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D 2.8
Overview of FEV-related
Current and Upcoming
Standardization
February 8th, 2012
1
This document is a deliverable of the Coordination Action ICT4FEV funded by the European Union in
the framework of the European Green Cars Initiative under the FP7 Grant Agreement Number
260116.
Legal Notice
By the European Commission, Communications Networks, Content & Technology Directorate-
General.
Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on its behalf is responsible for the use which
might be made of the information contained in the present publication.
The European Commission is not responsible for the external web sites referred to in the present
publication.
The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the
official European Commission’s view on the subject.
2
Table of Contents 1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 5
2 Overview of Relevant Standardization Bodies .................................................................. 7
2.1 International Organisations .......................................................................................... 7 2.2 European Organisations .............................................................................................. 8
3 Report on FEV-related Standardization ............................................................................. 9
3.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................... 9 3.2 In-Vehicle Communication ........................................................................................... 9 3.3 Vehicle-to-Grid Communication ................................................................................. 10 3.4 Vehicle-to-vehicle / vehicle-to-infrastructure communication..................................... 13
4 Recommendations on Standardization ............................................................................ 14
4.1 Overview .................................................................................................................... 14 4.2 Technology areas ....................................................................................................... 14
4.2.1 Energy Storage Systems .............................................................................. 14 4.2.2 Drive Train Technologies .............................................................................. 15 4.2.3 Safety regulations on drive-by-wire ............................................................... 16 4.2.4 Vehicle System Integration ........................................................................... 18 4.2.5 Diagnostics in multi-drive power train architecture ....................................... 18 4.2.6 Grid Integration .............................................................................................. 19 4.2.7 Contactless Charging .................................................................................... 20 4.2.8 Transport System Integration ........................................................................ 20 4.2.9 Safety ............................................................................................................ 21 4.2.10 Roadmap with transversal items ................................................................... 21 4.2.11 Isolation in higher / lower voltage domains ................................................... 21
5 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 22
5.1 Industrial Situation in 2025 ......................................................................................... 22 5.2 Adaptation from Conventional Cars towards FEV in 2025 ........................................ 22 5.3 Major Differences in ICT of a FEV from a Conventional Car in 2025 ........................ 22 5.4 Priority Areas for Standardization .............................................................................. 22 5.5 Further Areas with the Need for Standardization ....................................................... 23 5.6 State of European standardization work .................................................................... 23
6 Conclusions and Outlook .................................................................................................. 24
References ................................................................................................................................. 25
Annex – Standardization Roadmaps ICT for the FEV ............................................................ 26
3
List of Acronyms
AC Alternating current
AUTOSAR Automotive Open System Architecture
AV Audio/video
BMS Battery management system
CEN European Committee for Standardization
CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
DC Direct current
ECU Electronic Control Unit
EMC Electro-magnetic compatibility
EMS Energy management system
ESS Energy storage system
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
EV Electric vehicle
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FEV Full electric vehicle
GFCI Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
ICE Internal combustion engine
ICT Information and communications technology
ICT4FEV Information and communications technology for full electric vehicles
ID Identification
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ISO International Organization for Standardization
ITS Intelligent transportation system
ITU-T Information and Telecommunication Union – Telecommunication Standardization
Sector
IVN In-vehicle network
JWG Joint Working Group
JTC Joint Technical Committee
NFC Near-field communication
4
NC National Committee
OSI Open Systems Interconnections
PHY Physical layer
PLC Powerline communication
SAE Society of Automobile Engineers
SOH State of health
SWITCH Selective Wake-able and Interoperable Transceiver in CAN High-speed
TC Technical committee
URL Uniform Resource Locator
V2G Vehicle-to-grid
V2I Vehicle-to-infrastructure
V2V Vehicle-to-vehicle
WAVE Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments
5
1 Introduction
A multitude of standardization activities, related to full electric vehicles (FEV), have already been
implemented, or are currently under way. Some standardization efforts have started in order to
accompany the evolutionary process of conventional (combustion) cars, and long before the
discussion on electro-mobility has received its importance. These efforts led to the start of various
publicly-funded, industrial research and pre-development programmes. Other standardization efforts
are directly connected to the development of FEVs, and result from the fact that the expert community
has already been successfully directed towards electro-mobility, and its technical challenges.
Standardization efforts that were started for conventional cars, and that will obtain a new dimension for
FEV can, for example, be found in the In-Vehicle Networking (IVN) arena with examples, such as
FlexRay and Partial Networking. Standards that are dedicated to FEV, or that will be developed for
FEVs during the next decade, relate to the connection of an FEV to the smart grid via an on-board or
external charger, the FEV technology (e.g. connectivity within battery stacks, energy density
improvement of the battery), the communication technology (e.g. communication protocols, media,
and EMC aspects), the FEV business and commercial model (e.g. battery package and re-usability,
communication with the energy supplier) and the security, privacy, and identification measures (e.g. to
support roaming payment while preserving privacy, and preventing identity theft). Figure 1 shows an
example of an FEV architecture for reference in the remainder of this report.
The charger (AC/DC Converter, shown at the bottom-middle of Figure 1) has a dedicated
communication channel for control to the loading station and energy supplier (both shown only in
Figure 2). The in-vehicle power grid is separated into a 12V domain and a high-voltage domain,
connected by a DC/DC converter. The energy management system of the FEV controls both power
domains. The power train architecture shows four e-motors integrated in the four wheels. The FEV
also has radio and intelligent transportation system (ITS) connectivity to enable communication with
other vehicles on the road, and road-side access points.
The architecture in Figure 1 clearly highlights new requirements for the control and communication
infrastructure (i.e. the IVN) that will become part of the overall energy management system of the
FEV. Standardization of key information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure is
essential to be able to successfully integrate electric vehicles into a smart electricity grid, so that
charge can be exchanged between the grid and the energy management systems of the FEV.
