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NATIONAL
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
SYSTEMS IN
SAARC COUNTRIES
AN ANALYSIS OF THE SYSTEM DIVERSITY
SAARC AGRICULTURE CENTRE (SAC)
Forew
The economies of the SAARC countries are depe
remain successful and competitive in agricultural
necessary to build knowledge-based farming co
Asian Region. Building a knowledge-based farm
effective and efficient agricultural extension system
systems and agricultural universities in the region
agricultural technologies over half a century. Th
replicated across boundaries with little effort
management system is in place. SAARC memb
develop efficient extension systems through learnin
Agricultural extension is a process meaning the im
to agricultural practices through extension service
'extension' now encompasses a broader range of
organized for farmers by educators from differ
marketing, health, and business studies etc.
Under the extension reforms in SAARC member
technology delivery system by the involvement of
of farmer interest groups, commodity interest grou
level mainly aims at the decentralization of the ext
the responsibility centres in deciding their technolo
Agricultural extension system as a mechanism
development in South Asia. Agricultural extensio
among the countries but also between the region
agricultural production and stark reality of food cr
the region becomes self-sufficient in agricultura
research and extension systems need to be rev
experiences gained through agricultural extension
carry the process forward.
Considering the importance and urgency, SAAR
existing systems of agricultural extension man
consultative workshop as well a publication cont
and country papers aiming at developing and rev
the region. The publication helps in developing str
system for a country should build on the societal
in South Asia. The beneficiaries will be policy
agriculture and social scientists, extension service
farmers in the South Asia.
I acknowledge the sincere efforts of my colleagu
different SAARC countries for completing this
synthesizing the book and bring it in the present sta
SAC always appreciates receiving feedback, comm
and services to help us enable to do better.
Dr. Abul Kalam Azad Director, SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC)
v
oreword
e dependent on agriculture. To
ltural production and trade, it is
ing communities in the South
farming communities require
systems. Agricultural research
region developed a treasure of
ry. These technologies can be
effort provided an extension
member states can effectively
learning from each other.
implementation of the research output and new ideas
service providers and farmers education. The concept of e of information communication and learning procedures
different disciplines, including agriculture, agricultural
mber countries, emphasis is given for decentralizing the
ent of farmers and farmer organizations. The organization
st groups, farm schools and self help groups at grass root
the extension delivery system through making the users as
chnological options, their dissemination and adoption.
hanism played an important role in the agriculture
ension system and administration is not similar not only
regions within a country. Due to increased demand for
ood crisis and food safety, it is need that every country in
cultural production including food. So that agricultural
e revitalized. Learning from the regional development
nsion management systems over the past years may help
SAARC Agriculture Centre conducted a study of the
management and subsequently organized a regional
containing a set of recommendations, synthesis reports
nd revitalizing national agricultural extension systems in
ing strategies for efficient and well-organized supervision
cietal needs and socio-economic conditions of the people
olicy makers in the Governments of SAARC countries,
ervice providers, NGO, donor agencies and ultimately the
lleagues and the distinguished contributing authors from
this daunting task. My compliments to the members for
ent status.
comments and suggestions from the users of our products
vi
vii
Contents
Page
Foreword v
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations ix
Technical Synthesis on National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries
Chapter-1 : Introduction 1
Chapter-2 : Historical Perspective of National Agricultural Extension
Systems in SAARC Countries
4
Chapter-3 : Organization of National Agricultural Extension Systems in
SAARC Countries
19
Chapter-4 : Governance of Extension Systems in SAARC Countries 39
Chapter-5 : Human Resources Development and Capacity Building of
Extension Systems
63
Chapter-6 : Research-Education-Extension-Farmers Linkages in SAARC
Countries
79
Chapter-7 : Incentive Structure of Extension Systems in SAARC Countries 96
Chapter-8 : Monitoring and Evaluation of Extension Systems 103
Chapter-9 : Strength, Weakness and Way Forward of Extension Systems 119
Chapter-10 : Individual Country Recommendations 124
Chapter-11 : Recommendations of the Consultative Workshop on National
Agricultural Systems in SAARC countries – An analysis of the
system diversity
135
Chapter-12 : Concept Note
Annexure (Country Status Reports)
National Agricultural Extension System in Bangladesh 149
National Agricultural Extension System in Bhutan 209
National Agricultural Extension System in India 233
National Agricultural Extension System in Nepal 291
National Agricultural Extension System in Pakistan 361
National Agricultural Extension System in Sri Lanka 389
Special papers from Bhutan 417
Participants 425
Photo Album 427
viii
ix
Abbreviations and Acronyms
AAO : Additional Agricultural Officer
ABPMDD : Agri-Business Promotion and Marketing Development Directorate
AD : Anno Domini
ADB : Asian Development Bank
ADP : Annual Development Plan
AEC : Agro Enterprises Center
AEO : Agricultural Extension Officer
AEZ : Agricultural Ecological Zone
AICC : Agriculture Information and Communication Centre
AIS : Agricultural Information Service
APP : Agricultural Perspective Plan
APPSP : Agriculture Perspective Plan Support Project
APW : Administration and Personnel Wing
AREP : Agricultural Research and Extension Project
ARI : Agricultural Research Institute
ASCs : Agriculture Service Centers
ASIRP : Agricultural Sector Innovation Reform Project
ASSC : Agriculture Service Sub Center
ASSP : Agricultural Support Service Project
ATC : Agricultural Technical Committee
ATI : Agricultural Training Institutes
ATMA : Agricultural Technology Management Agency
BADC : Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation
BARC : Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council
BARI : Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute
BJRI : Bangladesh Jute Research Institute
BRDB : Bangladesh Rural Development Board
BREAD : Bangladesh Rural Enterprise and Agricultural Development
BRRI : Bangladesh Rice Research Institute
BS : Block Supervisor
BS : Bikram Sambat
BWDB : Bangladesh Water Development Board
CBOs : Community Base Organizations
CCW : Cash Crops Wing
CEAPRED : Center for Environment, Ag. Policy Research, Ext. and Development
CERDI : Central Extension Resources Development Institute
CF : Contract Farmer
CIG : Common Interest Group
CoRRB : Council for RNR Research of Bhutan
DADO : District Agricultural Development Office
DAE : Department of Agricultural Extension
DAM : Department of Agricultural Marketing
DARE : Department of Agricultural Research & Education
DC : Deputy Chief
DCO : District Cooperative Office
DD : Deputy Director
DDC : District Development Committee
x
DDCC : District Development Co-ordination Committee
DEF : District Extension Fund
DEPC : District Extension Planning Committee
DG : Director General
DoA : Department of Agriculture
DoLS : Department of Livestock Services
DTO : District Training Officer
ECC : Extension Coordination Committee
EPADC : East Pakistan Agricultural Development Corporation
EPICC : Extension Policy Implementation Co-ordination Committee
EPS : Extension Planning System
FAO : Food and Agriculture Organization
FCW : Food Crops Wing
FFS : Farmer Field School
FIAC : Farmers Information and Advice Center
FINA : Farmer Information Needs Assessment
FIS : Financial Information System
GDP : Gross Domestic Product
GID : General Information Database
GO : Government Organization
HMG/N : His Majesty’s Government/ Nepal
HRD : Human Resource Development
HYVs : High Yielding Varieties
IAAS : Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science
ICAR : Indian Council of Agricultural Research
ICT : Information and Communication Technology
INGOs : International Non-Governmental Organizations
IPM : Integrated Pest Management
IRDP : Integrated Rural Development Program
JAEO : Junior Agricultural Extension Officer
JD : Joint Director
JT : Junior Technician
JTA : Junior Technical Assistant
KVK : Krishi Vigyan Kendras
LC : Local Currencies
LIF : Local Initiative Fund
LSGA : Local Self Governance Act
MIS : Management Information Systems
MLT : Multi Location Testing
MoA : Ministry of Agriculture
MoAC : Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operative
MoAF : Ministry of Agriculture and Forests
MoFL : Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock
MoLD : Ministry of Local Development
MoU : Memorandum of Understanding
NAEA : Nepal Agriculture Extension Association
NAEP : New Agricultural Extension Policy
NAES : National Agricultural Extension System
NARC : National Agricultural Research Centre
xi
NARC : Nepal Agricultural Research Council
NARDF : National Agricultural Research and Development Fund
NATCC : National Agricultural Technical Co-ordination Committee
NATP : National Agricultural Technology Project
NCAP : National Centre for Ag. Economic and Policy Research
Nepal SIMI : Nepal Smallholder Irrigation Market Initiative
NGO : Non Governmental Organization
NPC : National Planning Commission
OFRD : On-Farm Research Division
OHP : Overhead Projector
PARC : Pakistan Agricultural Research Council
PC : Problem Census
PEW : Planning and Evaluation Wing
PO : Personnel Database
PPW : Plant Protection Wing
PRA : Participatory Rural Appraisal
PTD : Participatory Technology Development
REA : Revised Extension Approach
RICC : Research Institute Co-ordination Committee
Rtd. : Retired
SAAO : Sub Assistant Agricultural Officer
SAARC : South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
SAFTA : South Asian Free Trade Area
SAU : State Agricultural Universities
SCDP : Secondary Crop Development Project
SEMS : Seasonal Extension Monitoring System
SMEs : Small and Medium Enterprises
SMS : Subject Matter Specialist
SO : Statistical Officer
SRDI : Soil Research Development Institute
SRTI : Sugarcane Research Training Institute
SSO : Senior Scientific Officer
SSSP : Seed Sector Support Program
T&V : Training and Visit
TA : Technical Audit
TAECC : Thana Agricultural Extension Co-ordination Committee
TAO : Thana Agricultural Officer
TDCC : Thana Development Co-ordination Committee
TIS : Training Information System
ToT : Training of Trainers
TPW : Thana Planning Workshop
TW : Training Wing
UAECC : Upazila Agricultural Extension Coordination Committee
USAID : United States Agency for International Development
WMAEW : Water Management and Agricultural Engineering Wing
WTO : World Trade Organization
xii
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 1
CHAPTER
Introduction The economy of the SAARC countries depends on agriculture. Agriculture contributes
around 20 per cent to the GDP and 50 to 60 per cent of the peoples are engaged in
agriculture directly or indirectly.1
“Agricultural development in different SAARC countries seems to have followed different
pathways; so did the agricultural extension education systems.2 Over the past half a century,
for example, trajectories followed in the course of agricultural development in Bangladesh,
India and Pakistan were not similar. Largely a food deficit country India became self reliant
in food three decades ago, while Bangladesh is now near to food secured country.
Historically agricultural extension system as a change engine played a significant role in the
development agriculture in these countries. There might be differences in agricultural
extension system and administration not only among the countries but also between the
regions within a country. In view of increased demand for agricultural production and stark
reality of food crisis, it is necessary that each individual country in the region becomes self-
reliant in agricultural production including food. And in doing so, agricultural research and
extension systems need to be revitalized. Learning from the regional development
experiences gained through agricultural extension management systems over the past years
may help carry the process forward.
The present study thus focuses on the extension systems in the countries and attempts to
analyze the diversity that exist with a view to learning lessons from them.
Extension
The definition of extension has evolved over the time3. Agricultural extension is a general
term meaning the application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural
practices through farmer education. The field of 'extension' now encompasses a wider range
of communication and learning activities organized for rural people by educators from
different disciplines, including agriculture, agricultural marketing, health, and business
studies.
Historical perspectives of agriculture extension – a global view
It is not known where or when the first extension activities took place. It is known, however,
that Chinese officials were creating agricultural policies, documenting practical knowledge,
and disseminating advice to farmers at least 2,000 years ago. For example, in approximately
800 BC, the minister responsible for agriculture under one of the Zhou dynasty emperors organized the teaching of crop rotation and drainage to farmers. The minister also leased
equipment to farmers, built grain stores and supplied free food during times of famine4.
1 SAC.2012. SAARC Seed Outlook. SAARC Agriculture Centre, December 2012. 2 The Concept Note on the present study ‘National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries – An Analysis of the
System Diversity’, SAARC Agriculture Centre. 3 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_extension (viewed on 10 June 2013) 4 Ibid.
1
2 Synthesis Report
The birth of the modern extension service has been attributed to events that took place in
Ireland in the middle of the 19th century. Between 1845–51 the Irish potato crop was
destroyed by fungal diseases and a severe famine occurred (see Great Irish Famine). The
British Government arranged for "practical instructors" to travel to rural areas and teach
small farmers how to cultivate alternative crops. This scheme attracted the attention of
government officials in Germany, who organized their own system of traveling instructors.
By the end of the 19th century, the idea had spread to Denmark, Netherlands, Italy, and
France.
The term "university extension" was first used by the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford
in 1867 to describe teaching activities that extended the work of the institution beyond the
campus. Most of these early activities were not, however, related to agriculture. It was not
until the beginning of the 20th century, when colleges in the United States started conducting
demonstrations at agricultural shows and giving lectures to farmer’s clubs, that the term
"extension service" was applied to the type of work that we now recognize by that name.
In the United States, the Hatch Act of 1887 established a system of agricultural experiment
stations in conjunction with each state's land-grant university, and the Smith-Lever Act of
1914 created a system of cooperative extension to be operated by those universities in order
to inform people about current developments in agriculture, home economics, and related
subjects.
Regional perspectives
The development of extension services in modern Asia vis-à-vis in the SAARC region has
differed from country to country. Despite the variations, it is possible to identify a general
sequence of four periods or "generations":
• Colonial agriculture: Experimental stations were established in the countries of the
SAARC region many by the colonial powers. The focus of attention was usually on
export crops such as rubber, tea, cotton and sugar. Technical advice was provided to
plantation managers and large landowners. Assistance to small farmers who grew
subsistence crops was rare, except in times of crisis.
• Diverse top-down extension: After independence, commodity-based extension
services emerged from the remnants of the colonial system, with production targets
established as part of five-year development plans. In addition, various schemes
were initiated to meet the needs of small farmers, with support from foreign donors.
• Unified top-down extension: During the 1970s and 1980's, the Training and Visit
(T&V) system was introduced by the World Bank. Existing organizations were
merged into a single national service. Regular messages were delivered to groups of
farmers, promoting the adoption of "Green Revolution" technologies.
• Diverse bottom-up extension: When World Bank funding came to an end, the T&V
system collapsed in many countries, leaving behind a patchwork of programs and
projects funded from various other sources. The decline of central planning,
combined with a growing concern for sustainability and equity, has resulted in
participatory methods gradually replacing top-down approaches.
The fourth generation is well established in some countries, while it has only just begun in
other places. While it seems likely that participatory approaches will continue to spread in
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 3
the next few years, it is impossible to predict the long-term future of extension. Compared to
20 years ago, agricultural extension now receives considerably less support from donor
agencies. Among academics working in this field, some have recently argued that
agricultural extension needs to be reinvented as a professional practice5. Other authors have
abandoned the idea of extension as a distinct concept and prefer to think in terms of
"knowledge systems" in which farmers are seen as experts rather than adopters6.
The above stages of extension as well as diversity of extension systems can be traced from
the following accounts of the extension systems in the SAARC countries, even though many
of them had the same historical background.
The early development of agriculture extension in the SAARC countries
Whatever can be gathered about early agricultural extension in the Indian sub-continent
(Bangladesh, India and Pakistan) are efforts in respect of irrigation and land tenure during
the Moghul period in the 16th Century. Bhutan, being independent and outside the British
colonial empire, has had a somewhat different the historical background. The agricultural
extension activities of the country can be traced back from 1961 with the inception of the 1st
Five Year Plan (1961 – 1965), when the Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
was established. In Nepal, which was also outside the British colonial rules, systematic
efforts in agricultural extension began with the formulation of the first five-year plan in
1956. In Sri Lanka, though under colonial rules, agricultural extension is reported have
started during the Dutch colonial rule in the 17th Century with Cinnamon crop for export
7
and the British colonial rulers developed the system further during 18th and 19
th century but
the initial emphasis there was on plantations crops.
5 Ibid. 6 Ibid 7 Hathurusinghe, L.K. 2010. Agriculture Extension in Sri Lanka, A paper presented at the Workshop on Rural Development for
High Level Officers of AFACI Member Countries., Suwon, Korea, 7-14 Auguat 2010. http://www.moaf.gov.bt/moaf/?wpfb_dl=455
4 Synthesis Report
CHAPTER
Historical Perspective of National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries
Bangladesh
Details are not known regarding agricultural development activities in the pre-British period
except that some efforts were made during the Mogul period to improve irrigation and the
land tenure system. It was due to disastrous famine which swept over Bengal and Behar that
a famine commission was constituted during the period of Lord Laurence (1864-68). During
1800-1908 thirty two big famines occurred and 10 million people died. As a result a scheme
was prepared during the period of Lord Mayo (1869-72) and the Department of Agriculture
started functioning in 1870 as one of the sections of the Department of Revenue to the
colonial Government of India.
The Department only arranged to supply irrigation water during droughts and distribute food,
seeds and loans to the affected farmers. These were not sufficient to cope with gigantic
agricultural problems. Hence Lord Ripon (1880-84) recognized the importance of the
Agricultural Department and expanded its field of activities. The objective of the Department
was then to push up agricultural production and increase export. Another Famine
Commission was constituted in 1901 during Lord Curzon’s regime (1899-1905). This
Commission recommended the establishment of an agricultural department in each province
for conducting agricultural research and for adoption scientific agricultural innovations in
practical fields. Government of India approved a scheme for establishment of research
laboratories in 1903 and granted a sum of Rs. 2.4 million for agricultural work in 1905. The
well-known Royal Commission on Agriculture worked during the period of Lord Erwine
(1926-31) and made some valuable recommendations for agricultural development.
In the beginning, this Department functioned, as mentioned above, as a part of the Revenue
Department at the centre and as a part of the Revenue and Land Records Department in the
province. In 1906, the Department was granted a separate entity in the province and the first
Director was appointed in the same year. In the year 1914, a nuclear stuff for extension was
added and one Deputy Director of Agriculture, six provincial agricultural officers and one
officer on special duty were appointed. Later, one agricultural officer was appointed for
each district and a few agricultural farms started functioning in district headquarters. Again
the Department was expanded and technician at union level and specialist at thana, district
and headquarters levels were appointed.
The function of this Directorate was broadly divided into four divisions viz: (a) research, (b)
education and training, (c) extension, and (d) supply and services.
Agricultural extension in true sense is a recent introduction in the region. It actually started
functioning after independence and partition of India as India and Pakistan in 1947 and the
region constituting Bangladesh became to be known East Pakistan. Before independence
there were, however, some private extension service organized by some Zemindars and
leaders like Rabidra Nath Tagore, T.M. Nurun Nabi Chowdhury, G.S. Datta, Mohatta
2
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 5
Gandhi. After the Government took up the agricultural extension work, several agricultural
demonstration farms were established in district headquarters. The agricultural extension
organization expanded greatly when the staffs of the defunct Jute Regulation Department
were transferred to the agriculture department in 1951. The Department during those days
regularly published reading materials, conducted demonstrations, fairs and exhibitions,
group and mass meetings; organize crop competitions, made farm visits and personal
contacts.
A number of organizations were created during 1951-1980:
• Village Agricultural and Industrial Development Program (V-AID) in 1954
• Directorate of Plant Protection in 1956
• East Pakistan Water Development Authority (EPWAPDA) in 1959
• Pakistan Academy of Rural Development (PARD) in 1959
• The Agricultural Information Service came into being as a separate organization in
1961
• East Pakistan Agricultural Development Corporation (EPADC) in 1962
• Department of Agricultural Extension and Management in 1968
• Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production) in 1974
• Horticulture Development Board in 1974
• Tobacco Development Board also in 1974
• Central Extension Resource Development Institute in 1976
• Sugar and Food Industries Corporation-1976
• Cotton Development Board in 1977
In 1971 Bangladesh became impendent and in 1974 there was a disastrous famine. To
prevent further famine most of the above organizations were created. Up to the early 1980, a
unique feature of agricultural extension in Bangladesh was the existence of many mono-crop
extension organizations. For example, under the Ministry of Agriculture there were six
agencies with extension functions. They were: (i) Directorate of Agriculture (Extension and
Management), (ii) Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production), (iii) Directorate of Plant
Protection, (iv) Horticulture Board, (v) Cotton Development Board, and (vi) Tobacco
Development Board. Outside the Ministry of Agriculture were Water Development Board,
Sugar and Food Industries, Tea Board, and Directorate of Livestock and Fisheries that had
field staff with extension functions.
The establishment of a large number of extension agencies over the years created a number
of problems. These were:
• Inadequate demarcation of function and absence of definite areas of responsibility
leading to duplication and diffusion of efforts at the farm level. The multiple and
sometimes conflicting approaches by different agencies created confusion in the
minds of farmers.
• There were increasing difficulties of integrating the works of so many agencies and
coordinating their programs at the field level, there was also wasteful competition
for the scarce resources and trained manpower.
• It prevented the fostering of a coherent holistic view of the farm as a management
unit.
6 Synthesis Report
• It engendered high overhead and supervision costs, seasonal under employment of
staff and duplication of facilities.
As an important step towards strengthening of agricultural extension work, the government
embarked upon a program of reorganization of extension services. The following six
departments or agencies were merged in September 1982 to from the Department of
Agricultural Extension (DAE):
• Directorate of Agriculture (Extension and Management);
• Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production);
• Directorate of Plant Protection;
• Horticulture Development Board;
• Tobacco Development Board;
• Central Extension Resources Development Institute.
The Water Development Board was also decided to be merged with DAE. The Cotton
Development Board was expected to be merged by 1985. The total staff strength of DAE
was about 23,000 including those involved in services and regulatory functions.
The main features of the organizational model of DAE were:
• Advice on crop production and ultimately all farming operations were to be provided
to farmers of a given area extension worker.
• Management and communication chain between headquarters and the field to be
shortened; accountability clearly assigned and the supervision arrangements
strengthened with establishment of appropriate span of contact.
• Technical competence of DAE to be improved by introducing a cadre of well trained
Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs) and opening career opportunities for them by
establishing a “Technical stream” and
• Strengthening the linkages between Research and Extension and other organizations.
The T&V system of doing extension activities was introduced in 1977 and it operated till
1993. Since 1993, revision of the T&V system started taking place to overcome the
weaknesses identified, such as:
• T&V system was top-down approach.
• It was individual farmers contact approach.
• There were no or little scope to involve farmers and field workers in program
planning execution, monitoring and evaluation.
• It was not responsive to farmers needs.
• Extension-research linkage was found weak.
• Demonstration on proven technologies was not included.
• Finally, extension workers were not appraised on the basis of their performance.
Agricultural extension in Bangladesh has followed an evolutionary process of
experimentation with components of several extension approaches. Until recently the
Training and Visit (T&V) approach which was established during the late seventies formed
the backbone of the DAE’s extension practices. To increase its effectiveness and efficiency,
DAE sought to develop the approach. DAE’s Revised Extension Approach (REA, 1995)
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 7
embraced the Department’s mission within the context of New Agricultural Extension Policy
(NAEP). The REA retained many of the primary elements of the T&V approach in
combination with aspects of other recognized extension approaches and features developed
locally with Bangladesh extension partners. The result is an approach to extension, which is
largely demand driven, reliant on client and participation based on working with groups and
integrated among different extension providers.
Bhutan
The Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry was established in 1961 with the
inception of 1st Five Year Plan (FYP). Agricultural extension service evolved in relation to
agricultural research systems under the assumption that research systems would develop
agricultural technologies, and extension systems would disseminate them to farmers who
were viewed as passive beneficiaries rather than clients, stakeholders and active participants.
In the initial plan period (1960-1965), there was no clear statement on extension objectives
pursued by the Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry. A review of plan
documents showed that extension service delivery systems have gone through number of
transformation from centralized to regional, to area based to Dzongkhag (District) and Geog
(Block) extension.
Initially extension services were concentrated in and around the research and demonstration
farms. In the subsequent plan periods, efforts were made to expand the extension services to
cover all the Geogs in the country. By the beginning of 1980s, the whole country was
covered by extension network and extension activities were decentralized to the
Dzongkhags.
Extension activities were mainly aimed at promoting improved varieties of crops and
livestock breed and management practices. Efforts were made to increase the area under
fruits and vegetable, introduction of improved crop varieties, increase animal production and
improve livestock health.
During the 5th FYP (1980-1985), planning and implementation of developmental activities
including Agriculture and Animal Husbandry was decentralized to the Dzongkhag (district)
administration. Development plans were prepared by DYT (Dzongkhag Yarkay
Tshongchung or District Development Committee) and central Departments used to provide
the technical support. It was during this plan period that the deliveries of agricultural inputs
were privatized and distribution of credits taken out from the extension agents’
responsibilities. Decentralization was further taken down to Geog (block) level in early
1990s with the establishment of Geog Yarkay Tshongchung (GYT).
With the decentralization policy, the public participation became more pronounced. People
were actively involved in expressing their development and economic needs through GYT
(Geog Yarkay Tshogchung or Block Development Committee) and DYT. People were also
involved in implementation of development activities such as irrigation channel, construction
of farm road, extension centres, transportation of inputs etc.
India
The National Agricultural System evolved in India with the establishment of agricultural
department at the Imperial and Provincial government levels before independence in 1947.
8 Synthesis Report
Realizing the country’s technological needs, the Pusa Research Institute was established at
Pusa (Bihar) in 1903. The Royal Commission on Agriculture (RCA) was appointed in 1926
to examine and report on the conditions of agricultural and rural economy in India and to
make recommendations for the improvement of agriculture and the promotion of the welfare
and prosperity of rural people. The RCA 1926 made valuable recommendations and these
formed the bases of coordinated research and effective agricultural administration. One of
the important recommendations of the RCA was the creation of Imperial Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR), which was set up in 1929.
The British Administration formed several committees to understand the features of
livestock farming system and ways for its development. Among the various committees and
their reports, the reports submitted by the Royal Commission on Agriculture (RCA) and W.
A. Burns report on the Technological Possibilities of Agricultural Development in India
(1944) are considered as significant. However, the pre-independence attempts on agricultural
development were limited in scale and geographical coverage. These attempts did not have
any follow-up action and lacked specificity in terms of programme planning and
implementation. The above constraints in the agricultural development have been done away
with through the introduction of planning in the post-independence period which is
emphasized by a systematic and intensive approach.
In India, organized extension came into being in the year 1952 with the launching of
Community Development Programme followed by the establishment of National Extension
Service in 1953. Education and research studies began in 1955 with the initiation of Post
Graduation Programme in Agricultural Extension Education in Agricultural College, Sabour
in Bihar. The early extension efforts had two distinct patterns. First, there were attempts by
some benevolent persons and private agencies to improve rural life. Second, attempts were
made at the Government level to initiate some projects to solve the pressing problems in
agriculture.
The attempts made by the individual persons and private agencies are Gurgaon project in
Haryana by Mr. F.L. Brayne; Sriniketan Experiment in Bengal by Sri Rabindra Nath Tagore;
Servants’ of India Society, Pune, in Tamilnadu, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh; Sir
Daniel Hamilton’s Scheme of Rural Reconstruction at Sundarban in Bengal; Rural
Reconstruction Work by Christian Missions through Allahabad Agricultural Institute; The
Christian College, Nagpur; Marthandam Project by Dr. Spencer Hatch under the auspices of
YMCA; Sevagram Experiment in Wardha by Mahatma Gandhi; Adarsh Seva Sangh, Pohri,
Gwalior, Indian Village Service in Lucknow and Etwah in Uttar Pradesh by Mr. A.T.
Mosher and Sri B.N. Gupta and Sarvoday Programme in Bombay Province.
Among the above attempts, significant extension initiatives during pre-independence were
Gandhian Experiment in Rural Reconstruction (1920), Sri Niketan Project (1921),
Marthandam Project (1921), Gurgaon Project (1927), Rural Reconstruction Movement
(1932), Indian Village Upliftment Scheme (1944), and, Nilokheri Project and Grow More
Food Campaign (1947).
Post-independence initiatives include Etawah Pilot Project and Sarvodya Programme (1948).
However, food crisis experienced in the country in late 1950s refocused the efforts of
extension on food security and increasing food production in the form of Community
Development Programme (1952); National Extension Service (1953) and Intensive
Agricultural Development Programme (1960).
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 9
Earlier extension programs in sixties focused on creating conducive environment for
production by arranging inputs and demonstration–input intensive agriculture that too for
major food grain crops in high yield potential areas. The Intensive Agriculture Area
Programme (1964) and National Demonstration Project (NDP) was initiated in 1964-65 to
demonstrate the technology package on major crops; High Yielding Varieties Programme
with the combination of Green Revolution technology in the late 1960s and single line of
command Training & Visit System in the mid 1970s enabled India to achieve food self-
sufficiency.
The post independent extension education and development programmes launched by the
Government of India can be generally grouped into five categories. They are:
1. Community development programmes
2. Programmes for technology development
3. Programmes for development with social justice
4. Frontline extension programmes of ICAR
5. Agricultural research and development programmes by ICAR and Govt. of India.
All these programmes, though not attempted towards development of agricultural extension,
definitely aimed at improving production and productivity which ultimately helped in
obtaining more income and livelihood security. But all the programmes followed extension
approaches to reach its clients and target groups to provide them with education,
information, knowledge, skills, understanding and related matters so as to empower them in
accomplishing their goal of economic uplift.
Nepal
The history of agricultural development in Nepal can be traced since 1950 or even before.
But to have a comprehensive idea it can be divided into two parts, as follows:
Before 1950: This period includes the opening of Nurseries, Veterinary Hospitals, Central
Research Farm, and Technical School etc. Administration was centralized, and there was no
problems regarding linkages and coordination. The level of farmer's awareness and
ambitions were very low and the farming was almost subsistence type.
After 1950: Systematic efforts towards national development began in the fifties with the
formulation and subsequent implementation of the First Five-Year Plan in 1956. All the
plans formulated since then have emphasized generation of appropriate agricultural
technologies and their effective dissemination.
The agriculture extension program was first included as a built in component of the
comprehensive Tribhuwan Village Development Program (TVDP), implemented through
USAID assistance. It was essentially the integrated village development program, where
promotion of agriculture was the core component. Following "Block Development
Approach" TVDP encompassed other social components like education, adult literacy, health
and the general community development activities. However, TVDP could not continue
long.
The subsequent approaches followed in agriculture extension included the establishment of
Zonal Agriculture Development Offices (ZADOs) and District Agriculture Development
Offices (DADOs) and recruitment of field level extension workers - Junior Technicians (JTs)
10 Synthesis Report
and Junior Technical Assistants (JTAs), the JT/JTAs with a modest training in general
agriculture. The training also included agriculture extension as one of the subjects, were
supposed to make the farmers aware and persuade them towards adopting new technologies
considered superior to those already in practice.
Various extension methods such as individual contacts, group contacts and mass contacts
were used for awareness rising among the farming communities. Attempts were made to
convince the farmers about the superiority, usefulness and profitability of the advocated
technologies, applying the most common extension tools, such as method and result
demonstrations, agriculture fairs and farmer's day, farmer's field visit and observation tours,
and use of audio-visual aids. This traditional approach of extension continued for many years
before some of its basic weaknesses were recognized as the limiting factors in motivating
adequately the farming community to adopt the recommended agricultural practices. It was
realized that there were some inherent drawbacks in the system, especially in a way that
majority of the farmers could not be reached. The poor and deprived communities remained,
by and large, out of the reach of the extension services. The main reason attributed to such
situation was the limited number of field level extension workers, as compared to the vast
number of farm households, combined with difficult terrains in the hill and mountain.
The traditional extension approach was based on the "Trickle down" theory of dissemination
of technologies. The underlying assumption of this approach was that if innovation is
introduced to a small number of "progressive farmers" "contact farmers", "leader farmers"
and the likes; the diffusion process will automatically take place; and there will be multiplier
impacts of the interventions. This approach met with limited success, mainly due to the
limited resources in terms of technical advice, production inputs and , and services in remote
areas. Adequate motivation and persuasion were not there for the poor farmers to take the
benefit of technology adoption. To overcome this problem, the need for deliberate attempts
to reach such farmers was realized. To support and provide reinforcement to the field level
extension workers (JT/JTAs), Para extension workers (such as "Agriculture Assistants", and
'Tukis") were employed. However, these grassroots level extension support workers very
soon became non-functional as they were poorly paid and inadequately motivated. And the
JT/JTAs again remained the sole extension agents with a lot of limitations.
Carrying out agriculture extension activities solely by JT/JTAs was not only the numerical
problem of non-availability, but it also suffered conceptually. Under the system, too much
emphasis was laid on technical support, and social mobilization aspect was neglected. It was
deemed necessary that delivering the technical services without social preparedness, at the
receiving end, is not going to achieve the purpose of agricultural development.
Restoration of multiparty democracy in the country in 1990 gave Nepal a new multiparty
democratic constitution in 1991, which appropriately recognized decentralization as a means
to ensure optimum involvement of the people in governance. In this context it was realized
that social mobilization at farmer's community should be undertaken through farmers groups
empowered to effectively participate in development programmess. It was also considered
important that government alone may not be able to cater fully to the needs of providing
necessary production inputs and technical services to all farmers and in all geographical
areas.
Accordingly, the government has adopted the policy of carrying out the extension activities
through the farmers group approach and involving the Community Based Organizations
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 11
(CBOs) and Non-Government Organization (NGOs), in the development efforts of the
government, It is assumed that it will be easier for the extension workers to reach the
maximum number of farmers through groups; and the groups, if properly developed, can
efficiently manage its activities through their capacity build up. The approach may be
sustainable even after the phasing out of the external assistance. Despite many perceived
weaknesses in farmers’ group approach, the government is pursuing the approach to serve as
the vehicle for bringing socio-economic changes at the grassroots level. The government is
trying at best to remove the weaknesses identified so far about the groups and redefine the
role of government.
Chronology of events
1942 : Agriculture Office was established as an institutional effort.
1952 : Department of Agriculture was established.
1966 : Restructuring of Department of Agriculture and establishment of five
Departments:
- Department of Agriculture Extension
- Department of Fishery
- Department of Horticulture
- Department of Livestock Health
- Department of Agricultural Education and Research
1972 : Lack of effective coordination among the departments again led to the creation of
the Department of Agriculture.
1972 : The need and sensitivity of agricultural markets gave rise to the establishment of
the Department of Agricultural Market Services.
1979 : In view of effective program implementation of agriculture and livestock sectors
two separate departments; one for agriculture and another for livestock were
established - Department of Agriculture and Department of Livestock Services.
1990 : Establishment of Department of Horticulture.
1992 : Under one umbrella policy all the five Departments - Horticulture; Crop and
Fishery; Food, Agriculture and Market Services; Livestock Health and Food
Research Laboratory were brought into one department called the Department of
Agricultural Development. Under this department one Director General and seven
Directors were posted.
1995 : Under the new restructuring program three departments came into existence; viz -
Department of Agriculture, Department of Livestock Services, and Central Food
Research Laboratory.
2000 : To enhance the effectiveness of services and supports to the Department of
Agriculture, 11 Technical Divisions at the center were reorganized into nine
Program Directorates.
2004 : Program Directorates were reorganized and established 12 Program Directorates
and 14 National Programs under the Department of Agriculture.
