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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 1
Slide 1 Written expression and cognitive functions: What does the research indicate?
Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSPDirector, Training and Professional DevelopmentPearson Clinical Assessment
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Slide 2
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Objectives
• Describe research-based cognitive factors that related to written expression.
• Introduce assessment batteries to identify disorders of written expression.
• Describe interventions for writing.
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Slide 3 Definitions – Quick Guide
• Orthography – visual patterns of the written word
• Syntax – grammatical rules that permits meaningful combinations of words and phrases
• Semantics – meanings that correspond to words
• Lexicon – collection of words in language
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 2
Slide 4 Definitions – Quick Guide
• Dysgraphia is a learning disability that affects writing, which requires a complex set of motor and information processing skills. It can lead to problems with spelling, poor handwriting and putting thoughts on paper. People with dysgraphia might have trouble organizing letters, numbers and words on a line or page.
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved.
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Slide 5 Definitions – Quick Guide
• Dyslexia – a language-based processing disorder can hinder reading, writing, spelling and sometimes even speaking.
• Dyspraxia is a disorder that affects motor skill development. People with dyspraxia have trouble planning and completing fine motor tasks.
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved.
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Slide 6 The Process of Learning
• Learning is the process of acquiring information.
• What are the cognitive factors that enable students to show what they know and can do?– How do they collect, sort, store, and retrieve
information? (Miller, 2007)
– How do they receive, perceive, process, and remember information? (Elliott, 2007)
6
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 3
Slide 7 Building Blocks of Learning
7
Attention and Self-
Regulation
Emotions
Behavior
Self-Esteem
FFOOUUNNDDAATTIIOONNAALL
SSYYMMBBOOLLIICC
Phonology
Orthography
Motor
CCOONNCCEEPPTTUUAALL
Language
Images
Strategies
(Mather, N. & Goldstein, S. 2008. Learning disabilities and challenging behaviors).
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Slide 8 Developmental Stages - Writing1. Imitation (PS – Gr 1)2. Graphic Presentation (Gr 1 & 2)3. Syntactic Incorporation (Gr 2 – 4)4. Automatization (Gr 4 – 7)5. Elaboration (Gr 7 – 9)6. Abstraction and Personalizations (Gr 9 and
up)
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 8
See Levine & Reed (1999) and Feifer & DeFina (2002)
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Slide 9 Basic Motor Skill Development
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 4
Slide 10
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 10
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Slide 11 Terminology Turmoil
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 11
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Slide 12 Writing Achievement Shown to be Related to:• Graphomotor System• Language / Auditory Processing /Phonological
Awareness• Working Memory/Short-term Memory• Executive Functions• Crystallized Intelligence• Visual Processing (Orthographic)• Long-term retrieval• Processing Speed / Automaticity /RAN• Fluid Intelligence
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 12
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 5
Slide 13 What do you know about the connection of writing to:
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 13
Listening?Speaking?
Reading?
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Slide 14 It’s about language, but
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Berninger, V.B., Abbott, R.D., Jones, J., Wolf, B.J., Gould, L., Anderson-Youngstrom,
M., & Apel, K.. (2005).
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Slide 15 Integration of Processes
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 6
Slide 16
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Coding Word Forms in Verbal Working Memory (Berninger, 2007)
parn (/s; /ed; /ing)
p/illbread/beard
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Written Language Problems Based on aWorking Memory Architecture (Berninger, 2007)
Supports oral reading
Supports writing language and writing math
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Slide 18
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 18
Moment of reflection –
Learned?Confirmed?Prompted a question?Application?
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 7
Slide 19
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 19
Shifting Gears to Working MemoryAnd Executive Functioning
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Slide 20 Classroom Learning Demands on WM• Common classroom activities that impose
simultaneous demands on storage and processing:– Listening to a speaker while trying to take notes– Following complex instructions– Decoding unfamiliar words– Writing sentences from memory– Mental arithmetic – Impact of weakness may show up later with greater
demands for cohesive writing and comprehension
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Slide 21 WM and Oral Language• Strong relationship between verbal memory
subsystems and both language development and oral language comprehension (Crain et al., 1990)– Phonological STM & Verbal WM
• Developmental delays and disorders in language have often been attributed to a dysfunction in verbal WM
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 8
Slide 22 WM and Language• Oral Language Comprehension
– WM plays critical role in constructing and integrating ideas from a stream of successive words
– Primary function of Verbal WM is to extract meaning to phonological input
• Spoken Language– WM less involved unless syntactic structure or
meaning of sentence is confusing
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Slide 23 WM and Oral Language Impairments• The weak phonological memory performance of
individuals with Oral Language Impairments may originate from their slow recognition and discrimination of speech sounds (phonemic awareness)
• Articulation rate may be a cause of memory span deficits; impacting language processing
• Slow processing speed may allow auditory traces to fade before meaning can be extracted
• Difficulties with word retrieval
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Slide 24 Working Memory & Written Language
• Written expression is a complex activity that requires the integration of several cognitive processes and memory components.
