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Chapter 1
Pre-History & the
Neolithic Revolution
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*
Forming the Complex Society
■ Basic development:
❑ Hunting and foraging
❑ Agriculture
❑ Complex society
■ Key issue: surplus food surplus capital
■ Major development of first complex societies
3500 B.C.E. – 500 B.C.E.
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Global Migrations
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The Natural Environment
■ By 13,000 B.C.E., Homo sapiens in every inhabitable
part of the world
■ Archaeological finds:
❑ Sophisticated tools
■ Choppers, scrapers, axes, knives, bows, arrows
■ Cave and hut-like dwellings
■ Use of fire, animal skins
■ Hunted several mammal species to extinction
❑ Climatic change may have accelerated process
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❑Economy & society of hunting & gathering peoples
■Economic life
❑Prevented individuals from accumulating
private property
❑Lived an egalitarian existence
❑Lived in small bands, about thirty to fifty
members in each group
Paleolithic Society
Paleolithic Era (“Old Stone Age”)
■ Evidence:
❑ Archaeological finds
■ Nomadic existence precludes advanced civilization
❑ Division of labor along gender lines
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Relative Social Equality
■ Nomadic culture precludes accumulation of
land-based wealth
❑ Relatively egalitarian existence
❑ More likely determinants of status: age, hunting skill,
fertility, personality
❑ Possible gender equality related to food production
❑ Men: protein from hunting
❑ Women: plant gathering
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Big-Game Hunting
■ Evidence of intelligent coordination of hunting
expeditions
❑ Development of weaponry
❑ Animal-skin disguises
❑ Stampeding tactics
■ Lighting of fires, etc., to drive game into kill zones
■ Required planning, communication
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Creativity of Homo sapiens
■ Constructed flexible languages for communication of
complex ideas
■ Increased variety of tools – stone blades, spear throwers,
sewing needles, barbed harpoons
■ Fabricated ornamental beads, necklaces and bracelets
■ The bow and arrow – a dramatic improvement in humans’
power over nature
■ Cave paintings
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Neolithic Era (“New Stone Age”)
■ Relied on cultivation for subsistence❑ Men: herding animals rather than hunting
❑ Women: nurturing vegetation rather than foraging
■ Spread of agriculture ❑ Slash-and-burn techniques
❑ Exhaustion of soil promotes migration
❑ Impact: Transport of crops from one region to another
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Origins and Early Spread of Agriculture
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Agriculture and Population Growth
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Early Agricultural Society
■ Emergence of villages and towns
■ Discoveries at Çatal Hüyük – a prominent village
located in Turkey, occupied 7250-5400 B.C.E.
❑ Pots, baskets, textiles, leather, stone, metal tools, wood
carvings, carpets, beads, and jewelry
■ Development of crafts – pottery, metallurgy, and
textile production
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Social Distinctions
■ Accumulation of landed wealth initiates
development of social classes
■ Individuals could trade surplus food for valuable
items
■ Archaeological evidence in variety of household
decorations, goods buried with deceased members
of society at Çatal Hüyük
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*
Neolithic Culture
■ Farmers closely observed the natural world – an
early kind of applied science
■ Elements of natural environment essential for
functioning
■ Archaeological evidence of religious worship:
thousands of clay figurines, drawings on pots, tool
decorations, other ritual objects
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*
The Origins of Urban Life
■ Craft specialization
■ Social stratification
■ Governance
■ Development of the city – a gradual process
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Chapter 2
Early Societies in Southwest
Asia and the Indo-European
Migrations
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Mesopotamia
■ “Between the Rivers”
❑ Tigris and Euphrates
■ Modern-day Iraq
■ Cultural continuum of “fertile
crescent”
■ Sumerians the dominant people
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The Wealth of the Rivers
■ Nutrient-rich silt
■ Key: irrigation❑ Necessity of coordinated efforts
❑ Promoted development of local governments
❑ City-states
■ Sumer begins small-scale irrigation 6000 B.C.E.
■ By 5000 B.C.E., complex irrigation networks❑ Population reaches 100,000 by 3000 B.C.E.
■ Attracts Semitic migrants, influences culture
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Sumerian City-States
■ Cities appear 4000 B.C.E.
■ Dominate region from 3200 to 2350 B.C.E. they
evolve into city-states (control of surrounding
regions)
■ Ziggurat home of the god
❑ Uruk
Attacks by others led to wall building and
military development
Kingships evolve with cooperation of noble
families
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The Ziggurat of Ur
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Political Decline of Sumer
❑ Sargon of Akkad (2370-2315 B.C.E.)
■ Seizes trade routes and natural resources
■ Hammurabi of Babylon (1792-1750 B.C.E.)