Figure 1 Architecture Example for a full electric vehicle
6
Figure 2 shows an example future smart grid, where power is not only generated by the traditional
fossil and nuclear power plants, but possibly also by concentrated solar power plants, wind farms, and
local or domestic wind mills and solar panels. FEVs may be charged near the home (e.g. private
parking garage) or in public parking places. These scenarios will use slow charging (e.g. 8-10 hours),
allowing them to be connected to the power grid behind the neighbourhood substations. For fast(er)
charging (e.g. 30 minutes) at road-side charging stations, higher currents and voltages need to be
available, which will need to be delivered directly from the transformers in the medium voltage
distribution grid, to prevent unnecessary conversion losses. The smart grid will use ICT to match the
supply of power as much as possible with the demand. Note that in Figure 2 there are more producers
and these are more distributed than in a traditional grid, where the production of electricity is largely
concentrated in the power plants. To be able to have all parties in this smart grid work effectively and
efficiently together, standardization of their interaction will be a key.
An important source of information on completed, on-going and required, but missing standardization
activities that are directly related to the FEV is the recently released “Standardization for road vehicles
and associated infrastructure” report by the CEN/CENELEC Focus Group on European Electro-
Mobility [1]. In the following, the recommendations given within the CEN/CENELEC-report are
analyzed and related to the standardization items defined in the ICT for FEV roadmaps described in
the deliverable D3.2 [2].
Figure 2 Charging locations of FEVs in a smart grid
7
2 Overview of Relevant Standardization Bodies
2.1 International Organisations
ISO - International Organization for Standardization
Within the non-governmental organization ISO, 162 countries are represented by their national
standardizations institutes. Many of the member institutes of the ISO are integrated into their national
government. Other members, however, have been set up by industry associations. Thus, the ISO
forms a bridge between the public and private sectors regarding standardizations and aims to meet
the needs of both.
URL: http://www.iso.org/iso/home.html
IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission
The IEC is a non-profit, non-governmental international standards organization that targets electrical,
electronic and related technologies. Its members are National Committees (NCs) of which only one
per country is permitted. The structure of each committee varies per country, but in each country
should involve all relevant stakeholders.
URL: http://www.iec.ch/index.htm
IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
The IEEE is the world’s largest professional association dedicated to advancing technological
innovation and excellence. The IEEE and its members write highly cited publications, organize
conferences, create technology standards, and provide professional and educational activities.
URL: http://www.ieee.org
ITU-T – Information and Telecommunication Union – Telecommunication Standardization
Sector
The ITU is the agency for information and communication technologies of the United Nations. The ITU
aims to improve access to ICTs to especially underserved communities worldwide, to allocate global
radio spectrum and satellite orbits, and to develop technical standards for the seamless
interconnection of networks and technologies. The latter functions are performed by the
Telecommunication Standardizations Sector.
URL: http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/
Joint Working Groups/Joint Technical Committees – JWG/JTC
The three international standardization institutes ISO, IEC and ITU-T work closely work together to
provide globally applicable standards particularly in fields that thematically overlap. Joint Working
groups and Joint Technical Committees were installed between the ISO and the IEC to ensure this
cooperation. The standardization work concerning electric vehicles is such a horizontal topic. The
standardization efforts regarding the vehicle mainly concern the ISO, while the connection to the grid
is a mutual topic of the ISO and the IEC. A respective agreement for cooperation was made in
February 2011.
URL: http://www.iso.org/iso/pressrelease.htm?refid=Ref1402
SAE International - Society of Automotive Engineers
The SAE International is a global association of more than 128,000 engineers and related technical
experts in the aerospace, automotive and commercial-vehicle industries. One of its core competencies
is the development of voluntary consensus standards for the vehicle mobility industry.
URL: http://www.sae.org/
8
2.2 European Organisations
CEN – European Committee for Standardization
The CEN provides a platform for the development of European Standards and other technical
specifications. Its members are technical experts, business federations, consumers and other societal
interest organizations. The CEN is the only recognized European standardization organization in all
areas of economic activity with the exception of electrotechnology (CENELEC) and telecommunication
(ETSI). It cooperates with the ISO to ensure global standards in Europe.
URL: http://www.cen.eu/cen/Pages/default.aspx
CENELEC – European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
The CENELEC prepares voluntary standards in the electrical engineering field and hereby adopts
international standards when possible in close collaboration with the IEC. 31 countries are members of
CENELEC and additionally 12 affiliates from Eastern Europe, the Balkans, Northern Africa and the
Middle-East participate.
URL: http://www.cenelec.eu/index.html
ETSI - European Telecommunications Standards Institute
The ETSI produces globally-applicable as well as harmonized European standards for Information and
Communications Technologies. More than 700 member organizations from 62 countries across five
continents world-wide participate in the work of ETSI. Among them are the world’s leading telecom
companies.
URL: http://www.etsi.org/WebSite/homepage.aspx
CEN/CENELEC Focus Group Electric Vehicle
The CEN/CENELEC focus group Electric Vehicle has been installed to ensure that international
standards that are being developed also meet European needs. It considers European requirements
relating to electric vehicle standardization, and assessing ways to address them. This focus group is
built up from members of the CEN and the CENELEC, the European Federations, and the European
Commission. They are supported by the chairmen and secretaries of the relevant technical
committees from the CEN, the CENELEC, the ISO and the IEC. Recently, a related report
concentrating on charging issues was published by this focus group. The establishment of an Electric
Mobility Co-ordination Group is recommended in this report.
URL: http://www.cenelec.eu/aboutcenelec/whatwedo/technologysectors/electricvehicles.html
9
3 Report on FEV-related Standardization
3.1 Overview
In this chapter, we present several standards concerning ICT for automotive applications and discuss
their relevance for the FEV. These standards include the in-vehicle communication (Section 3.2), the
vehicle-to-grid communication (Section 3.3) and vehicle-to-vehicle / vehicle-to-infrastructure
communication (Section 3.4), including security, and privacy aspects. Please note that this chapter is
intended to only show examples of the often multi-disciplinary nature of standardization required to
support ICT for FEVs. This chapter does not claim completeness.
3.2 In-Vehicle Communication
FlexRay - ISO 17458 1-6, New Working Proposal
FlexRay [3] has been standardized in the FlexRay Consortium where module makers, car makers, as
well as semiconductor suppliers are organized. FlexRay technology is available on the market for
years, and has been successfully incorporated in new car platforms. The first platform to adopt
FlexRay was the BMW X5, and others have followed. The FlexRay Consortium concluded its work by
the end of 2010 with version 3 of the physical and protocol specifications, and transferred its working
results to the ISO. After a vote in 2011, the ISO accepted the New Working Proposal and will take up
the work on FlexRay in the second half of 2011.