• Heavy emphasis on Working Memory especially executive WM, verbal WM, and visual WM.
• Emphasis on phonological STM
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 9
Slide 25 EF and Writing• Can’t generate ideas
– Independent journal writing a problem• Perseverates on topics• Difficulties organizing written output
– Begins but can’t conclude in cohesive manner– including format of arguments, and grammatical
and spelling errors– Dysfluent writing, doesn’t transition well within text
• Unaware of mistakes, poor editing
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Slide 26
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 26
Lower-levelSkills likeTranscription –AUTOMATICITY
Promote higher-level skills such as Organizing and developing ideas
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Slide 27 Research Classroom
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 27
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 10
Slide 28
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Slide 29 Learning Disorders• Processes associated with Learning
– Reading and Writing processes-not actual reading or writing but cognitive components related to the efficient acquisition of or support of reading and writing Phonological processing/awareness Orthography-connecting visual form to sound Morphology-connecting visual form to meaning through rule
application
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Slide 30 Learning Disorder• Language functioning is one of the most critical
cognitive domains for learning– Word knowledge and naming – Syntax/language structure– Repetition– Working memory
Encoding Manipulation Auditory versus visual (spatial and details)
– Each component is necessary for verbal expression and comprehension
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 11
Slide 31 Learning Disorder• Cognitive functions associated with learning
problems– Executive Functioning
Mild Inhibitory control problems, particularly with Math DX – Sensorimotor-
may have some fine motor issues with writing dx.
– Automaticity Ability to process basic cognitive processes with minimal
use of working memory or strategic processes
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Written Language Problems Based on aWorking Memory Architecture (Berninger, 2007)
Supports oral reading
Supports writing language and writing math
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Executive Functions–Switching Set (Berninger, 2007)
the 69 of 38
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 12
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Executive Functions–Inhibition(Berninger, 2007)
red blue green
Name ink color.
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Executive Functions–Monitoring(Berninger, 2007)
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Written Language Problems and the Three Word Forms
(Berninger, 2007)
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 13
Slide 37 Other terms – Subtypes of Language-Based Dysgraphia
1. Phonological Dysgraphia2. Surface Dysgraphia3. Mixed Dysgrpahia4. Semantic/Syntactic Dysgraphia
– Deep Dysgraphia (subtype)
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 37
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Slide 38 Other terms – Subtypes of Non–Language Based Dysgraphia
1. Ideomotor Apraxia2. Ideational Apraxia3. Constructional Dyspraxia
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 38
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Slide 39 Consider Assessing (Neuropsych)• Sensory• Attention• Coding of Words/Linguistic Awareness• Levels of Language• Memory• Executive Functions• Speed and Efficiency of Processing
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 39
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 14
Slide 40 Consider Assessing (Neuropsych)• Cognitive Abilities
– Verbal Comprehension– Nonverbal Reasoning
• Academics– Spelling– Handwriting– Composition– Word Decoding– Word Reading– Reading Comprehension– Paper and pencil calculation
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Slide 41 Consider Assessing (CHC) • Strongest
– Gc: Language Development, Lexical Knowledge, General Information
– Gsm: Memory Span, Working Memory Capacity– Ga: Phonetic Coding– Gs: Perceptual Speed
• Less Robust– Gf: Inductive, General Sequential Reasoning– Gv: (Gv generally not strong, but place
orthographics here – strong relationship in neuropsych research)
– Glr: Naming Facility (RAN), Associative MemoryCopyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 41
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Slide 42 Some “Myths”• If the child is referred for writing difficulties, I
don’t need to worry about math.• One of my middle school students won’t write;
he’s just lazy.• Auditory discrimination is an important area to
assess for writing.• Finger succession tasks are unimportant.
