Overview- Lecture 6 1.Types of Memory: Age Differences 2.The Phenomenon 3.Information Processing...

Overview- Lecture 6

1. Types of Memory: Age Differences

2. The Phenomenon

3. Information Processing Framework

4. Cognitive and Social Cognitive Explanations

5. Memory Training

6. Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited

Overview- Lecture 6

1. Types of Memory: Age Differences

2. The Phenomenon

3. Information Processing Framework

4. Cognitive and Social Cognitive Explanations

5. Memory Training

6. Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited

Types of MemoryTypes of Memory

Semantic priming

Free recall

Recall 7 numbersSimple Span

Episodic memory

Semantic memory

Procedural memory Riding a bicycle

Source memory Word spoken or read

Working memory Computational span

Flashbulb memory Details of distinctive event

Implicit memory Repetition priming

Tip of tongue Recall familiar word

Remote memory Events from past

Autobiographical memory

Personal events from past

Prospective memory something in future

False Memory Untrue memories

Aging and MemoryAging and Memory

Semantic priming

Free recall

Recall 7 numbersSimple span

Episodic memory

Semantic memory

Procedural memory Riding a bicycle

Source memory Word spoken or read

Significant

None

Working memory Computational span Significant

Flashbulb memory Details of distinctive event

Significant

Implicit memory Repetition priming None or small

Significant

Tip of tongue Recall familiar word Significant

Remote memory

Minimal

Events from past Significant

Autobiographical memory

Personal events from past

None if event important “Reminiscence bump”

Prospective memory something in future

None or small

Significant for for time-based (self-initiated)

False Memory Untrue memories Significant

Age Difference?

Overview- Lecture 6

1. Types of Memory: Age Differences

2. The Phenomenon

3. Information Processing Framework

4. Cognitive and Social Cognitive Explanations

5. Memory Training

6. Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited

The Phenomenon

The Phenomenon Shown another way

• Memory– lists (words, digits)

– sentences

– texts (read/listen)

– source/reality monitoring

– cued recall

– free recall etc.Young Old

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Is the age difference important?

• Applied Reasons

• Theoretical Reasons

Overview- Lecture 6

1. Types of Memory: Age Differences

2. The Phenomenon in Need of Explaining

3. Information Processing Framework

4. Cognitive and Social Cognitive Explanations

5. Memory Training

6. Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited

Assumptions of Information Processing

1. People are active

2. Quantitative and Qualitative aspects of performance can be examined

3. Series of hypothetical stores

Information Processing Framework: MemoryInformation Processing Framework: Memory

SENSORYSTORE

SENSORYSTORE

Visuo-spatialScratch Pad

Visuo-spatialScratch Pad

PhonologicalStore

PhonologicalStore

CentralExecutive

CentralExecutive

EpisodicmemoryEpisodicmemory

SemanticmemorySemanticmemory

ProceduralmemoryProceduralmemory

WORKING

MEMORY

LONG-TERM

MEMORY

If there are age differences

• Is it because of a storage problem?

• Is it because of a processing problem?

• A combination?

Investigating the Nature of Age-Differences:

1. Process-oriented approach

2. Correlational approach

Overview- Lecture 6

1. Types of Memory: Age Differences

2. The Phenomenon in Need of Explaining

3. Information Processing Framework

4. Cognitive and Social Cognitive Explanations

5. Memory Training

6. Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited

Explanations: Hypothesis 1

• Cognitive Basisdecline in working memory capacity (e.g.,

Wingfield et al., 1988)

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Working Memory TaskWorking Memory Task

COMPUTATIONAL SPAN:COMPUTATIONAL SPAN: Complete these addition problems.

What was the secondsecond number in each problem?

5 + 6 = ?

4 + 3 = ?

8 + 9 = ?