Why is FlexRay important for FEV?
With a bandwidth up to 10 Mbit/s and real-time characteristics, the FlexRay bus system is used (will
be used) for time-critical control systems that are spread across the vehicle. As an example for a
conventional car, in the BMW X5 platform FlexRay is used for the suspension control system where
sensors and actuators are in or near the four wheels. A central control unit orchestrates these four
suspension units. A similar scenario can be sketched as an example in an FEV where the power train
may consist of four separated drives that are integrated in the wheels. Needless to say that the
communication of the central control unit with all four drives is safety relevant. Figure 1 shows an
example of a FEV architecture where in each wheel one e-motor is integrated as well as the
suspension unit.
Partial Networking – ISO 11898/6, New Working Proposal
The New Working Proposal on Partial Networking has been accepted by the ISO, and work was
started in June 2011. It is planned to create an addendum for the existing ISO 11898/1-5 standard.
This extension will consist of the specification of the mechanism itself and certification tests. The
proposal originated from a specification by the SWITCH1
group. German car makers initiated the
SWITCH interest group. Further OEMs and semiconductor vendors joined. The SWITCH group
created a specification that describes a new wake-up mechanism that allows switching on/off parts of
the IVN during operation in the 2nd
half of 2010. As an example, the car on the left-hand side in Figure
3 shows that all ECUs are switched on (green box with the arrow pointing right), while the car on the
right-hand side of Figure 3 indicates that some ECUs have been switched off (grey box with the arrow
pointing left) in order to reduce the overall power consumption of the vehicle. In today’s cars, the IVN
is either completely switched on or off. Examples for good candidates to apply this Partial Networking
technique to are the applications seat heating, the trunk lifter, and the sunroof.
1
Selective Wake-able and Interoperable Transceiver in CAN High-speed
10
The motivation behind the SWITCH proposal is the increasing energy demands resulting from more
electronic content in a car. Recently, the CO2 tax has been introduced. As a rule of thumb, car makers
expect to save 100W by applying Partial Networking. This is around 2.5g CO2/km, which corresponds
with a tax saving of about 250 € when exceeding a CO2 limit. The EU will even reduce the CO2 limit
over the next years.
The AUTOSAR specifications [4] is a mutual reference software / architecture platform for module and
car makers. The next release of the AUTOSAR specifications will contain a driver for Partial
Networking, so that we can soon expect to see Partial Networking implemented in new vehicles.
Why is Partial Networking and AUTOSAR important for FEV?
While partial networking within the conventional car is an effective means to manage the CO2
emission level, within the FEV this technique has to become part of the overall energy management
system, as the efficiency of the FEV energy management system directly affects its operation range.
3.3 Vehicle-to-Grid Communication
Vehicle-to-grid communication includes all aspects concerning the efficient charging of FEVs from the
power grid. Figure 4 shows a step-wise example of the communication between an EV and (road-side)
charging station at the beginning of a charge cycle.
IEC and ISO standardization
A number of IEC and ISO standards are related to the connectivity of an EV to a charging station or
outlet, and its subsequent charging using the electricity grid. These are:
Figure 3 Comparison of vehicle without (left) and with (right) partial networking functionality
Figure 4 Example vehicle-to-grid communication
11
The IEC 61851-XX standards on electric vehicle conductive charging systems, particularly Part 1
with general requirements, Part 21 with EV requirements for a conductive connection to an AC/DC
supply, Part 22 for an AC EV charging station, and Part 23 for an DC EV charging station.
The IEC 62196-X standards on plugs, socket outlets, vehicle couplers and vehicle inlets for the
conductive charging of electric vehicles, particularly Part 1 with general requirements, and Part 2
with dimensional interchange-ability requirements.
The IEC 62196 documents standardize a set of electrical connectors, and four associated EV
charging modes. This standard in itself does not specify any physical connectors, but instead
refers to the IEC 61851 standard (see above). Specific to EV charging is the implementation of a
so-called pilot function. This pilot function serves three purposes: (1) the verification of a proper,
correct connection between charge station and electric vehicle, (2) a powerless mode when no EV
is present in which no power is present on the connector, and (3) the immobilization of an EV
when connected, to prevent the EV from being driven away while charging. These standards also
define four modes of charging:
Mode 1: a non-dedicated outlet, where earthing and Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters
(GFCI) are essential for safety.
Mode 2: A non-dedicated outlet with an in-cable protection device, which implements the
pilot function.
Mode 3: a dedicated outlet for EV charging, with protection via the control pilot function.
Mode 4: a D.C. connection with a stationary charger.
Examples of standardized connectors are:
the Yazaki connector in Northern America (standardized in SAE J1772),
the CHAdeMO connector in Japan,
the Mennekes connector in Europe (standardized in VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2),
the Framatome plug by Électricité de France,
the Scame plug in Italy, and
the CEEplus plugs in Switzerland.
The ISO/IEC 15118 standardizes communication protocols between electric vehicles and the grid,
particularly Part 1 on definitions and use-cases, Part 2 on sequence diagrams and communication
layers, and Part 3 on power-line communication (PLC) technology and associated timings. This
initiative is also called “Home-plug Green PHY”. Part 1 of this standard is similar to the SAE J2836
documents, Part 2 to the SAE J2847 documents, and Part 3 to the SAE J2931 documents. The
scope of the ISO/IEC 15118 standard is also shown in Figure 5 in relation to the OSI layers [5].In
this figure we see that the ISO/IEC 15118 standard addresses the different parts in the
communication stack, from the physical media layer at the bottom, to the application layer at the
top.
12
IEEE power-line communication standardization The IEEE P1901.2 working group is also working on a PLC standard. This standard specifies
communications for low frequency (less than 500 kHz) narrowband power-line devices via AC and DC
electric power lines. Here, e-charging is taken as an application target. This is in contrast to the above
PLC standardization, where the push is for the Home-plug Green PHY. Experts expect that two
standards need to be developed for e-charging:
1. PLC narrowband communication (e.g. IEEE p1901.2) between a power supplier (e.g.
Vattenfall or RWE), and the charging station in the street. This connection is for the smart grid,
making sure that the FEV battery will be charged in a convenient moment from a grid
exploitation point-of-view. The IEEE P1901.2 is a narrow-band standard, including Physical
Layer and Medium Access Control, utilizing the FCC band between 10 and 490 kHz. There
are plans to use bands for CENELEC-A between 35.938 and 90.625 kHz, for CENELEC-B
between 98.4375 and 121.875 kHz, and FEV charging communication between 145.3 and
478.125 kHz.