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 42
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 15
Slide 43 Terminology Turmoil
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Slide 44 Consider Assessing
• Intelligence • Constructional skills (Copying tasks)• Working Memory• Executive Functions• Writing and Spelling• Phonological Skills• Orthographic Skills• Retrieval Fluency• Family and Developmental History
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Slide 45
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Written ExpressionCompetitive Analysis of Coverage(Subtest(s) that Cover the Process)
"Cognitive Process" WISC5 DAS2 KTEA3 PAL-II
Comprehension-Knowledge (Gc): Crystallized Knowledge/ Intelligence; Language Devlelopment; Lexical Knowledge; General Knowledge; Semantic Memory; Listening Ability, Receptive & Expressive Language (Sometimes lumped w/ Gc)
Similarities, Vocabulary,
Comprehension, Information,
Picture Concepts, Arithmetic
Verbal Ability Cluster (Early Number Concepts, Naming Vocabulary, Verbal Similarities, Word Definitions, Verbal Comprehension, Phonological Processing, Recall of Sequential Order, Rapid Naming
Listening Comprehension, Oral Expression,
Written Expression, Reading Vocabulary
Sentences-Listening
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 16
Slide 46
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 46
Morphologic Awareness (Sometimes included in Gc)
Are they Related,
Does it Fit. Sentence Structure
Fluid Reasoning (Gf): Induction/Inductive Reasoning; General Sequential Reasoning; Planning, Reasoning, and Problem Solving
Matrix Reasoning,
Picture Concepts,
Figure Weights
Nonverbal Reasoning Cluster (Matrices, Picture Similarities, Sequential & Quantitative Reasoning)
Math Concepts and Applications
"Cognitive Process" WISC5 DAS2 KTEA3 PAL-II
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Slide 47
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 47
"Cognitive Process" WISC5 DAS2 KTEA3 PAL-II
Orthographic Processing (sometimes included w Gv)
Receptive and Expressive Coding
Visual-Spatial Processing (Gv): Visualization; Visual scanning; includes visual memory
Block Design, Cancellation,
Coding, Matrix Reasoning, Picture Concepts, Symbol
Search, Visual Puzzles, Picture
Span
Spatial Ability Cluster (Copying, Matching Letter-Like Forms, Pattern Construction, Recall of Designs, Recognition of Pictures, Speed of Information Processing, Early Number Concepts, Recall of Sequential Order, Matrices, Picture Similarities, Sequential and Quantitative Reasoning, Recall of Objects -Immed and Delay)
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Slide 48
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 48
"Cognitive Process" WISC5 DAS2 KTEA3 PAL-II
Working Memory / Short-term Memory (Gsm): Memory Span; Working Memory Capacity; Working Memory; Verbal Working Memory
Digit Span, Arithmetic, Letter-Number
Sequencing, Picture Span
Short-Term Memory Cluster (Recall of Digits-Forward, Recall of Digits-Backwards, Recall of Sequential Order
Letters, Words, Sentence Listening, Sentence Writing
Memory and Learning / Long-term Storage and Retrieval (Glr): Retrieval Fluency, Naming Facility; Associative Memory; Sound to Letter Correspondence; Lexical Access (Speeded Naming) (RAN tasks usually below)
Arithmetic, Cancellation, Coding, Comprehension, Digit
Span, Information, Letter-Number
Sequencing, Picture Concepts, Similarities,
Vocabulary, Visual-Verbal Association I &
II (Immediate and Delayed), Speeded
Naming Picture Span
(Rapid Naming, Recall Of Objects - Immediate & Delayed, Early Number Concepts, Verbal Comprehension, Verbal Similarities, Word Definitions, Picture Similarities, Recall of Designs, Recognition of Pictures, Recall of Digits - Fwd & Back, Naming Vocabulary, Phonological Processing, Recall of Sequential Order)
Associational Fluency
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 17
Slide 49
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Speed and Efficiency / Cognitive Processing Speed (Gs): Automaticity; Perceptal Speed; Writing Speed, Number Facility; Naming Facility; RAN; Sustained Attention sometimes included here
Cancellation, Symbol Search,
Coding, Naming Speed
Processing Speed Cluster (Speed of Information Processing, Rapid Naming)
Math Fluency, Object Naming Facility, Letter
Naming Facility, Writing Fluency
RAN/RAS
"Cognitive Process" WISC5 DAS2 KTEA3 PAL-II
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Slide 50
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"Cognitive Process" WISC5 DAS2 KTEA3 PAL-II
Sensory-Motor / Psychchomotor(Gp): Visual Motor Integration; Fine Motor
Block Design, Cancellation,
Coding, Symbol Search
(Copying, Pattern Construction, Recall of Designs, Speed of Information Processing)
Finger Sense
Executive Functions: Planning; Self-monitoring; Organization
Arithmetic, Block Design,
Cancellation, Coding, Digit Span,
Letter-Number Sequencing, Matrix Reasoning, Picture
Concepts, Similarities,
Symbol Search, Visual Puzzles, Picture Span
(Early Number Concepts, Matrices, Pattern Construction, Picture Similarities, Recall of Digits Backward, Recall of Sequential Order, Sequential and Quantitiative Reasoning, Speed of Information Processing)
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Slide 51
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 51
Reading and Writing Ability (Grw)
Letter & Word Recognition, Reading
Comprehension, Silent Reading
Fluency, Reading Vocabulary, Nonsense
Word Decoding, Word Recognition Fluency, Decoding Fluency, Written
Expression, Spelling
Attention
Arithmetic, Cancellation,
Coding, Digit Span, Letter Number
Sequencing, Symbol Search, Picture Span
(Rapid Naming, Recall of Designs, Recall Digits Forwad & Back, Recall of Objects (Immed & Delay), Recall of Sequential Order, Recognition of Pictures)
"Cognitive Process" WISC5 DAS2 KTEA3 PAL-II
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Copyright 2014. Pearson Education and its Affiliates. All rights reserved. Page 18
Slide 52 Remedial vs. Compensatory Interventions• Remedial Interventions
– Have the expressed goal of correcting a deficit by directly addressing the area of weakness.