Memory:Memory:Effects of Aging on Working MemoryEffects of Aging on Working Memory

Visuo-spatialScratch Pad

Visuo-spatialScratch Pad

PhonologicalStore

PhonologicalStore

CentralExecutive

CentralExecutive

WORKING

MEMORY

•Deficits in spatial memoryDeficits in spatial memory

Clear age-related decrementsClear age-related decrements

•Decrease in articulation rateDecrease in articulation rate•Affects processing of informationAffects processing of information

Explanations

• Cognitive Basis– age-variance can be

accounted for by taking into account age differences in working memory capacity

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Working Memory CapacityHypothesis

• But why does capacity decrease?

• Is there a more focused (fundamental) account?

Explanations: Hypothesis 2

• Cognitive Basis– decline in working

memory capacity (e.g.,

Wingfield et al., 1988)

– decline in processing speed (Salthouse, 1996)

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Explanations

• Cognitive Basis– age-variance can be

accounted for by taking into account decline in processing speed (Salthouse, 1996)

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What is Speed?What is Speed?

Psychomotor SpeedPsychomotor SpeedPsychomotor SpeedPsychomotor Speed

•Process a signalProcess a signal•Prepare a responsePrepare a response•Execute that responseExecute that response

= amount of time taken to:= amount of time taken to:

Psychomotor SpeedPsychomotor Speed

Reaction time studies:Reaction time studies:

AA Item called Item called targettarget will appear on screen will appear on screen

Push button when target appearsPush button when target appears

Psychomotor SpeedPsychomotor Speed

Types of reaction time studies:Types of reaction time studies:

SimpleSimpleSimpleSimple Target is present or notTarget is present or not

ChoiceChoiceChoiceChoicePerform one response for one Perform one response for one stimulusstimulusPerform different response for Perform different response for another stimulusanother stimulus

ComplexComplexComplexComplex Multiple targets, many decisionsMultiple targets, many decisions

ReactionTime

ReactionTime

AgeAge

Psychomotor SpeedPsychomotor Speed

Reaction time increases with age:Reaction time increases with age:

Reflects biological AgingReflects biological AgingReflects biological AgingReflects biological Aging

Psychomotor Speed: Age DifferencePsychomotor Speed: Age Difference

General Slowing HypothesisGeneral Slowing HypothesisGeneral Slowing HypothesisGeneral Slowing Hypothesis

Age Complexity HypothesisAge Complexity HypothesisAge Complexity HypothesisAge Complexity Hypothesis

•Aging causes general decline of Aging causes general decline of information processinginformation processing speedspeed

•Age differences increase with Age differences increase with increasing complexity of taskincreasing complexity of task

ExplanationsExplanations

Information Processing: Information Processing: Psychomotor SpeedPsychomotor Speed

Brinley PlotBrinley Plot•Plot of RT of old Plot of RT of old to RT of youngto RT of young•Supports the Supports the General Slowing General Slowing HypothesisHypothesis

Sliwinski & Hall, 1998

Speed deficit hypothesis (Speed deficit hypothesis (Salthouse)Salthouse)

Limited energy for cognitive processes

Limited energy for cognitive processes

Reductions in CNS capacityReductions in CNS capacity

Decreased Decreased working working memorymemory

Decreased Decreased working working memorymemory

Impact on Working Memory OperationsImpact on Working Memory Operations

Mechanisms

• Limited Time Mechanism

• Simultaneity Mechanism

Speed Hypothesis

• The hypothesis to beat.

• Is speed the whole story?

ReviewReview

Attentional Resources Attentional Resources (Salthouse)(Salthouse)

Limited energy for cognitive processes

Limited energy for cognitive processes

Reductions in CNS capacityReductions in CNS capacity

IncreasedIncreasedReaction Reaction TimeTime

IncreasedIncreasedReaction Reaction TimeTime

Speed deficit hypothesis (Speed deficit hypothesis (Salthouse)Salthouse)

Limited energy for cognitive processes

Limited energy for cognitive processes

Reductions in CNS capacityReductions in CNS capacity

Decreased Decreased working working memorymemory

Decreased Decreased working working memorymemory

Impact on Working MemoryImpact on Working Memory

Why else might RT increase and Working Memory decrease?

Focus on Attention

What is Attention?What is Attention?