2. PLC narrow-band or broad-band communication between the charging station in the street
and the FEV. This connection is used to manage the load demand from the FEV towards the
grid.
The data rates in the IEEE 1901 standard will be scalable to 500 kbps depending on the application
requirements. This standard addresses grid to utility meter, electric vehicle to charging station, and
within home area networking communications scenarios.
The IEEE p1901 standardization group keeps the option open to include lighting and solar panel
power-line communications as part of this communications standard at a later stage. It is important to
note that the standard also intends to address the necessary security requirements that assure
communication privacy and allow use for security sensitive services.
Why is vehicle-to-grid communication important for FEV?
Bidirectional communication between the charging station and the FEV allows the smart grid to
choose the appropriate time to charge the EV’s battery, depending on the power demand and power
supply. Users may be able to enter information regarding their end of charge time and desired
mileage, while the smart grid may additionally take the available time, availability of renewable energy
resources (e.g. solar or wind), price, and grid load into account. Additionally, options are considered to
allow an EV battery to be discharged via the smart grid, in times of other, large power demands on the
grid (i.e. during start-of-industry/business hours).
Figure 5 ISO 15118 in relation to the seven layers of the OSI model [5].
13
3.4 Vehicle-to-vehicle / vehicle-to-infrastructure communication
The IEEE 802.11p standard is an approved amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard, targeted
specifically at the automotive industry by adding wireless access in vehicular environments (WAVE).
IEEE 802.11p defines enhancements to the IEEE 802.11 standard, required to support Intelligent
Transportation System (ITS) applications, allowing wireless, bi-directional communication between
vehicles, and between vehicles and road-side access points. An example of this is shown in Figure 6.
In Europe, this communication takes place in the 5.9 GHz band. The intention is to be, as much as
possible, compatible with the frequencies in the USA to allow reuse of the same hardware.
The primary use-case for the IEEE 802.11p standard is for safety-related communication among
vehicles, and between vehicles and road-side access points. Alternative use-cases include reducing
the fuel consumption of internal combustion engines (ICE) and electric vehicles, and providing driver
conveniences (such as over-the-air navigation map updates).
The IEEE 1609.2 standard describes security services for applications and management messages,
including requirements on how the communication security is handled in the IEEE 802.11p and IEEE
1609 standards. The requirements include encryption standards and protocols to be used, e.g. Elliptic
Curve Cryptography for identification and authentication, AES encryption for data transfer, and SHA-
based hashing for the message authentication code. This standard also specifies requirements on
secure storage (e.g. the minimum number of storable certificates) and other resources.
Why is vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure communication important for FEV?
Vehicle-to-vehicle communication can do more than improve the driver safety alone. It can also be
used to improve the driving efficiency, and thereby for FEVs increase the range that can be travelled
on a single battery charge. Example means to improve this efficiency are improving the road utilization
through shock wave damping, cancelling out unnecessary acceleration and deceleration, and offering
speed advisories and alternative routes.
Security, and closely-related authentication, in vehicle-to-vehicle communication are essential
complementary functions that allow individual vehicles to validate incoming messages from other
vehicles or from road-side access points before acting upon them.
Figure 6 Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication
14
4 Recommendations on Standardization
4.1 Overview
The CEN/CENELEC Focus Group “European Electro-mobility” has been given a standardization
mandate concerning the charging of electric vehicles (M/468) by the European Commission. The
report “Standardization for road vehicles and associated infrastructure” [1] was then published in 2012
As mentioned in Chapter 1, in this section we discuss the standardization related items given in the
ICT for the FEV Roadmap setting them into the context of already existing standardization regulations
and giving recommendations on possible future approaches. For reference, the standardization items
of the ICT for the FEV roadmap can be found in the Annex.
When talking to experts, the framework for future standardization is at first glance seen in the areas of
o Standardization of the battery cells, the modules, and the packs to drive the costs down, while
maintaining safety (e.g. during manufacturing and after a vehicle collision)
o Standardization of the battery business model: if users rent the battery (outsourcing charging),
this requires standard connections to the charging infrastructure, the battery pack, and an
appropriate commercial model.
o Charging plug standards
o Need for data security and privacy when communication to the grid and vehicle-to-vehicle
o Identification and authentication to permit e.g. roaming charging.
The CEN/CENELEC Focus Group in Recommendation 13.6 assigns priority to:
o safety of charging installations
o plug-in interoperability
o EMC provisions for charging station and vehicle
o communication protocols for V2G
o and quick battery exchange (as soon as reference dimensions are available)
The ICT4FEV project members went a step further, and integrated into the roadmap ICT for the FEV
standardization items, related to ICT in the six technology areas already defined in the Electrification
roadmap, plus one roadmap containing transversal items [2]. The following subsections describe the
standardization framework per technology area, and the link to the recommendations presented in the
report from the CEN/CENELEC focus group. Numbered recommendations refer to the
recommendations provided in [1].
4.2 Technology areas
4.2.1 Energy Storage Systems
The ICT challenges for the energy storage system (ESS) in EVs can be partitioned into two phases:
one phase being during fabrication and battery assembly, and one phase post-fabrication during
operation in the field.
During the battery manufacturing and assembly processes, it is required that an identification tag (ID)
is associated with each (removable) part and component, so that it can be tracked during its lifetime.
Recommendation 11.5 from [1] advises that “ID should [in particular] be considered for each
part/component that can be physically removed from the battery pack without destroying it.” When
batteries are subsequently swapped at a road-side charging station, it is possible (1) to determine
which parts exactly were exchanged, and (2) to authenticate the new battery (parts) as genuine
item(s), preventing a black-market of sub-standard components. An additional requirement in the
manufacturing and assembly process is the thorough evaluation and testing of the batteries, to assess
and ensure their lifetime reliability before deployment.