12 Synthesis Report
Pakistan
In 1866 the Orissa famine triggered the need to establish a central department of agriculture
by the British rulers. By 1905, on the recommendations of the Famine Commission, the then
government of united India decided to set up department of agriculture to organize
agricultural research and demonstration farms in every province. In 1947, at the time of
partition, Pakistan inherited the provincially organized agricultural infrastructure. Since then,
agriculture in Pakistan has undergone many changes.
Agricultural extension in Pakistan did not have a separate structure till 1962 when an
independent department of agricultural extension was created within the provincial
agricultural set up. During the fifties and early sixties, agricultural extension activities were
carried out as a component of the integrated agricultural development approach whereby the
Professor of Agriculture in Agriculture Colleges, also used to act as Deputy Director
Agriculture and was responsible for agricultural research, teaching and extension. However,
in 1962, the teaching was separated from research and extension with the establishment of
West Pakistan Agricultural University Lyallpur (presently known as University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad). Since then, the agricultural extension work is planned and carried
out following a structure headed by the Provincial Secretary of Agriculture who also heads
the Department of Agricultural Research and several other related departments.
The Director General of Agricultural Extension (DGE) is the overall administrator of the
public sector in the province who is responsible to the Secretary of Agriculture at the centre.
Agricultural extension is one of the means available to help alleviate poverty and improve
food security. It promotes the transfer and exchange of information that can be converted
into functional knowledge, which is instrumental in helping to develop enterprises that
promote productivity and generate income in the present climate of change. In addition to
technology transfer, agricultural extension is a unique service in that it provides access to
small farmers and the rural poor, living far from the urban centers, in acquiring non-
formal education and information services.
Evolution of Agricultural Extension Activities in Pakistan
Pakistan is a federation of four provinces where the provincial governments are primarily
responsible for agricultural research and extension functions. Several extension approaches,
designed primarily to improve the living standard of the rural people through increased
agricultural production and improved farm income, have been tried. During the last five
decades, varying perspectives of agricultural extension have emerged emerged. These
include:
(i) The Village Cooperative Movement
This movement started in the early 50s under the aegis of the Cooperative Department. It
proposes that all farmers in every village be united under the umbrella of the village
cooperative societies, choose their own management committees, and find the means of
their development on a cooperative basis. The primary thrust of this movement is to educate
member farmers about new technologies and to arrange farm-input delivery on soft-term
credit. However, the experience suggests that the cooperative movement has not been
able to achieve a consistent success. Some places where local leadership and cooperative
department staff have been sincere and effective, it has achieved good results. It has proven a
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 13
good source of farm input supply and technology transfer to the small farmers at the village
level. .
(ii) The Village Agricultural and Industrial Development Program (Village-AID)
The Village-AID program began in Pakistan in 1952, a little after independence, with
substantial help from USAID and Ford Foundation. This program sought to bring about all-
round development of the villages through organizing village councils, building roads,
digging wells, constructing schools, and disseminating improved agricultural technology.
This program achieved a good deal of success in the beginning but became a victim of
departmental jealousies and political change in the country. With the abolition of the Village-
AID program in 1961, rural development became a part of the Basic Democracies System
(BDS).
(iii) The Basic Democracy System (BDS)
Phased in 1959, this system was designed to bring together both the elements of community
development and political development, especially at the local level. The government
administrative and development tiers were organized into five levels where the union
council, a group of 3-5 villages, was the lowest tier. The councils undertook a variety of
social and economic development work in their respective areas. The problems union
councils tried to solve were in the realm of education, infrastructure, agriculture, and
sanitation. The BDS went a long way in developing awareness and building local leadership
among the rural masses. The BDS also met the same fate as its predecessor program. The
change in the government in 1970 saw the abolition of the BDS and introduction of a new
rural development approach the 'Integrated Rural Development Program' (IRDP).
(iv) Agricultural Development Corporation (ADC)
For supply of seed, fertilizer and farm machinery, the ADCs were established in 1960 at the
provincial level in West and East Pakistan (Bangladesh). In 1970, the ADC was renamed as
Pakistan Agricultural Development and Supply Corporation (PAD&SC) which was
primarily responsible to promote cooperatives, disseminate farm information, produce,
procure and distribute improved seed, fertilizer through a well established input supply
network all over the country. Other important functions performed by ADC included
development of new lands, establishing seed farms and rendering farm equipments and
machinery to the growers. Subsequently, the government decided to disengage itself from
farm input supply functions, and the ADC was wound up.
(v) Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP)
In early 1970s, once again due to the change of political scenario and the problems
with the previous development strategies, the government decided to try a new development
approach, the IRDP. Development of agriculture was the central force behind this program.
Moreover, the IRDP was created as a subsidiary of the Agriculture Department, its
leadership was heavily drawn form the agricultural department, and all frontline workers
recruited to run this program were agricultural graduates. On the other hand, Local
Government Department controlled rural development funds. This dichotomy in modus
operandi not only resulted ample tension between the two agencies, but also created
frustration among the workers of this newly launched program. The IRDP staff, using their
14 Synthesis Report
professional skills, started a campaign to enhance agricultural productivity, which had a
tremendous impact on crop yields. Its one of the principal functions was to integrate the
functioning of various line departments and facilitate farm service delivery to the farmers at
one point. This coordinating role could not be accomplished successfully for the hard
departmental boundaries. Subsequently, in 1978, the IDRP was subsumed into the Local
Government Department and turned into a routine bureaucratic agency. (vi)
(vi) Training and Visit (T&V) System Training and Visit (T&V) system of extension was introduced in 1978 in the first phase in
the five districts of Punjab province with the financial and technical support from the Word
Bank. In the second phase, it was extended all over the country in 1986-87. Under the T &V
system of agricultural extension, the functions of transfer of technology were clearly
delineated and separated from supply functions such as provision of farm inputs.
Technology transfer was kept with agriculture extension in public sector and the functions
pertaining to supply of inputs and services were handed over to private sector or commercial
corporations.
This system had three components: adaptive research, training, and an extension wing. The
adaptive research component was responsible for the testing of the findings of applied
research at adaptive research stations established at the regional level. The most promising
innovations selected by the adaptive research scientists for the region were delivered to the
farming community by the personnel of extension wing.
The Subject Matter Specialists (SMS) along with the personnel of the training wing
conducted regular fortnightly training meetings for the extension personnel to strengthen
their professional competencies.
The number of farm families that an extension worker, locally designated as Field Assistant
(FA), could cover varied considerably from place to place depending on population density,
roads, intensity and standard of cropping, and the types and diversity of crops grown.
Generally speaking, the farm families on the jurisdiction of a FA were divided into 80
groups of about equal size. Then about 10 percent of each group was selected as contact
farmers. Usually, on an average, the number of contact farmers in a group varied from eight
to ten. FAs were supposed to visit the contact farmers according to a prefixed schedule
known to the farmers as well as their supervisors. During a fortnight, the allocation of time
of extension worker was eight days to contact farmers, two days each for training and extra
visit/office work. The system did not yield the desired results as it strengthened the existing
hierarchical tendencies with centralized management and top down planning. Several
evaluations of the T&V concluded that it failed to bring about the desired changes in
production practices, input use level and crop yields. Further it tends to marginalize the
benefits of agricultural development of small farm holders, tenant farmers, and women.
The T&V system could not sustain when the World Bank assistance was withdrawn in
1994-95 and provincial governments failed to pitch in promised operational budget.
Thus the intensity of agricultural extension approach established under the T&V system
gradually diluted. The squeeze of financial support reduced the facilities for regular backup
training to the staff and their mobility. Adaptive research farms discontinued and the morale
of extension staff affected. The vacant positions of Agricultural Officers that came to
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 15
several hundreds were never filled. Despite all such odds, the extension staff kept on
maintaining limited contacts with farmers, organizing field days and field seminars. In some
areas, train the trainer’s programme and media extension, the private sector support such as
pesticides and fertilizer companies was sought to keep the extension service in operation.
Because of certain compelling forces, at some places particularly for cotton and rice belts of
Punjab province, extension was organized differently. Both the commodities have export-
led potential. The growers became very receptive of the improved production and protection
practices. The traditional role of extension staff from person-to-person contact transformed
to electronic means and print media. The growers were encouraged to visit commodity
research institutes and acquire state-of-the-art knowledge and the best production practices.
The training of extension staff was organized on regular basis employing modern training
techniques. The monitoring and evaluation of the field staff by district and provincial
extension managers was developed on mechanical and quantitative patterns. Use of fax
machine helped sub-district and district extension officers to promptly feed the provincial
government with the latest information about availability of seed, fertilizer, irrigation
water, machinery, and other inputs besides crop stand , prevalence of any insect, pest, or
disease, the anticipated yield production levels and marketing of the farmer produce.
Sri Lanka
History reveals the presence of well managed irrigation schemes and flourishing peasant
agriculture in Sri Lanka during the periods of ancient Kings.8 The King Parackramabahu
around the period of 1150s was the first to emphasize the productivity improvement per unit
of water and land which were the limited resources for agriculture at the time. A very recent
revelation suggests that Great King Mahasen who ruled from 377 to 404 AD contributed
significantly to Sri Lankan agriculture even during the Fourth Century.9
Agricultural extension is reported to have started in Sri Lanka during the colonial regime of
the Dutch in the 17th Century with Cinnamon crop for export.
10 During the 18
th and 19
th
Century, the British colonial rulers developed the system further.
With the breakdown of vibrant agricultural economy, after a series of foreign invasions
starting from 1640 to 1812, the earliest attempt to build up the peasant agriculture
commenced by the British after 1880s.11
Historical records reveal that from about 1880, agricultural instructors with two year training
in agriculture were posted to work on agriculture under government agents. In 1904 the
Ceylon Agricultural Society (CAS) was established by the wealthier planters, land owners
and agriculturists to help native farmers. The extension work was carried out by the CAS in
collaboration with the heads of districts.
The British introduced the Botanical Gardens in Paradeniya and Gampaha with aim of
spreading out Tea, Coffee and Rubber cultivation. This eventually developed into the
8 Hathurusinghe, L.K. 2010. Agriculture Extension in Sri Lanka, A paper presented at the Workshop on Rural Development for
High Level Officers of AFACI Member Countries., Suwon, Korea, 7-14 Auguat 2010.
http://www.moaf.gov.bt/moaf/wpfb_dl=455 9 The Daily Star, May, 2013. 10 Hathurusinghe, L.K. 2010 Loc. cit. 11 Samuel, R. P. Extension Services of the Food Crop Sector. Department of Agricultlure, Sri Lanka; Historical Development, Current Position And Future Directions. http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=69157
16 Synthesis Report
Department of Agriculture (DOA) in 1912, mainly to cater the needs of plantation sector. In
early 1920s the agricultural extension service was developed as a part of the DOA..
In 1921 the staff of Ceylon Agricultural Society (CAS) was absorbed into DOA. In 1922 the
functions of DOA was defined as research, extension and education when the country faced
severe food shortage as an aftermath of the First World War.
Research institutes were developed for Tea, Rubber and Coconut. In order to cater for the
requirements of farmers, extension arms such as Tea Smallholding Authority, Rubber
Controllers Department, Coconut Cultivation Board, Coconut Development Authority were
added.
After the independence in 1948, greater attention was paid by the government on the
production of rice. Divisional Agriculture Officers were involved in planning and execution
of extension activities.
In Sri Lanka four major agricultural extension reforms were undertaken in the peasant
agricultural sector since independence of the country in 1948. In 1957, District Agricultural
Extension Officers and village level extension worker Krusikarma Vyapthi Sevaka (KVSs)
were appointed. This is the first significant attempt taken to widen the accessibility of the
extension services to the peasant farming community.
The second major reform was the introduction of T&V system in 1979. This system became
a failure due to number of reasons such as financial scarcity, lack of research linkage, social
problems and administrative difficulties.
The third reform was absorbing of the village level agricultural extension offices (KVSs)
from agricultural service to administrative service as village offices in 1989. However,
village officers are the grass roots level administrative officers of the state service have
nothing to do with agriculture. This political decision taken to abolish the field level
extension layer has given long-term negative consequences to the development of the
agricultural sector in the country.
The fourth one was the implementation of Integrated Agricultural Extension Service in 1993.
The main objectives of the programme were to strengthen the different agricultural extension
services in the country by integrating their functions. Currently extension service of DOA is
accused for not doing enough. This should be considered seriously by the policy makers
while the majority of the farmers are small holders and economically vulnerable. They are
not economically strong enough to pay for extension yet.
Another important development was the Mahawal Development Authority of Sri Lanka
(MASL) in the 1970s under the Mahawal River Development Scheme. All agricultural
activities, including extension, of the Mahawal Development Area came under the
jurisdiction of MASL.
Establishment of NAES
Conventional extension approach
The DAEO was responsible for administration of district extension staff and,
implementation, supervision and monitoring and evaluation of the extension programs for
both crops and livestock under the conventional agricultural extension approach that existed
till late 1970s.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 17
Although the extension system was progressively strengthened, the conventional extension
system had more weaknesses such as lack of technical guidance, heavy load of non-
extension activities, thin coverage by extension officers, lack of mobility facilities of field
extension staff and poor research-extension linkage.
Chapter Summary
From historical perspective, the SAARC countries under discussion can be considered under
two headings: those that were under colonial rules and those outside colonial regimes.
The British ruled over the Indian sub-continent that included Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and
also Sri Lanka. Outside the colonial empire were Bhutan and Nepal.
Post colonial countries
In Bangladesh, agricultural extension per se started in 1947 after the British left with the
independence India. The government established agricultural demonstration farms in district
headquarters, the Directorate of Agriculture started publishing reading materials, conducting
demonstrations, fairs and exhibitions, group and mass meetings, organizing crop
competitions. A good number of agricultural organizations were established.
Bangladesh was liberated from the Pakistani rulers and organizational reforms took place
while the conventional extension work continued.
In 1977 the T&V system of extension was introduced and it operated till 1993. It was soon
realized that the system, though introduced some regular extension activities, was top down,
expensive and failed to address the problems of small and marginal farmers. The World
Bank funding stopped and the system was abandoned.
The Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) developed its Revised Extension
Approach (REA) within the context of New Agricultural Extension Policy (NAEP) of 1996.
REA emphasized bottom up participatory demand driven extension covering all types of
farmers including women farmers, small and marginal farmers.
India, being under the same British Empire as Bangladesh, had a similar historical
background as that of Bangladesh. Organized extension started in 1952 with the launching of
the Community Development Programme followed by establishment of National Extension
Service in 1953 and the Intensive Agricultural Development Programme in 1960. The single
line command T&V system was adopted which with the introduction of Green Revolution
technologies in late 1960 pushed production and India achieved food self-sufficiency in
towards the end of 1970s.
Pakistan, also having the same historical background as that of Bangladesh and India under
the British Empire, did not have a separate structure for agricultural extension till 1962 when
the Department Agricultural Extension was created in the provinces. Since then agricultural
extension planning is prepared by the Provincial Secretary of Agriculture. It adopted several
extension approaches (Village Cooperative Movement, Village Agricultural Development
Programme, the Basic Democracy System, Agricultural Development Corporation,
Integrated Rural Development Programme, T&V System of Extension, Crop Maximization
Programmes (Rice, Cotton, Potato etc), Barani Agricultural Research and Development
Programme etc.
18 Synthesis Report
In the recent past, extension has partially been decentralized to the district and it is alleged to
have weakened the research extension linkage.
Sri Lanka’s history of agriculture can be traced back to the time of ancient kings. Under the
colonial rules, the Sri Lankan agriculture had emphasis on plantation crops (Coconut, Tea,
Rubber etc). With the independence of the country in 1948, extension service put emphasis
of other food crops like rice and subsidiary food crops. The country went through
conventional research, T&V system and the so-called Second Agricultural Extension (SAEP)
which attempted participatory and integrated approach for food crops with partial success.
It would thus appears that even having the same historical background, the countries
(Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) had different development strategies and they
are at different stages of development.
Outside side the colony
Nepal and Bhutan, being outside the British Empire, had different historical background.
Their historical records of agriculture started in 195Os and 196Os respectively but they
appear to have caught up with modern extension systems where participatory bottom up
extension have already been emphasized.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 19
CHAPTER
Organization of National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries
(i) Agencies Involved in Extension Systems
Bangladesh
Although Bangladesh, India and Pakistan had the same historical background, they have
followed different development pathways in agricultural extension and have different
organizational structures. In Bangladesh agencies are:
• Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE),
• Department of Livestock (DLS),
• Department of Fisheries (DoF) and
• Forest Department (FD), each under a separate ministry.
In addition, extension activities are undertaken under:
• Cotton Development Board (CDB),
• Agricultural Information Services (AIS) and
• Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation (BADC), all under the Ministry
of Agriculture, and also
• Water Development Board under the Ministry of Water Resources,
• Bangladesh Academy of Rural Development (BARD), Comilla and
• Rural Development Academy (RDA), Bogra under the Ministry of Local
Government Rural Development.
• Besides there are hosts of NGOs including BRAC, PROSHIKA, etc.
Bhutan
In Bhutan, the extension agencies have been delineated under:
National Level: (Department of Agriculture, Department of Livestock, Department of
Forest and Park Services, Department of Agricultural Marketing and Cooperatives (DAMC)
under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests; and Dzongkhag level (District) level with
RNR heads for Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry.
In between, there are the Regional Level agencies (Regional RNR Research and
Development Centers (Crops), Regional Livestock Development Centers) but these centres
and farms do not have direct extension mandate but support Dzongkhag (District) extension
system with input supply and technical backstopping). In addition, there are veterinary
hospitals in almost all the Dzongkhag to support animal health.
At the bottom is the Geog (Block) Level extension agency (RNR EA), staffed with an
Extension Agent from Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry (though one RNR EA sometimes
may cover two Geogs).
3
20 Synthesis Report
India
India has a somewhat complex system of extension and they even vary from state to state.
In the public sector, the extension machinery of the state Department of Agriculture (DoA)
reaches down to the block and village level. Agricultural Technology Management Agency
(ATMA) is a district level autonomous agency entrusted with the role of agricultural
technology management in the district. The district collector/deputy commissioner heads the
ATMA Governing Body, with members drawn from the line departments, Krishi Vigyan
Kendra (KVKs), farmers and NGOs.
The number of KVKs (funded by the ICAR) has increased with time, 600 KVKs have so far
been established in the country. The motto is to cover each district with one KVK with a
mandate of technology application through on-farm trials, demonstrations and training. It is
the largest research based extension at the district level. However, the effective reach of
these KVKs is yet marginal mainly due to inadequate linkages with other development
agencies. Moreover, their main focus is on technology testing, assessment and application
under farmers’ conditions.
The number and diversity of private extension service providers has increased during last
two decades. These include NGOs, producer associations, input agencies, media and agri-
business companies, but their effective reach is limited and many of the distant and remote
areas and poor producers are neither served by the public nor the private sector.
The Govt. of India launched Kissan Call Centres to leverage the extensive telecom network
in the country to deliver extension services to the farmers. The purpose of these call centres
is to respond to queries and issues raised by farmers instantly in the local language on a
nationwide toll free number (1800180 1551).
Marketing extension has been a recent addition but is understood and implemented mostly as
provision of output price information in various markets and this is highly inadequate to
address the challenges in marketing.
Other extension support facilities created include: farmer training centres at the district level;
SAMETI (State Agricultural Management Extension and Training Institute) at the state
level, EEI (Extension Education Institute) at the regional level; and MANAGE (National
Institute for Agricultural Extension Management) at the national level.
The major agencies involved in the extension system (GO) are:
• Department of Agriculture, Govt. of India and of different States
• National Agricultural Research and Extension System comprising of ICAR and
SAUs
Major Non Government agencies are:
• Farmers Co-Operatives, FIGs, CIGs, FFS etc, Industrial houses like ITC, Nagarjuna
Fertilizers, Seed companies etc.
Nepal
Public agencies
At the public level, there is the Department of Agriculture (DOA). It has District Agriculture
Development Offices (DADOs) and District Livestock Services Office (DLSOs).
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 21
The Agriculture Service Centres (ASCs) are the grassroots institutions to provide the
agriculture extension services to farmers. The number of ASCs per district was reduced not
long ago and this created the pressure in the ASC to cover the larger numbers of clienteles.
As a result, DOA provided flexibility to districts to establish contact centers (Samparka
Kendra) to effectively utilize the existing physical resources such as Agriculture Sub-Service
Centers (ASSC) as well as the Village Development Committees (VDCs).
The concept of Community Agriculture Service Centre (CASC) has been put forward
recently by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MoAC) with the objective of
making the service delivery more inclusive as well as to help commercialization in
agriculture. However, it is yet to be implemented. Similarly, recently farmer's cooperatives
are equally utilized in the delivery of agriculture extension service.
International /National Nongovernmental organizations (I-NGOs)
There are ten thousand non-government organizations involved in community and rural
development sector. I-NGOs have played a very significant role in Nepalese society in a
number of ways including successfully arousing consciousness and making advocacy of/for
a number of developmental issues and other global democratic values.
Community Based Organizations
Indigenous Comminity Based Organizations (CBOs) were well established traditions in
Nepal in the past but has since eroded. These are characterized by social, religious and
developmental practices, quite unique to each ethnic group. Here the rural elites tend to have
overriding decision making powers.
CBOs are, however, recognized as organizations that provide development services to
grassroots communities at the village and the district level through mobilization of paid
members or unpaid volunteers. It is important to differentiate between induced and
indigenous CBOs. Indigenous CBO ranges form of mere farmer groups to well organized
structures such as federations, forums, networks, cooperatives, and so on.
Pakistan
A wide range of agencies including public, private, and civil society organizations have been
engaged, at different level, in the diffusion of information to the farmers of Pakistan. To
reinforce the extension effort, time to time, several commodity-and area-specific initiatives
were also undertaken. These include:
(i) Public Sector Agricultural Extension System
• Barani Area Development Programme
• Crop Maximization Programs: Italian Crop Maximization Program, Cotton
Maximization Program, Rice Maximization Program, Training and Visit System,
Barani Agricultural Research & Development Program (BARD), Pak-Swiss Potato
Program, Agricultural Extension Services (AES) in ICT, and Technology transfer
program of NARC.
(ii) Private Sector Extension • Fertilizer Producing and Marketing Firms.
• Pesticide company, mostly involved in marketing their products.
• Rafhan Maize Product/Sugar Mills.
22 Synthesis Report
(iii) Civil Society/Non-Government Organizations-Driven Extension and
(iv) Universities-Supported Extension
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka extension service is mainly in the hands of the public sector agencies. These
include:
• Department of Agriculture & Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka
• Tea Research Institute
• Rubber Research Institute
• Coconut Research Institute
• Sri Lanka Cashew Corporation
• Sugarcane Research Institute
• Department of Export Agriculture
• Royal Botanic Garden
• Department of Animal Production and Health
• Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
NGO and the private sector, however, play some role and these include:
• NGOs (Care International, Red Bana, and Sarvodaya)
• Private Sector Extension Service (Hechem, Ceylon Tobacco Company, Baurs Ltd,)
(ii) Extension Planning Processes In SAARC Countries
Bangladesh
The DAE has adopted Work Programming - a system by which SAAOs (former Block
Supervisors) plan and assess the work they do at the block level.
The system provides:
• SAAOs with increased freedom and responsibility for planning and assessing their
own work, and hence raise their motivation.
• The supervising officers with a means of assessing SAAO’s performance against
verifiable indicators.
• A framework for the recognition of good work.
There are five stages in the work programming process:
• Planning at the beginning of each fortnight, by the SAAOs, of tasks to be carried out
during the following two weeks, and agreement of this plan with the supervisor;
• Assessment by the SAAO of their own performance at the end of the fortnight;
• Constructive analysis of performance in a meeting between the SAAO and
supervisor;
• Agreement of a new work plan for the next fortnight, incorporating initiatives to
improve capability, resource availability and motivation where required and learning
from the successes and failures of previous work programs.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 23
These blocks level plans are reviewed at the Thana/Upazila Agricultural Extenssion
Coordination Committee, (T/UAECC), the District Extension Planning Committee (DEPC)
and the Agricultural Technical Committee (ATC) at the regional level, before the plans are
sent to the DAE Field Service Wing at the headquarters.
The Department of Livestock (DLS) and the Department of Fisheries (DoF) do not have
extension workers below the Upazila level but can take advantage of the services of the DAE
field staffs.
Bhutan
The planning of RNR development activities are basically done by the Geog Yarkay
Tshokchung (GYT) or the Block Development Committee and the Dzongkhag Yarkay
Tshokchung (DYT) or the District Development Committee at the district, in concurrence
with RNR sector development policy. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forests and the
Gross National Happiness Committee (GNHC) or the Planning Commission facilitates the
planning process at different stages. At the Dzongkhag level, the Dzongkhag Planning
Officer is entrusted with overall responsibility to coordinate Geog and Dzongkhag plans.
With the empowerment of the local government institutions, GYT and DYT play vital roles
in identifying the RNR sector development needs and priorities. Initial plans are prepared by
GYT by local leaders (Tshogpa) from different communities in the Geog. Considering the
technical feasibility and government policy, the GYT reviews and accepts the proposal for
inclusion in the plan. Once the plans are finalized by GYT, it is presented to DYT which is
chaired by a Chairman (elected from among the village heads (Gups) and attended by Dasho
Dzongdag (District Commissioner) and Dzongkhag sector heads. DYT, after a thorough
review, approves the plans of the GYT considering the budget ceiling provided to
Dzongkhag. After finalizing the Dzogkhag plan, it is sent to GNHC (planning commission).
Besides Geog and Dzongkhags, plans coordinated by GNHC, programmes and projects at
central and regional level under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests also develop
extension activities in consultation with communities and RNR field staffs. The funding of
such projects is outside the budget ceiling allocated to Dzongkhag but the budget comes
from projects and programmes supported by donors and the government( RGOB).
India
At national level, the planning process is undertaken through a well defined rigorous
exercise of formulating a national extension plan once in every five years. This exercise is
carried out by the Planning Commission in collaboration with the Ministry of agriculture,
ICAR, State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), reputed NGOs and farmers.
For every five years, a national level working group is constituted for the purpose under the
Chairmanship of a Secretary level officer with a good experience in the field of agriculture,
planning, evaluation, finance and various aspects of governance.
Under the core group, various sub groups are constituted to review the ongoing programmes,
current status, future needs and challenges. Leading agricultural scientists, extension experts,
administrators, technocrats, representatives of NGOs working in the agricultural
development, farmers’ representatives etc are included as members of the working group and
sub groups.
24 Synthesis Report
After reviewing the development during the current plan period, the sub-group members
work out various programmes and budgetary requirement for the next five years with respect
to various aspects like training, HRD, extension for disadvantaged areas etc. For the
planning process of the current XII plan period, a total number of nine sub groups were
constituted covering various aspects of Extension. Theme areas identified for the formulation
of XII plan were:
• Technology Mapping, Adoption, Impact, Farm Innovations & Agricultural
Education
• Extension Planning and Management in Agriculture and Allied Sectors
• HRD, Training & Accreditation
• Involvement of Panchayati Raj institutions, Literacy Missions, Cooperatives, Urban
local bodies, Schools & Colleges, farmer groups and other organisations for
community Mobilization and Farmers Empowerment
• Extension through Information & Communication Technology, Electronic Media,
Print Media, Documentation and publications
• Public-Private Partnership for agricultural development
• Convergence and programme delivery for agricultural development
• Extension Strategies for difficult areas (J&K, NE & Hill Areas, Sensitive Coastal
areas, Bundelkhand, Naxal affected, Rainfed/ drought prone) disadvantaged farmers
(tribal, small & marginal and tenant) and farm workers
• Empowering Women for Agricultural Development
Similarly, individual state Governments, also constitute expert groups for planning their
agricultural development and extension programmes based on the national priorities and
their current relevance to their states.
Budgeting for the individual theme areas are worked out based on the components
incorporated. A final consolidated report is prepared by the working group by examining the
individual sub group reports and the budget proposed. National level review and discussions
are held to prepare the final plan document of extension programmes (for the plan period)
along with the budgetary requirement. It is submitted to the planning commission. The
planning commission finally examines the document and approves the programmes for
implementation, along with programme-wise financial allocation. The funds are made
available by the Govt. of India under the respective programmes/schemes to the
implementing agencies and the states.
Nepal
Problem Identification Process
Within the DOA and DOLS Participatory Bottom-Up Planning (PBUP) process of
agricultural extension program planning is followed based on national agriculture policy. For
this, Central Program Directorate and Offices of DOA and DOLS prepare technical
guidelines in their respective areas. The departments compile technical guidelines along with
the guidelines provided by the National Planning Commission (NPC) and MOAC. The
prepared guidelines and directives are made available to District Agriculture Development
Officers (DADOs) and District Livestock Officers (DLSOs) through Regional Directors. The
DADO and DLSO Chief inform their Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs) and In-charges of
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 25
Agriculture Service Centres and Agriculture Service Sub-Centres (ASC/ASSC) and other
technicians about central guidelines and directives and the guidelines received from the
District Development Committee (DDC). The guidelines and directives should reach ASC/
ASSC before the Participatory Bottom Up Planning (PBUP) at the ASC/ASSC level starts.
Levels of planning
The ASC/ASSC level planning can be divided into planning for pocket area and District
level planning, Regional level planning workshop and Central Level programme
reconciliation and approval of ASC/ASSC level planning (Planning for pocket areas)
Agricultural production pockets are geographical locations that are agro- climatologically
suitable for the production of a particular commodity or for other agricultural productions.
For the intervention of agricultural extension, pockets nearing potentialities of commercial
production and with access of irrigation, road, market, electricity and agro-based industries
are selected. Agricultural production pockets may cover certain areas of a word or it may
spread in more than one VDC and even areas of more than one ASC/ASSC.
Planning in the pocket area is done by using participatory planning tools mainly PC/PS.
PC/PS can be supplemented by one or more PRA tools to get necessary information about
the pocket area.
Outcomes of the PC/PS exercise will be the activities related to one or more elements of
production packages that may include small irrigation, inputs management, agricultural land,
agricultural roads, rural electrification, production technology, agro-processing and market
management etc. These packages are provided in the pocket area to fully exploit the
production potential of the particular commodity; that what is called Pocket Package
Program (PPP). These activities, related to elements of production package, are combined to
give a form of a time-bound project with specific objectives, activities to be carried out,
resources required, roles and responsibilities of major actors. Thus prepared projects, in
crude forms, are later translated by the ASC/ASSC into the standard Project Formulation
Format (PPF) circulated by DOA.
District Level Planning
DADO is the converging point for the adjustment in the district agricultural needs and
priorities and central directives, guidelines and resources (budget ceiling). Programs/ projects
generated in ASC/ASSCs provide the basis for DADO annual program. In addition, it
compiles analyses and updates the data coming from the ASC/ASSCs.
DADO itself also prepares programs that are implemented directly from the DADO
headquarters. These programs are to support the programs/activities, but beyond the capacity
to run by ASC/ASSCs themselves. These programs include district and regional in-service
and farmers training, district level workshop, feasibility study, impact studies, agricultural
business and market promotion, coordination and management of internal and external
resources, monitoring and evaluation etc. All these activities should necessarily be the
activities of different projects. Projects thus formed are discussed in the District Agricultural
Development Committee (DADC).
In line with the concept of promotion of partnership and pluralism in extension, DADO can
offer some of its selected activities to NGOs/CBOs, farmers' groups and private sectors to
26 Synthesis Report
implement in partnership or contract-out on competitive basis according to the guidelines
provided by the MOAC.
Finally DADO will prepare a comprehensive scenario of agricultural development of the
district that also include annual program to be launched in the district, their objectives,
responsibilities of personnel and organizations, resources required, calendar of operations
etc. Programs thus prepared by the DADO are submitted in the District Assembly (DA)
through Agriculture, Forest and Environment Committee and District Level Planning
Coordination Committee of DDC for approval.
Regional level planning workshop
DADO presents program approved by DA in the regional program budget workshop
organized by the concerned RDA. In regional workshop mainly technical aspects of district
programs are discussed and resource matching is done. Besides DADOs, other participants
are central program directorates, regional offices of line agencies, government farms and
resource centers and laboratories. Line agencies are invited into the workshop to ensure
better coordination in program implementation. There may be amendments in the district
programs only from technical point of view.
Central level program reconciliation and approval
DOA reconciles the district programs on the basis of guidelines and directives provided by it,
technical aspects of the program and budget ceiling in the presence of central level program
directors and it forwards the programmes to MOAC. Several rounds of discussions are held
at MOAC, National Planning Commission (NPC) and Ministry of Finance, and programs are
approved with or without trimming them. DOA receives that approved budget and programs
that it sends to each DADO to implement.
Projectization of Agricultural Extension Activities
DOA has started to adopt projectization approach for district extension programs. District
extension activities have now been converted into project format. Any extension activity is
now a component of a defined project with clear title, purpose, objectives, indicators, and
institutional arrangements of managing implementation and monitoring and evaluation.
Projectization Process
1. Farmers' problems are identified and prioritized using PC/PS process in the pocket area
with the involvement stakeholders. PC/PS process clearly identifies project purpose and
logic.
2. Prioritized problems and solutions lead clearly to project components. Project
components are fitted together into a project design format.
A good project design/document, in a simple way, makes clear:
• Why the project is proposed, and exactly what the project sets out to accomplish
• Who will benefit
• Why and how the project is expected to accomplish its purpose and objectives- its
strategy and set of activities
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 27
• How those involved will know when they have accomplished what they set out do,
and (v) The timeframe, resources, polices, and implementation arrangements for
doing so.
Projects are then fitted into a prevailing program-budget formulating formats. DADO
forwards the annual programs for the approval of related authorities.
Recent Interventions in Reforming Extension Planning Services
Participatory project planning process is developed, and accordingly, extension activities of
all districts are being projectized from FY 2001/02. The projects are based on local priorities
identified through a participatory bottom -up planning process institutionalized throughout
the organizations in DOA. Projects such as AREP (HMGN/WB), TLDP (HMGN/ADB),
HARP (HMGN/DFID) etc have established participatory planning tools such as PC/PS,
SLA, PRA, VLW etc.
With projectization, it has now become possible to identify components based on local
priorities directly benefiting the users, linking measurable outputs to objectives for a given
timeframe and designing activities/inputs to produce the desired outputs and impacts. The
process could establish a system, within the organization from the national to grassroots
level, of standard project management, staff utilization and monitoring. Project profiles are
documented at each level of the organization (national planning commission, ministry,
department, region and district).
In preparation for implementation of the projectization process, extension staffs in the field
are oriented en mass followed by a refresher training to prepare a cadre of at least one master
trainer in each district, regional and central program units. The projectization process
enhanced the need of linking central program units to districts for technical back up in
project identification, project formulation and monitoring. Visits of senior subject matter
specialists form these units to district project sites become more frequent.
With projects’ initiative, the government introduced policy reform to promote public private
partnership, partnership with beneficiary groups and community organizations.
Agencies within the organization began to be oriented to change the mindset to promote such
collaboration and partnerships. Policy of contracting out extension programs is emphatically
introduced.
The newly introduced reforms in national extension strategy, initiated under the projects,
created heavy need for staff orientation across the organization to reorient the extension
agents associated with GOs and NGOs, PSOs and CBOs and also policy makers affiliated to
local bodies. The key contents of this mass training are the changed role of public sector as a
facilitator rather than a service provider, commercial outlook to service delivery, social
mobilization and participatory development tools.