• Compensatory Interventions– Emphasize using the individual’s cognitive or
memory strengths and assets, in an effort to bypass the deficit, thereby reducing its impact on learning and performance.
– Strategy Training
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Slide 53
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Slide 54
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
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Slide 55
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. 55Plan a Timeline Piece
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Slide 56 Planning & Writing• Story Plans
– Diagram of the important parts of a story• Plans for Writing
– Teach outline for writing sentences & supporting sentences
• Teach Sentence Openers– Idea generating questions– For example, Who, What, When, Where…
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Slide 57 Metacognition Training• The conscious use of executive control
processes• Two aspects of Metacognition:
– Self-awareness The knowledge of one’s skills and cognitive abilities,
understanding how one’s skills and abilities match up with task requirements, and knowing which processes and strategies will lead to successful goal attainment.
– Self-control The ability to consciously monitor, manage, control, and
evaluate one’s cognitive activities and select strategies for use.
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
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Slide 58 Metacognitive Training• Key aspects of metacognitive interventions
include teaching the individual:– To become aware of his/her processing deficits and
strengths;– To select an appropriate strategy for the task at
hand;– To self-monitor progress toward an objectives;– To revise or change the strategies when necessary;– To self-evaluate.
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Slide 59 Memory Interventions• Rote Strategies• Relational Strategies• Phonological STM Interventions• Verbal WM Interventions• Visuospatial Working Memory• Executive Working Memory• Mnemonics• Long-term Memory• Phonological Processing
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Slide 60 Rote vs. Relational Strategies• Rote Strategies:
– Basic rehearsal strategies (e.g., simple repetition)– Minimal demands on WM resources– Primary purpose of maintaining items in
phonological short-term memory– Simple to teach and learn
• Relational Strategies– Involves higher level WM processing– Increased retention of information– Mnemonics; visual imagery– Attaching meaning to information
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
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Slide 61 Phonological STM Interventions• Most STM Interventions involve rehearsal
training.• Rehearsal Strategies
– Simply saying the material over and over to oneself– Serial repetition process; allows information to be
maintained in WM for longer periods of time, thus enhancing short-term recall and facilitating long-term storage encoding
– Most basic memory strategy– Increases verbal WM
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Slide 62 Additional Phonological STM Interventions• Naming letters and objects• Repeating spoken sentences• Reciting nursery rhymes
– Highlights the phonological structure of language• Rhyming games
– Enhance phonemic awareness and the ability to store phonological information
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Slide 63 Verbal Working Memory Interventions
• Elaborative Rehearsal– Associate meaning with stimuli – Keeps information active in WM without repetition
and also facilitates moving information to LTM.• Semantic Rehearsal
– Brief sentences using the word to be remembered
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
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Slide 64 Verbal Working Memory Interventions• Chunking
– Pairing, clustering, grouping, or association of different items into units that are processed and remembered as a whole; thereby facilitating short-term retention and encoding into long-term storage.
• Paraphrasing– A strategy that builds off of both rehearsal and
chunking. Students restate information in their own words; requiring that they reorganize and condense a large amount of linguistic information into smaller, well-integrated, and more personally meaningful units.
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Slide 65 Visuospatial Working Memory Interventions• Should be used with individuals with severe
limitations I verbal working memory, such as language and literacy disabilities.
• Primarily consist of visual mnemonics– Recode verbal information into visuospatial
information
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Slide 66 Mnemonics• Visual Imagery
– Involves transforming verbal content into visual information
– Beneficial when used with students who have language deficits or deficits in verbal WM
• Pegwords– Numbers from one to ten are associated with
pictured rhyming words (e.g., “one-bun, two-shoe”)– Good strategy or remembering numbers &
sequences• Loci
– Memorize order of rooms; associate items to be remembered with each room
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Individual Differences and Written Expression Presented by Amy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
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67 | Copyright © 2012. All rights reserved.
An Evidence-based intervention for working memory training.
www.cogmed.com
Working Memory Training
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Customer Service1-800-627-7271 (USA)
1-866-335-8418 (Canada)
Comments or QuestionsAmy Dilworth Gabel, Ph.D., NCSP
Amy.Gabel@pearson.com
www.pearsonclinical.comwww.pearsonassess.ca
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