15
To lower the cost of manufacturing a car battery, Recommendation 11.2 advocates the
standardization of battery component sizes, physical interface, and form factor when this topic is
mature enough. With the standardization of battery components comes the opportunity to also
standardize their interfaces to the rest of the Battery Management System (BMS) / EMS as well. This
standardization may include reusing existing electrical interfaces that are currently in use to monitor
the battery cells, e.g., in laptop batteries and mobile phones. In today’s battery, the battery cells
themselves make up the largest part of the cost of a car battery. It is expected that the relative cost of
a battery cell, compared to the overall battery cost will go down in the future, with the on-going
advances in battery cell chemistries, their manufacturing processes, and the standardization of their
interfaces and form factors. To prevent the electronics in a battery pack to become the dominant cost
factor of a car battery in the future, these electronics need to go through a similar cost-down as well.
Standardization enables and encourages competition, and thereby a required cost-down of the overall
battery solution compared to the price levels today.
In operation, these standardized electrical interfaces and IDs can also be used by the BMS/EMS to
associate important state of health (SOH), state of charge (SOC), and state of function (SOF)
parameters to individual battery parts. More research, among others on battery cell and pack
modelling, is needed to accurately calculate and predict a battery’s state of health based on the
physical parameters that can be measured (e.g., cell voltages, currents, resistances and temperatures
both instantaneously and over a period of time), and the consequences of different charging
scenarios, e.g., slow or fast charging. Recommendation 11.1 states that the SOH is an important
battery management parameter that requires constant monitoring. The ability to determine the SOH of
a battery is crucial to enable the second-hand use of car batteries. It would seem impossible to
accurately assess and gain customer acceptance of the resale value of a car battery without being
able to determine its SOH.
Additionally, Recommendation 11.3 promotes the standardization of a minimum set of battery
information parameters that can be extracted and stored from the battery by the EES. This information
can be used to balance the charge stored in the battery cells, thereby extending the effective range of
the EV. Information on battery usage may be of great help to boost innovation, however externally
storing this information may cause privacy concerns. Recommendation 11.3 also recommends
establishing guidelines on how to handle such data, respecting its potential private nature.
In general, a new battery technology underlies a development period of approximately twenty years.
This is a long interval and meanwhile the focus needs to remain on the current technology and the
standardization that has to be taken to further safeguard the current battery technology’s lifecycle.
4.2.2 Drive Train Technologies
Required drive train technologies for FEVs include the (in-wheel) electric motors, supplemented with a
possible range extender (i.e. a traditional combustion engine coupled in series or in parallel to the
electric motors), their power and communication connectivity, and controlling embedded control units
(ECUs). The drive train permits among others smart and robust traction control, and regenerative
braking. It is important to properly analyze the critical failure modes for such a complex system, which
includes highly-integrated ECUs. One key component in such an analysis is to understand, and
properly regulate the electro-magnetic compatibility (EMC) limits and associated tests for electric drive
trains. The proliferation of electronic devices inside the vehicle, from AV equipment (e.g. mobile
phones and small TV entertainment sets), to built-in electronics for safety, comfort, and EV control,
(e.g. a lane departure warning system, power steering and/or drive-by-wire, battery chargers, and
DC/DC converters), requires careful alignment and legislation on this topic. Proper modeling and
subsequent analysis will be necessary to better understand the noise floor levels these new devices
introduce inside the vehicle, and to provide guarantees on the interoperability of such a complex set of
electronic devices in the relatively confined space of an EV. The assembly and connectivity of
16
photovoltaic cells (e.g. for EV charging based on renewable solar energy) presents a new challenge
that will have to be investigated and, when mature, standardized as well.
To emphasize the importance of EMC for the EV, the CEN/CENELEC Focus Group dedicates an
entire chapter (Chapter 12 [1]) to on-going and required standardization and testing on this topic. It is,
for instance, considered key that the electrical industry is represented in the relevant standardization
bodies (Recommendations 12.1 and 12.3), that the “current status of the electric vehicle,
communications and power distribution technologies” is taken into account when updating the EMC
requirements (Recommendation 12.4), and that the regulatory framework and unifying testing
methods should be complete(d), but also kept as simple as possible (Recommendations 12.2, 12.7,
12.8, 12.9, and 12.10).
4.2.3 Safety regulations on drive-by-wire
Safety regulations for Drive-by-Wire
Many International Standards and Requirements concerning safety aspects for electrical vehicles
already exist, e.g. for regenerative braking, vehicle charging, batteries, etc.
In the European Artemis Project ‘Pollux’; Process Oriented Electronic Control Units for Electric
Vehicles, requirements and available standards have been summarized. Pollux documents are
referring to ISO26262, ISO6469/R100 R.13 rev. 6, ISO 6469-1 and other standards.
The following steps have been worked out in the frame of Pollux – where some parts have probably
potential to be standardized.
Hazard analysis & Risk assessment
Hazards are potential sources of harm. Hazards are identified by combining the potential malfunction
behavior and the operational situation of the vehicle.
Hazard classification
The identified hazards are classified regarding the Severity, the Exposure and the Controllability.
Safety Goals definition
For each hazard which has been rated (Risk Rating) as ASIL A, B, C or D, a safety goal must be
formulated. A “safety goal” is defined as a top-level safety requirement as a result of the hazard
analysis and risk assessment. The negation of a safety goal leads to the top event of further safety
analyses (e.g. FTA, FMEA).
The following table structure was used to summarize critical hazards and their exemplary Risk Rating
(ASIL C or D); complete list is available in Pollux documents.
17
Function/
Subfunction
Sub-function Guide
word
Malfunction/
Failure mode
Situations/
Modes
Hazard Impact S E C Risk
rating
Safety Goal Safe state
eDrive Acceleration NO No
Acceleration
/ Loss of one
eMotor
All driving
situations
(Partial)
Loss of
vehicle
control
S3 E4 C2 C avoid loss of only one
eMotor
all eMotors per axis must
have the same torque
eDrive Acceleration UNINTE
NDED
Unintended
Acceleration
curves with
high lateral
dynamics
(main road)
(Partial)
Loss of
vehicle
control
S3 E3 C3 C Avoid unintended vehicle
acceleration.
No engine power
… … … … …. …. … … … .. … …
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The hazard analysis & risk assessment process aimed at identifying and classifying critical hazards
that may typically arise in drive-by-wire systems due to potential malfunctional behavior during the
operational modes of the vehicle.
The concentration was on the driving- and non-driving functionality (e.g. charging) of the vehicle.