Sustainability of these initiatives is ensured from the fact that DOA/DOLS reformed national
training strategy commencing implementation from the beginning of the tenth five-year plan
(2002-07). New training modules for areas such as project planning, project monitoring and
evaluation, marketing, commercial farming, mainstreaming gender in agriculture and
agricultural resource management needed to improve human resource capability are
prepared.
28 Synthesis Report
Available socio-economic studies and district database analysis indicates that farm level
productivity and income during various projects’ period has significantly increased.
However, this gain is realized in limited resourceful areas and among resourceful farmers,
making the national benefit at large very nominal and far behind the national requirement.
For feedback to national extension system, the impact studies, case studies and special
technical studies are initiated. These studies validate the impacts of priority national
programs or, in more cases, the impacts of micro-level projects at beneficiary level.
Pakistan
The extension programs are planned by the top management in the light of the priorities
determined by the federal and provincial governments. However, the system has now
slightly been decentralized in the sense that each district is to prepare seasonal (Rabi-Kharif)
plans with given targets which are mostly aimed at increasing crop production.
While preparing these district plans, agricultural extension personnel consult research
scientists and other stakeholders through the established inter-agencies, intra-agency linkages
but with very little input from small farmers. Primarily the identification of emerging
problems and suggesting solution in response to the technological needs of the farmers is the
responsibility of field officials of extension programs. With the implementation of
Devolution Plan, the district is made the focal point for planning and implementation of
extension programs.
There are very active and diverse interest groups and associations of specific commodity
producers such as Cotton Farmers Associations, Mango Farmers Association, Sugarcane
Growers Association and Chambers of Agriculture at various levels. They play important roles
in lobbying for attainment of concessions in the planning process. Likewise, another small
group of resource-rich farmers, who are capable of articulating their concerns at the highest
echelon, have considerable influence in the extension planning process.
The other perspective in the planning process indicates that a majority (84%) of farmers in
Pakistan are small farmers. This group of farmers is resource poor, with minimal access to
inputs, credit and advice, and thus lacks the power and organizational capacity to exert pressure
on research, extension and other public establishments to get their voices heard and provide
feedback in the planning process and to have farmers’ friendly policies with regard to inputs,
services, marketing, and advisory services.
There exist the district-and provincial-level committees and boards of various commodities
where the representatives of agricultural universities, colleges, institutes, some NGOs and
private/corporate sector organizations, and different commodity-specific groups of growers
participate in the planning and implementation of agricultural extension program.
Priority Fixation of Extension Activities
The agricultural extension system had a top-down tendency in its operation, and, therefore, the
decision making and prioritization of extension activities is greatly influenced by the federal and
provincial governments.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 29
Sri Lanka
In the cases of plantation crops, the respective research institutes/boards/corporation are
involved in extension planning and implementation.
The government research and extension agencies are actively involved in farmer problems in
production, processing, marketing and social problems in the dairy/poultry sectors. Three
themes are considered in agriculture extension policy planning in the livestock sector:
• Farming community participation in the planning process, assuring the sustainable
development of the wellbeing of the farmers.
• Contribution and responsiveness of the private sector service institutions for farmer
needs, and relieve the government from financial burden in servicing the farmers.
• The state role as to take the leadership standing as the focal point who would set
policy, public resources allocation, rather than a as a provider of all services.
Thus a bottom up planning is noticeable here.
a. Problem identification process
Farmer need identification is facilitated by self managed livestock farmer societies which
have been established. Strengths of these societies are at different levels. Dairy Villages, All
Island Poultry Association, All Island Pig Association, Milco Farmer Societies and
Mahaweli Farmer societies are some other livestock industrial stakeholder managed
societies. These societies can be identified as sources of current problem identification.
NGOs have a role in assisting them.
Further, industrial developmental issues, animal breeding, diseases prevention and control,
feed resources development, production and processing, marketing, institutional and
manpower development issues are identified at various workshops, seminars and also at state
officials progress review meetings.
b. Priority fixation of action activities
Technology transfer, facilitation for empowerment, and advisory services are prioritized
extension activities.
(iii) Coordination mechanisms in extension systems in SAARC countries
Bangladesh
The DAE Management Committee -- In order to ensure co-ordination between different
Wings of DAE, the Director General of DAE heads the DAE Management. Committee,
Partnership – A number of institutional mechanisms have been established to encourage
partnership between different types of extension agents that enables GOs, NGOs and the
private sector to work together to provide an integrated service to farmers.
DAE is heavily biased towards crop production. Other extension agencies (livestock,
fisheries etc.) may be keen to utilize the services of DAE because it employs the most field
staff in the government agricultural sector and has national coverage.
30 Synthesis Report
Sharing Strengths and Resources - The NAEP aims at developing all types of partnership
between GO, NGO and the private sector extension agencies. Improved co-ordination,
through the various committees established under the NAEP (NATCC at the National Level,
ATC at the Regional Level, DEPC at the District, and agricultural committees at the Upazila
and the Union Level) enable extension providers to share their strengths and resources.
Bhutan
Nationally four technical Departments (Agriculture, Forest and Park Services, Livestock,
Agri.Marketing and Cooperatives) are responsible for coordinating extension plans and
programmes at the Dzongkhag (district) level. There are also regional RNR research and
development centre which partly coordinate research- extension programmes. There are five
such regional centers (RDC) and each center has extension unit to link research extension
activities.
Besides RNR-RDC, there are four Regional Livestock Development Centre (RLDC) which
provides technical backstopping to Dzogkhags (district) and Geogs (blocks). At the
Dzongkhags level, there are three sector heads, responsible for Agriculture, Livestock and
Forestry extension respectively. The major roles of the District Extension System (DES) are:
• Providung guidance for the development of annual RNR extension programme for
the Geog and Dzongkhag.
• Coordinating implementation of Dzongkhag-level activities in the field.
• Organizing meeting with the Geog Extension Centre (GEC) to review and plan the
field activities.
• Facilitating and mobilizing funds for RNR activities within the Dzongkhag.
• Collaborating with RNR related agencies in delivering effective extension services.
• Providing feedback to departments and relevant agencies carrying out monitoring
and evaluation of planned activities.
• Maintaining vertical and horizontal communication linkage.
• Conducting monitoring and reporting of district extension programmes
• Supporting Local Governments in preparing development plans
Extension staffs at the GEC coordinate the planning and implementation of field activities
with the Geog Administration and the concerned sector at the district level. Three sectors at
the Geog level also plan the execution of field activities jointly so that there is minimum
disturbance to the farmers.
Extension Coordination Committee
To better coordinate the implementation of extension programmes, Extension Coordination
Committee (ECC) is constituted at the national level, a cross sectoral committee attended by
the concerned senior officers from each department and agencies under Ministry of
Agriculture. The ECC has overriding mandate to facilitate the coordination and integration
of RNR extension services amongst the various agencies of the MoAF. ECC is structurally
based with the Council for RNR Research of Bhutan (CoRRB) .
India
The extension programmes in the country are implemented through various agencies and at
the district level the programmes are coordinated through the Agricultural Technology
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 31
Management Agency (ATMA) which is a society of stake holders in agriculture for
sustainable agricultural development in the district. It is the focal point for integrated
research and extension activities endowed with the responsibility of all technology
dissemination activities at the district level. The budgetary requirement for different
programmes coordinated by ATMA is routed through ATMA for better coordination and
utilisation of the funds.
ICAR has established eight Zonal Project Directorates in the country to coordinate and
monitor the activities of Krishi Vigyan Kendras established in the country. At the ICAR
HQs, the activities are monitored by Division of Ag Extension headed by Deputy Director
General along with a team of two Assistant Director Generals.
In the SAU system the programmes are monitored by the Director of Extension and his team.
A joint guideline signed by the Secretary, Department of Agricultural Research and
Education (DARE) and Secretary, Agriculture was issued for achieving coordination
between the KVK and ATMA.
Zonal level coordination meetings are organised to review the programme progress and
suggesting further course of action as per the mandated activities. It may be noted that KVKs
have increased with time to cover the districts but some districts are yet to have a KVK, even
now. This points to the gaps in the system.
Nepal
District Coordination Committee is responsible for establishing coordination of regular
program activities of the districts. The project activities are decided jointly by project
personnel and extension workers. The planned activities are coordinated by the Agriculture
section of the project.
Under the decentralization policy of the HMG/N, District Development Committee (DDC) is
responsible to build and approve programs in different fields in consultation with all
concerned agencies (DADO, AIC, LSC, ADB/N, Cooperatives, Research farmers, etc.) and
the representatives from different users groups. It is also a mechanism to establish
coordination of regular program activities of the District.
AIC (Agricultural Information and Communication Centre) with necessary farm inputs
chanalizes its activities through the cooperatives, sales depots, private dealers, etc. in various
parts of the country and works in close contact with extension for what, when and how much
inputs to be supplied. On the other side, Agricultural Development Bank (ADB) makes
available loans/credits either through cooperatives or directly to the needy farmers in
consultation with the District Agricultural Offices. It is, therefore, necessary that for the
success of a program, the function of these agencies must be integrated with one another.
Coordination and Linkage Model of Agro-Technology Technology
A model of agro-technology development and dissemination has been outlined (Paudel and
Thakur, 2008) in Nepal . This model depicts how agro-technology is generated, verified and
disseminated to the end users/clienteles. The model is based on participatory concept
involving public-private-partnership where international, national, regional, and local
stakeholders are linked to agriculture research and development (R&D). The limit of
research is up to outreach research (OR) site where extension agencies are supposed to take
fine tuned technologies for wider dissemination.
32 Synthesis Report
The Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) is responsible for technology
development while Department of Agriculture (DoA), Department of Livestock Services
(DLS) and Community Based Organizations (CBOs) are the partners of technology
dissemination.
International/National Government Organizations (I/NGOs) are involved in research and
development according to their priority and target set, as well. Institutions which have strong
linkage at Out Reach (OR) site and which have poor linkage, serve their function to deliver
technologies to the clienteles with strong commitments and weak commitment respectively.
Extension institutions at the grassroots level are of public (government) organizations,
international or national non-governmental organizations, community based organizations
and private organizations.
Government Organizations
Government organizations at the grassroots level are the Agricultural Service Centers (ASC)
and their sub-centers (ASSC) located at particular locations to serve assigned number of
Village Development Committees (VDCs). Earlier Junior Technicians (JT) and Junior
Technical Assistants (JTAs) were supposed to provide mobile extension services in the
villages. With the growing demand of the farmers and their limited number, JT/JTAs could
not cater their services efficiently. Then the government changed its policy to station these
JT/JTAs in the ASCs and provide extension service to Farmers' Groups (FG) through these
stations. They have to go to the villages and farmers' fields to advise whenever there is a
group meeting or problem en mass.
The number of ASC in each district is 4 for high hills, 6 for mid-hills and 4 for terai. The
number of sub-centers is not fixed and is being assigned as per need by DADO. It mostly
depends upon the availability of field staff and office building to station them. The number
of ASCs and field level staff has been drastically cut off after the organizational restructuring
of Department of Agriculture (DOA) in FY 2060/61 BS. Earlier ASCs were established and
operative in almost all ilakas of the district. The government policy was to establish all
developmental and administrative service centers in each ilaka. The number of ilaka, nine in
each district during Panchayat regime, however, varied district wise. Foreign aided projects
like Integrated Rural Development Projects (IRDP), Agricultural Extension and Research
Project (AERP), Upper Sagarmatha Agricultural Development Project (USADP), Hill Fruit
Development Project (HFDP), Hill Agriculture Development Project (HADP) and others
supported to construct ASCs in different ilakas of the project districts. Now these structures
exceeding the number of ASCs are being used as sub-centers. JT/JTAs stationed in ASCs
provide extension service to the farmers, collect information for management and policy
formulation and also play regulatory role. In the changed context they work as agriculture
development workers rather than agricultural extension workers.
Pakistan
(not stated in country report)
In Pakistan, top public management devise plans in the light of priorities determined by
federal and provincial governments. However, the system has now been slightly
decentralized in the sense that the district is to prepare its seasonal (Rabi-Kharif) plans. It is
alleged that the devolution process has weakened the research-extension coordination.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 33
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, the research institutions of plantation crops or their boards/corporation are also
responsible for extension in addition to research. In the livestock sector, farming
communities/societies identify and prioritize problems while the state take leadership as the
focal point in setting policy, resource allocation and as facilitator, rather than playing the role
of service provider. Thus the bottom up planning is in existence there and this provides
opportunities for coordination among agencies involved in extension activities.
(iv) Decentralization of extension systems in SAARC countries
Bangladesh
The Upazila level is the basic unit for planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating
local extension program. This system ensures that decisions about the services provided by
the Department of Agricultural Extension are taken at the lowest possible level, but with the
full support of specialist staff at district and regional levels.
Responsibilities of Sub-Assistant Agricultural Officer (former Block Supervisor)
Each Sub-Assistant Agricultural Officer (SAAO) is responsible for the provision of day to
day extension services to farmers in a block. A summary of their responsibilities follows:
Upazila Responsibilities
The role of the Upazila is to ensure that an appropriate extension program is planned and
implemented in the Upazila and that SAAOs responsible have the necessary skills and
resources to implement the programs. Upazila staff also implements some extension
activities such as Upazila fairs and farmer training. Ensuring service quality is very
important at this level.
District Responsibilities
The role of the district is to provide technical and management support to Upazila in
planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating extension services. It is also the highest
level at which detailed extension planning takes place.
Regional Responsibilities
The role of the region is to: provide independent quality assessment of extension services in
the region; provide technical support in collaboration with research institutes; and, to act as a
focal point for the Management Information System. The main technical and administrative
responsibilities of the regional office are outlined below:
Headquarters Responsibilities
DAE has eight wings based at its headquarters in Dhaka. Each wing has specific
responsibilities. Many of the responsibilities traditionally associated with headquarters have
been decentralized to regional, district and Upazila offices. In light of this, the general role of
the headquarters is in providing the necessary management and technical support for
decentralization.
34 Synthesis Report
The decentralized system, though started in the late 1990s, is yet to be introduced throughout
the country.
Bhutan
The beginning of the decentralization process can be traced back to 1981 (start of 5th FYP)
with the establishment of the Yarkey Tshogchung (DYT) as a semi-representative
Dzongkhag Development Committee comprising of Gups (Village headmen) as head of a
Geog (block) and chimis (national assembly representative), and the establishment of GYT
in 1991.
Current decentralization initiatives are parts of a gradually evolving process of empowering
people to participate in planning and decision making in all aspects of local development.
The RNR staff posted in the Dzongkhag and Geogs are administratively under the
Dzongkhag administration.
Agricultural inputs like simple tools, fertilizers and seed/seedlings have been decentralized
and sold through commission agents located at Dzongkhag and Geog levels. However, sale
of agro chemicals and large farm machineries such as power tiller tractors etc. are centrally
operated.
India
Under the extension reforms, emphasis is given for decentralising the technology delivery
system through the involvement of farmers and farmer organisations. The organisations of
farmer interest groups (FIGs), commodity interest groups (CIGs), farm schools (FS) and self
help groups (SHGs) at grassroots level mainly aim at the decentralisation of the extension
delivery system through making users responsibility centres to decide their technological
options, their dissemination and adoption.
ATMA carries out PRA, strategic research and extension planning for the district,
establishment of farmer advisory centres, and coordinates the execution of annual work plan
through participatory line departments such as Zonal Research Stations (ZRSs), KVKs,
NGOs, FIGs,/FOs, and allied institutions. The ATMA also establishes Farmers Advisory
Committee (FAC) to get the feedback.
Panchayat Raj institutions and extension services
After the 73rd Amendment of the Constitution, most states are conducting regular elections
to the Panchayats. Some states have also delegated suitable administrative and financial
powers to the three tier-Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRI). In these states the extension
personnel are placed under the administrative control of Panchayat, whereas for technical
guidance they remain under the control of respective technical line departments. Since the
Panchayat system are evolving in different states and are currently in a state of flux, the
ATMA model at the district, BTCs and FACs at the Block and the FOs at the village level
offer suitable linkages with the Panchayat Raj institutions.
Accountability to farmers
Efforts, to make the extension system farmer driven and farmer accountable, were initiated
in several states. The constitutional amendments that strengthened the Panchayat Raj
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 35
Insitutions (PRI) have further accelerated this trend. Many states such as Maharashtra and
Madhya Pradesh have a separate wing for agriculture development at Zilla Parishad and
block levels. Their role is mainly planning and implementation of schemes for agriculture
primarily funded through district government or Zilla Parishad.
Priorities for the development of agriculture in respective villages have to be approved by the
gram sabha (village assembly). Administrative control of DoA staff rests with the gram
panchayat or block panchayats in those states that have implemented democratic
decentralisation more seriously (West Bengal, Madhya Pradhesh, Kerala). In Madhya
Pradesh, there is a permanent agricultural committee at the village level.
In Maharashtra, the Agricultural Development Officer at the Zilla Parishad is the Secretary
to the Agricultural Committee of the district.
Agricultural Development Committees (Karshika Vikasana Samithi, KVS) comprising
farmers eelected representatives of people are constituted at the panchayat and district levels
in Kerala to advise farmers on issues related to agricultural development. In Rajasthan a
Krishi Salahkar Samiti has been constituted at the Asst Agricultural Officer level to guide,
monitor and evaluate the working of Kisan Mandals. It also scrutinizes the various proposals
received from Kisan Mandals for funding by DoA.
In ATMA districts, the Farmer Advisory Committee (FAC), comprising of key stakeholders
and farmer representatives, exert considerable influence in the preparation and scrutiny of
block action plans.
Nepal
The Constitution of the Nepal 2047 BS had made a provision for the decentralization. To
oversee the implementation status of devolution according to Local Self Government Act
(LSGA) and to monitor, Decentralization Implementation and Monitoring Committee
(DIMC) have been formed under the chairpersonship of the Right Honorable Prime Minister
and the working committee under the minister of local development (DIMWC). The Tenth
Plan has also envisaged the decentralized functions based on basic principles of people’s
participation and empowerment.
Under MoAC, District Agricultural Development Offices and Agriculture Service Centers,
District Livestock Service Offices and Service Centers, and Cooperative Division Offices
will fall under the devolved institutions. But closely related research and irrigation
institutions are not covered which may imply some coordination issues during
implementation.
However, as described under ‘Extension Planning Process, it was observed that the process
of decentralization has already taken firm roots in Nepal.
Pakistan
With the devolution of extension services from provincial governments to the district
governments, extension priority fixation has been handed down to the district governments.
Accordingly, the elected representatives of the district councils bring the feedback from their
areas and extension priorities are set by the district agricultural committees which have added
benefit of better understanding of farmers’ problems. Given the great diversity in agro-ecology,
36 Synthesis Report
commodity focus, and different farming systems in the country, the extension priorities are also
set by the extension management at district, region and then provincial and federal level.
However, the basic focus of most efforts is on enhancement of productivity and change in
quality of life of the majority of farmers.
Chapter Summary
Organization of NAES
Although Bangladesh, India and Pakistan had the same historical background, they have
followed different development pathways in agricultural extension and have different
organizational structures and extension agencies. The same are the cases with Sri Lanka,
Bhutan and Nepal.
Extension planning process
Planning processes differ considerably among the countries. While Bangladesh, Bhutan, and
Sri Lanka (livestock sector) have adopted participatory bottom-up planning processes, India
and Pakistan appear to follow central planning processes.
Bangladesh has adopted work programming system of SAAOs (Block Supervisors) which is
reviewed at the Thana/Upazila Agricultural Extension Coordination Committee (T/UAECC),
District Extension Planning Committee (DEPC), Agricultural Technical Committee (ATC)
at the Regional level before it is sent to the headquarters for resource allocation.
In Bhutan, the initial plans, based on village needs and priorities, are prepared by GYT
(Block Development Committee) and once finalized it is presented to the DYT (District
Development Committee) for review and approval. The DYT, after review, send it to the
GNHC (Planning Commission). The RNR sector facilitates the process with policy
guidelines and technological options from the Geog level upward.
In India, however, planning is done centrally once in every fiver years by the Planning
Commission involving various sectoral experts and stakeholder representatives including
farmers’ representatives. The State Governments also follow a similar pattern, though with
some variations. The Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) by ICAR appears to be gaining
popularity with its engagements of different stakeholders but is yet to reach many of the
districts.
The planning process developed by Nepal takes care, not only of participatory bottom-up
planning involving participation of stakeholders at various levels but also the process itself
facilitates an ‘automated’ monitoring and evaluation. Also with the projectization system
Nepal has adopted, it has become possible to identify components based on local priorities
directly benefiting the users, linking measurable outputs to objectives for a given timeframe
and designing activities/inputs to produce the desired outputs and impacts. The process could
establish a system, within the organizations from the national to the grassroots level, of
standard project management, staff utilization and monitoring. Project profiles are
documented at each level of the organization planning
In Pakistan, top public management devise plans in the light of priorities determined by
federal and provincial governments. However, the system has now been slightly
decentralized in the sense that the district is to prepare its seasonal (Rabi-Kharif) plans. It is
alleged that the devolution process has weakened the research-extension linkages.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 37
In Sri Lanka (livestock sector) farming communities/societies identify and prioritize
problems while the state takes leadership in setting policy, resource allocation, rather than
playing the role as a service provider. In the cases of plantation crops, the respective research
institutes/corporation/board does the planning and extension.
Coordination mechanisms
The coordination mechanisms also vary among the countries.
In Bangladesh a number of institutional mechanisms have been established according to the
Revised Extension Approach (REA) to encourage partnership between different types of
extension agents that enables GOs, NGOs and the private sector to work together to provide
an integrated service to farmers. The DAE is heavily crop biased and its coordination with
livestock and fisheries sub-sectors are yet to reach a satisfactory level, especially in view of
the fact that these two sub-sectors do not have field staff below the Upazila level. These sub-
sectors are being encouraged to take advantage of the field staff of the DAE at the block
level. The DAE has begun establishing coordination with the NGO and the private sector
also.
In Bhutan the Extension Coordination Committee (ECC), cross a sectoral committee, is
attended by senior officers from each departments and agencies under the Ministry of
Agriculture. The ECC facilitates the coordination and integration of RNR extension services
and is structurally based with the Council for RNR Research of Bhutan (CoRRB). The
structure makes coordination easy.
In India, it is the Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA), the society of
stakeholders in agriculture for sustainable agricultural development at the district level that
plays a vital role in coordination and utilization of funds. ICAR has eight Zonal
Dorectorates to coordinate and monitor activities of Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs).
In the State Agricultural University System (SAU) system, the programmes are coordinated
and monitored through a joint guidelines developed by the Department of Agriculture and
the Secretary of Agriculture on behalf of KVK and ATMA.
In Nepal, the District Coordination Committee is responsible for establishing coordination
of regular programmes. Under the decentralized policy, the District Development Committee
(DDC) is responsible to build and approve projects of different fields in consultation with all
respective agencies and different user groups. The mechanism also establishes coordination.
The Agro-Technology development and dissemination is based on participatory concept
involving public-private partnership where stakeholders are linked to agriculture R&D. As
mentioned above, starting with the planning process, there is involvement of stakeholders at
every level. Thus there are various coordination mechanisms at work. Resource allocations
and budgeting also has been streamlined by Nepal.
Decentralization
In Bangladesh decisions about the services provided by the Department of Agricultural
Extension are taken at the lowest possible, the Upazila, but with the full support of specialist
staff at district and regional levels. The decentralized system, though started in the late
1990s, is yet to be introduced throughout the country. Currently the system is followed only
in project Upazilas.
38 Synthesis Report
In Bhutan, decentralization started in 1981 with the establishment of Dzongkhag committee
comprising of Gups (Village headmen) as head of a Geog (block) and chimis (national
assembly representative), and the establishment of GYT (Block Development Committee) in
1991. Agricultural inputs like simple tools, fertilizers and seed/seedlings have been
decentralized and are sold through commission agents located at Dzongkhag and Geog
levels. However, sale of agro chemicals and large farm machineries such as power tiller,
tractors etc. are centrally operated.
Under extension reforms in India, emphasis is given for decentralizing the technology
delivery system through the involvement of farmers and farmer organizations. The
organizations of farmer interest groups (FIGs), commodity interest groups (CIGs), farm
schools (FS) and self help groups (SHGs) at the grassroots level mainly aim at the
decentralization of the extension delivery system through making users responsibility centres
to decide their technological options, their dissemination and adoption.
The ATMA carries out PRA, strategic research and extension planning for the district,
establishes farmer advisory centres, and coordinates the execution of annual work plan
through participatory line departments such as Zonal Research Stations (ZRSs), KVKs,
NGOs, FIGs,/FOs, and allied institutions. The ATMA also establishes Farmers Advisory
Committee (FAC) to get the feedback.
Panchayat Raj institutions and extension services in India
After the 73rd Amendment of the Constitution, most states are conducting regular elections
to the Panchayats. Some states have also delegated suitable administrative and financial
powers to the Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRI). In these states the extension personnel are
placed under the administrative control of Panchayat, whereas for technical guidance they
remain under the control of respective technical line departments. Since the Panchayat
system are evolving in different states and are currently in a state of flux, the ATMA model
at the district, BTCs and FACs at the Block and the FOs at the village level offer suitable
linkages with the Panchayat Raj institutions.
Decentralization in Nepal appears to have taken a firm footing with the formation of
Decentralization Implementation and Monitoring Committee (DIMC under the Prime
Minister and the Working Committee under the Minister of Local Development (DIMWC).
The Tenth Plan has also envisaged the decentralized functions based on basic principles of
people’s participation and empowerment.
Under MoAC, District Agricultural Development Offices and Agriculture Service Centers,
District Livestock Service Offices and Service Centers, and Cooperative Division Offices
will fall under the devolved institutions. However, closely related research and irrigation
institutions are not covered which may imply some coordination issues during
implementation.
In Pakistan the decentralization process has started with the devolution of extension
services from the provincial government to the district government.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 39
CHAPTER
Governance of Extension Systems in SAARC Countries
(i) Institutional reforms and efficiency enhancement of extension system
Bangladesh
Institutional experiences in Bangladesh provided lessons for reform and based on the lessons
learnt, programmes have been designed taking into consideration the following critical
issues:
• Amendment of the Acts of ARIs, including those under the Ministry of Fisheries and
Livestock, to improve incentives, productivity, quality and accountability.
• Establishment of an autonomous R&D foundation, the Krishi Gobeshona
Foundation (KGF), to manage the Competitive Grants Programme for financing
agricultural research.
• Decentralization of planning and funding for agricultural extension.
• Institutional development, being a long-term process, requires long-term
programmatic approach for building and strengthening development institutions
dealing with agricultural technology.
• Policy, approach and operational procedures need to ensure adequate budgetary
financing for research and extension.
• Weak financial management and procurement, leading to delays in project
implementation and governance problems, requires improvement and strengthening.
• Focus should be given to monitoring and evaluation of impact, in addition to input
and output monitoring and evaluation.
The National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) has been designed, incorporating
these experiences, and the project is currently under implementation.
Bhutan
Since the start of planned development in 1960s, three technical departments (Agriculture,
Livestock and Forest) were established under the MoAF. In the process of institutional
reforms, the functions of these departments modified. Initially the supply of inputs for
agriculture and livestock was handled by a single department, the Department of Agriculture
and Livestock Services (DALSS) and the same applied to research and development.
However, the mandate of the Department of Forest and Park Services (DFPS) remained
virtually unchanged. The research aspects of the three departments were with the Council of
RNR Research of Bhutan (CoRRB). Currently the three departments take care of their
development and research activities individually. In 2010, a new department, Department of
Agricultural Marketing and Cooperatives (DAMC) has been established to support and
encourage commercialization of the farming sector.
4
40 Synthesis Report
There were changes/ reorganizations within the existing departments too. Divisions and units
were created within departments to facilitate and enhance service delivery through the
extension service. All the 205 Geogs of the country have been strengthened and have fully
functional RNR centres. Old Agriculture and Animal Husbandry extension centres have been
upgraded to RNR extension centres along with inclusion of the forestry sector. One stop
centre for service delivery has started piloting which houses the office of the Geog
administration, the RNR Centre and also sales and services of agricultural inputs and
machineries.
India
The technology generation and its application is focusing upon the themes of optimization by
producers of their valuable resources, sustainability and coping with diversity by adapting
technology more specifically to agro-ecological or social circumstances. The extension
reforms initiated are:
Policy reforms
(i) Farming Systems Approach Multi agency extension service
(a) public extension services
(b) private extension services
(c) mass media and information technology
(ii) Promotion of farmer participatory approach
(iii) Promotion of demand driven and farmer accountable extension
(iv) Public extension to enable farmers for problem solving skills
(v) Encouraging private sector involvement in technology transfer
(vi) Public funds for private extension services
Institutional Restructuring
(i) District level Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) model
(ii) Strategic Research and Extension Plan (SREP) through participatory Rural Appraisal
(PRA)
(iii) Block/Mandal level technology centre for single window extension system.
(iv) Group Approach to Extension
(v) Strengthening Research-Extension-Farmer linkages.
(vi) Promotion of multi-agency extension service for widening the range of extension
delivery agencies
Management Reforms
(i) Central support to state Govt. of extension services on their undertaking of policy and
institutional reforms.
(ii) Routing of Central Govt. funds through ATMA
(iii) Central Assistance to SAUs for expanded role in field extension
(iv) Promotion of community based private extension services
(v) Promotion of NGO based private extension services and contracting out extension
services
(vi) Promotion of para-professional based private extension
(vii) Linkage of performance with funding for public sector
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 41
Strengthening Research-Extension Linkages
(i) Promotion of direct interface between farmers and scientist
(ii) Activating existing interface mechanisms
(iii) (iii)Research priority setting based on SREP
Capacity Building of Extension Functionaries
(i) Formulation of HRD policies by states
(ii) Formulation of training plan for extension functionaries
(iii) One time catch-up grant for training infrastructure
(i) Upgrading State level extension Training Institutions
(ii) Strengthening the role of MANAGE
(vii) Developing professionalism in a cost effective manner and networking among extension
institutes
Empowerment of Farmers
(i) Involving farmers in setting extensive agenda
(ii) Implementation of programme through farmers users groups
(iii) Involving rural youth and mainstreaming of women with crop and livestock
(iv) Improving access to extension and training
(v) Expounding the sphere of women extension workers and redesigning of extension
services to reach women farmers.
Use of Information Technology
(i) Wider use of electronic mass media and increasing use of information technology in
extension
(ii) Farmers participation in IT Programme
(iii) State support for information technology and networking
(iv) Promoting private information Kiosks
(v) Capacity Building for use of IT
Financial Sustainability and Resource Mobilisation
(i) Cost cutting mechanisms for extension services and efficient use of available resources
(ii) Privatization of agro services
(iii) Towards a realistic cost recovery of agro-services
(iv) Co-financing of public extension
(v) Initiating new financialsystems and management for avoiding bottlenecks and red-tape-
ism
Nepal
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives’ (MOAC) Agriculture Perspective Plan Support
Programme (APPSP) was designed to deliver appropriate agricultural support services to the
rural poor through improved policy and institutional arrangements. This project provided
technical advisory support and fund management implementation for the APPSP. The
program was focused on two levels of government:
42 Synthesis Report
At the district level, a fund for agricultural service delivery (District Agriculture
Development Fund - DADF) was established in twenty districts. The DADF was managed
by the District Development Committees. The program built the capacity of these
committees to plan for and manage the DADF, ensuring that the poor and excluded
beneficiary groups were targeted by the fund.
At the central level, the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC) and other
Agriculture Perspective Plan implementers are assisted with organizational and policy
support.
In order to ensure opportunities, lessons learnt from the program are incorporated into future
government initiatives and good practice. Other key lessons that emerged from the APPSP
were captured and disseminated within the MOAC.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, the government made a decision in 2001 to devolve various subjects from the
provincial to the district level under an institutional reform of devolution. The district
governments were empowered with command and control decision. The devolution was
introduced with all the decision making authority to the head/District Council Chairman who is
an elected public representative.
In spite of the recently introduced administrative reforms under which the district has been
made the focal point for program planning and implementation, the devolution plan is still in
its infancy and the people responsible at the district level for implementation are not yet fully
conversant with the philosophy, rational and operational strategies of this system. As a
result, the district, instead of being a fully functional focal point for program planning, has
become an isolated entity with no linkage with other districts and organizations even within
the same province. Moreover, the feedback to research and planning has further weakened
While the district Council Chairman is the elected head, who exercise full authority and control
over the district, the District Coordination Officer (DCO) provides the bureaucratic support to
the District Chairman. The Executive District Officer Agriculture (EDOA) is the head of the
devolved departments which include Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Forestry, Poultry, Water
Management, Soil Conservation etc. All the departments are technical and their functions are of
technical nature. The District Agriculture Officer (DAO) is the front line district officer who is
responsible for agricultural extension work. He is supported by a number of Agricultural
Officers and Field Assistants in the conduct of field operations.
Sri Lanka
(Not available, the following has been added based on understanding the literature)
Conducting of necessary training programs for farmers to update their knowledge and assist
them to acquire required skills have been incorporated in most of the extension programmes.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 43
(ii) Public-Private-NGO Partnership in Extension Systems
Bangladesh
The new Agricultural Extension Policy (NAEP) is committed to developing partnership with
all types of extension providers to share their strengths and resources. Different agencies
working in the same area may have complementary expertise and when these are brought
together, the effectiveness of services can significantly improve. The approach adopted
needs to be locally applicable and the agencies agree to work together in partnership
Partnership with Non-Government-Organizations
Not all Non-Government-Organizations (NGOs) are good at the same thing. DAE should be
aware of the different strengths of NGOs. If DAE wishes to benefit from the capabilities of
the NGO sector, then the ability of NGOs to innovate should be recognized and encouraged.
The NAEP emphasizes the importance of decentralized decision making, which should mean
that locally based government extension staff should be confident to introduce new ideas/
technologies that they have heard about from NGOs.
On the other hand, local NGOs may need technical advice but cannot afford to pay highly
qualified staff. They can be partners where DAE is trying to spread some established
technologies.
While DAE has not proved efficient in group extension, NGOs may be prepared to give
access to their established groups to work with or disseminate a message.
DAE has already started establishing partnership with NGOs and there is a DAE/NGO
Liaison Committee to foster partnerships. DAE needs to continue to promote and monitor its
activities with NGOS, regardless they are formal or informal. DAE’s District Training
Officers (DTOs) and the Regional Additional Directors are responsible for these tasks.
Bhutan
Involvement of the private sector has so far remained low and confined mainly to input
supply. However, with government policy of encouraging Public-Private Partnership (PPP),
private and FDI investments are coming in for commercial ventures in agricultural
production and marketing. Some of the private FDI initiatives are BIO-Bhutan, Coffee and
Hazelnut, Dairy Development etc. Many more proposals are under review with the Ministry.
Involvement of NGOs is at the nascent stage in Bhutan.
India
Widening the range of extension delivery agencies for the resource poor farmers and those
residing in the hilly, tribal and remote areas, the public system will have to remain as the
chief extension mechanism, the NGOs possibly being able to play a significant role.
