those women, who are in upper management and have
advanced up the corporate ladder, still seem to struggle with the implications of emotions.
Emotional expression is a part of leadership and women who are in leadership roles are
constantly battling this aspect of the role. A good leader must not only focus on tasks, but must
also be a good people person (Callahan, Hasler & Tolson, 2005). Having good interpersonal
skills is what distinguishes a good leader. The role emotion plays in interpersonal skills and
leadership is very instrumental. Followers view individuals who are able to express their
emotions and recognize emotions in others as more authentic leaders (Iszsatt-White, 2009).
This perception should put women at a slight advantage when it comes to leadership and
emotional consciousness; however, even in this aspect men seem to have a slight advantage.
Since women are plagued by stereotypes of being good caretakers and are seen as better
undertakers of emotional labor, women have a challenge when they reach upper management.
Women in management positions tend to adapt to what they perceive as being “manly” traits.
They try to detach themselves from the stereotypes surrounding women. Since the qualities that
describe good leaders are those qualities that stereotypically describe males, women are
constantly trying to act “like a man” (Heilman, 2001). The idea that women must act like a man
in order to be successful is part of the reason women leaders have a hard time expressing
emotions. Women are not being true to themselves, but are instead trying to live up to perceived
expectations of leadership.
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
Since men are typically not valued for their emotional labor and are usually found in less
emotional labor-intensive jobs, once women acquire the same social status as men they try to
emulate those traits. A large emphasis is placed on the leader follower relationship and the
outcome of this relationship equates to good leadership. There is a huge interplay of emotions
that takes place between leaders and followers. Followers look to leaders for support in the
workplace and sometimes that support or guidance requires emotional feedback. Emotional labor
is an important part of the leadership role and both men and women in leadership roles must deal
with the aspects of emotional labor (Glaso & Stale, 2008).
Although both women and men in leadership roles have to deal with emotional labor and
emotional expression at some point, men in leadership roles tend to report higher levels of
emotional expression (Callahan et. al, 2005). This finding underlines the challenges women in
upper management face. Women in upper management are reporting lower levels of emotional
expression than their male counterparts and in turn could be jeopardizing their authenticity as
leaders (Callahan et. al, 2005). Women in leadership roles are made to feel that expression of
emotion is a women’s thing, yet men in leadership roles own up to their emotional expression.
Women are so plagued with gender stereotypes that focus on emotions and submissive roles that
they try and suppress emotional expression when placed in leadership roles.
The suppression of emotion leads to intense emotional labor and actually puts leaders at a
disadvantage in terms of being authentic leaders (Iszatt-White, 2009). Women in leadership roles
are faced with the challenge of trying to live up to the male dominated role, while simultaneously
expressing emotions in order to be viewed by followers as authentic. The role emotions play in
leadership positions are felt by everyone who fills these roles. Women are not only conscience of
the fact that leadership roles are predominately occupied by males, they are also aware of the
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
stereotypes surrounding women in general. These circumstances challenge women in leadership
roles, causing them to display even greater emotional labor. The intense challenge of expressing
emotions and overcoming stereotypes create emotional dissonance. Women must find a balance
of emotions in order to satisfy the leader follower role, yet deviate from the perceived
stereotypes about women.
The Effects of Emotional Labor
As previously discussed women in leadership roles are forced to manage their emotions
and understand the implications their emotions have on their performance at work. Emotional
labor is a theme that is prevalent in many job descriptions; especially those that require close
interactions with other individuals (Puglies, 1999). Women in the workforce tend to experience
emotional labor in two forms. They are usually exposed to explicit emotions such as anger and
disgust and are also expected to hide their own emotions (Erickson & Ritter, 2001). The
simultaneous requirements of managing ones emotions and absorbing others emotions puts a
strain on women workers.
This exertion of emotions can lead women to feel an emotional “burnout”. According to
Schaufeli (1995), “burnout is described as a psychological syndrome of emotional exhaustion,
and depersonalization that occurs among individuals who work with people in some capacity” (p.
11). Women are at a higher risk of experiencing “burnout”, because they usually fill jobs that
require more interpersonal interactions (Bierema, 2008). These interpersonal interactions can
require an excessive amount of emotional labor. Women are not only expected to partake in
emotional labor at work, but also may experience emotional labor at home.
Women are more likely to feel the effects of emotional “burnout” because they are
encouraged by society and gendered job roles to partake in emotional labor (Bierema, 2008).