A high level approach was taken by looking at the vehicle from a global system viewpoint without
going into sub-system details. This is finally implementation specific and up to OEM’s and Tier1’s
respectively.
The identified hazards and the related safety goals detected within this hazard analysis and risk
assessment are guidelines only and are meant as starting point for the development. The hazard
analysis and risk assessment of developments have to be performed based on the actual functions.
Furthermore they have to be further derived to safety requirements and taken into account during the
system development, either as technical solutions realized in the components or as specific
development and operation guidelines (including a specific testing program).
Standardizations to be considered
For further standardizations, it should be considered to define guidelines for those steps in this
process that are common and not implementation specific. For example, it is worthwhile to summarize
all possible malfunctions inclusive safety goal as a kind of starting point for every Electrical Vehicle
manufacturers. This would support the ‘safety culture’ in all companies that are involved in functional
safety development for electrical vehicles.
4.2.4 Vehicle System Integration
The complexity of the drive train architecture in future electric vehicles warrants research and
development of a robust diagnostics approach, supporting the proper diagnosis of vehicle faults that
may develop during its operation out in the field. A communication standard for the FEV Energy
Management System and its associated components (e.g. smart navigation eCharger, power train,
and vehicle safety module) is needed for this. Recommendation 10.5 states a need to standardize “the
diagnosis protocol, human-machine and energy management system for the complete charging
system”.
Recommendation 11.8 advices standardization to permit the easy exchange of empty batteries with
full batteries in road-side stations. This also presumes underlying standards (Recommendation 11.9)
concerning the safety of switching high-voltage batteries, energy needs, battery exchangeability,
battery pack accessibility, and their data and communication framework, as different vehicle models
may require different battery packs with different dimensions, mechanical fixation points, and electrical
and communication connectors, interfaces, and protocols.
4.2.5 Diagnostics in multi-drive power train architecture
Many recommendations have already been given by CEN/CENELEC [1] in chapter 4.1.4
“Recommendations Concerning Communication” on the data security in diagnostics and, here, the link
to ISO TC22/WG03 standardization. Also the ISO working group TC22/WG01 has made fundamental
work in the area of “diagnosis” and has paved the way to future electrical vehicles to a good extend. In
some paths, the link to SAE has been set.
There are three elements to diagnostics and identified by the expert community: data formats and
codes, transmission channels, and security. While the future electrical vehicle might mainly focus on
high-speed diagnosis and a mix of wired and wireless connection, IP based communication and
security are anticipated as key elements in future diagnosis.
19
The ISO13400 “Diagnosis over IP” and ISO15764 “Data Link Security/Electronic Certificate” are the
standardization activities with most relevance with future aspects. In ISO13400, various documents
has been shared between the standardization partners but are not public, yet. Recent approved
activity is Part5 (Conformance test) with “Diagnostic communication between test equipment and
vehicle over Internet Protocol”. Status is differently with ISO15764. This activity is “dormant” and last
deliverables seven years old and a re-fresh of the considerations is recommended by the editing
experts of this document.
The following gives a summary of the explicit ISO activities:
ISO 15031 Road Vehicles - Communication btw vehicle and equipment for emission related
diagnostics; the task force links to SAEJ1978 and SAEJ1699-2, status is periodic review
ISO 14229 Unified Diagnostic Services over CAN, K-Line, FlexRay, LIN; IP
ISO 15765 Diagnostics on CAN address range extension under development; this links to future
needs of embedded systems
ISO 27145 Road vehicles – diagnostics for trucks
ISO15764 Diagnostics over IP, dormant since 2004
While many activities have already been taken up, the interconnection to the future embedded
systems in a vehicle has been not clearly expressed in standardization. Recommended is to focus on
this.
4.2.6 Grid Integration
Most of the ICT-related recommendations by the CEN/CENELEC Focus Group have to do with the
integration of electric vehicles in the power grid itself. In addition, the importance is stressed of the
roles that the different standardization bodies, as mentioned in Chapter 2, either currently play, or will
have to play to help establish standards concerning grid integration.
To accomplish standardization in this domain, many existing technical committees within the
standardization bodies, described in Chapter 2, will have to work together. Recommendation 7.1
stresses the importance to address “all aspects of reverse energy flow (safety and control)” in the
related committees IEC TC 64 (safety) and TC 57 (smart grid) CEN TC 301 (vehicle aspects) and
other relevant TCs. Recommendations 8.3 and 10.3 recommend the definition of a standard connector
footprint with seven contacts (five power, and two auxiliary for control), possibly to be standardized in
future EN 61851-1 and EN 62196-2 standards. Recommendation 10.1 takes this definition one step
further and encourages a “harmonized and interoperable link between the different communication
standards for electro-mobility, security, safety and ITS. Co-operation on data communication and data
security - between EV, smart grid and ITS, is needed”. If a wireless or contactless charging approach
is required instead of a wired connection then additional regulations and limits will have to be set for
those solutions as well.
The mass adoption of FEVs will require not only a standardized EV connection to the power grid, it will
also require smart(er) charging coordination (Recommendation 9.1), as the domestic power grids have
not been dimensioned to accommodate the additional load imposed when all EVs would charge at the
20
same time at home. Re-dimensioning these grids requires a significant capital investment, making this
unlikely to occur in the short term. As such, the demand for EV charge and its supply from the power
plants has to be coordinated and matched through a next generation car-to-grid communication
infrastructure, which can help balance the load on the power grid, by charging EVs when the energy
demand is low, e.g. outside of office hours, and/or when the energy supply is high, e.g. with
concentrated solar plants on a sunny day. To accomplish this next generation communication
infrastructure within Europe, it is of importance to also “analyze regional regulation on grid connections
relative to perturbations” (Recommendation 12.11).
Allowing the EV drivers the ability to connect their EV everywhere, and charge their car in a smart way
is a significant step towards addressing their range anxiety, however, additional support for secure
roaming payment is still required. As with bank and credit cards in shops today, (internal or external)
EV chargers will have to be equipped with the functionality to uniquely identify the driver and remotely
charge not only the EV, but also his or her back account for the correct amount due. Recommendation
10.2 mentions this importance to offering data security in addition to traditional data communication.
As the EV domain is still a domain in which a lot of research and development is taking place at this
point in time, Recommendation 7.24 points out that “Additional requirements for charging
specifications and testing procedures have to be discussed and agreed based on experience gained
in the ongoing development process and demonstration projects and have to be brought into
amendments”.