ICAR has so far established 598 KVKs in the country out of which 99 KVKs have been
established under the NGOs. The participation of NGOs in the implementation of KVK
project by the Govt of India is one of the successful public-private partnerships in the
country. Strength of NGOs lies in their ability to mobilise communities into Farmers
44 Synthesis Report
Organisations (FOs)/Farmers Interest Groups (FIGs)/ Watershed Associations/Market
Associations etc. As such NGOs complement the public extension effort in several centrally
sponsored programmes. Also extension services are contacted out or out-sourced to NGOs at
Block level in some states. In such cases the NGOs substitute the public extension.
Promotion of para –professional based private extension
Para–extension workers organised in the private extension service, in the case of agriculture
extension, include the following:
(i) Input agencies (dealing with seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, equipments).
Major categories of agro-input companies include, those dealing with seeds, fertilisers,
pesticides and agro-machinery.
(ii) Large agri-business firms
Involved in manufacture and sale of inputs and purchase of outputs: Major agri-business
firms like ITC and Pepsico during the last few years have initiated innovative arrangements
to provide farmers with integrated production and marketing support.
Indian Tobacco Company (ITC) is a market leader in tobacco products, hotels, and
packaging, and its International Business Division is one of India’s largest exporter of
agricultural commodities. ITC’s extension effort revolves around e-chaupals, which are
village internet kiosks that enable access to information on weather, market prices and
scientific farm practices.
(iii) Farmer organisations and producer co-operatives
User groups, including farmer interest groups, farmer clubs, commodity groups, women
farmer groups, special interest groups’ etc play a very important role in extension.
(iv) Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
Estimates of the number of NGOs active in rural development in India range from fewer than
10,000 to several hundred thousand depending on the type of classification used. Some
15,000-20,000 are actively engaged in rural development. India has a number of NGOs with
varying levels of capacity, implementing a wide range of programmes. Bharatiya Agro-
Industries Federation (BAIF), Professional Assistance for Development Action (PRADAN)
and Action for Food Production (AFPRO, Foundation for Ecological Security (FES) are
some of the important NGOs working in several states.
(v) Media (print, radio and television) and web based knowledge providers
The widespread availability and convergence of information and communication
technologies (ICTs) – computers, digital networks, telecommunication, television etc in
India in recent years have led to unprecedented capacity for dissemination of knowledge and
information to the rural population. Mass media and print media have been traditionally
linked with extension programmes in India. The All India Radio and the Doordarshan (state
run radio and television units respectively) transmit programmes on different aspects of
agriculture every day. In the nineties, private TV channels like E-TV started telecasting
daily programmes on agriculture.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 45
The village knowledge centres initiated by the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation
(MSSRF) in Pondichery aims at building a model for the use of ICTs in meeting the
knowledge and information requirements of rural families by taking into account the socio-
economic context and gender dimension. In 2004, MSSRF, IDRC, Microsoft, NASSCOM
Foundation and ISRO initiated steps to extend the Village Knowledge Centres (VKCs) to
different parts of the country by creating multi-stake holder partnership called "Mission
2007: Every Village a Knowledge Centre".
(vi) Financial institutions
Financial institutions lending to agricultural sector provide advice and consultancy to
potential borrowers on financial viability of their proposals. All banks involved in
agricultural lending organise farmer meetings and seminars every year.
(vii) Consultancy
Farmers generally consult other relatively progressive farmers for information and advice
related to production, post harvest management and marketing. Another major source of
advice is the local input dealer. Some input firms such as AGROCEL and Tata Kisan
Kendras provide free consultancy services.
(viii) Pivatisation of Livestock Extension Services
In India, Livestock extension is carried out mostly by the Departments of Animal Husbandry
and to some extent by the Milk Unions, State Veterinary/ Agricultural Universities (SAUs),
Research institutions of ICAR, and NGOs. The animal husbandry information and other
technical inputs and services are being provided to the livestock owners through public
sector organisations.
Based on the study conducted on Privatizing Agricultural Extension in India, Rasheed and
Sadamate (2000) suggested that the public sector should concentrate on organizing
educational programmes for farmers, which are less attractive to the private agencies. The
public sector should also take up the role as facilitator in the formation of farmers' groups,
building linkages with other extension agencies and initiating paid consultancy services by
maintaining a cadre of qualified staff at district and sub district levels and some of these
services can later be entrusted to the farmers' groups.
Private sector extension cannot completely substitute for public agencies in those
circumstances where direct benefits are not assure to the firms involved, target populations
are diffuse or remote, where infrastructure is inadequate and when production consists
mainly of basic food grown by subsistence farmers. Research clearly indicated that
investments in agricultural research and extension yield high returns. Ahuja and others
(2000) concluded based on a study conducted in three states of India that there is a
significant demand for the delivery of veterinary services at home and the cattle owners
including the poor are willing to pay to receive these services.
The public extension service has still an important role to play in increasing the production
of backyard poultry, which even today is the major contributor for egg and chicken
production in the country. The Animal Husbandry Department (AHD) continues to provide
free inputs and technical services such as vaccinations to the backyard poultry.
46 Synthesis Report
Nepal
There has been a realization that farmers are best served by the broadest possible array of
information sources and structures. The complexity of rural development demands a
plurality of technological solutions and service structures. Farmers need access to many
services such as input supply, credit, and even emergency responses to disease/pest
infestations.
The emergence of the value-chain approach to address agricultural development also points
to the comparative advantages of public and private partners in the delivery of extension
services and in creating an enabling environment for agricultural development. The value-
chain approach as applied to agriculture seeks to identify services that are missing or weak
and develop the capacity of private and public service providers to address weaknesses.
There are a variety of cases where market failures occur. Government has a key role in
providing public goods including market and productive infrastructure, research, the
provision of basic knowledge, and the role of setting the policies and rules by which
economic actors interact.
Experience has shown that the private sector is most efficient at providing inputs, embedded
information with the sale of specific inputs, marketing channels, and the promotion of
products/ markets. The NGO sector has shown greater flexibility and efficiencies in
introducing and supporting farmers to adopt new technologies, conducting planning and
analysis activities, working with the business community and civil society to lobby for
reforms, and to act as a facilitator of public-private partnerships.
In the case of many agricultural export markets, important public infrastructure such as
testing facilities and policies must be developed to enable the private sector to take
advantage of market opportunities. Export facilities, laboratories, phyto-sanitary
certifications, tax policies, and sector policies need to be developed in close public-private
partnership to be successful.
Partnership is not a model administered or implemented by the state, rather, it is a process
how government agencies, development oriented NGOs, business and farmer organizations,
private sector firms and others can support development. In the recent past, public extension
has come under scrutiny for its limited accountability, inefficiency, and lack of
responsiveness to changing farming conditions. Scarcities of financial resources for
extension, changing ideology emphasizing efficiency over welfare, and heightened
competitive interests from the private sector has led to acknowledge the private sector and
NGOs as an important partner in the delivery of extension services.
Emerging trends of Partnership and Collaboration: A Journey towards Pluralism
The emergence of new extension arrangements offered by private sector, NGOs, and
voluntary organizations has created a platform where delivery of services is undertaken
independently or through various forms of partnership arrangements. The list of
organizations providing extension services is growing.
In a study on partnership in agriculture in Nepal (Ojha, 2000) has shown that among
partnerships, Public + Private and Public + NGO are more effective than other forms of
partnership. The same study concluded that partnership is an effective strategy but is specific
to circumstances and should not be generalized in all situations.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 47
The Nepal Tea and Coffee Global Development Alliance Experience
Starting from 2002, USAID has supported Winrock International to facilitate two public
private partnership alliance programs, for specialty tea and coffee development for
international export markets.
• The coffee alliance - has established Nepal as a specialty coffee exporting country,
shifting processing from nearly 100% low quality dry processed to over 60%
washed/semi washed for international export markets, and has facilitated a
tremendous increase in economic opportunities for poor smallholders.
• The tea alliance – has played a major role in establishing international market
linkages and a branded identity of Nepal tea. In the past Nepal tea was being sold to
India as an unbranded product. The alliance has facilitated Nepal tea entry into the
USA market and branded Nepal tea in the major German market. The alliance has
also facilitated the industry to adopt a code of conduct for social and environmental
responsibility that is a strong marketing tool. The alliance program is now in its final
phase and is working to strengthen the capacity of the Tea and Coffee Development
Board to continue the coordinating role and success of the alliance approach.
Smallholder Irrigation Market Initiative (SIMI)
The Nepal SIMI project supported by USAID and implemented by Winrock International,
and partners, International Development Enterprises, CEAPRED, SAPPROS, and AEC,
represents a model program for developing district and local level public private partnership.
SIMI promotes micro irrigation (primarily drip and the treadle pump) for vegetable
production by smallholders. SIMI takes a value chain approach building the linkages and
capacity of agro input manufacturers, input suppliers (agrovets), equipment dealers, micro
irrigation installers, and traders/processors. The SIMI program has closely facilitated
partnership with government agencies including MoAC, DOA, DOI, MLD, WDD, MOF,
NARC and government projects APPSP, CDP, MGEP, PAF, and others.
Government in the partnership has taken a lead role in developing marketing infrastructure,
developing multi use piped water systems, providing market information through radio
broadcast, providing basic extension services and adaptive research, providing resources to
assist the poorest to adopt micro irrigation, and creating an enabling policy environment.
SIMI facilitated a wide range of partnership types that include GO-NGO partnership, GO-
Private Sector, and GO-NGO-Private Sector. Examples of GO-Private partnership facilitated
by SIMI include the provision of marketing infrastructure that is utilized and managed by the
private sector in partnership with government. Overall SIMI public private partnership
activities are facilitated by a government advisory body and by participating on district and
local level agriculture development committee meetings and close coordination with
government line agencies, development boards. Development boards can be conceived as an
institutional mechanism for fostering public private partnership. Composition and autonomy
are key factors affecting the functioning of development boards.
Pakistan
To strengthen public-private partnership, government tried to introduce a number of
interventions. One of the successful efforts was the Farm Services Center introduced in the
48 Synthesis Report
year 1995 in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Agricultural Extension System with the objectives to
provide one-window service to the farmers where agricultural machinery, fertilizers, seed,
pesticides and credit are available at one point. These centers have representations of the
private sector, who are involved in the supply of farm inputs, and NGOs that extend credit as
well to farmers groups. This approach showed tremendous performance during the period
2001 to 2003 in many ways.
Farm Service Centres
At present, the “Farm Services Centers” are working at the circle level. In line with the
Agriculture Policy 2005 guidelines, the provincial government suggested to constitute a
cluster of organizations of Farm Services Centers at the district level with the name “Model
Farm services Centers” (MFSC). The Model Farm Services Centers are equipped with the
service delivery of the Agriculture Department including Agriculture Extension,
Cooperatives, Water Management, Soil Conservation, Livestock and Dairy Development.
Agricultural Research would jointly be working under the one roof through their
representatives. The main objectives of the FSC were:
• Empowering the farming community through policy on introduction of participatory
techniques (IPT), participatory technology development (PTD) and Farmers Field
Schools (FFS).
• Capacity building of extension staff in PTD & FFS.
• Integrated effort by different agricultural sector departments.
• The quality inputs such as seed, fertilizers, pesticides credits and fruit plants and
advisory services are made available to farmers closer to their home.
• The farmers are able to plan their activities through yearly action plan to be
integrated with the District Action Plan.
Agriculture Statistics Officer based at Farm Services Centre helps in providing crops data
and other farm statistics and also serves as Agriculture Information Manager and would be
responsible the formulation of various plans rationally. The organizations like Agriculture
University, Nuclear Institute for Food and Agriculture, Agriculture Research System,
different developmental projects like Barani Area Development Project, Community Based
Resource Management (CBRM) project, Malakand Rural Development project, Zarai
Taraqati Bank, Soil Conservation, Water Management, Agriculture Training Institute,
Livestock Training Institute, Livestock and Dairy Development Department are also
represented and provide inputs and technical services to the Farm Services Centre. Several
public-private sector partnership MoUs have been signed for improved functioning of
transmitting information to the farmers.
Sri Lanka
Institutional set up has been established and public-private joint programs have been
organized for training programs (for example in the livestock sector).
Commodity specialized approach is mainly used by private sector institutions for their
forward contract programs, contract growing schemes, buy back operations and purchasing
programs. For example, livestock extension needs of the most of the broiler farmers and
considerable number of the layer farmers in the poultry sub sector are being looked after by
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 49
these institutions through their service package consisting of delivering necessary external
inputs, organizing and sometimes providing necessary services including livestock extension
and buying back their productions from farm or field levels at a guaranteed or pre agreed
price. Commodity approach is also in vogue in Tea, Rubber, Coconut and Cashew.
Projects funded by various governmental, non governmental and private sector institutions
are in operation all over the country with varying capacities. Extension is a built-in
component of projects and they are specially tried to achieve pre-identified set of results in a
selected area. The projects try to improve the delivery of necessary technical services, ensure
livelihood opportunities, improve marketing facilities, and promote value addition activities
etc. by utilizing appropriate technologies at field level.
There are, however, areas like training, capacity building etc. where the NGO and the private
sector are not strong or they might not find such activities attractive. The role of the public
sector is essential in such areas. Also, the regulatory functions of the public sector would
always be necessary. In conclusion, the role of the public sector as facilitator would always
be necessary and beneficial to the development of the extension services.
(iii) Accountability hierarchy in extension systems in SAARC countries
Bangladesh
The accountability hierarchy, starting with SAAO at the block level upwards, is summarized
below.
Block level responsibilities
Each SAAO (formerly Block Supervisor) is responsible for providing extension services in
his/her block at the Union level. S/he identifies the problems and provides the solutions;
assists farmers in obtaining information and assistance from other extension providers
(Livestock, Fisheries, Forestry/Agroforestry) including NGOs and the private sector; collects
and records information on block based natural resources, population, areas of crops under
cultivation, input requirements, marketing systems, testing and adopting technologies. S/he
also provides ideas for suitable extension activities for farmers during the Upazila Planning
Workshop. The SAAO is directly accountable to his/her supervisor at the Upazila Office.
Upazila Office Responsibilities
The role of the Upazila Office ensures that appropriate extension programmes are planned
and implemented and that the SAAOs have the necessary skills and resources to implement
the programmes; provides advice to SAAOs on extension methods, input and credit supplies,
technologies for transmission to farmers. The Upazila Office takes active part in extension
activities like fairs and training of farmers and technical staff; assists SAAOs to organize
field events (farmers’ rallies, field days and motivational tours); ensures FINA of the
Upazila; coordinates Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) and KAP Surveys;
organizes Upazila Planning Workshops (UPW); raises farmers’ problems that cannot be
solved at the block level with other extension partners in the Thana Extension Coordination
Committee (TAECC) or with District Specialist; takes part in District Extension Planning
50 Synthesis Report
Committee (DEPC) meeting and liaises with input agencies and marketing agencies. The
Upazila Office is accountable, through the Upazila Agriculture Officer, to the District Office.
District Office Responsibilities
The district office, the highest level extension planning office, draws up the district extension
plan, provides technical and management support to the Upazila office in planning,
implementing, monitoring and evaluation of extension services. It reviews and checks
Upazila plans ensuring that these reflect the Farmers’ Information Need Assessment (FINA).
Its role is also to ensure that Upazila Officers have the technical knowledge on current
extension messages; assesses training needs; draws up training materials and provides
training to all staff within the district; links field officers with DAE Wing Directors and
research institutes; assists Upazilas to adjust messages with local circumstances; supervises
implementation of Upazila plans; organizes meetings with Upazila Offices to discuss
problems, solutions and progress and extension activities; monitors DAE/NGO partnership
within the district; coordinates and consolidates Seasonal Extension Monitoring System
(SEMS); prepares and circulates monthly district bulletin for technical staff of the district
etc. The District Office is accountable to Regional Office.
Regional Office Responsibilities
The role of the Regional office is to provide quality assessment of extension services,
technical support in collaboration with research institutes and act as the focal point for
Management Information System (MIS). The Regional Office consolidates extension plans
and budgets of Districts/Upazila before submitting them to the Field Service Wing of DAE;
monitors implementation of annual extension plans and training in the region; reviews
district level DAE/NGO liaison activities; maintains links with media; prepares budgets for
the region; ensures management of human resources in the region; organizes monthly
meetings with district officers and Agricultural Technical Committee (ATC); and ensures
timely response to problems raised in ATC meetings etc. The Additional Director of the
Regional Office is accountable to the Director of Field Services Wing of the Headquarters.
The Headquarters Responsibilities
The headquarters of the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) reviews, adjusts and
approves Upazila and District extension plans; responds to requests for technical advice from
ATC at the regional level and the District Specialists; liaises with national and international
research institutes through the Research Institutes Coordination Committee (RICC); and the
National Agricultural Coordination Committee (NATCC). The headquarters is responsible
for planning, monitoring and evaluation, media materials and campaigns, representing the
Department at the Extension Policy Implementation Coordination Committee (EPICC);
formulating policy options on tariffs, production, marketing, distribution of agricultural
products; working with the Government and donors; assessing training needs; producing
training policy and master training plans and implementing them, including monitoring and
evaluation of national extension programs; overseeing MIS and capacity building through
human resources development etc.
The DAE is accountable directly to the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA). The hierarchy can
be depicted as follows:
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 51
Ministry of Agriculture
DAE Headquarters
Regional Office
District Office
Upazila Office
SAAO (Block Level)
Bhutan
The Geog (Block) is at the bottom of the hierarchy and headed by Gups (Village Headmen).
The Geog Yarkey Tshongchung (GYT) or the Block Development Committee is responsible
for development of Geog extension plan and implementation of approved plan as well as
central RNR sector development activities. The Geog is accountable to Dzongkhag Yarkey
Tshongchung (DYT) or the District Development Committee.
Dzongkhag administration is headed by RNR Sector Heads at the Dzongkhag (District) level
and is responsible for coordinating and supporting Geog activities as well as RNR Sector
development activities in the Dzongkhag. Accountable to the Regional RNR Centre
The Regional RNR Centres (Agriculture Research and Development Centres, Veterinary
Centre, Agricultural Machinery Centre) are responsible for supply and support required
technologies to Dzongkhag as well as providing/allocating financial support for development
projects under the Department and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests (MoAF).
The overall responsibility of RNR sector development and extension lies with the Ministry
(MoAF). The hierarchy may be shown as follows:
MOAF
Regional RNR Sector
DYT
GYT
India
The national agricultural extension system prescribes a well laid inbuilt accountability
system. The top level officers in the system decides about the policy reforms, programmes
budgeting and implementation strategies.
52 Synthesis Report
In the planning commission, activities related to extension programme planning, finalisation,
budget allocation under the plan to respective programmes and the States are carried out
under the direct supervision of Member Agriculture and Advisors.
In the Ministry of Agriculture, the extension system is placed under the administrative
responsibility of a Joint Secretary level officer assisted by an Additional Commissioner and
his team who are mainly responsible for the national level implementation, monitoring and
evaluation of the progress of various extension programmes including Agricultural
Technology Management Agency (ATMA) in the district.
The directorate of extension and training is responsible for the implementation process by
coordinating with various states and agencies.
In ICAR, the responsibility of implementing the front line extension programmes like KVK
project lies with agricultural extension division. Deputy Director General (Ag. Extension) in
ICAR, assisted by two Asst. Director General implement the KVK project through eight
Zonal Project Directorates in the country. The KVKs in each zone are monitored,
coordinated and supervised by the Zonal Project Directors. . KVK programme coordinators
are responsible for the technology application through conducting assessment and
refinement, evaluation, demonstration and capacity building.
The Director of Extension Education in the university are bestowed with the overseeing
responsibilities and providing the technology back stopping from State Agricultural
Universities (SAUs) and ICAR institutes in the zones. Similarly, ATMA Project Directors
are responsible for the coordination of activities related to technology management and
delivery system in the district level.
It is a complex system involving the Directorate of Extension, the Directorate of Extension
Education at the central level, ATMA at the district level, ICAR, SAUs, State Departments
of Agriculture etc.
Nepal
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative (MoAC) is the central apex body of the
Government of Nepal to look after the agriculture and allied fields in the country, and is
responsible for overall development of agriculture (crops, livestock, food and nutrition and
fishery) and the co-operative sector.
There are four departments responsible for development of their specific sub-sectors:
Agriculture, Livestock Services; Food Technology and Quality Control; and Co-operatives,
Under the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, the Department of Agriculture (DOA)
is mainly responsible for development of agricultural crops and fisheries. The Department is
headed by the Director General (DG).
Directly under the DoA, there are five Regional Directorates, one each in the five
Development Regions of the country. The Regional Directorates are headed by the Regional
Directors.
For providing technical support and backstopping to the agricultural development program,
there are 12 program Directorates related to: Fruit Development; Vegetable Development;
Fisheries Development; Crops Development, Agricultural Training; Agri- Business
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 53
Promotion and Marketing Development; Agri. Extension; Plant Protection; Industrial
Entomology; Post- Harvest Management; Soil Management; and Agricultural Engineering.
To implement the agriculture development programs at the districts level, there are District
Agricultural Development Offices (DADOs) one each in the 75 districts. Each of the District
Agriculture Development offices is headed by a Senior Agriculture Development Officer
(Gazetted 2nd class) and administratively, they are responsible to the respective Regional
Directorates.
There are Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs) and there are provisions of Agricultural
Services Centre/ Sub-centers staffed by JT/ JTAs to provide extension services at the sub-
district levels, to the farmers
The hierarchy can be shown as follows:
MOAC
DG
DoA
Regional Directors in Regions
DADO at District (Subject Matter Specialists)
JT/JTAs at Agricultural Service Centres/Sub Centres
Pakistan
The agriculture extension system, like other departments, has also been challenged to pay closer
attention to accountability. To implement this strategy on the pilot basis, the extension system
has developed and implemented an accountability system based on performance measurement.
It developed three issue-oriented goals under accountability aspect: (i) an agricultural
production system i.e. highly competitive in the national economy; (ii) a safe, secure, food and
fiber system; (iii) greater harmony between agriculture extension and other related departments
for enhancing economic opportunity and quality of life.
Accordingly, a strategy was devised to measure the performance-based management using
indicators of inputs, outputs, outcomes, and processes. The indicators in the context of extension
system include work assignment for extension personal (input); an extension programme’s out-
reach to a group of farmers (output); a change in behavior by extension and information
recipients that resulted in an improvement in the their quality of life (outcome); and a measure
of the extent to which the views of the stakeholders were solicited in the planning and
evaluation processes (process).
54 Synthesis Report
In hierarchical accountability, the field assistant is accountable to agriculture officer, agriculture
officer accountable to district agriculture officer, district agriculture officer accountable to
executive agriculture officer, agriculture officer accountable to district coordinating officer at
the district level and director general agricultural extension accountable to secretary of
agriculture and livestock at provincial level.
Secretary, Min. Agric, & Livestock
Director General (Department Headquarters)
District Coordinating Officer (District)
Executive Agricultural Officer (District)
District Agriculture Officer (District)
Agriculture Officer (Sub District)
Field Assistant
Sri Lanka
Accountability hierarchy can be shown as follows:
Director (Agriculture)
Deputy Director (Extension)
District Agricultural Extension Officer (DAEO)
Agricultural Instructor
Krushhi Viapthi Sevaka (KVS)
(iv) Leadership development opportunities in extension systems in
SAARC countries
Only Bhutan and India have provisions and scope for leadership development in their
extension programmes. Other countries follow the regular service rules of the respective
countries which are apparently be purely bureaucratic. In Sri Lanka the leadership is
presumed to be developing through farmers’ organizations.
Bhutan
Empowering local communities is an important development goal of the Government and in
line with the government policy, the RNR sector also gives priority to develop local
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 55
leadership. One of the important mandates of the geog RNR extension services is to develop
a capacity of the local people to plan and manage their enterprises. This is done through
promotion of farmers group and cooperatives where the office bearers are trained on group
management and leader ship development.
GNHC (planning commission) also provide regular training to and hold workshops with
local leaders in planning and project management. International development partners like
UNDP, SNV, DANIDA, HELVETAS, FAO etc. also support local leadership development
initiatives of the Bhutanese Government.
India
For the purpose of leadership development for the extension functionaries the Govt. of India
has established institutions like MANAGE, EEI, SAMETI and KVKs. Along with these
institutes National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM) also gives
specialised training programme in the area of research management and leadership
development for the research and extension managers in the country.
Sri Lanka
The necessity of empowering farmers socio-economically, technically and otherwise for
their decision making has been recognized strongly. As a result various kinds of farmer
organizations now play a significant role in production, marketing chain, for example, in the
livestock sector.
The absolute necessity of active farmer involvement in decision making process of the entire
marketing chain covering all aspects involved including policy making, allocating of scarce
resources, planning , implementing, monitoring and evaluation of projects and programs has
been emphasized in many of the programs. As a result various types of farmer organizations
have emerged. For example half of the milk collected in the formal market of Sri Lanka is
being handled by farmer organizations at present. These have created the opportunity for
leadership development at the farmers’ level.
(v) Management information system in agricultural extension of
SAARC countries
Bangladesh
DAE’s Management Information System (MIS) is based on ten components divided into
three classes as shown in below.
Direct Extension Management Information Systems
• Farmer Information Need Assessment (FINA)
• Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS)
• Technical Audit (TA)
• Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) Survey Administration and Finance
• Financial Information System (FIS)
56 Synthesis Report
• Personnel database (PD-base)
• Training Information System (TIS)
Longer Term Policy and Planning
• Crop returns database (Crop D-base)
• General Information Database (Gen D-base)
The overall responsibility of Management Information System (MIS) of the agricultural
extension System lies with the Planning and Evaluation Wing (PEW) of the Department of
Ag Extension (DAE). The MIS Section is headed by a Joint Director supported by MIS
Specialist and Computer staff at the headquarters and the Regional Offices. The Section
assists users in regions and districts where each regional office has a Statistical Officer and
an Assistant Chief (MIS). The main users are officers and staff directly responsible for
planning and implementation of extension activities. There is a Extension Policy
Implementation Co-ordination Committee which maintains the linkages with different
stakeholders of the MIS and SEMS and FIS are used mainly at districts and Thanas/Upazilas.
The headquartes’ officers are responsible for the operation and effectiveness of MIS
components while PEW MIS has the full responsibility for software and programmes.
Responsibilities of FINA, KAP lie with the Deputy Directors in districts while the
Additional Director at the Regional Office has the responsibility of Technical Audit. It may
be noted that Extension Activity Planning, Activity Monitoring are partly computerized.
Bhutan
The Geog Extension Centre (GEC) is the first hand information provider on land use,
production, and extension activities. The RNR sector head at the Dzongkhag maintains the
information of the Dzongkhag.
At the national level, each technical department has Information Management Section (IMS)
which collects, analyzes and maintains information of the respective sector. The system
conducts annual 10% sample survey of the farming population while Policy and Planning
Division of the Ministry conducts RNR Census every five year. Besides, the MoAF and
Narional Statistical Bureau (NSB) collect,, analyze and manage RNR extension related
information.
India
At National Level
Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture (DKMA), Indian Agriculture
Statistical Research Institute and Intellectual Property Right and Technology Management
unit are the important institutional arrangements at national level to deal with the agricultural
knowledge management in the country.
As a commitment to deliver cost-effective and production-oriented technologies for the
welfare of farming community, ICAR adopted ICT based information dissemination system.
Several ICT-driven information delivery mechanisms have been developed for quick,
effectual and cost-effective delivery of messages.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 57
The e-connectivity of ICAR institutes has been strengthened and 192 Krishi Vigyan Kendras
(Farm Research Centres) have been provided e-linkage for establishing an interactive
interface between farmers and scientists.. Use of database, expert system, decision support
system and web based dissemination of knowledge, inter and intranet services, i-telephony
and video conferencing are some of the major initiatives by ICAR for knowledge sharing
and AKS management in the country.
IT Based Interventions for Sharing of Knowledge
The ICAR website (www.icar.org.in): Developed by using an open source content
management system called DRUPAL, the website is a unique platform for sharing and
dissemination of information to a wide range of users and stakeholders in agriculture sector.
The News section is updated daily with inputs from the centres of National Agricultural
Research System across the country.
Interesting Success Stories of Indian farmers are presented weekly on the homepage of
website to inspire and motivate farming community. The Weather Based Agro-Advisory
developed by subject matter experts is also updated weekly for the direct use of farmers. A
useful link connects the visitors to the global agricultural news released from various
international agencies. More than 2.05,436 visits are recorded per month from 157 countries.
Around one lakh farmers/ visitors are making use of updated information on website every
month. The website has proven its potential for sharing and delivering knowledge at national
and global level.
National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) Initiatives
Under NAIP, 10 crop knowledge models have been developed along with Portal based
decision support services. In addition, advanced Q&A forum designed for content
management. About 2.2 million SMS texts transacted with over 26,000 farmers. It was
adjudged as best ICT- enabled agri project in 2010. A rice knowledge management portal
and re-usable learning objects (RLOs) in ODL system were developed under this project.
Nine communication centres set up to enhance public awareness of ICAR.
KVK e-Linkage Project
ICAR as part of its mega ICT driven knowledge management and technology application
strategy has envisioned for providing e-linkage to its networks of KVKs and Zonal Project
Directorates) (ZPDs) during XI five year plan (2007-2012.
Govt of India launched Kissan call centres to leverage the extensive telecom network in the
country to deliver extension services to the farmers. The purpose of these call centres is to
respond to queries and issues raised by farmers instantly in the local language on a
nationwide toll free number 1800180 1551.
Agriculture Knowledge Products from ICAR
ICAR through its sustained efforts involved in the creation of data bases, information and
expert systems for the benefits of various stake holders. The summary is given here under.
58 Synthesis Report
Information System
There are more than 60 information system products developed and some of the most
important products among them are Plant Variety Information System, Plant Variety
Germplasm Registration System, NORV-Notified and Released Varieties of India, INDUS-
Indian Information System as per DUS guidelines, National Information System for Pest
Management (Bt–Cotton), Phenotypic Characterization of Animal Genetic Resources of
India (AGRI-IS), Water bodies information systems for West Bengal, E-Pest: Awareness-
cum-surveillance programme for the management of major pests, Digital Herbarium of
Medicinal & Aromatic plants, Networking of herbal gardens in India, Fodder Resources and
Waste land of Bay Islands, NISM-National Information Sharing
Mechanism for the PGR-GPVR (Germplasm and Plant Varieties Registration), National
Information System on Long Term Fertilizer Experiments, Project Information &
Management System Network for NATP, Personnel Information Management System
Network (PERMIS NET) and National Information System on Agricultural Education
Network in India (NISAGE NET).
Decision Support Systems
There are more than 20 decision support systems available. Most important among them are;
Wheat Crop Management, Marine Fisheries Management, Advisory System for Potato Crop
Scheduling, Nutrient Management in Tuber Crops, GIS Based Decision Support System for
Aquaculture in Cold Water Region, Rice-Crop Doctor, Expert System for SERICULTURE,
Expert System for GROUND NUT CROP, KMART-Decision support system for farmers,
researchers, policy makers and development officials, Poultry Expert System (PES) on
poultry farming etc.
E-Advisory/E-Learning Resources
There are more than 20 e-advisory and e-learning resources available with ICAR. The most
important among them are; Geo spatial Village Knowledge Management System (GVKMS -
Web Based), Knowledge Management for Agricultural Research and Technologies -
KMART (Web Based) and e-GRANTH for strengthening of Digital Library and
Information Management under NARS. In addition, ICAR also created a data warehouse
with more than 59 data bases and a web based integrated National Agricultural Resources
Information System.
Collection, Documentation and Validation of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) and
Farm Innovations: A major initiative was undertaken by ICAR in documenting and
validating the Indigenous Knowledge Systems practiced by the farmers in the country.
Through the country wide initiative a total number of 4880 Indigenous Technical Knowledge
(ITK) in 23 thematic areas were collected, validated and published in seven volumes.
Further, seven ITK e-Books and a resource Book for training on ITK was also published.
Similarly, potential innovative ideas, methods and inventions made by the farmers were also
documented and published for cross country reference by various stake holders.
Agricultural Knowledge System (AKS) National Projects and Products
Some of the most important AKS project under NARS and their output is given hereunder:
• FERTNET: Network for Integrating Nutrient Management
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 59
• VISTARNET: Agricultural Extension Information System Network
• PPIN: Plant Protection Informatics Network
• APHNET: Animal Production and Health Informatics Network of 42000 Animal Primary Health Centers
• FISHNET: Fisheries Informatics Network
• AFPINET: Agricultural and Food Processing Industries Informatics Network
• ARINET: Agricultural and Rural Industries Information System Network
• NDMNET: Natural Disaster Management Knowledge Network
• Weather NET: Weather Resource System of India
• AGRISNET: Network of Agricultural Offices for Extension & Agribusiness Activities
Nepal
Agricultural Information and Communication Center (AICC) is attached to the Ministry as
one of its central units with greater role and responsibility.
AICC is a professional wing of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives entrusted to
produce agricultural information relevant to farmers, traders, entrepreneurs and professionals
and to communicate the information through different media. The Center also bears the
additional responsibility and challenge of managing and using digital information generated
recently by the growing application of personal computer, internet and mobile telephone in
modernizing agricultural development in the country.
The vision of the government is building an organization driven by information and
communication technology (ICT) capable of ensuring timely, faster and relevant access to
information to facilitate agricultural stakeholders and practitioners for building knowledge
based farm communities.
Program activities
a. Farm radio program
b. Agriculture television program
c. Publication and print media
d. Computer application and internet use
Computer, email and Internet have become increasingly popular since the introduction of
computers in Nepal by the government in 1971. With access to low cost personal computers
in recent years and the growing involvement of private sector in computer business, the
availability of internet became possible only towards 1993-94 but in limited scale. The rate
of computerization and automation in public sector remained still low. The has given a way
to reform governance making the organization more efficient, transparent and effective in the
exchange of information within and between organizations.
To be of use AICC has created its web portal www.aicc.gov.np in which general agricultural
statistics of Nepal and introduction of organizations, departments, centers, boards and
committees under the ministry are placed. As an electronic journal the bimonthly agriculture-
Krishi has also been put in the website as pdf file which can easily be downloaded and read.
The National Agriculture Policy 2004, Agriculture Business Policy 2004, and a number of
booklets on various aspects of agricultural technologies are also kept in the website. As these
materials are in vernacular Nepali, any citizen and literate farmer can read and get benefited
60 Synthesis Report
from the information. The portal is also a gateway to all government ministries and relevant
organizations as they are linked to the website.
Some important websites linked to this URL are: www.moac.gov.np, www.nardf.org.np, and
www.narc nepal.org
Pakistan
The continuing rapid development of telecommunications and computer-based information
technology (IT) is probably the biggest factor for change in extension, one which will
facilitate and reinforce other changes. IT will bring new information services to rural areas
over which farmers, as users, will have much greater control than over current information
channels.
Although the Agricultural Extension System (AES) is using the MIS, its full potential has
not been adequately realized. The district and below-level extension staff used to gear up to
harness the full potential of this technology and preserving field information and employing
it in diffusing information to farmers. Even if every farmer does not have a computer
terminal, these could become readily available at local information resource centres. The
government has introduced the computer-based interactive extension-community
communications on specific farm issues in some districts at pilot basis. On the basis of this
experience, gradually, this effort will be expanded.