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
Women in jobs that require emotional labor are forced to regulate their emotions in order to
satisfy the organizational policies. This type of emotional regulation can create internal conflicts
with workers. When employees emotions do not coincide with the appropriate emotion the
organization or customer expects, workers experience emotional dissonance and this can lead to
“burnout” (Martinez-Inigo, Totterdell, Alcover & Holman, 2007).
“Burnout” is a cause of emotional dissonance and when employees are unable to express
their true feelings, stress and pressure create role-conflict. Since women experience pressure
from organizations to engage in emotional labor they often face emotional dissonance. Women
must either conform to the appropriate emotions warranted by the organization or they will be
pressured to do so or could even be fired (Abraham, 1999). Negative emotions can lead to
dissatisfaction in the workplace and this leads to unhappy and uncommitted workers. The strain
emotional labor puts on women in organizations is not only detrimental to them, but the
organization also suffers.
Women who experience high levels of emotional dissonance and negative emotions that
pertain to the organization, also have lower levels of commitment. Lower commitment levels
lead to high turn over rates (Abraham, 1999). Elevated turnover rates are not good for
organizations because they must spend time and money on the training and development of new
employees. The emotional strain placed on women is due in part to gender stereotypes and sex
segregation in the workplace.
Since Women have been strategically placed in jobs that require emotional labor they are
typically more exposed to it and their chances of experiencing “burnout” are higher than their
male counterparts. Another important factor to consider when looking at the differences sex
makes in comparison to emotional “burnout” is the fact that men are viewed by society in a
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
different light. Society is more accepting of emotional outburst from men. Men who express
explicit emotions are not only accepted by society, but they are actually rewarded.
These types of emotional expressions are seen as “manly” and coincide with what culture
deems appropriate behavior for men (Erickson & Ritter, 2001). If a women were to express her
emotions in such an explicit and blunt manner a women would be frowned upon by society.
Women are bound by cultural stereotypes that place them strategically in certain areas of the
labor force, and due to these stereotypes women are more likely to experience emotional
“burnout”. Stress brought on by emotional labor can have an impact on a women’s wellbeing.
Although more research is needed in order to determine the long-term effects emotional labor
has on women in the workplace, it is clear that emotional labor puts strain on employees.
Implications for HRD Professionals
In order for women to be seen as equals and have the same opportunities as their male
counterparts, HRD professionals must be aware of the stereotypes surrounding women in the
workplace and implement strategies to combat those stereotypes. HRD professionals can help
create more female leaders, by implementing training and development opportunities. These
training and development courses can emphasize the role of emotions in leadership and can
empower women to utilize more emotion in their management. The training and development
courses can help create more authentic leaders by providing women with more self-awareness.
Focusing on self-awareness will empower women to embrace their true selves and will
help empower them to use emotions in their leadership style (Morgeson & Nahrgang, 2005). The
increased expression of emotion will help followers see women as more authentic and can lead
followers to except women as equal leaders to men. This type of empowerment will not only
enhance the leader follower relationship, but will also emphasize the importance of emotion in
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
leadership. Addressing the importance of emotions in leadership and providing tools for women
leaders to feel comfortable expressing emotions will enhance their confidence as leaders.
Not only can HRD professional implement courses that stress the importance of
emotions, but also they can help create a culture that values emotions. HRD professionals can do
this by acknowledging those jobs that require more emotional labor. Acknowledging jobs that
require more emotional labor can include a pay increase. This would allow workers to see that
emotional labor is a skill set that deserves recognition and validation. Increasing pay for women
who partake in emotional labor will help create a culture that acknowledges emotional labor, and
rewards emotional labor. By increasing the pay for women who perform emotional labor
organizations will help increase the social status of women and will help close the wage gap.
Women will not only be valued for the emotional labor they perform, but they will also be
rewarded for it.
Another implication for HRD professionals to acknowledge emotional labor and
implement cultural change is by acknowledging its existence by implementing stress reduction
programs (Higgins, 1986). By implementing stress reduction programs HRD professionals will
validate the importance and presence of emotional labor and the effects emotional labor has on
workers. Stress reduction programs will benefit employees who may be suffering from “burnout”
due to intense emotional labor. HRD professionals can implement stress reduction programs and
coping mechanism to manage stress. A possible coping mechanisms that HRD professionals can
provide women to help lower stress is Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction.
This type of stress reduction incorporates yoga, and meditation (Chiesa & Serretti, 2009).
MBSR is something that HRD professionals can implement and teach employees to use in their
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
daily lives. According to Chiesa & Serretti (2009), “the MBSR program consists of participants
engaging in a curriculum that incorporates yoga practices such as simple breathing, stretches and
posture designed to relax the musculoskeletal system” (p. 593-594). The program tends to last
about 8 weeks and participants must implement the practices for 45 minutes a day 6 days a week
(Chiesa & Serretti, 2009, p. 593). MBSR programs can help lower stress levels among
participants and can provide life long coping skills to combat emotional labor.