4.2.7 Contactless Charging
4.2.8 Transport System Integration
One roadblock that is often stated for the mass adoption of FEVs is the range anxiety a driver may
experience while on the road. Range anxiety is said to be experienced by a driver, when he or she
observes that it may not be possible to reach the destination with the remaining charge in the car
battery. To prevent this negative experience, existing and next generation solutions are needed to
navigate an EV to the nearest charge points along the route to the destination, and/or navigate the EV
around terrain features that may disproportionately drain the car battery (e.g. hills and mountains).
Besides solving the range anxiety problem individually per car, vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V)
communication technology offers the possibility of saving energy by avoiding unnecessary
acceleration and deceleration on highways (e.g. avoiding unnecessary traffic jams) and inner-city
traffic (e.g. supporting green waves between pairs of traffic lights). These systems may obtain the
information to perform their task via a number of different communication protocols and media. One
such means may be a dedicated built-in GSM module, or Near-Field Communication (NFC) for
accessing a mobile phone’s GSM link to connect to services outside the car. When establishing and
using V2V and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) functionality, it is important to ensure the authenticity of
the messages received. Otherwise, it is not possible to prevent unauthorized entities from sending
messages to individual vehicles, and potentially causing (fatal) accidents. Hence, proper security on
these channels is essential. Recommendation 10.6 mentions an “interoperability hub”, which can
mediate between parties “to provide validation services for [the] exchange of technical information,
contract relations or security certificates”. Recommendation 10.7 adds the creation of “a security
architecture” for the interoperability hub and security issues for communication between charging
system and electric vehicles.
21
4.2.9 Safety
The safety measures concerning an EV range from preventing the driver from ever coming into
contact with the high-voltage internal power grid, to ensuring that the otherwise quiet EV can be heard
in areas where, in particular, pedestrians and bicyclist are present. For functional safety, the standard
addendum to ISO26262 with implementation guidelines for EV [6] can be used. For autonomous
driving, additional safety regulations will have to be put into place.
The CEN/CENELEC focus group adds, in Recommendation 11.10, that “appropriate measures should
be taken to improve emergency services awareness with respect to eventual battery hazards caused
by the use of EVs (mechanical impact to batteries, batteries’ exposure to water or fire).” Autonomous
driving requires foremost legislation and the solving of liability issues.
4.2.10 Roadmap with transversal items
The CEN/CENELEC Focus Group has a number of recommendations that transverse all previously
described technology areas. First and perhaps foremost, Recommendations 4.1 and 10.4 advise the
creation of one or more co-ordination groups for the standardization of aspects that go beyond the
individual charter of the standardization bodies, introduced in Chapter 2, and where applicable, should
also include market stakeholders. Important to note here is that these aspects also include any
regulations for the reliability and manufacturing tests for the extended lifecycle of FEV Components
4.2.11 Isolation in higher / lower voltage domains
As shown in Figure 1 Architecture Example for a full electric vehicle” and discussed there, FEV will
have to maintain different voltage domains in its system. Investigating on the standardization situation,
we encountered a vacuum especially in the lower voltage area where especially micro hybrids are
positioned and the introduction of recuperation system at a voltage level of 48V takes place. This is
seen as part of milestone 1 in the electrification roadmap [2]. Moreover, we have discussions in the
expert world to raise the level of voltage that is seen harmful for human beings, ICT4FEV sees this as
an interim discussion underpinning the fact of standardization need in the lower voltage region.
ICT4FEV chose the separation into levels for “human protection”, “functional safety” and level between
as proposed inTable 1. Note that there is a lot of application know-how already in the industrial sector.
Table 1 Separation of FEV Voltage Levels
Regulator VoltageLevel
Application Ambition
UL1577IEC61010
2500V HV Domain SeparationSecurity and ProtectionAll Plug-in Auto Apps
85% Industrial Apps
Human Protection andSecurity in Operation and Critical Situations
UL1577IEC61010
<1000V InverterNon line socketsBattery Mgmt 20%
80-85% Auto AppsFew Industrial Apps
Human Protection and SecurityFunctional Safety
? 200V Noise reductionBattery Mgmt 80%Recuperation12V/48V Board NetManaging different Grounds
Functional Safety
22
5 Summary
5.1 Industrial Situation in 2025
How will the world look like with the 3rd generation EVs? Following industrial situation is anticipated:
More complex grid with more energy sources (e.g. wind farms on top of fossil and nuclear plants)
Two communication lines needed of different bandwidth from vehicle to grid (charger, supplier)
Information from car2grid goes through several hands of different actors
Security is a main topic and industry engages several means to safeguard billing/payment
Tagged car modules enable to follow through its lifecycles and to secure against counterfeits
Prominent example are high-density batteries or removable components attached to it
Business models for batteries are established, to lease or battery exchange stations are set
Vehicle connects to the infrastructures via wired, wireless, stationary, or hand-held devices
5.2 Adaptation from Conventional Cars towards FEV in 2025
Building on standardization that already today develop, the usage and perspective when applying to
FEV may change, first example is in the area of in-vehicle control networks:
FlexRay (ISO10681) to control four-wheel engine drive, Partial Networking (ISO11898) as means
to control energy flow, Auto Ethernet as backbone to connect various types of sub-networks
Cars connect today via diagnostic interfaces (ISO15031, 15765, 13209), trend are communication
in car2car/infrastructure via wired, wireless as well as recently considered light (laser)
Adding wireless access in vehicular environments defines enhancements to existing (IEEE
802.11) standard and is required to support Intelligent Transportation System applications
ECUs belong to different voltage domains and ICT has to bridge domain boundaries without loss
in time and function, e.g. energy management controls energy flow amongst all components
5.3 Major Differences in ICT of a FEV from a Conventional Car in 2025
Exchange of data via internet or phone is today a download of entertainment and telematics data
and will change to the exchange of essential data for comfort and safety performance
This allows wireless safety-related communication between cars and road-side access points
The ICT system in the car is more complex and has to support higher number of operational
modes: charging, parking (regular battery checks), collision monitoring, drive, and recuperation
Range anxiety brings next system generations of traffic management and navigation into the car
Home entertainment and office systems exchange information with the car and vice versa
Sensibility of EMC increases because of charger (especially fast charger), power steering, DC/DC
converter, radar, etc; not known disturbance patterns on the communication appear in the car
5.4 Priority Areas for Standardization
Following priority areas have been filtered out in various expert discussions and study of the results of
the CEN/CENELEC focus team “electro mobility”, especially the recommendation 13.6:
Standardization of battery cells, modules, and packs as well as information tracked over lifetime
Standardization of the battery business model, standard connections to charging infrastructure
Standardization of charging plug standards across nations and regions
Standardization of data security and privacy in car2car and car2grid communication
Standardization of identification and authentication to permit e.g. roaming charging
Standardization of EMC limits for new FEV platforms designed for low emission and high immunity
23
5.5 Further Areas with the Need for Standardization
Ease the system of standardization body for effectiveness; the in this document listed for Europe
important standardization bodies counts up to 9, and there are more; continuous work throughout
entire FEV roadmap to clear overlap and remain focus
Summarize possible malfunctions inclusive safety goal as a starting point for each electrical
vehicle manufacturer in order to prepare for the 3rd generation of FEV
A robust diagnostics approach, supporting the proper diagnosis of vehicle faults that may develop
during its operation out in the field
A communication standard for the FEV energy management system and associated components
(e.g. smart navigation, charger, power train, and vehicle safety module)
5.6 State of European standardization work
CEN/CENELEC focus group is in their recommendation 13.6 in line with the above standardization
priorities. The cross-connections between the standardizations body has already been described in
their Annex D [1] to a very detailed and helpful extend. We agree to the choice of the most important
standardization bodies: CEN, CENELEC, ISO, IEC, SAE, and UL.