Sri Lanka
The use of electronic media in agricultural extension management has already made progress
in Sri Lanka. The Department of Agriculture in Sri Lanka has started to use an IT application
(CD-ROM) to disseminate agricultural innovations to farmers. A survey12 revealed that
websites were the fifth most used channel, together with written material (booklets, leaflets,
pamphlets, posters), but behind the extension network, bulletins, technical manuals and
software in agricultural innovation dissemination. Ninety-seven per cent of respondent
websites indicated that they maintain an official website but farm businesses were not their
currently main target audience, because the majority of Sri Lankan farmers do not have
access to computers.
Using information technology, such as websites, were effective and efficient means of
diffusion. Sri Lankan survey respondents did not see websites as a low cost method, in terms
of low overhead and establishment, employee training and maintenance. However, the
importance of IT as a dissemination tool will increase with time in Sri Lanka. Except for
farmers in the large plantation sector, the majority of Sri Lankan farmers need assistance
(e.g. extension worker or telecentre worker) to use the IT facilities provided by the central
government and NGOs.
Electronic mediated Animal Disease Information System and a Dairy Reproduction
Information system has been established at the Head quarters of DAPH. A 24 hr serving hot
line enables the clients clarify with professional guidance. The IT Centers have been
established at the Veterinary Research Institute and at the Institute of Continuing Education
(ICEAPH) at Gannoruwa.
12Arumapperuma, S. 2008. The Role of Information Technology In Disseminating Innovations In Agribusiness: A Comparative
Study of Australia And Sri Lanka. http://vuir.vu.edu.au/1416/1/arumapperuma.pdf
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 61
Chapter Summary
Institutional reforms
It appears that all the countries have taken initiatives for institutional reforms, some have
made substantial progress while others are have begun.
Bangladesh has identified areas of reforms and has already implemented some
(Establishment of Krishi Gobeshona Foundation, Decentralization of Planning and Funding
for agricultural extension).
Bhutan research on agriculture, as a whole was with the Council of RNR Research of
Bhutan (CoRRB). Now respective Departments (Agriculture, Forest and Livestock) take care
of their development and research activities individually. A new Department, Department
Agricultural Marketing and Cooperatives, has been established to support and encourage
commercialization of the farming sector. RNR extension Centres have been established as
one point service centres.
In India, initiatives have been taken for reforms in policy, institutional restructuring (SREP,
Block level technology centre, group extension etc), management, research-extension
linkage, training, empowering farmers, ICT, resource mobilization etc.
In Nepal, District Development Fund, Ensuring fund for poor and excluded groups,
opportunities for capturing lessons learnt from project have been created.
In Pakistan, the devolution process has started.
In Sri Lanka updating farmers’ knowledge through training has been institutionalized.
Public-private-NGO parenership
In Bangladesh, partnerships of the public sector extension service with NGOs and the
private sector appears to be growing.
In Bhutan the involvement of the private sector is still very low. Same is the case with
NGOs.
In India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, however, there are ample examples of successful
partnership between GO and NGO, and GO and Private sector. The overwhelming
experiences of such partnerships have strengthened the arguments for pluralistic extension
services in agriculture.
There are, however, areas like training, capacity building etc. where the NGO and the private
sector are not strong or they might not find such activities attractive. The role of the public
sector is essential in such areas. Also, the regulatory functions of the public sector would
always be necessary. In conclusion, the role of the public sector as facilitator would always
be necessary and beneficial to the development of the extension services.
Accountability hierarchy
The accountability hierarchy of the public sector agricultural extension from the field level to
the headquarters and the ministry level is straight forward in all the countries except India.
In India, however, the hierarchy is somewhat complex where, on the one side, there is the
‘ATMA hierarchy’, and on the other side the ‘KVK hierarchy’ in which the SAU system in
involved.
62 Synthesis Report
Leadership development
Bhutan, India and Sri Lanka have provisions and scope for leadership development in their
extension systems. Other countries follow the regular (normal) service rules of the respective
countries which are apparently be purely bureaucratic. In Sri Lanka the leadership is presumed to
be developing through farmers’ organizations.
In Bhutan one of the important mandates of the Geog RNR extension services is to develop a
capacity of the local people to plan and manage their enterprises. This is done through promotion
of farmers group and cooperatives where the office bearers are trained on group management and
leader ship development. GNHC (planning commission) also provide regular training to and hold
workshops with local leaders in planning and project management.
In India, extension functionaries like MANAGE, EEI, SAMETI and KVKs have been
established. Along with these institutes National Academy of Agricultural Research Management
(NAARM) gives specialised training programme in the area of research management and
leadership development for the research and extension managers in the country.
In Sri Lanka, various kinds of farmer organizations now play a significant role in production,
marketing chain (for example, in the livestock sector). The absolute necessity of active farmer
involvement in decision making process of the entire marketing chain covering all aspects
involved including policy making, allocating of scarce resources, planning , implementing,
monitoring and evaluation of projects and programs has been emphasized in many of the
programs. As a result various types of farmer organizations have emerged.
Management information system
In Bangladesh, the management information system (MIS) is based on a number of components.
In Bhutan, each technical department has Information Management which collects, analyzes and
maintains information of the respective sectors.
India has made a remarkable progress in adopting computerized information system while other
countries are at different stages of computerized Management Information System (MIS)
development.
In Nepal, Agricultural Information and Communication Center (AICC) is attached to the
Ministry as one of its central units with greater role and responsibility. AICC is a professional
wing of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives entrusted to produce agricultural
information relevant to farmers, traders, entrepreneurs and professionals and to communicate the
information through different media. The Center also bears the additional responsibility and
challenge of managing and using digital information generated recently by the growing
application of personal computer, internet and mobile telephone in modernizing agricultural
development in the country.
In Pakistan, although the Agricultural Extension System (AES) is using the MIS, its full
potential has not been adequately realized.
In Sri Lanka, the Department of Agriculture has started to use an IT application (CD-ROM) to
disseminate agricultural innovations to farmers. Electronic mediated Animal Disease Information
System and a Dairy Reproduction Information system has been established at the headquarters of
Department of Animal Production and Health (DAPH). Electronic mediated Animal Disease
Information System and a Dairy Reproduction Information system has been established at the
headquarters of the DAPH.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 63
CHAPTER
Human Resources Development and Capacity Building of Extension Systems
Bangladesh
It appears that the Bangladesh the Department of Agricltuuural Extension (DAE) develops
the in-service HRD curricula (skill development programmes) by itself, not necessarily
involving academic institutions, although there may be occasional involvement of research
institutions. In pre service training, however, it is the academic institutions and Agricultural
Training Institutes (ATIs) that provide the training. There is also the Central Extension
Resources Development Institute (CERDI) which also plays an important role in providing
training at various levels.
Bhutan
Most of the extension staffs posted in the Geogs are trained in the College of Natural
Resources (CNR) which is under the Royal University of Bhutan (RUB).. CNR so far has
trained 1000 plus extension workers with diploma in Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry
who are now working in Geogs and Dzongkhags.
Curricula for the diploma courses are developed in consultation with the Departments and
Agencies under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests. Researcher and scientist working in
research centers and central programmes are actively involved in teaching diploma students.
Research centres and programmes also guide the diploma students during their field
attachment which is a part of the diploma programme. Recently, CNR has also started degree
programme for in-service diploma holders. Candidate with undergraduate degree in
agriculture, livestock and forestry from foreign countries also join extension system.
India
Government support for HRD in agricultural extension is available through providing
training support to the agricultural extension functionaries for their knowledge and skill up-
gradation. The XI plan had several schemes with built-in HRD and training components for
farmers and extension personnel. Strong institutional base has been created for catering
training and HRD requirements of farmers and extension personnel, and the quality of
training infrastructure, training module design, delivery, trainers etc. have been matters of
concern to improve overall effectiveness of training and HRD.
Approach of training and capacity building components, built-in to most of the centrally
sponsored, central sector and state plan schemes in agriculture and allied sectors, however,
suffers from the following practical problems: (i) Multiplicity of schemes adds a lot of
confusion among the implementing agencies and their personnel as to which scheme to
prioritize and focus for implementation. (ii) Often times, training and HRD end up as a ritual
to either meet the targeted numbers or to spend the allocated budget; and (iii) it also leaves
5
64 Synthesis Report
no clue among stakeholders (farming community) as to which scheme to choose for availing
benefits.
Nepal
Central Agricultural Training Centre
Central Agricultural Training Centre (CATC) has been reorganized and renamed as
Directorate of Agricultural Training (DAT) under the Department of Agriculture (DOA) as
per Government decision of 20 November 2003. The CATC was established on December
10, 1987 along with ten Regional Agriculture Training Centres (RATCs) two each in the five
development regions. The RATC were strategically created in the key locations for hills and
terai in each development regions. Later in 1992 CATC was reorganized and ten RATCs
were reduced and consolidated into five RATCs thus having one RATC in each development
region.
Prior to this establishment, training programs were handled and managed by the then
Agriculture Extension and Training Division of the Department of Agriculture. Following
the inception of CATC, agricultural training programs scattered across the country were
streamlined and made to link with the prioritized production programs. DAT has been
organizing various types' in-service training courses for the gazetted officers working under
the Department of Agriculture. The directorate, at present, administers about a dozens of
training courses annually, in which about 250 DOA officers are trained in various
commodity specific fields, training related skills and in institutional capacity building.
During the Ninth Five Year Plan (1996/97-2001/02) a total of 1027 officers have been
trained through 49 training programs.
The courses offered by DAT are among the high standards in the kingdom as they are
designed by highly qualified resource persons together with the dedicated team of
management. Training courses, thus aim to improve the capability of trainees to activity
lead, participate and collaborate in planning and implementing agricultural extension
activities so as to give impetus to agricultural development endeavors.
DAT training courses are tailored to meet the needs of the professional subject matter
specialist, planners, managers and extension workers who are serving the government at the
center, regional and district level. The minimum duration of training course is one week and
maximum duration is seven weeks.
Publications
DAT in collaboration with Manpower Development Agriculture Project (MDAP/GTZ) has
published 32 different types of training manuals on various technical fields. DAT newsletter,
a four-monthly publication is also a regular publication of this directorate. DAT has started
publishing a Journal of Agriculture Development from fiscal year 2003-04. Progress report,
training effectiveness studies, brochure etc are directorate’s other publications.
DAT Network
DAT has a network of five RATCs located in different development regions of the country
and entrusted to run training programs for support staffs and farmers. Recently, RATCs are
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 65
reoriented to offer more specialized training courses to the varying needs of farmers and
support staffs tailored according to their background, interest and aptitude. RATCs usually
give training to around 1000 JT/JTAs and over 3000 farmers on wide range of subjects
annually.
Agricultural University
The Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS) - Nepal, began as a School of
Agriculture under the Ministry of Agriculture in 1957 to train Junior Technical Assistants
(JTAs) in agriculture. In 1968, the school was upgraded to College of Agriculture and a two-
year Intermediate of Agricultural Science (I.Sc.Ag.) program was started. In 1972, the
College of Agriculture was given the status of the Institute of Agriculture and Animal
Science under Tribhuvan University. At present the institute has its central campus at
Rampur and two branch campuses. The Lamjung Campus, located at Sundar Bazar in
Lamjung District was established in 1975 and The Paklihawa Campus located at Bhairahawa
in Rupandehi District was established in 1978. Started with a few permanent faculty
positions in 1972, the IAAS now implements teaching, research and extension programs
through a core of over 150 trained and dedicated faculty members at its central and the
branch campuses.
Academic institutions
At present, the institute offers B.Sc. Agriculture (Bachelor of Science in Agriculture),
B.V.Sc. & A.H. (Bachelor of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry), M.Sc.
Agriculture, M.Sc. Animal Science, M.V.Sc., M.Sc. Aquaculture and Doctor of Philosophy
(Ph.D.) programs at Rampur. The two branch campuses at Lamjung and Paklihawa also offer
initial two years of B. Sc. Agriculture course.
Research
Research is an integral part of the IAAS system. Besides the course work, the faculty
members and students are actively engaged in research activities. Although, IAAS do not get
regular budget for research from the university, the institute strongly encourages faculties
and students towards research activity and supports a number of research projects annually
by mobilizing internal resources. The research projects are managed by the Directorate of
Research and Publication wing of the Dean Office. The institute adopts highly flexible and
transparent research project administration policy to facilitate researchers so that the
scientific objectives can be achieved effectively and efficiently. Usually IAAS incurs 10% of
the total project budget as overhead cost to cover the project management expenses.
Within its limited resources, IAAS annually invests over 600,000 (NRs.) to support faculty
and students research projects, mainly postgraduate thesis research work. Depending upon
the availability of funds, undergraduate student’s research projects are also supported. The
financial support for such projects is awarded on meritorious basis.
IAAS faculties have been highly successful in competitive research grant application.
Currently, over 20 faculty research projects covering a wide rage of topics of crop science,
horticultural science, fishery, animal husbandry and veterinary science are on-going. The
total budget of these projects amounts over 40 million Nepalese Rupees. The major in-
country funding agency is the National Agriculture Research and Development Fund
66 Synthesis Report
(NARDF) and among the international agencies DFID, FAO, USAID, UNDP, IFS, Eiselen
Foundation, TUFT, IRRI/IFAD, CIMMYT AquaFish/CRSP, EU and WWF are the major
ones.
Extension
The Directorate of Extension (DOE) was established on January, 2000 to strengthen the
extension service delivery system of the IAAS. The mission is to provide services to farmers
by using more innovative, participatory and methodological approaches in the areas of
developing human resource as well as farm resources on a continuous basis.
Following are the areas where the institute conducts its regular programs:
• Developing and providing short term trainings based on clients’ needs inclusive of
all stakeholders.
• Provide technical and diagnostic services to farmers as soil testing insect-pest and
diseases of plants, and veterinary services on campus and also in the form of mobile
animal health clinic to rural area farmers.
• Conduct farm and home visits to specialized groups of farmers in specific crops,
vegetables and fruits
• Establish linkage with and co-work with the extension programs of District
Agriculture Development Office and District Livestock Service of the home district.
• Arrange workshop, seminar and interaction meeting for all types and levels of
stakeholders of agriculture development and ultimately the farm families.
Nepal Agriculture Research Council
NARC is an apex body for agricultural research in the country with the ultimate goal of
poverty alleviation with sustainable growth of agriculture production through the
development of appropriate technologies in different aspect of agriculture.
Training courses
• Pre-service training course of 2 years duration each for Field Assistants and for Stock
Assistants.
• In-service short training courses for agricultural officers and field assistants of
agriculture department.
• One-week training courses for farmers.
• Farmers exchange visits to other provinces.
• Special training courses for NGOs and different other organizations.
Pakistan
Occasionally, the extension personnel get an opportunity to go back to the academic
institutions to obtain higher academic degrees and there are several in-service training
institutes where the extension professionals are sent to upgrade their knowledge and skills
with the latest developments in the arena of agricultural extension. This is an ongoing
process of human resource development and capacity building.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 67
Seemingly, the human resource development aspect in extension system is neither regular
nor adequate. The Agricultural Training Institutes (ATIs), in-service training institutes,
established in 1957 need a lot of improvement in teaching contents, methodology,
environment and facilities.
The mandate of the Institute includes the following functions:
• Pre-service training course of 2 years duration each for Field Assistants and for Stock
Assistants.
• In-service short training courses for agricultural officers and field assistants of
agriculture department.
• One-week training courses for farmers.
• Farmers exchange visits to other provinces.
• Special training courses for NGO's and different organizations.
There is a need to upgrade the degree-level curricula for extension graduate in the university.
Similarly, the curricula of the ATIs need massive updating to include new teaching areas
enabling the extension trainees to comfortably handle the emerging field issues.
Sri Lanka
There are seven agricultural faculties and ten agricultural schools in the country. Around 500
agricultural graduates and 800 agricultural diploma holders come out from these institutes
annually. This large work force could and should be used to enhance the quality of the
extension service.
After nearly 30 years of the internal conflict in Sri Lanka, the conflict came to an end in May
2009. Growing internal demand as well as the increase in foreign tourists is driving growth,
resulting in a sustained high GDP rate at around eight percent. Sri Lanka aims to double its
income and become an upper-middle income country by 2016, and taking the country's
needs into account, the government is promoting private investment, and actively stimulating
farming and fishing villages.13
Summary Observations
In Bangladesh the in-service HRD curricula (skill development programmes) is developed
apparently by the extension department itself, not necessarily involving academic
institutions, although there may be occasional involvement of research institutions. In pre-
service training, however, it is the academic institutions and Agricultural Training Institutes
(ATIs) that provide the training. It is necessary to develop closer linkages among the
extension service, academic and research institutions in developing both pre-service and in-
service HRD curricula development and implementation.
In Bhutan, curricula for diploma courses are developed in consultation and agencies under
the Ministry Agriculture and Forests. Researchers and scientists are actively involved in
teaching diploma students. Also research centres and programmes guide the diploma
students during their field attachment which is a part of the diploma programme. The
College Natural Resources has started degree programme for in-service diploma holders.
13 (http://www.jica.go.jp/srilanka/english/index.html).
68 Synthesis Report
In India, government support for HRD in agricultural extension is provided to agricultural
extension functionaries knowledge and skill up-gradation. A strong institutional base has
been created for catering HRD requirement for farmers and extension personnel. There are
several institutions available for HRD programmes. However, it is alleged that multiplicity
of HRD schemes, ritual training by institutes to meet targets and absence of clear indications
to stakeholders as to which scheme to choose for availing the needed benefits adds to
confusion.
In Nepal, there is Directorate of Training (DAT) and Central Agricultural Training Centre
(CATC) along with Regional Training Centres (RATCs), one for each development regions.
DAT for officers organizes various in-service training courses for officers (SMSs, planners,
managers, and extension workers).
The institute of Agricultural and Animal Science (IAAS) train Junior Technical Assistants
and also offer higher degree courses. The Nepal Agricultural Research Council provide pre-
service training course f0r Field Assistants, in-service short training course for agricultural
officers, and training courses for NGOs and farmers.
It thus appears that there is an in-built involvement of extension with academic and research
institutes.
In Pakistan, there are several in-service training institutes where the extension professionals
are sent to upgrade their knowledge and skills. This is an ongoing process of human resource
development and capacity building. However, it is alleged that HRD aspect in extension is
neither regular and nor adequate. Also the Agriculture Training Institutes, both for pre-
service and in-service training and established in 1950s, need improvement in curricula,
methodology and facilities.
With the end of the internal conflict in Sri Lanka in 2009, the country is giving renewed
attention to promoting actively stimulating farming and fishing villages, including HRD in
extension.
(i) Areas of perception, skill and capacity building in HRD in
SAARC countries
Bangladesh
All staff members should periodically assess their levels of competency in all general skill
areas· to do this, staff should complete an annual staff competence form. The completed
forms should be analyzed by the District Training Officer /Thana Agriculture Officer and
kept as a record of competence. This is best done as part of the "work programming"
process, particularly for Block Supervisors. Completed annual staff competence forms
should be entered on computer wherever possible to enable quick and ready analysis.
The work programming process, particularly with SAAOs, also identifies small gaps in
knowledge and skills where remedial action should be taken.
The information collected through the Annual Competence Assessment forms a database for
the Upzila and District to use as a basis for extension planning and for assisting in
identifying areas of training need. If it is done by all field staff in a District, extension
managers will be able to see where further actions are required.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 69
DAE has over the years invested huge resources in training and continues to do so. However,
formal organized training classes are often not the most effective or most cost effective way
to increase competence. Everyone is responsible for his or her own learning development
and the practice of learning from experiences should become an integral part of our daily
lives.
DAE does not have the resources to provide formal training to meet all training needs and all
staff and officers are encouraged to develop their own abilities. Officers are responsible to
train and develop their staff and to help people to learn how to be more effective in their
personal and working lives.
The competence assessment form gives an indication of general ability in different
knowledge and skill areas. Where lack of competence is indicated, further analysis is
necessary to identify exactly what knowledge and skill is lacking. This requires breaking
down the knowledge and skill area into its component parts. This is called job analysis
The job analysis process provides a comprehensive understanding of what is required to
adequately perform the various tasks the job requires. Jobs usually include a number of
different activity areas. Each activity area consists of a number of specific tasks which must
be performed. Analysis of a specific task identifies a number of actions required to complete
it. Finally, analysis of a specific action identifies a number of individual steps which are
involved.
Once all of the activity areas are identified, the learner's competence in each can be
measured. What the learner is currently able to do must be compared to what is required to
adequately perform the job tasks. This is called gap analysis. There is a "gap" when the tasks
require more skills and knowledge than the learner currently possesses. It is this "gap" that
must be filled through training. The same competence assessment categories used to indicate
competence in the overall knowledge and skill area are: expert, completely competent, mostly
competent, moderately competent, partially competent, no competence, can also be used to
indicate ability to perform each of the component tasks, actions and steps.
At each stage of the training needs assessment process, it is only necessary to breakdown the
items that competence assessment indicates require improvement. The process is a sequence
of job analysis followed by gap analysis, again followed by job analysis and so on.
The component parts of a "job" can be described in different ways depending on how
broadly the job itself is defined. Sometimes levels of breakdown are skipped. For example
DAE's Job Descriptions go straight to "tasks", skipping the "activity area" level. This is
useful when most of the activity areas within the scope of the job require similar sets of
tasks.
The level of break down necessary will depend on the nature of the activity area and tasks
concerned. Training will be most effective if it focuses on the particular areas where the
learner requires additional knowledge and skills.
Using the process of job and gap analysis helps to focus limited resources on the training
needs which are most critical. After the training needs have been identified it is useful to
determine the frequency, relative importance and learning difficulty for each component.
The responsibility for staff development rests with the District Deputy Director, the District
Training Officer, and at upazila level with the Upazila Agricultural Officer DAE
70 Synthesis Report
Headquarters provides additional assistance and resources but does not have the capacity to
respond to all the extension staff development demands.
Extension plans can only include those activities that staff are already able to do, or can be
adequately trained to do before the activity is implemented
Once it is known what training is required, an assessment can be made of the feasibility of
providing this training in time to implement the planned extension activity.
Bhutan
Programmes and projects under the Ministry provide training opportunities in-country and
abroad. Similarly international and bilateral development partners also offer training support
for the extension workers. Awareness on new and emerging technologies in the RNR sector
are imparted to extension staff through study visit, seminar etc.
India
A long term training plan keeping in view of the requirements of extension system is
developed by the national and regional training centres in the country. The training
programmes are planned based on the needs and skill gap analysis. For this purpose the
training institutions periodically conduct the need analysis through systematic studies.
The identified priority areas of training of farmers and extension professionals focus on:
Climate change implications and coping mechanisms
(i) Scaling up of water productivity in agriculture,
(ii) Scaling up resource use efficiency in agriculture and allied sectors,
(iii) Scaling up energy use efficiency in agriculture.
Selective mechanization in agriculture
(i) Secondary agriculture (post harvest handling, storage and processing),
(ii) Innovative extension models and approaches,
(iii) ICTs for knowledge and enterprise management,
(iv) Group based approaches for production, processing and marketing,
(v) Micro-level implications of IPRs – PPV&FRA, GIs, TK, etc.,
(vi) Bio-diversity conservation and management for sustainable use and benefit
sharing,
(vii) Integrated farming systems,
(viii) Dry land agriculture and horticulture along with Conservation agriculture,
(ix) Organic farming,
(x) High value farming,
(xi) Marketing – domestic and export,
(xii) Agricultural finance and insurance,
(xiii) Planning and management of development plans (SAWP, SAP, CDAP, BAP,
etc.),
(xiv) Project formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation,
(xv) Skill development for entrepreneurship,
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 71
(xvi) Negotiation skills for farmers and other primary stakeholders in agriclture
agriculture and allied sectors,
(xvii) Group formation, development of entrepreneurial skills for agri-business,
agribusiness management,
(xviii) WTO and its implications,
(xix) Marketing of agricultural produce,
(xx) PHT management, conflict resolutions and negotiations management of common
property resources
(xxi) Use of different type of media, communication, project preparation etc.
Pakistan
Unless the extension personnel adequately trained in the latest technology transfer
methodologies, the extension system cannot operate on efficient lines. It is a proven fact that
without refurbishing the field functionaries with fresh knowledge and latest developments,
they start getting into a state of inertia.
All extension staffs need to be made aware of participatory extension systems such as the
farmer’s field school approach. They must also be exposed to the successful experience as well
as the limitations of NGO processes. Field Assistant level staffs require training in interpersonal
communication skills, utilization of audio-visual aids for training, methods of audience analysis,
methods of group formation and facilitation of community planning. There close working with
NGOs in development of village-based community organization will expose them to these
skills.
Sound management of environment, including biological resources (trees, crops, livestock, fish,
etc.) and natural resources (soil, water, etc.) ensure sustainable agricultural production systems.
Thus, it is recognized that the potential use and limitations of these resources are intimately
linked to the availability and advancement of knowledge and the growing needs for agricultural
development. This would be attained only through integrating training, learning technology,
knowledge generation, and rural institution development in a holistic approach for available
natural and human resources utilization, and determining training needs, innovative forms of
training programs.
Adequate training of the extension personnel of all categories is essential in farm
management techniques and business analysis for sustainable and profitable development of
agriculture in Pakistan. Pre-service training of Field Assistants is imparted at the agriculture
training institutes. One of the main constraints in improving the standard of teaching of
Agricultural Training Institute is the lack of adequately trained and experienced teaching
staff who can give them exposure to the emerging issues such as international trade, food
safety, environmental degradation etc.
(ii) Training of extension workers and farmers through public, NGO
and private initiatives
Bangladesh
DAE has an elaborate training programme. SAAOs (Block Supervisors) training is an on-
going programme of DAE with regular monthly training. Additional training is provided
72 Synthesis Report
periodically as part of specific projects. Such training is usually prescribed by the specific
project and may involve external trainers and venues.
SAAO training
The Thana/Upazila Agricultural Officer is responsible for the regular monthly training of
SAAOs., assisted by Agricultural Extension Officer, Additional Agricultural Officer, who
serve as principal trainers. Assistant Agricultural Extension Officer (AAEOs) and Junior
Agricultural Extension Officer (JAEO), District Specialists and District Training Officer
may also participate to ensure the quality of training. The SAAOs should record the training
information in their diary.
The purpose of SAAO training:
• to prepare SAAOs to undertake their up-coming extension programme;
• to teach SAAOs agricultural practices which may be suitable for farmers in their
block;
• to provide SAAOs with supporting technical knowledge and skills, which will
improve their ability to analyze farmers’ problems, understand the benefits of
recommended practices and demonstrate these practices;
• to enable SAAOs to develop skills in communication and alternative extension
methods which will improve their ability to interact effectively with farmers.
The Deputy Director of the district, in consultation with the Upazila/Thana Agricultural
Officer determines the day of the week the Upazila/Thana level training should take place.
The SAAO attend technical meetings at the Upazila/Thana two days every month. One is to
be used for formal training session and the other day for other types of interaction and
information exchange.
District Training Management
Technical Meetings: SAAO Formal Training. This training should follow the DAE’s
Training Wing guidelines for other in-service training components, including reporting and
monitoring and standard documentation of planning i.e. definite time frame, formal training
programmen and lesson preparation and evaluation.
SAAOs require practical training to develop sufficient extension and technical skill to give
meaningful assistance to farmers. The training is normally held at the Upazila headquarters
while practical training can be held at research stations, BADC farm, Horticulture Centre or
a farmers’ field.
Technical Meeting: Review of activities and field situation, and informal training. This also
include:
• a review of current situation in the field including discussion of farmers’ problems,
pest and diseases incidence, availability of inputs, etc.
• a summary of extension messages relevant to different categories of farmers and to
the time of the year
• a review of progress in implementation of the extension programme for the current
session;
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 73
• a review of SAAO extension visits and diaries;
• a review of programmes at demonstration plots;
• a general technical discussion, in which the SAAOs can seek advice on any subject
not covered in the regular training programmes and the trainers can determine
SAAOs’ level of knowledge on any topic which is proposed for future training
sessions.
This technical meeting provides opportunities for extensive informal training of SAAOs.
Bhutan
Regular training to enhance skill and knowledge of the extension staff are organized.
Programme and projects under the Ministry of Agriculture conduct such training in-country
and abroad. Similarly international and bilateral development partners also offer training
support for the extension. Awareness on new and emerging technologies in the RNR sector
are also provided to extension staff through study visit, seminar etc.
Involvement of NGO and private sector in training extension worker and farmers are
negligible. Recently with the establishment of NGOs, farmers and communities are getting
training and support from them. But in a broader scale, farmers training is an affair of an
extension system which is mainly funded by Government and development partners.
Research centers, central programems, CNR and Rural Development Training Centers
(RDTC) are actively involved in farmers training as resource person.
India
Public training institutes like MANAGE, NIAM EEI, SAMETI, NAARM, KVKs etc
involved in specialised training for the extension professionals and farmers. National
Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM) under ICAR is the apex institute
in the country involved in the training of scientists, and there are programme coordinators of
KVKs in various aspects of project management techniques. NAARM carries out research
on HRD planning, training need analysis, developing various e-learning modules, training
modules, standardisation of training methodology etc.
NAARM also runs a diploma programme agri business management helping the agricultural
extension system in the country with qualified professionals. The SAU system in the country
and National institutes under ICAR like Indian Agricultural research Institute (IARI) , Indian
Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), National Dairy Research Institute(NDRI),Central
Institute of Fisheries Education(CIFE) which are also recognised as deemed universities,
contribute to a great extent carrying out systematic research studies in agricultural extension
to formulate suitable HRD programmes. Apart from this, the NARS is also actively engaged
in training of extension professionals in teaching, training and field extension works.
The training facilities in the public sector at various levels can be summarized as follows:
National level
1. ICAR Institutes – Higher education in commodity areas to students, scientists, faculty,
extension personnel, farmers and others.
74 Synthesis Report
2. Directorate of Extension, DAC - Technology and extension centered training to
scientists, faculty, extension personnel
3. NAARM – Higher education research, education & extension management to students,
scientists, faculty, extension personnel, farmers and others
4. NIRD - Higher education & extension training to students, scientists, faculty, extension
personnel, farmers and others (Rural Development.)
5. NIPHM - Technology centered training to students, scientists, faculty, extension
personnel, farmers and others (Plant health management)
6. NIAM - Higher education & marketing extension training
7. Commodity Boards - Technical, extension, market and export oriented training to
extension personnel, farmers and others
8. IGNOU, YCMOU and other Central Universities - Education, vocational education and
training Education, vocational education and training to Students, Scientists, Faculty,
Extension personnel, Farmers and others
9. APEDA & MPEDA - Technical, extension and export-oriented training to Extension
personnel, farmers and others
10. CICEF, CIFNET, IFP -Technical, extension and export-oriented training to Extension personnel, farmers and others
Regional level
EEIs (4) - Extension training to Scientists, Faculty, Extension personnel, Farmers and others
State level
1. SAUs (51) and affiliated institutions - Higher education Technology and extension
centred training
2. SAMETIs (27) - Extension training to extension personnel
3. SIRDs - Rural development and extension training to extension personnel PRIs
District level
1. KVKs (594) - Technical, extension and vocational training to Farmers, Extension
personnel, rural youth
2. ATMAs (598) - Planning and financing
3. FTECs - Technical, extension and vocational to Farmers, Extension personnel, rural
youth
4. Agricultural Schools/ Polytechnics - Technical and vocational training to School drop-
outs, Farm youth
Others
1. NGOs - Social mobilization, conservation agriculture, allied enterprises to Farmers and
others
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 75
2. Private - Higher education, Technical and extension training to Students, Scientists,
Faculty, Extension personnel, Farmers and others.
Nepal
In Nepal, the Directorate of Agricultural Training (DAT) along with its ten Regional
Agricultural Training Centres (RATCs):
• Conduct advanced level short training course for the technical officers and
professionals of Nepal Agriculture Service of Government of Nepal.
• Ensure the extension of farm technology to the end users through organizing
multilevel training programs and developing human resources.
• Design and implement training related research and study programs.
• Support and backstop Regional Agricultural Training Centers and District Training
Units in planning, implementing and quality upgrading of training programs.
DAT training courses are tailored to meet the needs of the professional subject matter
specialist, planners, managers and extension workers who are serving the government at the
center, regional and district level. The minimum duration of training course is one week and
maximum duration is seven weeks.
There are more than 5000 NGOs and dozens of INGOs and some technical and vocational
institutes working in the country for the development of agriculture sector. These
organizations provide different types of training to the farmers, traders and local leaders. The
trainings include awareness program to skill development program related with agriculture,
livestock, food security, nutrition and health, cooperatives and other related field of
agriculture.
Pakistan
Trained manpower shortage both in quality and quantity is often a critical impediment to the successful programs of agricultural development, including transfer of technology to the
farming community. Limited knowledge of farmers in appropriate utilization of land, soil, water
and technology is a major problem faced in increasing farm productivity and the conservation of
natural resources.
Given that the human resources are the most valuable asset of the agriculture extension, due
considerations is given to the establishment/strengthening of agricultural extension institutes
such as Agriculture Training Institutes to cater for such needs. The ATIs and Agricultural
Research System also provide training to the agricultural extension agents, NGOs and farmers
and also organize special courses for private sector professionals.
Likewise, the joint-short training programs are also organized by the extension system where
representatives drawn from extension, NGOs, private sector, and farming communities are
invited to participate.
Sri Lanka
Institutional set up has been established and public-private joint programs have been
organized for training programs (for example in the livestock sector).
76 Synthesis Report
Chapter Summary
Academic and research institutes in HRD curriculum development and
implementation
In Bangladesh, the in-service HRD curricula (skill development programmes) is developed
apparently by the extension department itself, not necessarily involving academic
institutions, although there may be occasional involvement of research institutions. In pre-
service training, however, it is the academic institutions and Agricultural Training Institutes
(ATIs) that provide the training. It is necessary to develop closer linkages among the
extension service, academic and research institutions in developing both pre-service and in-
service HRD curricula development and implementation.
In Bhutan, curricula for diploma courses are developed in consultation and agencies under
the Ministry Agriculture and Forests. Researchers and scientists are actively involved in
teaching diploma students. Also research centres and programmes guide the diploma
students during their field attachment which is a part of the diploma programme. The
College Natural Resources has started degree programme for in-service diploma holders.
In India, government support for HRD in agricultural extension is provided to agricultural
extension functionaries knowledge and skill up-gradation. A strong institutional base has
been created for catering HRD requirement for farmers and extension personnel. There are
several institutions available for HRD programmes. However, it is alleged that multiplicity
of HRD schemes, ritual training by institutes to meet targets and absence of clear indications
to stakeholders as to which scheme to choose for availing the needed benefits adds to
confusion.
In Nepal, there is Directorate of Training (DAT) and Central Agricultural Training Centre
(CATC) along with Regional Training Centres (RATCs), one for each development regions.
DAT for officers organizes various in-service training courses for officers (SMSs, planners,
managers, and extension workers).
The institute of Agricultural and Animal Science (IAAS) train Junior Technical Assistants
and also offer higher degree courses. The Nepal Agricultural Research Council provide pre-
service training course f0r Field Assistants, in-service short training course for agricultural
officers, and training courses for NGOs and farmers. It thus appears that there is an in-built
involvement of extension with academic and research institutes.
In Pakistan, there are several in-service training institutes where the extension professionals
are sent to upgrade their knowledge and skills. This is an ongoing process of human resource
development and capacity building. However, it is alleged that HRD aspect in extension is
neither regular and nor adequate. Also the Agriculture Training Institutes, both for pre-
service and in-service training and established in 1950s, need improvement in curricula,
methodology and facilities.