❑ Centralizes bureaucracy and regulates taxation
❑ Capital is Babylon
❑ Law Code: law of retribution and importance of social
status
❑ Used local governors to maintain control of city-states
■ Babylonian empire later destroyed by Hittites from Anatolia,
ca. 1595 B.C.E.
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Legal System
■ Code of Hammurabi
■ Established high standards of behavior and stern
punishment for violators
❑ Lex talionis – “law of retaliation”
❑ Social status and punishment
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Later Mesopotamian Empires
■ Assyrians use new iron weaponry
■ Powerful army; professional officers (merit), chariots, archers, iron weapons
■ Unpopular rule leads to rebellions; ends 612 BCE
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Mesopotamian Empires, 1800-600 B.C.E.
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Technological Development in
Mesopotamia
■ Bronze (made from copper and tin), ca. 4000
B.C.E.
❑ Used in weapons and later agricultural tools
■ Iron, ca. 1000 B.C.E.
❑ Cheaper than bronze
■ Wheel helps trade, carts can carry more goods
further 3500 B.C.E.
■ Shipbuilding: maritime trade increases in all
directions
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Social Classes
■ Ruling classes based often on military prowess❑ Perceived as offspring of gods
■ Priests and priestesses rule temple communities with large incomes and staff
■ Free commoners❑ Peasant cultivators
❑ Some urban professionals
■ Slaves❑ Prisoners of war, convicted criminals, debtors
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Patriarchal Society
■ Patriarchy: “rule of the father”
■ Men as landowners, relationship to status
■ Hammurabi’s code: men are head of household
❑ Right to sell wives, children
■ Double standard of sexual morality
❑ Women drowned for adultery
❑ Relaxed sexual mores for men
■ Social mobility for women: Court advisers, temple priestesses,
economic activity
■ Introduction of the veil at least ca. 1500 B.C.E.
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Development of Writing
■ 2900 B.C.E. Sumerians create writing system
■ Cuneiform: “wedge-shaped”
❑ Preservation of documents on clay
❑ Declines from 400 B.C.E. with spread of Greek
alphabetic script
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Uses for Writing
■ Trade
■ Astronomy
■ Mathematics
❑ Agricultural applications
■ Calculation of time: 12-month year, 24-hour day, 60-
minute hour
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Mesopotamian Literature
■ Epic of Gilgamesh, compiled after 2000 B.C.E.
■ Heroic saga
■ Search for meaning, especially the afterlife
■ This-worldly emphasis
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The Early Hebrews
■ Early Hebrews are pastoral nomads between
Mesopotamia and Egypt
■ According to Hebrew scripture, Abraham
migrated to northern Mesopotamia ca. 1850 B.C.E.
■ Parallels between early biblical texts, code of
Hammurabi: law of retribution and flood story
■ King David (1000-970 B.C.E.) and Solomon
(970-930 B.C.E.)
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Moses and Monotheism
■ Twelve tribes become Israelites
■ Moses introduced monotheism, belief in single
god
❑ Denied existence of competing parallel deities
❑ Personal god: reward and punishment for conformity
with revealed law
❑ The Torah (“doctrine or teaching”)
❑ The Ten Commandments: moral and ethical standards
for followers
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Foreign Conquests of Israel
■ Assyrian conquest, 722 B.C.E.
❑ Conquer Israel in north and Judah in south
❑ Deported many inhabitants to other regions
❑ Impact of Diaspora: Jewish race will be blamed for
negative events throughout history
■ Babylonian conquest, 586 B.C.E.
❑ Destroyed Jerusalem
❑ Forced many into exile
❑ Israelites maintained their religious identity and many
returned to Judea
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Israel and Phoenicia, 1500-600 B.C.E.
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The Phoenicians
■ City-states along Mediterranean coast after 3000
B.C.E.
■ Little agriculture; live on trade and
communications networks
■ Sea trade most important; get raw materials, trade
for manufactured goods
■ Extensive maritime trade
❑ Dominated Mediterranean trade, 1200-800 B.C.E.
■ Development of alphabet symbols: Simpler
alternative to cuneiform/foundation for English language
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Indo-European Migrations
■ Common roots of many languages of Europe,
southwest Asia, India
■ Implies influence of a single Indo-European
people
❑ Probable original homeland: modern-day Ukraine and
Russia, 4500-2500 B.C.E.
■ Domestication of horses, use of Sumerian
weaponry allowed them to spread widely
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Indo-European Migrations 3000-1000 B.C.E.
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Implications of Indo-European
Migration Hittites migrate to central Anatolia, ca. 1900 B.C.E., conquer Babylonian empire 1595 BCE
Technology
Horses, chariots with spoked wheels
Iron
Migrations to western China, Greece, Italy also significant
Other migrations: Greece, Italy, central Europe, western Europe, Britain
All pastoral agriculturalists
All speak related languages and worship similar deities
Later wave of migrations to Iran and India (Aryan)
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