The ICT4FEV project went a step further and integrated standardization items into the ICT for the FEV
roadmap that relates to the six technology areas as defined in the electrification roadmap [2] and
added some to it so that the complete picture is as follows. Recommendations of CEN/CENELEC
have been linked to the technology areas within this document:
Energy Storage Systems
Drive Train Technologies
Safety regulations on drive-by-wire
Vehicle System Integration
Diagnostics in multi-drive power train architecture
Grid Integration
Contactless eCharging
Transport System Integration
Safety
Isolation in higher / voltage domains
Roadmap with transversal items
24
6 Conclusions and Outlook
In this document, we have sketched the ICT domains that are relevant for the mass introduction of
FEVs. These ICT domains comprise in-vehicle communication, vehicle-to-grid, vehicle-to-vehicle,
vehicle-to-infrastructure communication and connect also to new requirements on EMC. Examples of
both, completed and on-going standardization efforts were presented and discussed. The main part of
this report has been dedicated to the evaluation of the results of the CEN/CENELEC Focus Group
“Electric mobility”. Where possible and relevant, their recommendations have been brought into the
context of the ICT4FEV Roadmaps [2].
Overall, the CEN/CENELEC recommendations and the ICT4FEV Roadmaps appear to be in complete
agreement to a very large extent, containing a large number of similarities, and emphasizing the same
important aspects. As a next step it will be essential to complete the discussion of standardization
concerning ICT for the FEV and to develop recommendations beyond those of the CEN/CENELEC
focus group report. In the summary chapter, relevant standardization bodies for Europe, examples for
relevant today’s standardization for FEV, a priority list and further areas for standardizations are given.
Eventually it will be necessary to closely align the standardization efforts taken up by the
standardization bodies mentioned in this report with the path towards the mass introduction of electric
mobility taken up by Europe. A proposal for a concerted direction for such a path is provided by the
ICT4FEV roadmap. CEN/CENELEC is talking about a “marriage between different standardization
communities with different perspectives (vehicles, electrical system, components, ICT)”. Obvious is the
fact that the encouragement of alignment work needs to continue beyond the so-called milestone 4
“3rd generation of EV” in the electrification roadmap.
For the outlook of future standardization activities, more share and focus on best practices is
recommended. The following example shows how the severe topic of new EMC limits and
recommendation could be approached from a structural / process point of view:
1. Specify vehicle relation to weight and wheels
2. Give good practices on
- FEV Architectures
- Describe voltage domains as a
- Share EM field reduction practices 3. Derive EMC standardization needs per vehicle type 4. Conclude in measurement and limit proposal
25
References
[1] Focus Group on European Electro-Mobility, “Standardization for road vehicles and associated
infrastructure”, URL:
ftp://ftp.cen.eu/CEN/Sectors/List/Transport/Automobile/EV_Report_incl_annexes.pdf
[2] ICT4FEV, “D3.2 Roadmap ICT for the Full Electrical Vehicle”, 2011
[3] FlexRay Consortium, “FlexRay protocol specification v3.0”, 2009,
URL: www.flexray.com
[4] AUTOSAR GbR, “Layered Software Architecture v2.2.1”, 2008,
URL: www.autosar.org
[5] Rich Scholer, “PEV Standards - Process and Status”, Plugin 2011, URL:
http://www.transportation.anl.gov/batteries/us_china_conference/docs/vehicle_demos_day1/p
ev_standards_Ford_Scholer.pdf
[6] International Standards Organization, “ISO-26262 Functional Safety in Automotive Electronics
– Addendum Implementation Guideline EV”
26
Annex – Standardization Roadmaps ICT for the FEV
Energy Storage Systems
User Interface to BMS/EMS
Standards for Smart Packaging of Batteries
Reg. for Battery Assembly and Manufacturing
Processes
Standards for Battery Evaluation, Test, and
Reliability
Drive Train Technologies
EMC limits and tests for electrical drives
Diagnostics in multi-drive power train
Safety Regulations drive-by-wire for EV
Vehicle System Integration
Communication Standard for the EV Energy
Management System and Associated
Components (e.g. Smart Navigation eCharger,
Grid Integration
Regulations and Limits for Contactless eCharging
Next Gen car2grid Communication for eCharging
Incorporating new Charging Techniques
Transport System Integration
Next Gen Maps for EV Navigation; Smart
Information and Formats, Learn Techniques,
Smart Connectivity to Private Networking (e.g.
NFC) and Public Information Systems
Next Gen Car2Infrastructure Communication;
Wireless and Secured
Safety
Functional Safety "Designing for Reliability"
Standard Addendum to ISO26262;
Safety Regulations for Autonomous Driving
20262010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024
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