Sri Lanka
Areas of perception, skill and capacity building in HRD
Bangladesh appears to have a clear perception in skill and capacity building in its HRD
development for agricultural extension. It, however, needs to pay attention to
implementation of its perception.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 77
In Bhutan, programmes and projects under the Ministry of Agriculture provide training
opportunities in-country and abroad. Similarly international and bilateral development
partners also offer training support for the extension workers. Awareness on new and
emerging technologies in the RNR sector are imparted to extension staff through study visit,
seminar etc.
India develops training programmes based on needs and skill gap analysis. Institutions
conduct need analysis through systematic periodic studies. The country gives priority to
scaling up resource use efficiency, energy use efficiency, post-harvest handling, storage and
processing, ICTs, group farming and marketing, IPRs and WTO implications, biodiversity
conservation and management, integrated farming, skill development for agri-
entrepreneurship etc.
Nepal
There is awareness in Pakistan about the need for training of extension personnel, especially
in participatory extension programme, interpersonal communication skills, methods of group
formation, facilitation of community planning, management of natural resources, farm
management, and business analysis for sustainable agriculture etc
Sri Lanka
From the accounts available, it appears that the perception on HRD in extension differ
widely among the countries, seemingly based on national needs and priorities.
Training of extension workers and farmers
In Bangladesh an elaborate training programme for SAAOs has been developed, with
additional training periodically as part specific projects. The training programme include
training on up-coming extension programmes, technical skills and knowledge to improve
SAAO’s ability to analyze farmers’ problems, their ability to interact with farmers
effectively etc.
In addition, (i) District Technical Meetings of SAAOs are organized based on DAE’s
Training Wing guidelines including reporting, monitoring, standard documentation of
planning, evaluation; (ii) Review of activities and field situations (current field situation,
summary of extension messages, progress in implementation of extension programmes,
extension visits, demonstration programmes, and subjects are covered in regular training
programmes etc).
In Bhutan, regular training to improve skill and knowledge of extension staff are organized.
Awareness on new and emerging technologies in the RNR sector are also provided through
study visits , seminar etc.
With the establishment of NGOs, farmers and communities are getting training and support
from them. However, in the broader scale farmers’ training is the responsibility of the public
extension system where Research Centres, College of Natural Resources (CNR) and Rural
Development Training Centre are actively involved.
In India, a number of training institutions (MANAGE, NIAM EEI, SAMETI, NAARM,
KVKs) are involved in specialized training for extension professional and farmers. NAARM
carries out research on HRD planning, training need analysis, developing e-learning
78 Synthesis Report
modules, training modules, etc. NAARM also runs a diploma programme agri-business
management helping the extension system with qualified professionals.
State Agricultural Universities and National institutes like Indian Agricultural research
Institute, Indian Veterinary Institute, National Dairy Research Institute, Central Institute of
Fisheries Education contribute to research studies in agricultural extension and HRD
programmes.
Hosts of training facilities are available in the public sector at national, state and district
levels. In addition, private sector educational institutes provide extension training to
students, faculty, extension personnel, and farmers.
In Nepal, the Directorate of Agricultural Training (DAT) along with its ten Regional
Agricultural Training Centres (RATCs):
• Conduct advanced level short training course for the technical officers and
professionals of Nepal Agriculture Service of Government of Nepal.
• Ensure the extension of farm technology to the end users through organizing
multilevel training programs and developing human resources.
• Design and implement training related research and study programs.
• Support and backstop Regional Agricultural Training Centers and District Training
Units in planning, implementing and quality upgrading of training programs.
DAT training courses are tailored to meet the needs of the professional subject matter
specialist, planners, managers and extension workers who are serving the government at the
center, regional and district level.
In Pakistan, due considerations is given to the establishment/strengthening of agricultural
extension institutes such as Agriculture Training Institutes to cater for such needs. The ATIs and
Agricultural Research System also provide training to the agricultural extension agents, NGOs
and farmers and also organize special courses for private sector professionals.
Likewise, the joint-short training programs are also organized by the extension system where
representatives drawn from extension, NGOs, private sector, and farming communities are
invited to participate.
In Sri Lanka also Institutional set up has been established and public-private joint
programmes have also been organized for training (for example in the livestock sector).
It appears that all the countries have extension training infrastructure in place and have
developed their training systems for extension personnel.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 79
CHAPTER
Research-Education-Extension-Farmers Linkages in SAARC Countries
(i) Present linkages
Bangladesh
The formal research-extension-farmers linkage in the crop sector was first built and
institutionalized during the T&V system supported by the World Bank (1977–1991). A
Senior Scientific Officer (SSO) and/or Principal Scientific Officer of Bangladesh
Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) was the Member-Secretary of District Technical
Committee (DTC) and/or Regional Technical Committee (RTC). Linkage activities were
confined to contacting farmers by the Block Supervisor (currently SAAO) with some impact
points developed in the DTC. These impact points were validated and refined in the SMS-
SSO workshop held monthly in the region and approved by RTC. In FSRD activities,
however, linkages were inbuilt as also in research review and planning workshops. Joint visits by research and extension leaders of the region also helped to keep the linkage effective.
Linkage efforts in the research system
In the research systems, scientists identified farmers’ problems through the FSRD and other
adaptive research activities with participatory approaches, especially in on-farm trials. These
activities, supported by Extension and Research Project (ERP), National Coordinated
Cropping System Research Project, Farming System Research Project (FSRP) and
Agricultural Research Management Project (ARMP), helped institutionalize research-
extension-farmers linkage. These efforts, though not above criticism, helped improve the
skill of research and extension officials in assessing field problems and reflecting those in
programme planning.
Under the Agricultural Research Management Project (ARMP), research on integrated
farming was conducted in 17 FSRD sites throughout the country. These activities helped
develop entrepreneurships in small scale poultry farming and marketing. The linkage
activities, however, were not sustainable with the withdrawal of funding support and
discontinuation of support of livestock and fisheries personnel.
The weakness of linkages appeared to be due to (i) inadequate interaction between FSRD
scientists and commodity scientists, (ii) lack of clear-cut understanding among the people
involved, (iii) linkages of research institutes under different ministries were difficult and (iv)
lack of adequate appreciation of the role of FSRD in problem identification, prioritization
and planning.
Linkage efforts in the Extension Systems
In the crop sector, research-extension linkages became weak towards the end of the T&V
system. The Regional Technical Committees were abandoned. The upstream linkage became
6
80 Synthesis Report
irregular. DAE operated some project during 2002-2003 with some linkage arrangement
with farmers but there was no inbuilt arrangement to involve research.
In the fisheries sector, lack of initiative of personnel responsible for coordinating the
research-extension-farmer linkage exerted negative influence. In the livestock sector linkages
were not established on a permanent set-up and were disjointed.
Linkages through FSRD
Impact analysis of the World Bank investment in Farming System Research and
Development demonstrated several cases of successful research leading to adoption. This
was apparently due to good functional linkage at work with farmers. Based on this, it was
recommended that steps should be taken to ensure support for inter institutional FSRD
efforts.
Bhutan
Given the diverse agro-ecological conditions of Bhutan, RNR research recognizes that the
research undertaken must be applied, and adaptive research should be undertaken based on
farmers’ needs. At present there is a number of forums and procedures which help in
strengthening the extension-research linkage.
Extension Coordination Committee (ECC)
At the National level, the Extension Coordination Committee is mandated to review research
and extension policy and make fresh policy decisions. The directors and senior policy level
officers represent their departments in the ECC.
Regional RNR Planning and Coordination Workshop
This is one of the important forums, where research and extension staffs meet once a year,
discuss and exchange emerging and available technologies. Extension agents provide the
information on potential locations and interested farmers for on-farm trials. They also review
and plan through joint problem diagnosis, setting priority and programming. In recent years,
this conference has been renamed as National Level Planning and Coordination Workshops
on Annual Field Crops, Horticulture, Livestock and Forestry.
On-Farm Research Programme
This is yet another means of linking research, extension and farmers. The on-farm research
programme helps to develop innovations consistent with farmer’s circumstances, compatible
with the actual farming system and corresponding to farmer’s goals and preferences. These
are drawn up in consultation among research and extension staff with the participation of
farmers. RNR Sector officers and Dzongkhag specialists participate in planning,
implementation and evaluation of on-farm programmes and work closely with farmers.
Results are discussed at joint meetings with a view to developing future programmes
including its use in extension.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 81
India
There are many organizations (state and central government agencies, agribusiness
companies, agri-preneurs, input dealers, manufacturing firms, NGOs, farmers’ organisations
and progressive farmers) providing different kinds of useful services like information and
service support to farmers. There is nonetheless duplication of efforts with multiplicity of
agents attending extension work. There should be a coordinated attempt to synergize and
converge these efforts at the district level and below.
The critical areas in which convergence efforts made are:
• Farmer empowerment and farmer organisational development
• Technology backstopping and management
• Public private partnerships
• Frontier areas for extension, HRD and skill development
An exercise has been made to indicate the types of convergence in the above critical areas of
extension and presented and the findings were:
Institute Village Linkage Programme (IVLP)
Technology Assessment and Refinement (TAR) Programme implemented by of ICAR under
National Agricultural technology Project (NATP), is one of the institutionalised approach of
linking the farmers with the research, education and extension system in the country. Main
Objectives of TAR – IVLP are:
• To introduce technological interventions with emphasis on stability and
sustainability along with productivity and profitability taking into account
environmental issues in well endowed and small production systems.
• To introduce and integrate appropriate technologies to increase the productivity with
marketed surplus in commercial and off farm production systems.
• To monitor socio-economic impact of technological interventions for different
production systems.
Krishi Vigyan Kendra
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) or (Farm Science Centres) are the interface mechanism
between the research and extension system in the country. The KVKs undertake technology
refinement with the involvement of farmers and scientists. As the KVKs continued to gain
strength and spread, its mandate also changed. From vocational training the focus shifted to
testing and demonstration of technologies during 1990s; to technology assessment and
refinement in the X Plan (2002-2007) and to 'Knowledge and Resource Centres' in 2009 in
the XI Plan.
The journey of KVKs has been remarkable enabling its existence in 600 districts till date and
by the end of XI plan, establishment of 667 KVKs is envisaged.
The Council has established 44 Agricultural Technology Information Centres (ATIC) in 16
ICAR Institutes and 28 State Agricultural Universities to work as ‘Single Window’ support
system, for linking the various units of research institution with intermediary users and
farmers in decision making and problem solving exercise though supply of technology
82 Synthesis Report
inputs, products, information and advisory services under Innovations the Technology
Dissemination (ITD) component of National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP),
funded by the World Bank.
At present, National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP), launched during 2006-07, is
being implemented by the Council in ‘Consortium’ mode through four major components:
(i) ICAR as catalyzing agent for management of change of National Agricultural Research
System (NARS); (ii) Production to Consumption Research; (iii) Sustainable Rural
Livelihood Security (SRLS); and (iv) Basic and Strategic Research in frontier areas of
agricultural sciences.
Nepal
In the beginning, there were no problems of coordination and linkage problems because of
less number of stakeholders, organizations and comparatively low level of transactions of the
farmers. Over the years, the growth occurred in terms of organizations, stakeholders and
transactions of the farmers that created the problems in linkages and coordination. As a
result, special mechanisms were developed gradually.
In this traditional system, farmers' problems were collected by extension agents and these
problems were brought to research for solution. The solutions provided by research system
would come to extension and ultimately to farmers through extension. Both research and
extension used to be public based. Extension used to remain in touch with farmers and,
therefore, considered as a bridge between research and farmers.
Farmers at the Center of Knowledge Triangle
The research, extension and education are considered the three pillars of the agricultural
knowledge system (AKS). It is also called the “agricultural knowledge triangle” which
places farmer at the center. The AKS integrates farmers, researchers, extensionists and
agricultural educators, enabling them to harness knowledge and information from various
sources to improve farming and livelihoods.
The concerned agencies are functionally connected in many ways. For all the stakeholders
focal point becomes the farmer. They are interlinked in terms of their services to end-users.
Value-chain approach.
As agricultural gets commercialized, it involves the production of crops and commodities for
sale rather than on-farm consumption and the use of sale proceeds to buy family and farm
requirements. To maximize benefits (or value added) from the business activity and be
sustainable, each participant in the delivery chain from producer to consumer must operate
efficiently, profitably and in collaboration with other participants in the chain. To be
efficient each link in the chain should be operating with the most appropriate technology, in
full knowledge of market requirements, and within a business environment where a fair and
transparent tax regime applies, trade impediments are minimized and acceptable quality
controls are in place. This is the concept of the Value Chain. A generic value chain system
for agricultural products is illustrated below.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 83
Agricultural technology plays vital role in increasing agricultural productivity.
Transformation of subsistence agriculture into commercial one depends, to a large extent on
the modern farming technologies are available to the farmers and they adopt them. Research
centers are responsible to generate clientele oriented technology. Extension workers on the
other hands are responsible to disseminate the proven technologies developed by research
stations to the farming communities and bring back the problems and needs of the farmers to
the research centers.
A close working relationship between research and extension is vital in maintaining this
ideal linkage between r& e and hence in providing high quality agricultural services to
farmers.
Key components of the system for R & E Linkages in Nepal
At the Central Level
• Tripartite meeting
• Technical panel meeting
• National Agriculture Technical Working Group (NATWG)
• Seasonal crop and other technical workshops
At the regional level
• Outreach Research Program (ORP)
• Outreach Research Planning and Coordination Meeting (ORPCM)
• Regional Agriculture Technical Working Group (RATWG)
At the district and grassroots level
• District Agriculture Development Committee (DADC)
• District Agriculture Development Program Implementation Committee (DADPIC)
• Village Level Planning and Review Workshop
• Farmers Acceptance Test
Linkage and coordination between R&D institutions in Nepal is tailored in such a way that
there is a frequent interaction between different layers of institutions to get two-way
feedbacks for agriculture research and development. Linkage mechanism is targeted for
different hierarchy from central to district level where frequent interactions among institution
is a mandatory business so that coordination mechanism has been tied up in their annual
targets. NARC is technology generator while DoA and DLS are technology promoter. This
linkage and coordination mechanism has given a sense of responsibility to institutions
assigned to their respective job of technology development and technology dissemination.
Pakistan
In Pakistan linkages between research, extension and education are quite loose. The
university faculty and researchers in the research system are prone to writing of scientific
papers or articles without considering the relevance or applicability of their research
findings in the field. The researchers operate mostly in isolation and, therefore, their contact
with other organizations is quite limited. They seldom take part or encourage in extending
84 Synthesis Report
their research findings in farmers’ fields. They seldom get opportunities to formally meet
the extension workers particularly below the district level. Same is true for linkages between
the extension and academic institutions.
Agricultural universities at present are also performing only the teaching role whereas the
other two roles, namely research and extension, have suffered a severe setback because of
lack of funds and inappropriate linkages with research stations/centers and agriculture
extension programs under the administrative control of agriculture departments and the
corporate sector.
Even the communication or interface within and among the research organizations is
tenuous, resulting in duplication of research efforts and uncoordinated research programs
which are not aligned with the national needs and priorities. Such an environment points
towards the poor communications between the farm research, extension, education and
farmers. The linkage problem has further been exacerbated with the introduction of
extension devolution plan in Pakistan as the district governments have emphasis on physical
infrastructure and are least concerned with agricultural developments. Thus, the extension
staffs are not encouraged for out-of-district communications.
Sri Lanka
One of the constraints at present in farmer- research-extension linkage is ’One Grower –
Many Advisory Services’ while there is the need for more ground level extension workers as
well as stronger research-extension linkages.14
• Present linkages15
The importance of strengthening the linkage between research and extension has been
well recognized in the country. As a result several formal measures have been
introduced.
• Provincial Technical Working Group (PTWG)
Originally introduced to support the T&V system in early 1980s, the forum paves the
way for officers engaged in different disciplines to interact with each other and come to
an agreement with regard to sharing responsibilities for production programmes to be
implemented during the coming season. The provincial Director of Agriculture
Extension and Deputy Director (Research) of the Regional Research Institute act as “Co-
Chair” and the head of the Regional In-service Training Institute performs as the
Secretary. The PTWGs meet before the commencement of each cultivation season and
priorities for the on-coming seasons are agreed upon.
• Research-extension-training dialogues
The forums are organized during the season to analyze and discuss important fied
problems and to observe to what extent certain technologies can be adopted under
14 Samuel, R.R. 2011.Country Profile: Sri Lanka National Agricultural Extension System. Presentation ‘ Country Profile: Sri
Lanka National Agricultural Extension System. Workshop on’ National Agricultural Research System – An Analysis of the
System Diversity’ organized by SAC, November 23-24, 2011, Thimpu, Bhutan. 15 Mankotte, K.N. 2006. Agricuktural extenson in Sri Lana and different mechanisms available to strengthen research-extension
linkages. Proc. Regional Workshop on Research-Extension Linkages for Effective Delivery of Agricultural Technologies in
SAARC Countries.SAIC, 20-22 November 2006 held at NAARM, Hyderabad, India. SAIC,BARC Complex, Farmgate, Dhaka
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 85
different situations. The sessions are normally organized as a scheduled field tours
followed by technical discussion based on field observations. This strategy was also
introduced by the T&V system to strengthen linkages between research and extension.
• Crop clinics
During the cropping season when farmers face multitude of problems related to dffeent
disciplines, relevant researchers are to a pre-arranged location in the field by the
extension autrhorities in the area to interact with farmersFarmers are expected to carry
fresh specimens to enable researchers to make appropriate recommendations. Such
sessions help to solve a large number of problems and exrend the benefit of research-
extension linkage to the farmer level. In order to provide better service during these
clinics, arrangements are made to sell seeds, planting materials, technical publications
and also video programmes are also shown to the public.
• Field days
Although field days are organized as a normal extension function, researchers are invited
to some filed days, when some noteworthy event occurs in the field. This gives them an
opportunity to interact with farmers and understand different farming environments and
share experiences with farmers and extensionists. Also field days organized by Research
Institute to show new technologies. This provides an opportunity to develop dialogue
between researchers and extensionists.
• Mass media activities
In order to strengthen programme of DOA the Audio Visual Centre of the the DOA has
been equipped with resources to produce several technical television programmes per
week for the National Television Service “Rupavahini”. Also several radio programmes
are broadcast eekly by Farm Broadcast Service in Colombo and its regional units. The
printing press fulfills the need of producing technical print media materials for farmers.
Opportunities are given to relevant researchers and extensionists to serve as resource
persons in the production of both electronic and print media materials.
• Annual symposium of DOA
All senior technical officers of DOA are invited to the symposium and are given
opportunities to present their findings of research outcomes,experiences gained in
extension activities and socio-economic studies. The event has helped develop a better
understanding among officers of different disciplines throughout the country.
• Toll free extension service
This is a recently introduced innovative ICT to reach the farmer. In order to support the
present agricultural extension system which suffers from lack of sufficient extension
officers in the field and the delay in getting messages to farmers, the Ministry of
Agricultural Development has taken the initiative to provide a toll free extension service
to the DOA. Anyone can call the agricultural knowledge repository “call centre” through
a telephone where agriculturists of DOA as well as anyone from other departments are
assigned to answer the calls. In cases where an extension officer is unable to provide a
satisfactory answer, the caller is directed to relevant officers, including research officers.
86 Synthesis Report
• Agricultural technology parks
This concept of quick information dissemination mechanism was introduced recently
and two such parks have been established in an aesthetically pleasant environment. This
is a place to see live demonstration of some of the latest technical recommendations of
food crops with self explanatory digital posters. For visitors who need further
clarifications, agricultural instructors are assigned to each section of the park to assist
them. Researchers assist in establishing demonstrations and in deciding the technical
content of the posters. The technology serves as a “live agricultural university” for those
interested. It also serves as a place for discovery learning for students and demonstration
site for traditional agriculture in Sri Lanka. The Technology Park has become popular as
a place for agro tourism. Its long term sustainability requires close working relationship
between researchers and extensionists.
• Cyber agriculture extension
As an ICT initiative, Cyber agricultural extension has been implemented in Sri Lanka
since 2004. This is an information exchange mechanism over cyber spaces. It utilizes the
power of on-line networks computer communications and interactive multimedia to
facilitate effective information exchange.
In view of the limitations of the original on-line cyber extension, digital extension
mechanism (wireless cyber extension) was introduced in a pilot project. Up until
December 2006, 45 cyber units were established as Agrarian Service Centre. The use of
interactive CD ROMS is the key feature of the digital extension mechanism. Technical
contents of these CD-ROMS are obtained from research institutes who extend their
support during the production process as well. After continuous monitoring and
evaluation over two years necessary steps have been taken to implement the on-line
cyber extension since 2006.Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) facility and internal
connection were provided by the cyber units.
The mechanism has improved the generation and collaborative use of agricultural
knowledge. Two-way communications through e-mail and internet between Agrarian
Service Centres, Research Stations, wextension agents and other private sector
organization have been implemented. Researchers in national research stations and
extension workers in rural villages can communicate with colleagues and experts with a
click of the mouse. Farmers with the assistance from the agricultural instructor can
communicate with agriculturists through e-mail. If farmers need to send visuals of their
field problems, either they can use scanned image or digital still photograph. By using
the web-camera and microphone, teleconference is also possible. Researchers and
farmers will now be able to agricultural problems face –to face in the cyber space
through internet. Similarly researchers can also discuss problems with other colleagues
and also extensionists via e-mail to find out more information about a problem.
• Researchers as trainers
It is common practice to get the assistance of researchers as resource persons in training
programmes. This creates an opportunity for the extension officers to discuss their field
experiences and give a feedback on the technical recommendation given by the
researchers, enabling them to understand each other better.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 87
• Adaptive research programme
Research officers often conduct adaptive trials in farmers’ fields. Extension workers are
expected to assist in site selection, establishing and maintaining such trials. Success of
such a programme always depends on mutual understanding respect for each other.
• Disciplinary working group meetings
Research officers of a specific discipline of the country get together before the
commencement of each season. They discuss problems and set priorities. Scientists from
both Central and Provincial research institutes are invited to give them an opportunity to
contribute towards deciding research priorities. Representatives from the extension
service are also invited. This is also an opportunity to bring research and extension
together.
• Crop zoning programme
In order to develop backward villages, the DOA has launched crop zoning programme
Although the programme was initiated by the Research Division, officers involved in
extension, seed and planting material production also support the programme peforming
their respective roles.
Sri Lanka seems to have gathered the courage to challenge the weak linkage between
research and extension, although further strengthening are possible. The level of success
with rice production is taken as an example which would not have been possible without
a strong linkage between research and extension. Similar examples can be cited for
banana and pawpaw where research and extension have worked in “perfect harmony”16
(ii) Emerging trends of linkages
Bangladesh
Weak linkages of crop extension with non-crop sectors were identified as one of the main
constraints. It has been suggested that NATCC and ATCs would need to be revitalized and
strengthened in the crop sector, and the non-crop sectors participation would need to be
ensured as enunciated in the New Agricultural Extension Policy (NAEP).
Bhutan
Collaborative professional activities
Both research and extension can strengthen the linkages when they are involved in:
• Formal collaboration for on-farm trials, surveys and dissemination activities,
• Regular Joint visit,
• Informal sharing of tasks and responsibilities,
• Informal consultations,
• Periodic meetings,
16 Mankotte, K.N. 2006. Agricultural extension in Sri Lanka and different mechanisms available to strengthen research-
extension linkages. Proc. Regional Workshop on Research-Extension Lib\nkages for Effective Delivery of Agricultural
Technologies in SAARC Countries. SAARC Agricultural Incformation Centre, Dhaka and National Academy Agricultural Research Management, Hyderabad.
88 Synthesis Report
Communication approach
• Both researchers and extension can share their publications, audio materials, reports,
success stories. Experts from RNR-RDC many times are invited to be resource
persons in the training organized by extension agents. Some trainings and seminars
are organized and participated jointly.
Resource sharing for joint activities
• Some resource for strengthening linkage can be placed at e.g. Dzongkhags for on
farm trials but funds could only be used jointly with research.
• Assigning coordinating responsibilities
• Formal assignment for specific focused programme or activities can be given to a
certain individual, groups, programme in the research or extension.
India
The Department of Agriculture & Cooperation with the assistance of World Bank designed
and piloted a decentralized extension approach in the form of Agriculture Technology
Management Agency (ATMA) under NATP, which focused on agriculture diversification
and thereby made it more demand and market driven. ATMA is functioning towards
increasing farm income by organizing the farmers and farm women and making the system
viable through ‘decentralized, participatory and market driven’ approach. Participatory
knowledge generation, dissemination and sharing are integral part of ATMA. The storage
and retrieval issues at higher magnitude could be addressed with technology mediated
knowledge management (KM) strategies.
Moreover, the Department has initiated a number of programs under the XI Five Year Plan
(2007-2012) to help and guide the State Governments to take up scientific and technological
interventions for higher agriculture growth. Programs like Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
(RKVY-National Agriculture Development Scheme), National Food Security Mission
(NFSM), National Horticultural Mission (NHM) & Technology Mission on horticulture,
Macro Management of Agriculture (MMA) scheme, Micro Irrigation and Watershed
Management, Integrated Scheme of Oil Seeds, Pulses and Maize (ISOPAM), Promotion of
Maize for food, nutrition and livelihood security, enhancing sustainability in dryland and
rainfed farming, Technology Mission on Cotton (TMC), National Bamboo Mission have
been launched. The Ministry started Special Initiatives for Pulses and Oilseeds in Dryland
Areas under RKVY by organising demonstrations in 60,000 pulses and oilseed villages.
Further, Terminal Market Complex Scheme has also been initiated in few states for
providing state-of-art facilities for electronic auction, storage, handling, and strengthening
offline backward and forward linkages to agricultural produces.
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) in collaboration with NARS have been
rendering Agro-meteorological Advisory Services (AAS) about crop and livestock
management to farmers, extension personnel and other stakeholders in 127 agro climatic
zones of the country, which contributed to contingency planning, biotic and abiotic stress
management, managing enterprises of agriculture, livestock and fishery sector in changing
climatic situation and helping macro and micro-level planning. These services are delivered
through All India Radio, Television, Print media, Webinars, Emails, Mobile and other Multi-
media tools.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 89
Nepal
As stated earlier, linkage and coordination between R&D institutions in Nepal is tailored in
such a way that there is a frequent interaction between different layers of institutions to get
two way feedbacks for agriculture research and development. Linkage mechanism is targeted
for different hierarchy comprising from central to district level where frequent interactions
among institutions is a mandatory business so that coordination mechanism has been tied up
in their annual targets. NARC is technology generator while DoA and DLS are technology
promoter. This linkage and coordination mechanism has given a sense of responsibility to
institutions assigned to their respective job of technology development and technology
dissemination.
Agriculture Service Centre at the grassroots level involve village Development Committee to
develop Pocket Package Programmes through undertaking PC/PS and PRA. Thus prepared
projects, in crude forms, are later translated by the ASC/ASSC in to the standard Project
Formulation Format (PPF) and eventually submitted to district planning Committee. Joint
research-extension-farmer–nongovernmental planning, implementing and monitoring
systems established help ensure the linkages at the grassroots level.
Pakistan
To establish effective and sustainable research-extension linkages, there is a need for a
careful analysis of the constraints and opportunities present in their particular situation and
providing ample funds required in institution-effective linkages and promoting technical
meetings and reciprocal visits by all stakeholders to each others’ institutions and field sites.
Sri Lanka
The importance of strengthening the linkage between research and extension has been well
recognized in the country. As a result several formal measures have been introduced. These
include:
• Provincial Technical Working Group (PTWG)
• Research-extension-training dialogues
• Crop clinics
• Field days
• Mass media activities
• Annual symposium of DOA
• Agricultural technology parks
• Cyber agriculture extension
• Researchers as trainers
• Adaptive research programme
• Disciplinary working group meetings
• Crop zoning programme
Sri Lanka appears to have gathered the courage to challenge the weak linkage between
research and extension, although further strengthening are possible.17
17 Mankotte, K.N. 2006. Agricultural extension in Sri Lanka and different mechanisms available to strengthen research-extension linkages. Proc. Regional Workshop on Research-Extension Linkages for Effective Delivery of Agricultural
90 Synthesis Report
(iii) Proposed interaction mechanism for research-education-
extension-farmers linkages
Bangladesh
Proposed integration mechanism and institutional reforms for strengthening
linkages
The suggestions are:
• Commitment on the parts of heads of mainstream line departments
• Ownership of the linkage forums to be worked out
• A secretariat for the NATCC, with specific functions, would have to be created.
• The Technology Transfer Monitoring Unit of BARC to be strengthened to act as a
conduit of research-extension linkage
In addition, it is to be noted that the Technology Transfer Monitoring Unit (TTMU) of
BARC was created with a view to improving research-extension linkages. TTMU is
expected to identify the technologies generated in ARIs and oversee the transfer of
technologies to extension agencies and farmers. However, there is a lack of accountability on
the part of ARIs on the one hand and the DAE on the other, to TTMU with regard to transfer
of technologies. The authority and function of TTMU have so far not been spelt out in this
regard.
It may, therefore, be recommended that:
• Each ARI should conduct workshops with participants from DAE, BARC and other
concerned organizations for developing effective programmes for extension of
improved technologies
• This action should be followed by and monitored by TTMU. Both the ARI and DAE
should be accountable to TTMU for transfer concerned technologies.
• The BARC Act should empower TTMU with required authority and responsibility.
In this context, the TTMU of BARC should be raised to the status of a Division of
BARC to be headed by Member Director and strengthened with required manpower
to handle the responsibilities.
• The TTMU will be well be better poised to serve as the Secretariat of NATCC.
Bhutan
Proposed integration mechanisms are:
• Collaborative professional activities
Both research and extension can strengthen the linkages when they are involved in:
− Formal collaboration for on-farm trials, surveys and dissemination activities,
− Regular Joint visit,
− Informal sharing of tasks and responsibilities,
− Informal consultations,
− Periodic meetings
Technologies in SAARC Countries. SAARC Agricultural Incformation Centre, Dhaka and National Academy Agricultural Research Management, Hyderabad.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 91
• Communication approach
Both researchers and extension can share their publications, audio materials, reports,
success stories. Experts from RNR-RDC many times are invited to be resource persons
in the training organized by extension agents. Some trainings and seminars are organized
and participated jointly.
• Resource sharing for joint activities
Some resource for strengthening linkage can be placed at one e.g. at Dzongkhags for on
farm trials but funds could only be used jointly with research.
• Assigning coordinating responsibilities:
Formal assignment for specific focused programme or activities can be given to a certain
individual, groups, programme in the research or extension.
India
The technical convergence of ATM and KVK at the grassroots level during the XII plan
period is one of the important aspects in strengthening the linkages between institutions and
farmers. In the similar way linking the farmers institutions like dairy cooperatives, farmer
interest groups (FIGs), Self help Groups (SHGs) etc with research and extension system
through creating a national level coordinating agency during the XII plan is planned.
Nepal
Nepal appears to have developed a good level of linkages at various levels.
Pakistan
Pakistan is in the process of decentralization and recognizes the need for integration.
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka appears to have achieved a good level on integration in research extension linkage.
(iv) Institutional reforms for strengthening linkages in extension
Bangladesh
The proposed integration under 6(iv) above for Bangladesh is expected to strengthen
linkages.
Bhutan
Recently, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests undertook restructuring whereby research
implementation mandate of the Council for RNR Research of Bhutan (CoRRB) has been
transferred to respective technical departments. CoRRB is mandated to develop research
policy. This reform was primarily put in place to strengthen research–extension linkages and
92 Synthesis Report
collaboration. After restructuring, research centers have been renamed as Research and
Development Centers (RDC) and given the mandate of development.
India
In the larger districts, two KVKs have been established by the ICAR. Through National
Agricultural Development Programme, the state governments are provided with adequate
financial assistance for strengthening their research-education-extension infrastructure. In
addition, ICAR has taken initiatives to strengthen the SAUs with experiential learning units,
state of art facilities for creating e-learning facilities. Through the establishment of e-
connectivity facilities, ICAR has facilitated the interaction of scientists from ICAR research
institutes with the subject matter specialists of KVKs, farmers, and extension specialists in
the country.
Nepal
In the larger districts, two KVKs have been established by the ICAR. Through National
Agricultural Development Programme, the state governments are provided with adequate
financial assistance for strengthening their research-education-extension infrastructure. In
addition, ICAR has taken initiatives to strengthen the SAUs with experiential learning units,
state of art facilities for creating e-learning facilities. Through the establishment of e-
connectivity facilities, ICAR has facilitated the interaction of scientists from ICAR research
institutes with the subject matter specialists of KVKs, farmers, and extension specialists in
the country.
Pakistan
Since Pakistan is moving towards decentralization, it would need to give attention to
integration of its extension delivery system.
Sri Lanka
Various mechanisms adopted in Sri Lanka appear to have contributed to integration of the
extension stakeholders and the country report reveals its success in integration (see 6(i) and
6(ii) under Sri Lanka above).
Chapter Summary
Present linkages
In Bangladesh the research-extension linkages developed during the T&V system have
become weak with the withdrawal of the system. The country needs to make renewed efforts
to improve the linkages. Weak linkages of crop extension with non-crop sectors were
identified as one of the main constraints. It has been suggested that NATCC and ATCs
would need to be revitalized and strengthened in the crop sector, and the non-crop sectors
participation would need to be ensured as enunciated in the New Agricultural Extension
Policy (NAEP).
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 93
In the case of Bhutan, the extension coordination Committee (ECC), the Regional RNR
Planning and Coordination Workshop help maintain not only research-extension linkages but
also across the various sectors of rural development. In addition On-Farm Research
Programmes help to develop innovations consistent with farmer’s circumstances drawn up
in consultation among research and extension staff with participation of farmers. RNR sector
officers and Dzongkhag (district) specialists participate in planning, implementation and
evaluation of on-farm programmes and work closely with farmers.
In India, multiplicity of too many extension providers results in duplication of efforts and
there is the need for coordinated attempt to synergize and converge these efforts. An exercise
undertaken in this respect suggests to:
• Institute Village Level Linkage Programme (IVLP)
• Establish ‘Single Widow Service’ under the Innovations and Technology
Dissemination (ITD) component of National Agricultural Technology Project
(NATP).
In Nepal, the AKS (Agriculture Knowledge System) integrates farmers, researchers and
extensionists and agricultural educators and enable them to harness knowledge and
information from various sources. The concerned agencies are functionally connected.
The key components of the research and extension linkages involve meetings of the
stakeholders at the central, regional, district and grassroots level so that frequent interaction
between different layers of institutions to get two-way feedbacks are ensured. The
coordination mechanism has given a sense of responsibility to institutions assigned to their
respective job of technology development and technology dissemination.
In Pakistan, however, the linkages between research, extension and education are deemed
quite loose. The researchers are alleged to operate in isolation, they seldom get opportunities
to formally meet the extension workers particularly below the district level. The seems to be
case with extension and academic institutions. The linkage problem has further exacerbated
with the devolution plan as the district government which now is the focal point for
developments are least concerned with agricultural development. Thus extension staffs are
not encouraged for out-of- district communications.