Another implementation that could be introduced for stress reduction is massage therapy.
Massages can be given once or twice a year during employee appreciation week or as an after
work activity. The combination of the two stress reduction methods will help employees gain the
knowledge needed to help lower stress levels on their own, and will also provide instant relief
from stress (Higgins, 1986). Introducing programs that require employees to acknowledge and
understand their use of emotions in the workplace will better equip employees to deal with
emotional labor. It will also help create a culture that understands and acknowledges the role of
emotional labor. Creating a culture that acknowledges and rewards emotional labor and uses
methods to combat stress will help women avoid “burnout”.
Providing techniques to help prevent “burnout” is important for organizations and women
in the workplace alike. In addition to stress reducing techniques HRD professionals can
introduce mentorship programs in order to further the advancement of women in leadership
roles. Mentorships have the ability to improve chances of advancement and equip women with
the proper tools needed for leadership. Mentorships are a great career development tool and can
provide that extra push women need to make it in the male dominated world of upper
management (Hunt & Michael, 1983). Mentorships have been found to be one of the best career
development tools. Being that there is a lack of women in upper management and very little
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
cross-gender mentorships occur in organizations, HRD professionals will need to provide
training and guidelines in order to have a successful program. There is a lot of stigma
surrounding cross-gender mentorships due to gossip and the potential for an inappropriate
working relationship (Clawson & Kram, 1984). So if the organization is lacking women in upper
management positions, HRD professionals must help implement a cross-gender mentorship
relationship.
In order for HRD professionals to introduce such a program they must offer on the job
training for both the mentee and mentor, and also boundaries must be set for both parties
(Clawson & Kram, 1984). Providing the proper training and overseeing the working relationship
will not only be rewarding for the mentee but also the mentor, and can lead to the advancement
of women in leadership roles. Implementing mentorships will not only help women by allowing
them to enhance their career development, but will also improve the chances of women filling
leadership positions in the future. If there are more women in leadership positions more women
will be available to serve as mentors. This will help close the gap that gender stereotyping
creates and will allow more opportunities for women in the workforce. Creating more
opportunities for women in the workplace will also provide women with other career options,
and may allow women to fill jobs that require less emotional labor. Mentorships will benefit
employees by providing them with new opportunities for development, and will help
organizations create a committed labor force.
Conclusion
Women in the workplace are surrounded by detrimental stereotypes that challenge their
ability as workers and leaders. These stereotypes have influenced segregation in the workplace
and have created additional challenges for women to overcome. Women are faced with the
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
challenge of overcoming the emphasis society places on emotions and emotional expressions.
Women are defined and segregated based on their so-called superior emotional management and
their education and expertise go unnoticed. The idea that women are better placed in roles that
require emotional labor is one of the reasons the wage gap is preserved.
The perpetuation of gender related stereotypes continue to leave women behind men in
social status, and prevent women from advancing up the corporate ladder. Women who have
been able to advance into upper management positions are still plagued by the role of emotions
in the workplace. Women in upper management must walk a fine line when it comes to the
display of emotions. If a women displays too much emotion she is living up to the stereotypes,
but if she doesn’t display enough emotion she is not seen as an authentic leader.
Women who struggle with job related emotions often face emotional dissonance and
emotional “burnout”. These two issues pertaining to women and emotional labor can create
lower levels of commitment and job dissatisfaction. HRD professionals can help elevate some of
the pressures emotional labor places on women by providing training and development courses
that emphasize the importance of emotional labor. These education courses will help members of
the organization understand that emotional labor is a skill requirement and women who perform
this skill are valued for their work. Not only can HRD professionals provide incentives such as
pay increases they can also introduce stress management techniques to help alleviate some of the
stress emotional labor places on employees.
Once organizations acknowledge that sex-segregation and gender stereotypes are still
prevalent in society today, as a culture we can start moving in a more positive direction. Women
will become equal to men in their social status and can avoid sex-segregation due to stereotypes
and assumptions about emotional labor. Although women in the workplace have come along way
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
women are still devalued for their work and are placed in marginal roles due to their sex and
stereotypes surrounding gender. Although women have made strides in the workplace they are
behind men in terms of leadership positions and wages in the workplace.
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Running Head: SEX-SEGREGATION, GENDER STEREOTYPES, AND EMOTIONAL LABOR
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