Attention=Attention=Attention=Attention=•Ability to focus or concentrateAbility to focus or concentrate•Shift focus as neededShift focus as needed

Further cognitive operationsFurther cognitive operations

InformationInformation

Type of AttentionType of Attention

Positive primingPositive priming

ExampleExample Effects of AgingEffects of Aging

Prime decreases search time for target

Should benefit older adults

Information Processing: Information Processing: Attention (see Text on this section)Attention (see Text on this section)

Negative primingNegative priming Target on one trial isdistractor on next

Negative

CuingCuing Cue indicates wheretarget will appear

Results not clear

Memory search-Memory search-consistent mappingconsistent mapping

Target held in memory and does not change

Older adults can develop automatic search

Memory search-Memory search-varied mappingvaried mapping

Target changes with distractor

Negative

Divided attentionDivided attention Dichotic listening Significant but not when individual tasks controlled

Watch screen for event Increase with frequency, unpredictability of target

Sustained attentionSustained attention

Inhibitory Deficits Inhibitory Deficits (Hasher & Zacks)(Hasher & Zacks)

Limited resources for inhibition

Limited resources for inhibition

•Activation

•InhibitionAttentionAttention requires:

Another reason RT increases Another reason RT increases

IncreasedIncreasedReaction Reaction TimeTime

IncreasedIncreasedReaction Reaction TimeTime

Inhibitory Deficit Inhibitory Deficit (Hasher & Zacks)(Hasher & Zacks)

Accumulation of “mental clutter”

Accumulation of “mental clutter”

•Inhibit irrelevant information

•Remove unnecessary informationMemoryMemory requires:

WorkingWorkingmemory memory deficitsdeficits

WorkingWorkingmemory memory deficitsdeficits

Impact on Working MemoryImpact on Working Memory

Explanations: Hypothesis 3

• Cognitive Basis– decline in working

memory capacity (e.g.,

Wingfield et al., 1988)

– decline in processing speed (Salthouse, 1996)

– declining inhibitory efficiency (Hasher & Zacks, 1988)

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Explanations

• Cognitive Basis– age-variance can be

accounted for by taking into account age differences in inhibition

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Evidence for Decline in Inhibition

• Stroop Interference

• Negative Priming

INSTRUCTIONS:INSTRUCTIONS: Read the color of the INK

EFFECT: Response is slower when colors don’t don’t matchmatch than when colors matchmatch the ink

redredredredyellowyellowyellowyellowgreengreengreengreen

Stroop InterferenceStroop Interference

INSTRUCTIONS:INSTRUCTIONS: Identify the REDRED letter

EFFECT: Response is slower to AA

PRIMING TRIAL:A XX

CRITICAL TRIAL:

AA X

Negative primingNegative priming

Explanations: Summary

• Cognitive Basis– age-variance can be

accounted for by taking into account cognitive mediators…but not all (Kwong See & Ryan, 1995)

– other mediators?Young Old

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Explanations: Hypothesis 4

• Social Cognitive Basis

– internalizing negative old age stereotypes compromises performance?

– Some evidence (e.g., Levy & Langer, 1994)

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Overview- Lecture 6

• Types of Memory: Age Differences

• The Phenomenon

• Information Processing Framework

• Cognitive and Social Cognitive Explanations

• Memory Training

• Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited

Memory Training

• EIEIO classification• External Memory Aids

• Internal Memory Aids

Memory Training

• Characteristics of a successful program– own memory strategies– self-guided practice– consistency with preferred learning style– cognitive restructuring

• Some good applications

Overview- Lecture 6

• Types of Memory: Age Differences

• The Phenomenon

• Information Processing Framework

• Cognitive and Social Cognitive Explanations

• Memory Training

• Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited

Myth Busing: Facts on Aging Revisited

• # 8 Aged drivers have fewer accidents per driver than those under age 65.

»True

Myth Busing: Facts on Aging Revisited

• #12Old people usually take longer to learn something new.

True

Myth Busing: Facts on Aging Revisited

• # 14 Older people tend to react slower than younger people.

True