In Sri Lanka, ‘One Grower – Many Advisory Services’ is a constraint in farmer-research-
extension linkage while there is the need for more ground level extension worker. The
linkage problem has been well recognized and as a result several measures have been
introduced:
• Provincial Technology Working Group
• Research extension training dialogues
• Crop clinics
• Field days
• Mass media activities
• Annual symposium of DOA
• Toll free extension service
• Agricultural technology parks
• Cyber agriculture extension
• Researcher as trainer
• Adaptive research programme
94 Synthesis Report
• Disciplinary working group meetings
• Crop zoning programme
In conclusion the linkage position may be stated as follows:
Bangladesh needs to develop linkage with educational and research institutes in developing
both pre-service and in-service HRD development curricula, It would appear that Nepal and
Bhutan developed linkage mechanisms which involve all stakeholders with their active
participation. In India a strong institutional base has been created but multiplicity of HRD
schemes can create confusion. In Pakistan HRD aspect is extension is neither regular nor
adequate. Both pre-service and in-service training need improvement. Sri Lanka is giving
priority to the farming sector after the end of internal conflict in 2009.
Emerging trends in linkages
In Bangladesh NATCC and ATCs would need to be revitalized and strengthened in the crop
sector, and the non-crop sectors participation would need to be ensured as enunciated in the
New Agricultural Extension Policy (NAEP).
Bhutanese experiences suggest that linkages can be improved through collaborative
activities, community approach, resource sharing and assigning coordination responsibilities
to a certain individual, groups or committee.
In India, the Participatory knowledge generation, dissemination and sharing are integral
part of ATM and many programmes. These are expected to improve research-education-
extension-farmer.
In Nepal, linkage and coordination between R&D institutions allows interaction between
different layers of institutions from central to district. This linkage and coordination
mechanism has given a sense of responsibility to institutions assigned to their respective job
of technology development and technology dissemination.
In Pakistan there is the need for careful analysis of constraints and opportunities and
making resources available effective linkages.
In Sri Lanka various measures undertaken are expected to improve linkages.
Proposed interaction mechanism for linkages
Bangladesh has identified the mechanisms for better research-extension interaction. They
propose to strengthen the TTMU of BARC to enable it play an effective role between
research and extension. These need attention of policymakers for implementation.
Bhutan proposes (i) collaborative professional activities, (ii) community approach,
(iii) resource sharing and (iv) assigning coordinating responsibilities to certain groups or
committees.
In India, the technical convergence of ATM and KVK at the grassroots level has helped
strengthening linkages between institutions and farmers. They further suggest that linking
farmers institutions (dairy cooperatives, Farmer interest groups, self help groups with
research and extension through a national level coordinating agency.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 95
Nepal appears to have developed a good level of linkages at various levels. Pakistan is in the
process of decentralization while Sri Lanka appears to have achieved a good level of
integration in research-extension linkages.
Institutional reforms for strengthening linkages
Bangladesh emphasizes the strengthening of TTMU of BARC of as stated above.
Bhutan has recently transferred research responsibility in agriculture, livestock and forest to
respective technical departments from CoRRB while CoRRB is now expected to develop
research policy and collaboration. The reform is expected to strengthen research-extension
linkages.
In India, state governments are encouraged to strengthen their research-education-extension-
farmers linkages through national Agricultural Development Programme. ICAR has taken
initiatives to strengthen SAUs with experimental learning creating e-learning and
connectivity through establishment interaction of scientists with extension specialists and
farmers.
Nepal has already developed a system where integration of stakeholders is ensured at each
level. Pakistan is moving towards decentralization but needs to give attention to linkages of
stakeholders.
Various mechanisms adopted in Sri Lanka appear to have contributed to integration of the
extension stakeholders and the country report reveals its success in integration (see 5(i) and
5(ii) above).
96 Synthesis Report
CHAPTER
Incentive Structure of Extension Systems in SAARC Countries
Bangladesh
The present incentive structure in Bangladesh extension is outlined below:
Step 1: Selection of Upazila SAAO of the Year
• Each officer of the Upazila (UAO, AEO, AAEO & JAEO) individually selects three
highest performing SAAOs that they work with based on an Evaluation Sheet
• All SAAOs fill in a self evaluation sheet
• The supervisory officers in the Upazila meet to consider all selections and
recommend three highest performing SAAOs (Block Supervisors) to the Deputy
Director of the district.
• The Deputy Director audits the performance of the selected SAAOs through
assessment of performance and speaking to farmers in the concerned block before
making a final decision of the “Upazila SAAO of the Year”.
Step 2: Selection of SAAO of the Year
• The Deputy Director of the district and the Upazila Agriculture Officers pay
attention to the following sources of information
− Direct feedback from farmers
− The SAAO Dairy
− The SAAO Demonstration Register
− Seasonal Extension Monitoring Systems (SEMS) Form
− Fortnightly Work Programme
− Farmer Information Needs Assessment (FINA) Report
The SAAO, scoring the highest, is declared as “The SAAO of the Year”
Bhutan
Incentives are given in the form of cash awards, out of term promotions, certificate of
recognition, certificate of recognition and training opportunities. Continuous under
performance could mean delayed promotion, limited training opportunities. This could lead
to disciplinary actions. The concerned Dzongkhags and the Departments monitor the
performance of the extension staff. Cash reward and recognition at present in done at the
national level and only the best few are recognized.
Recognition of extension staff need to be decentralized and could be done at Dzongkhag
level. More incentive structure could be put in place so that more and more extension staff
could be accommodated to recognize there input.
7
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 97
India
The pay and allowances of the extension professionals in the country are governed by the
provisions of sixth pay commission pay structure. The pay scale varies according to the level
and cadre of the employee. Some of the State Governments adopts their own pay scale
instead of central Government prescribed pay scale. Beyond salary, there does not seem to be
any additional incentives. However, there are prizes and rewards (described below)
Nepal
It appears that Nepal is yet to introduce incentives in agricultural extension work.
Pakistan
Generally, there exists no system of incentives and career advancement for good extension
workers. The field assistant, who is the front line worker, is recruited at a low level of pay scale
with two-year practical training course at an Agricultural Training Institute, after high school
certificate and generally retires in the same grade. Similarly, the chances of promotion for
Agricultural Officers who posses Masters’ Degree in Agriculture are also limited. They
generally get promotion one step above the initial scale of recruitment.
Summary Observations
Bangladesh has introduced incentive structure through “SAAO of the Year” award. In
Bhutan incentive is given in the form of cash awards, out of term promotion, certificate of
recognition, and training opportunities. India does not have a separate incentive scheme
except the normal service rules. Nepal is yet to introduce incengtives for agricultural
extension work. The same appears to be the case with Pakistan while Sri Lanka’s incentive
structure was not available.
Career advancement schemes in extension systems of SAARC
countries
Bangladesh
Bangladesh does not seem to have any special career advancement scheme for extension
workers beyond the prescribed government service rules based on seniority in jobs. The
country, however, has introduced an award system described below [{see 6(iii)].
Bhutan
In line with the Position Classification System (PCS), extension staff is provided with
opportunities to improve his/her their professional qualification in order to enhance their
career opportunities. Priority is given to those who have the potential and proven outstanding
performance and contribution. To this effect, the departments initiate proper training
identification and training needs assessment to ensure proper and required impact (HR
committee). Based on the identification, appropriate in-service training is made available.
98 Synthesis Report
The ex-country training is also decided on the training needs identified and the selection is
based on performance.
Human Resources Management (HRM) Division coordinates with the line departments and
agencies and based on the database select candidates to ensure transparency, fairness and
relevance. Development of the Subject Matter Specialist (SMS) is pursued to strengthen the
capacity of the extension system. In-country B.Sc in Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry has
been initiated since 2010. First batch of student with in-country B.Sc degree will come out in
December 2011.
Geog extension staffs with diploma, who enter the civil service in S-2 level, can rise up to P-
5 in the position classification system. Those with undergraduate degree can go up to P-2
level. In the PCS, educational degree is one of the main factors for upward movement. PCS
also allows horizontal movement of staff at all level. Extension staff with Master’s degree
and above can vertically move up to EX/ES –I which is equivalent to the Secretary level.
India
There is a well laid promotion policy adopted in the NARS wherein the ARS scientists
working with ICAR are covered under the revised career advancement system implemented
by ICAR according to the sixth pay commission pay scales. The entry level scientists are
assessed to the next grade pay after four years in well defined assessment criteria. In a
similar way the subsequent promotions are granted after subjecting the scientists, in a
periodical manner, according to their job structure and responsibilities.
However, The Subject Matter Specialists working in the KVKs are governed by the technical
service rules of ICAR for those KVKs under ICAR and the SAU system follows the UGC
pay scales and the CAS.
Nepal
Like Bangladesh, Nepal also does not seem to have any special career advancement scheme
beyond the general government service rules.
Pakistan
While looking at the entire spectrum of problems faced by the agriculture extension system
which adversely affects its performance, inadequate financial support and low morale of the
functionaries figure significantly which are attributable to:
• Inadequate opportunities for skills and qualification up-gradation through in-service
training in country and abroad.
• Insufficient chances and lack of criteria for regular promotion based on merit and
output.
• Poor working conditions which include lack of residences, office accommodation,
transport and health insurance.
• Seriously low funding level for extension field operations.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 99
Performance Based Promotion System (PBPS)
The existing service structure is based on seniority system and is vacancy oriented. A staff often
waits for his/her turn of promotion till their retirement. There are many cases where a staff
member retired in the same grade in which he was recruited. This has resulted in frustration, low
morale and ultimately brain drain from the system. A proposal is under consideration to
introduce performance-based promotion for extension professionals on the pattern of PARC.
An incentive system needs to be worked out where those who perform better than the majority
of extension staff may be granted extra incentives.
Summary Observations
Bangladesh extension system does not seem to have any special career advancement scheme
for extension personnel beyond the prescribed government service rules. In Bhutan
opportunities to improve professional career of potential extension of workers are provided
through in-service as well as ex-country training including opportunities for higher
educational degree. In India, SMSs working under ICAR are governed by technical service
rules. The SAU system in states follows the University Grants Commission (UGC) for career
advancement. Like Bangladesh, Nepal does not appear to have any special career scheme
beyond the general government service rules. In Pakistan, the career advancement
opportunities is very limited. However, a proposal is under consideration to introduce
Performance based promotion. The incentive opportunities was not available.
Prize and reward system in agricultural extension of SAARC
countries
Only Bangladesh, Bhutan and India have introduced reward systems in their agricultural
extension systems. Other countries are yet to introduce such prize and reward system as an
incentive to good work.
Bhutan incentive is given in the form of cash awards, out of term promotion, certificate of
recognition, and training opportunities,
In India, a good number of awards and reward system has been established to encourage the
employees, farmers, rural youths. ICAR has instituted nineteen national level awards in
various fields of agriculture. Among them, for KVKs there is one national level best KVK
award and eight zonal level best KVK awards instituted for encouraging the good work by
KVKs across the country.
Individual awards like best extension worker/scientist award, awards for press coverage on
agricultural news items, best teacher awards, young scientists awards, rural youth awards,
society awards by different extension societies, annual awards by department of agriculture
at central and state level are existing to encourage the extension professionals, famers and
extension activities in the country.
100 Synthesis Report
HR management in extension systems of SAARC countries
HR management was covered only by country papers of Bhutan and India.
Bhutan
The Ministry of Agriculture and Forests at present have more than 3000 staffs (RNR 10th
Plan, 2009). These human resources are posted at different departments, divisions and
centers. Almost half of these staffs are working at Dzongkhags level. In the 10th FYP, the
MoAF has proposed to increase its staff strength by 50 percent but at the same time around
300 existing staff will retire from their service.
Most Geogs are staffed with an extension staff, each from Agriculture and Livestock.
Recently, forestry extension staff’s are also being posted in the Geog centres. Most of the
extension staff at the Geog level have diploma from the College of Natural Resources
(CNR). Sector head at the Dzongkhag level mostly have undergraduate degree.
Recruitment, posting and transfer of extension staff are done by the Ministry but once they
are posted in Dzongkhags and Geogs, they are administratively under the Dzongkhag
administration. Although extension staffs are technically responsible to the Ministry of
Agriculture and Forests, their direct line of authority is through the Dasho Dzongdag
(District Commissioner) who is an official within the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs.
The day-to-day engagement and incentives of extension staff are looked after by Dzongkhag
Administration. Dzongdags (District Commissioner) have the authority to control the
availability of extension staff for training and in some cases allocates them to other duties.
At times, in the interest of the public and the programme of the local government,
Dzongdags recommend the Ministry to retain or cancel the transfer of extension staff.
Promotion of extension staff posted at Geogs and Dzongkhag is handled by Dzongkhag
authority up to the P-1 level.
India
The human resource management in the extension is governed by the well structured
provisions of in service trainings, short, medium and long duration trainings. The number of
vacant posts are about 32 percent and efforts are being made to fill up these posts during the
XII plan period.
Chapter Summary
Incentive structure: Present status and future outlook
Bangladesh has introduced incentive structure through “SAAO of the Year” award. In
Bhutan incentive is given in the form of cash awards, out of term promotion, certificate of
recognition, and training opportunities. India does not have a separate incentive scheme
except the normal service rules. Nepal is yet to introduce incengtives for agricultural
extension work. The same appears to be the case with Pakistan while Sri Lanka’s incentive
structure was not available.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 101
Career advancement scheme
Bangladesh extension system does not seem to have any special career advancement scheme
for extension personnel beyond the prescribed government service rules. In Bhutan
opportunities to improve professional career of potential extension of workers are provided
through in-service as well as ex-country training including opportunities for higher
educational degree. In India, SMSs working under ICAR are governed by technical service
rules. The SAU system in states follows the University Grants Commission (UGC) for career
advancement. Like Bangladesh, Nepal does not appear to have any special career scheme
beyond the general government service rules. In Pakistan, the career advancement
opportunities is very limited. However, a proposal is under consideration to introduce
Performance Based Promotion. The incentive opportunities was not available. for Sri
Lanka.
Prize and reward systems
Bangladesh has introduced, as mentioned above, “SAAO of the Year” award. In Bhutan
incentive is given in the form of cash awards, out of term promotion, certificate of
recognition, and training opportunities.
Similarly, in Bhutan incentive is given in the form of cash awards, out of term promotion,
certificate of recognition, and training opportunities, as also mentioned above.
In India, a good number of awards and reward system has been established to encourage the
employees, farmers, rural youths. ICAR has instituted nineteen national level awards in
various fields of agriculture. Among them, for KVKs there is one national level best KVK
award and eight zonal level best KVK awards instituted for encouraging the good work by
KVKs across the country.
Individual awards like best extension worker/scientist award, awards for press coverage on
agricultural news items, best teacher awards, young scientists awards, rural youth awards,
society awards by different extension societies, annual awards by department of agriculture
at central and state level are existing to encourage the extension professionals, farmers and
extension activities in the country.
Other countries do not appear to have prize and reward systems. Pakistan while Sri
Lanka’s do not appear to have incentive structure is not available.
HR management
Except Bhutan and India, other countries have not covered HR management in their
country papers. The cases of Bhutan and India are discussed below.
Bhutan
The Ministry of Agriculture and Forests at present have more than 3000 staffs (RNR 10th
Plan, 2009). These human resources are posted at different departments, divisions and
centers. Almost half of these staffs are working at Dzongkhags level. In the 10th FYP, the
MoAF has proposed to increase its staff strength by 50 percent but at the same time around
300 existing staff will retire from their service.
102 Synthesis Report
Most Geogs are staffed with an extension staff, each from Agriculture and Livestock.
Recently, forestry extension staff’s are also being posted in the Geog centres. Most of the
extension staff at the Geog level have diploma from the College of Natural Resources
(CNR). Sector head at the Dzongkhag level mostly have undergraduate degree.
Recruitment, posting and transfer of extension staff are done by the Ministry but once they
are posted in Dzongkhags and Geogs, they are administratively under the Dzongkhag
administration. Although extension staffs are technically responsible to the Ministry of
Agriculture and Forests, their direct line of authority is through the Dasho Dzongdag
(District Commissioner) who is an official within the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs.
The day-to-day engagement and incentives of extension staff are looked after by Dzongkhag
Administration. Dzongdags (District Commissioner) have the authority to control the
availability of extension staff for training and in some cases allocates them to other duties.
At times, in the interest of the public and the programme of the local government,
Dzongdags recommend the Ministry to retain or cancel the transfer of extension staff.
Promotion of extension staff posted at Geogs and Dzongkhag is handled by Dzongkhag
authority up to the P-1 level.
India
The human resource management in the extension is governed by the well structured
provisions of in service trainings, short, medium and long duration trainings. The number of
vacant posts is about 32 percent and efforts are being made to fill up these posts during the
XII plan period.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 103
CHAPTER
Monitoring and Evaluation of Extension Systems
(i) Institutional review and programme review
Only Bhutan and India country papers covered institutional review/programme review in
connection with monitoring and evaluation in their country papers. Other countries are yet to
take up the matter.
Bhutan
The need to streamline and institute an effective system for monitoring and evaluation of
development plans has been recognized for a long time in the country. In response to this
need, Gross National Happiness Commission (GNHC) has developed the National
Monitoring and Evaluation System (NMES) as a standard system for monitoring and
evaluating the development plans by line Ministries, Agencies, Dzongkhags and Geogs.
Gross National Happiness Commission (GNHC), as the central coordinating agency for
development planning, monitoring and evaluation, has developed a standardized monitoring
and evaluation system for efficient and effective undertaking of monitoring and evaluation of
development policies, programmes and projects. The system has been developed in
conformity with the Good Governance Plus Report 2005 of Bhutan.
At the Ministry level RNR –GNH Committee is the highest body to monitor the progress of
the plan, programme and project. It is chaired by Secretary and represented by head of the
departments and agencies.
India
In India, the inbuilt component of ATMA is concurrent monitoring and evaluation of the
programmes undertaken at the district level. The governing body and AMC of ATMA
monitor and evaluate the work during its monthly meeting.
(ii) Monitoring of extension programmes
Bangladesh
Monitoring and evaluation is accomplished through the review of SAAOs’ Diaries, the
Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) and the Knowledge, Attitude, Practice
(KAP) Survey system.
This assessment process is accomplished through the conduct of Technical Audits and the
Work Programming System.
SAAO’ Diary
The SAAOs diary is one of the most important tools used in operating DAE's extension
approach, and can be used to support monitoring and evaluation. During the day-to- day
8
104 Synthesis Report
work of the SAAOs, the diary acts as a recording tool and should show what is done, with
whom, and what the response was. Farmer problems are recorded, farmers names listed, and
farmers reactions to participating in events are noted - especially in the case of individual
farm visits. The diary is an important source of detailed block level information about what
is working well, and why, and what is not working well and why.
The Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS)
The Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) is designed to help extension staff
record indicators of the performance of extension programs, and to summarize and interpret
this information in order to help make future planning decisions
Indicators Used in SEMS
Contact: How many farmers (male and female, large and small) attended extension events,
and what was the cost per farmer.
Understanding: How many farmers who attended understood the ideas (technologies)
contained in the extension event, and what was the cost per farmer who understood.
Testing: How many of the farmers who attended think that they would try the ideas
(technologies) contained in the extension event and what was the cost per farmer who
intended to test?.
These are the primary indicators of the performance of extension programs. They should
occur in sequence based on the assumption that contact leads to understanding, which leads
to testing.
Bhutan
The first level of extension programme monitoring is done by District RNR sector and the
Geog administration based on the Geog plans and the progress report submitted by the Geog
staff. They participate in random sample survey for result monitoring.
Field activities are also monitored through regular visit by the Dzongkhag sector heads and
the officials from the Department and Ministry. There is a quarterly reporting system
whereby Geog staff submit report on the progress made in a prescribed format to the
Dzongkhag RNR sector head. At the Dzongkhag level, report from the geogs are compiled
and submitted to planning officer who finally uploads the report online using National
Monitoring and Evaluation system.
Besides, Dzongkhag administrations and Departments, Extension Coordination committee
(ECC) also monitor extension activities from time to time.
India
Monitoring and evaluation including follow-up
Monitoring and evaluation cells were established in 32 institutes to strengthen priority
setting, monitoring, and impact assessment work within and outside the NATP Project.
Similarly, NAIP also has got a well laid monitoring and evaluation system inbuilt in the
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 105
project component. The periodical review through quarterly, half yearly and annual reports
project progress review workshop are some of the monitoring and evaluation mechanism in
operation.
KVKs are monitored through the Zonal Projectors situated in eight zones. In addition, the
Director of Extension of SAUs are given the overseeing responsibilities. Scientific Advisory
Committee of the KVKs reviews the progress of the KVK work in the district.
Zonal workshops, regional committee and interface meetings are other inbuilt provisions in
the KVK system for continuous monitoring of the project. The KVK activities are evaluated
by a group of experts during the annual zonal workshop and annual action plan meetings.
Periodical third party evaluation also conducted by high power committee through travel
workshops and quinquennial review team. The strong evaluation of the activities helps to
revisit the mandate, activities and continuous improvements in the programme. National
level rabi and kharif conferences help to evaluate the programmes progress with respect to
demonstrations, yield improvement achieved in the farmers field etc.
Nepal
A variety of means are available for use by extension program and project managers and
other stakeholders in monitoring a program or project.
Work plans
Program or project managers must prepare annual work plans. The work plan should
describe in detail the delivery of inputs, the activities to be conducted (which one and how)
and expected results. They should clearly indicate schedules and persons and/or institution
responsible for providing the inputs producing results. The work plan should be used as the
basis for monitoring the progress of program or project implementation. To keep higher
government authorities and even donor informed of the progress of programs or project,
managers should also provides them with work plan which simply indicate critical
milestones in implementation with the corresponding time table and responsible actors.
Field visit
Program or project managers must make field visit at regular intervals and adequate
budgetary resource should be allocated for this purpose. In addition to inspecting the sites,
physical output and services of the program or project, the visit must focus on interaction
with target groups to obtain their views on how the program or project is affecting them
(directly or indirectly, positively or negatively) and their proposed solutions to perceived
problems. Person under taking the field visit must prepare their reports either at the site or
immediately after the visit, focusing on relevance and performance, including early signs of
potential problem or success areas.
Stakeholders Meetings
The objective of stakeholder meeting is to involve the major stakeholders in addressing
issues that pertain to the programs or project, thereby creating a sense of ownership. Besides
the executing and implementing agencies and other development partner, it is essential that
106 Synthesis Report
target groups expected to be affected by the programs or projects, be included in the
discussion of issues relevant to them.
Systematic Reporting during Implementation
Program or project management must prepare monitoring reports more frequently (eg
monthly, quarterly and /or semi annually) to serve its internal management requirements and
also to submit to the higher authorities. The executing agency must also submit an annual
report to the reporting agencies on the relevance, performance and likelihood of success of
the program or project.
Terminal reports
Upon completion of a program or project, the executing agency must prepare a terminal
report that focuses on the relevance and performance of the project, the likelihood of its
ultimate success, and the initial lessons learned in term of best and worst practices. The
report should also contain recommendations for follow-up action by appropriate institutions
where necessary.
Existing M & E Arrangements in the Department of Agriculture and Livestock
(i) At service center/ sub center level
Field observation
Meeting with farmers group
Progress reporting
Documentation
Reporting formats and time of reporting
Monthly progress report, every month
Quarterly progress report, every four month
Basic statistical form, annually
Bimonthly problem report, every two month
(ii) At the district level
Field observation from time to time
Monthly staff meeting
Review of last months progress
Decisions on the next month's program
Problems encountered and action taken for solution
Input supply situation
Standing crop condition
Organizing coordination meeting with line agencies compilation and reporting of progress
report and publication of agriculture information
Media publication
Participation and presentation of progress at regional directorate and district council
Updating district database
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 107
Reporting formats and time of reporting
Monthly progress report, every month
Quarterly progress report, every four month
Achievement evaluation form, every quarter
Basic statistical form, annually
Bimonthly problem report, every two month
Project status report, every quarter
Performance evaluation form, every quarter
(iii) At the Regional Directorate level
Field observation/supervision from time to time and monitoring of on going programs
Organizing quarterly progress review of program implemented under the region
Compilation and reporting of progress reports
Media publication
Organizing coordination meeting with line agencies
Periodic reviewing of the regional crop/livestock situation
Reporting formats and time of reporting
Monthly progress report, every month
Quarterly progress report, every four month
Achievement evaluation form, every quarter
Basic statistical form, annually
Bimonthly problem report, every two month
Project status report, every quarter
Performance evaluation form, every quarter
(iv) At the departmental level
Compilation and reporting of progress reports/publication of progress report
Organizing department level progress review meeting
Coordination among line agencies at the department level
Periodic field observations
Coordinating all program directorates to overcome technical problems faced by the districts
Decision over the solution on problems encountered by the districts
Participation in regional as well as ministry level program review workshop
Reporting formats and time of reporting
Monthly progress report, every month
Quarterly progress report, every four month
Achievement evaluation form, every quarter
Basic statistical form, annually
Bimonthly problem report, every two month
Project status report, every quarter
Performance evaluation form, every quarter
(v) At the ministry level
Periodic field observations
Organizing ministry level review meeting
108 Synthesis Report
Decision to overcome the problems for effective implementation of the programs
Compilation, reporting and publication of progress reports
Pakistan
According to section 37 of devolution plan, the monitoring committees are elected by the
District Council. The composition of District Council includes Chairman, Deputy Chairman
district council peasant and women representatives and representatives of minority. Most of the
members of such dispositions are neither qualified nor competent enough to undertake such a
technical task. Therefore, it becomes very difficult for the members of the district councils to
monitor and evaluate the performance the technical staff. Therefore, the evaluation by such
committees mostly does not occur and in some cases it turns out to be unfair and biased. Such
evaluation also has a political bend.
Under section 138, there is a special mention of a few committees which have been empowered
to conduct monitoring of functionaries of the whole range of district government including
agricultural extension. This again will involve staff performance. The committees are supposed
to prepare evaluation report of the staff of each office on a prescribed proforma in relation to the
following;
• Achievements of its target.
• Responsiveness to citizen difficulties.
• Efficiency in the delivery services, and
• Transparent function.
Smmary Observations on monitoring of extension programs
In Bangladesh monitoring is accomplished through the review of SAAOs’ Diaries, the
Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) and evaluation through the Knowledge,
Attitude, Practice (KAP) Survey system.
In Bhutan, the first level of extension programme monitoring is done by the District RNR
sector and the Geog administration, based on the Geog plans. The Geog staffs participate in
random sample survey for result monitoring.
Field activities are also monitored through regular visit by the Dzongkhag sector heads and
the officials from the Department and Ministry. There is a quarterly reporting system
whereby Geog staff submit report in a prescribed format on the progress made to the
Dzongkhag RNR sector head. At the Dzongkhag level, report from the Geogs are compiled
and submitted to planning officer who finally uploads the report online using the National
Monitoring and Evaluation system. Besides, Dzongkhag administrations and Departments,
Extension Coordination committee (ECC) also monitor extension activities from time to
time.
In India, Monitoring and evaluation cells were established in 32 institutes to strengthen
priority setting, monitoring, and impact assessment work within and outside the NATP
Project. Similarly, and as stated above, NAIP also has got a well laid monitoring and
evaluation system inbuilt in the project component. The periodical review through quarterly,
half yearly and annual reports and project progress review workshop are some of the
monitoring and evaluation mechanism in operation.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 109
KVKs are monitored through the Zonal Projects. In addition, the Directors of Extension of
SAUs are given the overseeing responsibilities. Scientific Advisory Committee of the KVK
reviews the progress of the KVK work in the district.
Zonal workshops, regional committee and interface meetings are other inbuilt provisions in
the KVK system for continuous monitoring of projects. The KVK activities are evaluated by
a group of experts during the annual zonal workshop and annual action plan meetings.
Periodical third party evaluation also conducted by high power committee through travel
workshops and the quinquennial review team. The strong evaluation of the activities helps to
revisit the mandate, activities and continuous improvements in the programme. National
level rabi and kharif conferences help to evaluate programmes progress with respect to
demonstrations, yield improvement achieved in the farmers field etc.
Nepal has developed a detail monitoring and evaluation system where programmes are
projectized and annual work plans prepared describing delivery of project inputs, activities
and expected results. Monitoring and evaluation is done based on the work plans covering
regular field visits, stakeholder meetings, target groups meetings followed by systematic
reporting monthly, quarterly and/or semi annually indicating performance and likelihood of
success.
On completion of a programme, the executing agency prepares the terminal report focusing
on relevance, performance, likely hood of ultimately success and lessons learnt. The report
also contains recommendations for follow up action.
The M&E arrangements at service centre/sub-centre, district, regions, and the department
levels and their reporting formats and time of delivery are clearly laid out.
In Pakistan, the monitoring committees are elected by the District Council. Most of the
members are neither qualified nor competent enough to undertake such a technical task. It
becomes very difficult for the members of the district councils to monitor and evaluate the
performance the technical staff. Therefore, the evaluation by such committees mostly does not
occur and in some cases it turns out to be unfair and biased. Such evaluation also has a political
bend.
(iii) Follow up of monitoring of extension activities
Bangladesh
Decisions made using SEMS indicators
Monitoring and evaluation helps to make management decisions which can be made with the
help of SEMS are:
Technology Selection: What agricultural innovations should be included in extension
programs?
Method Selection: Which extension methods should be included in extension programs?
Area Selection: Which areas (specific upzila, districts or regions) should be supported or
supervised more closely.
SEMS should show which technologies are most or least successful, which extension
methods are the most or least successful, and which areas are running the most or least
110 Synthesis Report
successful extension programs. On the basis of the information, many decisions can be made
and actions taken to continually improve the extension service offered to farmers.
Listed below are some of the actions that can be taken to improve low performing
technologies, extension methods or areas.
Poor Technologies
• adjust the technology, with help from research staff and the farmers who have tested;
• change the extension method - for example, use group training rather than result
demonstrations;
• improve the extension events - use better publicity, hold events at more suitable
times, use more appropriate venues; reduce the budget and resources for the
technology in the next extension program.
Poor Methods
• adjust the extension 'method;
• train staff to implement the method more effectively;
• reduce the number of events of this type in the next extension program;
• use the extension method in combination with other extension methods - for
example, add more field days to result demonstrations;
• delete the poor extension method from future extension programs.
Poor Area
• organize extra training for the staff in this area;
• increase the frequency of supervision visits to this area, including the use of
Technical Audits;
• provide more advice on the selection of technologies and extension methods for
inclusion in programs;
• reduce the budget for this area, reducing the size of the program until performance
improves.
• SEMS information about contact, understanding and testing also help improve the
quality of extension programs. Where contact, understanding or testing is low, the
following actions can be taken:
Low Contact
• offer more interesting technologies;
• improve publicity to attract more farmers to events;
• hold events at appropriate times;
• review the selection of groups used for this activity;
• hold events in appropriate places.
Low Understanding
• improve the way in which new ideas are presented - for example, use simple
language, visual aids, live specimens;
• train staff in implementing extension events;
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 111
• train staff in facilitation skills;
• use alternative extension events - for example, rather than Upzila Training Days, use
more village level group meetings.
Low Testing
• improve the quality of extension events at which the particular technology is
discussed;
• adjust the technology, with the help of research staff and feedback from farmers, to
make it more appropriate to farmers needs and conditions.
The decisions that are taken will depend on the type of farmers involved. For example, when
changing the timing or location of extension· events, consideration should be given to
whether the target group are male or female, as they may have different preferences for
timing and venue. Decisions about corrective action can be made with the help of additional
items of information which are collected in SEMS - secondary indicators. A selection
includes:
Extension Methods
• publicity effectiveness;
• timeliness of event;
• accessibility.
Technology
• profitability, or cost-benefit analysis;
• risk;
• initial capital requirement;
• labour requirement.
Bhutan
Observation made during the monitoring and the follow-up activities are presented to GTY
and DYT which normally meets twice a year. Follow-up are also done during the quarterly
RNR meet at the Dzogkhag level and the field visit by sector heads and MoAF staff from
region and central agencies.
India
Covered under 6(ii): Monitoring of extension activities above.
Nepal
Covered under 6(ii): Monitoring of extension activities above
Pakistan
Monitoring appears to need further development. This part not covered in the country paper.
112 Synthesis Report
Summary Observations
Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) followed in Bangladesh leads to decision as
to which technologies are most successful or least successful, which extension methods are
most or least successful, which area (upazila, district or region) are running the most or least
successful extension programmes. The criteria for selection are clearly laid out which help
the decision making.
SEMS information about contact (how many farmers participated in an extension event),
understanding (how many farmers understood the extension idea) and testing (how many
farmers are interested to test/try the ideas) helps to improve the quality of extension service.
In the case of Bhutan, Observation made during the monitoring and the follow-up activities
are presented to GTY and DYT which normally meets twice a year. Follow-up are also done
during the quarterly RNR meet at the Dzogkhag level and the field visit by sector heads and
MoAF staff from region and central agencies.
For India and Nepal, the follow up was covered under 6(ii) ‘Monitoring of extension
program’.
Pakistan needs to further improve the monitoring and evaluation system.
The monitoring and system of Sri Lanka was not available.
(iv) Evaluation and follow up of extension programmes
(Not covered in the country paper but the following is extracted from Extension
Manual)
Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) Survey is an evaluation technique which shows the
actual reaction of farmers to exposure to new ideas. While Seasonal Extension Monitoring
System shows what happens at extension events, KAP shows what happens after the event.
KAP is used by District and Thana offices to improve the effectiveness of extension work.
KAP surveys are implemented to show if farmers:
− have retained KNOWLEDGE of the technology
− have a positive ATTITUDE towards the technology
− actually practice the technology.
KAP is carried out normally at District or Thana level because most planning decisions are
taken at these levels. There are six steps of evaluation:
− Selecting the technology
− Collecting participation records of farmers
− Designing and pre-testing the survey form
− Conducting interviews
− Summarizing and analyzing results
− Reporting the findings.
There should be random selection of farmers who participated in the extension event.
There is no standard layout for a KAP questionnaire form. The details depend on the features
of the technology. However, there are three parts of a KAP questionnaire:
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 113
PART A: Contains the identification details such as the technology, season, the name and
location of farmer, the gender of farmer, and the farm size of the farmer interviewed.
PART B: Contains the contact details and verifies that the farmer actually attended the
extension event.
PART C: Contains the actual KAP assessment, and assesses the knowledge of the
technology, farmer’s attitude towards the technology and the farmer’s actual practice.
• The analysis must clearly identify the causes of problems and successes and draw
conclusion for required action.
• Reporting the findings should be short and simple (in not more than ten pages. The
contents of the KAP report should include:
− Summary
− Introduction
− Results
− Analysis of results
− Conclusion with action required.
Bhutan
At the government level or Ministry level, programmes are reviewed or evaluated twice:
once in the middle of the plan period and the other at the end of the plan period.
Evaluation of the extension activities carried out by the central and regional
programme/projects are evaluated by the Departments and RNR –GNHC. However, during
the government’s mid-term and terminal evaluation, the Ministry has to present all the
achievement along with the field programme/activities implemented by the central
programmes at Dzongkhag and geog levels.
India
(Deduced from the write up of the country paper) Most of the evaluation study conducted in
extension was of mostly comparison of production/ yield before and after the
implementation of the programme. However, it must be understood that evaluation is not
simply a measurement of achievements, which is usually done after a programme is
executed.
A complete evaluation for extension is one which aims at the full length enumeration of both
tangible and intangible costs and benefits involved. Both tangible costs and benefits are easy
to identify but it is not so for intangible ones. The application of such knowledge by farmers
is generally termed as adoption and is usually measured by adoption rates, that is, the
proportion of farmers applying knowledge of a particular technology that they have acquired
from extension agents. Economic evaluation is a part and parcel of all phases in an extension
programme right from its initial planning to implementation and completion.
The economic concept of extension is applied at all the three stages of the project that is i) at
project selection, ii) during implementation and iii) after completion of the project. An
evaluation that takes into account only the cash inputs (such as gross margin analysis) may
be appropriate for certain type of technologies only (Amir and Knipscheer, 1989). The net
114 Synthesis Report
cost and benefit in any extension programme includes both tangible and intangible costs. The
social cost is anything the society pays/sacrifices save monetary contributions for the
execution of an extension programme.
Likewise the social benefits are those benefits other than its monetary benefits derived from
the outcome of the project on its execution. Mostly, the social cost and benefits are indirect
in nature. The social cost which the society incurs on the execution of the programme cannot
be ignored. Even though it is intangible, it is considered for the cost estimation because of
the social value attached to it. The difficulties involved in measuring the social cost benefit
are in the realm of anybody’s imagination. Yet without the inclusion of these intangible costs
the efforts to evaluate the extension largely remains non-functional.
The animal health services rendered by the State Departments of Animal Husbandry involve
social costs in providing the subsidized services to the livestock owners. However, these
services like vaccinations, diagnosis and treatment of animals, prevention and control of
zoonotic diseases have far reaching social benefits in terms of getting quality livestock
products and in the control of spread of diseases. Since economic cost-benefit analysis is one
aspect of the whole which we have to measure for determining worth of an extension project,
it is the responsibility of the extension professionals to undertake a complete evaluation in a
holistic manner to do justice in this job. This helps to obtain a complete picture on project
cost, output, outcome and impact created across the system.
Pakistan
Evaluation is a constant and ongoing specialized activity which is difficult to be undertaken by
inexperienced and non-technical peoples. Although the province of Punjab is still struggling to
establish the standards of evaluation of all the line-departments of district governments, the
district governments in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province have not started any activity in this
regard.
Before devolution the district extension organizations were fully accountable to the DG,
Extension and the directorate of Monitoring and Evaluation was responsible to conduct this
activity on regular basis. Monitoring and evaluation committees composed of staff from the
research organizations and planning and development departments were conducting evaluation
of extension personnel at end of each crop season and their recommendations would become
part of next crop cycles guidelines.
Evaluation is a constant and ongoing specialized activity which is difficult to be undertaken by
inexperienced and non-technical peoples. Although the province of Punjab is still struggling to
establish the standards of evaluation of all the line-departments of district governments, the
district governments in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province have not started any activity in this
regard.
Before devolution the district extension organizations were fully accountable to the DG,
Extension and the directorate of Monitoring and Evaluation was responsible to conduct this
activity on regular basis. Monitoring and evaluation committees composed of staff from the
research organizations and planning and development departments were conducting evaluation
of extension personnel at end of each crop season and their recommendations would become
part of next crop cycles guidelines.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 115
Summary Observations on evaluation an follow up of extension
programmes
Bangladesh has adopted the Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) Survey for evaluation
of the extension activities by District and Thana offices to improve the effectiveness of
extension work. KAP surveys are implemented to show if farmers:
− have retained KNOWLEDGE of the technology
− have a positive ATTITUDE towards the technology
− actually PRACTICE the technology.
For the survey, random selection of farmers who participated in an extension event is done.
Through the survey the causes problems and successes are identified and conclusions for
required action are drawn. The findings are reported in a prescribed format,
In Bhutan, programmes are reviewed / evaluated once in the middle of the plan period, and
the other at the end. During the government’s mid-term and terminal evaluation, the Ministry
prepare the achievement along with the field programme/activities implemented by the
central programmes, Dzongkahg and Geogs.
In India country report does not cover this. However, most of the evaluation study has been
on comparison production/yield before and after implementation of programmes. It has been
suggested that both tangible and intangible benefits should be considered in evaluating an
extension programme.
In Nepal, the monitoring and evaluation system in intertwined when the report is prepared.
In Pakistan is trying to develop an evaluation system in some provinces (Punjab) while some
others (e.g. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) are yet to start activities in this regards.
The Sri Lankan position was not available.
Chapter Summary
Monitoring and Evaluation: Institutional review and programme review
Only Bhutan and India covered institutional review and programme review in connection
with monitoring and evaluation in their country papers.
In Bhutan, the need to streamline and institute an effective system for monitoring and
evaluation of development plans has been well recognized. The Gross National Happiness
Commission (GNHC) has developed a standardized National Monitoring and Evaluation
System (NMES) for Ministries, Agencies, Dzongkhags and Geogs. At the Ministry level
RNR –GNH Committee is the highest body to monitor the progress of the plan, programme
and project. It is chaired by the concerned Secretary and represented by head of the
departments and agencies.
In India, the inbuilt component of ATMA is concurrent monitoring and evaluation of the
programmes undertaken at the district level. The governing body and AMC of ATMA
monitor and evaluate the work during its monthly meeting.
116 Synthesis Report
Monitoring of extension programme
In Bangladesh monitoring is accomplished through the review of SAAOs’ Diaries, the
Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) and evaluation through the Knowledge,
Attitude, Practice (KAP) Survey system.
In Bhutan, the first level of extension programme monitoring is done by the District RNR
sector and the Geog administration, based on the Geog plans. The Geog staffs participate in
random sample survey for result monitoring.
Field activities are also monitored through regular visit by the Dzongkhag sector heads and
the officials from the Department and Ministry. There is a quarterly reporting system
whereby Geog staff submit report in a prescribed format on the progress made to the
Dzongkhag RNR sector head. At the Dzongkhag level, report from the Geogs are compiled
and submitted to planning officer who finally uploads the report online using the National
Monitoring and Evaluation system. Besides, Dzongkhag administrations and Departments,
Extension Coordination committee (ECC) also monitor extension activities from time to
time.
In India, Monitoring and evaluation cells were established in 32 institutes to strengthen
priority setting, monitoring, and impact assessment work within and outside the NATP
Project. Similarly, and as stated above, NAIP also has got a well laid monitoring and
evaluation system inbuilt in the project component. The periodical review through quarterly,
half yearly and annual reports and project progress review workshop are some of the
monitoring and evaluation mechanism in operation.
KVKs are monitored through the Zonal Projects. In addition, the Directors of Extension of
SAUs are given the overseeing responsibilities. Scientific Advisory Committee of the KVK
reviews the progress of the KVK work in the district.
Zonal workshops, regional committee and interface meetings are other inbuilt provisions in
the KVK system for continuous monitoring of projects. The KVK activities are evaluated by
a group of experts during the annual zonal workshop and annual action plan meetings.
Periodical third party evaluation also conducted by high power committee through travel
workshops and the quinquennial review team. The strong evaluation of the activities helps to
revisit the mandate, activities and continuous improvements in the programme. National
level rabi and kharif conferences help to evaluate programmes progress with respect to
demonstrations, yield improvement achieved in the farmers field etc.
Nepal has developed a detail monitoring and evaluation system where programmes are
projectized and annual work plans prepared describing delivery of project inputs, activities
and expected results. Monitoring and evaluation is done based on the work plans covering
regular field visits, stakeholder meetings, target groups meetings followed by systematic
reporting monthly, quarterly and/or semi annually indicating performance and likelihood of
success.
On completion of a programme, the executing agency prepare the terminal report focusing
on relevance, performance, likely hood of ultimately success and lessons learnt. The report
also contains recommendations for follow up action.
The M&E arrangements at service centre/sub-centre, district, regions, and the department
levels and their reporting formats and time of delivery are clearly laid out.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 117
In Pakistan, the monitoring committees are elected by the District Council. Most of the
members are neither qualified nor competent enough to undertake such a technical task. It
becomes very difficult for the members of the district councils to monitor and evaluate the
performance the technical staff. Therefore, the evaluation by such committees mostly does not
occur and in some cases it turns out to be unfair and biased. Such evaluation also has a political
bend.
Follow up of monitoring
In Bangladesh, the Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) followed leads to
decision as to which technologies are most successful or least successful, which extension
methods are most or least successful, which area (upazila, district or region) are running the
most or least successful extension programmes. The criteria for selection are clearly laid out
which help the decision making.
SEMS information about contact (how many farmers participated in an extension event),
understanding (how many farmers understood the extension idea) and testing (how many
farmers are interested to test/try the ideas) helps to improve the quality of extension service.
In the case of Bhutan, Observation made during the monitoring and the follow-up activities
are presented to GTY and DYT which normally meets twice a year. Follow-up are also done
during the quarterly RNR meet at the Dzogkhag level and the field visit by sector heads and
MoAF staff from region and central agencies.
For India and Nepal, the follow up was covered under 6(ii) ‘Monitoring of extension
program’.
Pakistan needs to further improve the monitoring and evaluation system.
The monitoring and system of Sri Lanka was not available.
Evaluation and Follow up
Bangladesh has adopted the Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) Survey for evaluation
of the extension activities by District and Thana offices to improve the effectiveness of
extension work. KAP surveys are implemented to show if farmers:
• have retained KNOWLEDGE of the technology
• have a positive ATTITUDE towards the technology
• actually PRACTICE the technology.
For the survey, random selection of farmers who participated in an extension event is done.
Through the survey the causes problems and successes are identified and conclusions for
required action are drawn. The findings are reported in a prescribed format,
In Bhutan, programmes are reviewed / evaluated once in the middle of the plan period, and
the other at the end. During the government’s mid-term and terminal evaluation, the Ministry
prepare the achievement along with the field programme/activities implemented by the
central programmes, dzongkahg and geogs.
118 Synthesis Report
In India country report does not cover this. However, most of the evaluation study has been
on comparison production/yield before and after implementation of programmes. It has been
suggested that both tangible and intangible benefits should be considered in evaluating an
extension programme.
In Nepal, the monitoring and evaluation system in intertwined when the report is prepared.
In Pakistan is trying to develop an evaluation system in some provinces (Punjab) while some
other (e.g. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) are yet to start activities in this regards.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 119
CHAPTER
Strength, Weakness and Way Forward of Extension Systems
Strength
1. Each of the countries discussed here has an extension system in place.
2. In each country, the public sector plays the leading role in extension delivery, with
varying degrees of extension activities by the NGO sector and the private sector
(producer associations, input agencies, media and agri-business companies) but their
effective reach is limited. In Bhutan, however, the NGO sector has not yet developed and
the private sector plays some role in input supply only.
3. Each of the countries has developed extension planning processes. Some of the countries
have central planning system (India and Pakistan), while others have adopted bottom up
planning processes (Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal).
4. Institutional reforms, and in some cases policy reforms are taking place in virtually all
the countries in view of felt needs.
5. In the countries, human resources development for extension is getting attention. Some
of the countries have introduced career development scheme (Bhutan, India, Nepal), and
prize and reward systems (Bangladesh, Bhutan. India) as incentives for extension
personnel.
6. The countries appear conscious about improving research-extension-farmers linkages;
some (Nepal and Bhutan) have established good linkage systems of concerned
stakeholders at different levels starting from extension planning, to implementation to
monitoring and evaluation of extension activities.
7. Monitoring and evaluation systems have been streamlined in most of the countries
(Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal).
Weakness
1. The extension systems of the countries differ widely and are at different stages of
development. Some follow top-down central systems (India, Pakistan) while others have
adopted bottom up participatory systems (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and the livestock
sector of Sri Lanka).
2. The weaknesses have been highlighted by the Consultative Workshop held in Bhutan 23-
24 November 2011. These can be summarized as follows:
(a) Historical Perspective
• Extension personnel are engaged in non-extension activities deviating focus from
extension service delivery.
9
120 Synthesis Report
• Extension service delivery is often weak.
• Inadequate financial support for extension activities.
(b) Methods, Approaches, Models of Extension
• A large variety of models are in practice in different countries.
• Inadequate facilities limit the extension potential for dissemination of technologies
to farmers.
• Limited technology options for farmers to choose from.
• Farmers’ groups and co-operatives can play significant role in the diffusion of
information. But such groups/cooperatives are often absent.
• Participatory on farm trials on new technologies to be adopted.
• Inadequate use of ICT tools for technology transfer.
(c) Research-Education-Extension-Farmer Linkages
• There is a growing trend of pluralism in delivering agricultural extension services.
The countries need to recognize the trend and be pro-active.
• There is often a wide gap in crop yields between research stations and farmers’
fields.
• There is often poor response from farmers on the use of technologies. The extension
systems should try to find out the reasons for poor responses.
• The extension systems/personnel are often too far from farmers.
• Research-education-extension-farmers linkages are often tenuous and scarce.
• Currently there is hardly any opportunity to learn from experiences of member
countries.
(d) Agricultural Extension Delivery Systems
• Different sub-sectors (crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry) are engaged in the
delivery of services to the same clients which could be brought under one line of
control with improved coordination with relevant stakeholders. There are often too
many advisers to the same farmer creating confusion as well as unnecessary
duplication of extension efforts.
• Inadequate technical qualifications of grassroots level extension workers.
(f) Feedback Systems
• Lack of common forum to address feedback from extension personnel from different
sub-sectors.
(g) Socio-economic Issues
• Gender inequity – limited or no female extension workers at the grassroots level.
• There are often poor input supply systems.
• Absence of agricultural insurance.
• Poor/defective agricultural marketing system.
• Poor or lack of repository of knowledge management at national/regional levels.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 121
(h) Extension Policy Issues
• Inappropriate/lack of institutional reforms and weak coordination and support of
stakeholders
• Poor or lack of policy in public private partnership
• Accountability vested more to the donors rather than to farmers resulting in less
attention dedicated to the farmers.
• Extension personnel lack knowledge and broader understanding on emerging global/
regional issues.
(i) Human Resources Development
• Inadequate number of extension personnel.
• Inadequate training of extension personnel including on emerging issues (IT, group
extension, participatory extension, climate change etc.)
(j) Monitoring and Evaluation
• Lack of appropriate monitoring and evaluation system
• Lack of timely recording and reporting of monitoring and evaluation information
Way Forward
Organization
1. Assess the existing extension organizations against farmers’ needs and determine
whether to strengthen or restructure the extension organizational set up.
2. Encourage the extension services to empower farmers through organizing them into legal
associations to constitute a strong lobby for themselves and for extension.
3. Encourage bottom-up, grassroots extension programme planning involving farmers in
order to make extension not only demand-driven, but also to exercise supply-driven, top-
down modality for promoting common public good practices such as conservation of
natural resources and environment protection.
4. If the extension function is to be performed with relatively small number of extension
staff, follow appropriate strategies for getting maximum output (e.g. participatory
extension involving relevant stakeholders).
5. A unified extension service with improved coordination among relevant sub-sectors
(crops, livestock, fisheries, forestry/agroforestry) and stakeholders instead of multi-
sector separate extension channels.
6. A common forum to address feedback from extension personnel from different sub-
sectors (crops, livestock, fisheries, forestry/agroforestry).
7. An extension forum may be instituted under the aegis of SAARC in order to enhance
understanding and exchange of ideas and information and connectivity in the region as
well as a regional knowledge management system for continuous technology and
methodology backstopping.
122 Synthesis Report
Human Resources Development
1. Job descriptions of extension personnel should be rationalized so that they (extension
personnel) are well aware of their responsibilities.
2. Adequate training of extension personnel should be ensured so that they have the
capacity to deliver services according to beneficiary groups’ needs and expectations,
including new/emerging issues.
3. Career advancement schemes should be developed for extension personnel, and
incentives, awards, prizes etc. should be instituted (where these are absent) in order to
recognize good work.
4. Engagement of extension personnel in non-extension activities should be discouraged.
Approaches, Methods and Models
1. Countries may adopt a blend of approaches/models, based on experiences of member
countries.
2. Extension personnel should be trained in/made aware of technology options for farmers.
3. Extension system may incorporate the good practices of NGOs and private sector and
encourage working with NGOs and civil society organizations.
4. The role of extension systems may be expanded to include dissemination of commercial
farming. (The emulation of One-Geog-Three-Product (OGTP) approach being practiced
in Bhutan can be a good model for replication).
5. Use of participatory approaches, an alternative to limited number of extension
agents/personnel and also with a view to reducing yield gaps between experimental
stations and farmers’ fields, should be promoted
6. Investment in ICT and human resource development enhanced.
7. A common forum to address feedback from extension personnel from different sub-
sectors (crops, livestock, fisheries, forestry/agroforestry) should be developed
Linkages
1. Review the impacts of pluralism in delivering agricultural extension services undertaken.
2. The extension system must institutionalize research-education-extension-farmers
linkages.
3. Multi sectoral coordination (among crops, livestock, fisheries, forestry/ agroforestry) and
linkages in terms of resource sharing and functions should be promoted to meet
complexities in the agriculture sector.
4. Develop, formalize, and implement mechanism to foster public private partnership and
private sector linkage with provision of extension services. Such mechanisms may
include:
• Project Advisory Bodies. To link government services and public goods to the
efforts of donor funded agriculture development programs multi agency project
advisory bodies can play a key role, as exemplified by the Smallholder Irrigation
Market Initiative (SIMI) advisory body of Nepal . Such projects can also play a key
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 123
role in fostering local level public private partnership in activities such as marketing
infrastructure.
• Development Alliances. When initiating major sectoral development and when
substantial private sector partners are involved, the use of development alliances that
include government agencies, producers’ organizations, processors/trader
organizations and the development community, the alliance becomes highly
efficient. (The Nepal Tea and Coffee Development Alliances are successful models
of this approach).
• Development Boards. As development alliances mature, the development and/or
strengthening of development boards is a key tool to bring together national level
stakeholders.
• Embedded Services. The local level private sector agricultural community also
needs to be served and included in training and capacity building programs. Agro
input suppliers and traders have the ability to reach large numbers of households
with new technologies efficiently. But the private sector lacks access to latest
technologies and often has limited capacity. Agriculture education should be geared
to build the capacity of the private sector.
Monitoring and Evaluation
Monitoring and evaluation should be inbuilt in extension programmes (as exemplified in the
cases of KVK in India or the inbuilt monitoring of the Nepal extension system).
124 Synthesis Report
CHAPTER
Individual Country Recommendations
Bangladesh
1. In improving farming practices the basic task of extension is to provide facilities to help
farmers choose and try certain useful farming practices. Hence, the technologies have to
be put through field trials. The trail phase is needed because extension staff has to gain
experience and confidence and farmers also have to be made aware of the technologies.
2. Soil, water and biodiversity make up the natural resources base. In the past adequate
attention has not been given to their proper development, utilization and conservation as
part of a good farming practice. Now extension has a critical role to play in management
and conservation of natural farm resource.
3. Farming as a business is not known to most of the farmers. They need to learn quickly to
handle the investment and returns in farming more efficiently. They also need to be
made aware of marketing their produces.
4. Farming as a business is going to replace the family farming. Farming today is mostly
different from what it was about fifty years ago. So, farmers require better managerial
capabilities at present days in terms of farm resources, production planning, credit
requirement, input procurement, product handling and market operation.
5. A key element of the decentralized and demand led extension system would be the
mobilization, organization and capacity building of small and marginal producers into
Common Interest Groups (CIGS). Participating farmers would be facilitated to from
groups based on agricultural livelihood or some other common interest, eg, water use,
credit, marketing etc.
6. At the present days more farmers expects an extension out-reach to come to them. But,
the extension agencies have not proportionately grown. In the meanwhile, farming, being
highly dependent on externalities, needs a variety of inputs, services and support
facilities to make tenable. So, multi-agency extension coordinated work is necessary.
7. In response many more development players started working in the field. Hence,
agriculture-base development has become a shared responsibility among the public
agencies, including extension, local bodies, input and credit agencies, seed companies,
NGOs and other organizations. Of course, so far as agricultural development is
concerned, the extension agency will have to play a lead role.
8. Farmers need to be facilitated to have direct access to the institutional resources
available in terms of technologies, advice, inputs etc. for reducing technologies
dissemination losses and a mechanism in place for feedback and follow.
9. Research – Extension- Farmers Linkage: Linkage among research – extension and
farmers are generally weak and neither research nor extension was sufficiently conscious
of the need to understand the constrained and potentials of the different farming systems
as a basis for determining relevant technology and technology development requirement.
10
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 125
10. The revolution in information technology must benefit extension. The benefits could be derived in many ways. Interactive electronic linkages may be established between
extension and relevant research or other institutes. The effort to apply information
technology should be started at locations where facilities are available. But the
information technology should not be considered as a replacement of human effort in
extension rather just as a supporting tool.
Bhutan
Supporting decentralization of RNR extension to produce results
As per Local Government Act, 2007 the Dzongkhag and Geog level RNR extension service
is decentralized and it is under Local government administration. There will be increasing
trend to strengthen the power of elected officials. This is global trend and there are lot of
evidences that this move will make the extension participatory and demand driven.
Unless these important groups (LG officials) are oriented to RNR extension, the threat is
RNR development programme may be marginalized. Thus, the following measures may be
suggested:
Provide training on decentralization approach, participatory extension, demand driven
approach, community based organization development, farmers group and cooperatives
development, bottom up planning, etc to the RNR extension staffs. This will change the
mindset of the EAs and will be easier to work under the changed context of decentralization.
Build the management capacity of the RNR extension staff in the new areas e.g. like road
and irrigation, community development, local governance, etc
Include a module on RNR extension in the training programme for the local government
officials or organize special orientation session on RNR extension. This will help LG
officials to see RNR extension not merely as “technology transformer” (Technical wing) but
an active player and contributor in local development.
Creating conducive environment for RNR service providers (public, private and
civil society Institutions) in delivering extension service widely
In the past there were only government institutions providing extension service. But now,
several NGOs and civil societies are involved in providing the extension services. As such
MoAF need to develop policy guidance and coordination mechanism to encourage and
support private, NGOs and civil societies involve in extension service delivery. This will
save time and resource of the public agencies. A well structured pluralistic extension
planning and delivery mechanism will be in the interest of farmers, traders, NGOs and
government.
Enhancing accessibility of farm inputs and information including credits:
Accessibility and availability of improved farm inputs have always been a concern for
farmers and the Ministry. In absence of required inputs and information, farmers are forced
to continue with the traditional practices. Extension staff in the geog is the main source of
information, but given the scattered and isolated distribution of farming communities getting
timely information is impossible.
126 Synthesis Report
As such, it is high time that we utilize the ever influential ICT for information sharing
between farmers and extension service provider. National and Local print and broadcast
media should be encouraged to carry news and information of farming. Decentralization and
privatization of sales and service of farm inputs such as fertilizer, tools and machineries,
planting material need to be promoted with more favorable policies and resource support.
Another important input for farming is credit. Presently, there is only one bank which has the
mandate to support rural development. Availing credit on time has always been difficult and
fulfilling long formalities have further discouraged farmers from availing it. Many times, the
credit needs of the subsistence farmers are small and immediate, which are often met by
borrowing from local money lender at high interest rate. Therefore, MoAF and Government
should promote affordable and farmers’ friendly credit systems so that it facilitates adoption
of improved farming practices promoted through extension systems.
Budget for extension staff:
In the present system, front line extension staff’s work as per the plans/programme given to
them by the local government. Their main aim is to fulfill the physical target rather than
creating impact. The present system does not provide any room or opportunity to be
innovative as they have no resources at their disposal. Moreover, their performance is judged
on the achievement of physical target than on innovative performance or impact. As such,
government should consider providing financial resources to extension staff posted in the
geogs so that they can be innovative and initiate activities suitable to their local working
environment. At the same time system should reward or recognize their innovation by means
of fast track promotion, training etc.
Enhancing moral and capacity Building of RNR Extension staff
The professionalization of the agricultural extension service and incentives for front-line
staff to live in remote areas will be a key to promote better services to the farmers. More
frequent trainings, especially on extension methodology and approaches should be given to
front line extension staff. At the same time, exposure to new and emerging technologies in
the RNR field should be made available to these staff.
India
The country faces great challenges in further increasing the productivity of all the sectors to
match the population demand including the crop sector. The livestock and fisheries sector
play an important role in generating income and employment for marginal farmers and
landless labourers in meeting nutritional and livelihood security.
Addressing the emerging challenges would require new approaches which must be supported
by extension research and education system. The extension research and education system
should focus on the application of cutting edge technologies, thrust on technology
integration, use of information communication technology, quality aspects in addition to
increase in quantity, thrust on post harvest, food processing and value addition, resource
management etc.
Right technology and Right methodology are the two key elements required to be focused by
the extension research and education systems. The inventory of right technology and
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 127
methodology need to be made available by the system. Extension Research and education
system must reform itself in terms of content and adequate focus has to be given on effective
technology selection, optimization, application, sustainability and management.
The frame work of strengthening the extension, research, education and delivery system
includes:
• Assessment of existing extension education system, approaches and organizations
against the back drop of changing scenario to come out with practical solutions for
strengthening/ restructuring the system.
• Broadening the scope of technical mandate keeping in view the current demand
scenario.
• Development of location specific, participatory gender sensitive and customized
extension materials and methodologies.
• Emphasis on FSR/E and farmer participatory approach.
• Strengthening the operational linkages and partnership between research, extension,
farmer, market and other key stake holders.
• Empowering farmers and organising them into commodity groups/associations and
federating them.
• Integrating ICT in the extension research, education and technology development
system.
• Focus on issues like IPR, Farmers Rights and DUS guidelines.
The technology delivery system needs to gear up their capacity in terms of manpower,
expertise, finance, structure, institutional linkages and the kinds of methods, approaches and
delivery system they employ. The issues to be taken up for strengthening the delivery system
are;
(i) Farmers empowerment and farmer organizations development
(ii) Institutional linkages, convergence and Partnership issues
(iii) Technology backstopping, application, integration, ICT use and management (iv) Frontier areas of extension, HRD and skill development (v) Policy issues
Lack of quality manpower dedicated to the cause of agricultural development is a serious
constraint and challenge encountered by the system. Agricultural extension should be on
agri-business extension mode and this is possible only if the system recruits personnel who
can bring in different kinds of expertise. For instance expertise related to cutting edge
technologies, organizational development, market development, legal issues related to farmer
rights, IPR etc are crucial for extension. This would also involve some de-learning of its
conventional technology dissemination approach and learning new ways of doing things.
Extension is weak in animal husbandry and fisheries sectors and this would need
considerable strengthening. Strengthening of national and regional level training facilities for
continuous skill up gradation of extension professionals is to be taken up immediately.
Assessment of the quality of extension personnel is a must and a national level mission mode
approach is needed in this regard.
Strengthening the expertise of extension organization includes:
• frontier areas of technology
• resource conservation and management
128 Synthesis Report
• market development, linking with markets and export development
• quality and standards
• organic agriculture nterprise/entrepreneurship development,
• skill development in horticulture, seed and plant material production
• research and extension in response to adaptation to climate change and risk
management
• financing and insurance
• extension for resource conservation and management
• extension management techniques (programme/project management- PERT, CPM,
log frame, 5-S etc)
• legal and regulatory issues (farmer rights, IPR)
• promotion of public-private partnership
• application of ICTs, content development and updating
• skills related to farmer organizational development and farmer empowerment
• strengthening extension in animal husbandry and fisheries sector
• initiating manpower planning in extension organizations, create new positions and
fill existing vacancies based on manpower planning
Address HRD and skill development in extension organizations through the following
strategies:
- new recruitments,
- contract arrangements,
- consultancies,
- staff trainings
- partnering with organizations having expertise
Policy Issues
Several organisations implement extension programmes with very little co-ordination. Co-
ordination is lacking even among public sector organisations. Establishment of a national
extension authority (similar to the National Rainfed Area Authority), can potentially bring
about the much needed integration for effective planning and delivery of extension
programmes. Integration of extension activities at the district level also needs policy support.
Several initiatives that were successful at the pilot stage had failed when external support
was withdrawn. Another major constraint is the declining financial support for extension.
Enhanced funding is crucial for improving the ability of extension to deal with the complex
challenges of the second green revolution. Extension also needs crucial research backup on
new approaches, methodologies and management techniques relevant for different situations.
Policy issues need to be addressed through:
- Enhanced funding
- Strengthening research in extension
- Establishing a national extension agency/board
- Developing strategies to improve sustainability of pilot initiatives
- Strengthening mechanisms for district level planning
- National Centre for Agricultural Knowledge management
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 129
Way Forward
Several organization implement extension programmes with very little coordination. Co-
ordination lacking even among public sector organizations. Establishment of national
extension agency/board (NEA) can potentially bring about much needed integration for
objective planning and delivery of programmes. Integration of extension activities at the
district level also needs policy support. Several initiatives that were successful at the pilot
stage had failed when external support was withdrawn. Another major constraint is the
declining financial support for extension. Enhanced funding is crucial for improving the
ability of extension to deal with the complex challenges faced by it. It also needs crucial
research back up on new approaches, methodologies and management tools and techniques
relevant for different situations.
To summarize, among other things, (i) enhanced funding, (ii) strengthening extension
research and education, (iii) creation of a national extension authority, (iv) developing
technology inventory and methodology modules, (v) developing strategies to improve
sustainability of pilot initiatives, (vi) Farming System Approach in Extension along with
district resource mapping and planning, (vii) networking and partnership approach, (viii)
inclusion of newer concept and methodologies, (ix) Creation of national and regional level
knowledge management system for continuous technology and methodology backstopping
and (x) Resource and market led approaches for sustainability are the most important areas to
be focused upon for developing a frame work for technology development and delivery
system.
Nepal
Despite criticisms regarding service delivery in agriculture extension, there is scope for
improvements in the service delivery. Based on above discussions, following
recommendations can be made to improve in future.
• Assess the existing extension organization against farmers’ needs and determine
whether to strengthen or restructure it
• Decentralize extension but not before capacity-building of the staff and orientation
of relevant elected officials
• Broaden the technical mandate of extension to aim at broader development of rural
human resources
• Promote pluralism in extension by involving public, private and civil society
institutions
• Privatize extension partially or fully only where it is socially and economically
feasible
• Develop original, location-specific, participatory, gender-sensitive and inexpensive
extension methodologies and materials instead of applying those methodologies
which are promoted as universally suitable
• Encourage the extension services to empower farmers through organizing them into
legal associations to constitute a strong lobby for themselves and for extension
• Encourage bottom-up, grassroots extension program planning by farmers in order to
make extension demand-driven, but also exercise supply-driven, top-down modality
for promoting common public good practices such as conservation of natural
resources and environment protection.
130 Synthesis Report
• If the extension function is to be performed with relatively small number of
extension staff, follow appropriate strategies for getting maximum output
• Ensure effective operational linkages between extension and research and other key
relevant institutions
• Agriculture extension program should be based on demand of the clients. The
program should be planned and implemented based on demand of the farmers rather
than supply based.
• Clear cut job responsibility in a new context is must. The extension staff should not
be utilized for engaging in programs and activities that require specific professional
background. The extension staff should not be utilized in the detail engineering
works in implementation of small irrigation program for which they lack
professional experiences. The job definition of the different extension works at
different level needs to be defined and implemented accordingly.
• Advertise and advocate the services offered..Implement programs with the local
bodies. Complete devolution with full responsibility.
• There is need of comprehensive policy regarding agriculture extension service
delivery and support system in Nepal that provide the foundation for commercialized
agriculture responsive to need of client. The specific areas that need o be defined
may be :
- Agriculture extension,
- Agriculture input supply
- Agriculture technical support\
- Postproduction management
- Market development and management
- Rurral and agricultural credit
- Law enforcements.
• The physical condition of the ASC should be improved and they should be equipped
with minimum equipments supplemented by appropriate teaching materials.
• The command area of the ASC should be well defined based on the availability of
human resources, geographic location and area to be served. The present structure
can not be effective in providing services. The concept of CASC which has been put
forward should be effectively implemented. The concept of CASC can be very
effective in increasing the access of farmers through greater social participation. The
experience of community forestry, community school management should be
internalized in designing the CASC approach. Firstly, the existing ASC should be
given priority to be converted into CASC and this opportunity can be provided to
intended VDCs and farmers of the concerned pocket area. The concern of CASC
should be on utilization of local resource centres and resource persons, greater
access of farmers' organization for extension services and commercialization of
agriculture.
• The institutionalization of the farmer's organizations such as farmers groups,
farmer's cooperatives, Farmers Groups Coordination Committee (FGCC) as in Crop
Diversification Project (CDP), Agriculture Development Committee (ADC) as in
JICA funded Agriculture Training and Extension Improvement Project (ATEIP),
Farmers Alliances as in Commercial Agriculture Development Project (CADP)
should be well capitalized in the extension service. Empowerment of these farmer
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 131
based organization should be the major strategy for greater efficiency in the service
delivery mechanism.
• Service delivery effectiveness is largely influenced by both demand and supply side
strategy. So, there is need for improved strategies on both sides. On demand side,
improving farmers' ability to demand better services and on supply side improving
the capacity and efficiency of the delivery institution is a must. Empowering farmers
based organization and political decentralization foster demand side strategy where
as administrative decentralization and public sector reform along with civil service
reform may promote supply side strategy.
• The model service centre should be able to demonstrate cost effective and efficient
service
• The motivation package, inclusive of capacity enhancement opportunity as well as
monetary and non-monetary incentives, must be insured for the field level staff.
• The job responsibility and Terms of References (ToR) for different extension
personnel should be redesigned with their shifting roles in the present context. The
need for service of overseer/sub overseer has emerged with inclusion of small
irrigation program in DADOs. Creation of such posts in DADOs is necessary if this
program is to succeed.
• The technical capability of the extension staff should improve. Moreover, the
extension worker should be well trained regarding good governance and new
emerging issues in agriculture extension.
• Monitoring and evaluation should be made objective. The monitoring should be
done at micro level and on basis of team approach. Participatory monitoring
evaluation should be internalized in the system.
• The need for different services has been recognized by new agriculture extension
strategy. The strategy has spelt out the need for action plan for implementation of
extension services. Hence, the action plan should be developed regarding the
internalization and application of already developed extension services that provide
bases for the extension need and services for different categories of clients and
entrepreneurs.
• The practice of devolution in line with Local Self Governance Act has mixed results.
It has eased in the planning and approval of program, improved accountability
towards local government and greater access of local government bodies over
program. Still, there is ambiguity regarding extension function, role clarity among
DADO/DLSO and DDC, HRD, chain of command, fund contribution to agriculture
extension, technical backstopping and ownership towards program. The devolved
extension should internalize the experiences learned so far and a clear cut working
guidelines needs to develop in line with LSGA for improved service delivery.
• View extension within a wider rural development agenda: Emerging view of
extension is not that of service or system but of a knowledge and information needs
of rural people. The knowledge and information needs of rural people are so diverse
that there is a benefit of having a range of providers to deliver advice, technology,
innovations and services.
• Define an extension policy for a pluralistic system: Extension strategies need to
identify the overall objectives for public sector involvement in extension and define
the roles and responsibilities of other service providers and of public funding.
132 Synthesis Report
• Develop a stakeholder coordinating mechanism: Some type of coordinating
mechanism is needed for the various stakeholders in extension in order to provide a
common framework.
• Putting information technology in service of extension: The revolution in
information technology must benefit extension. The benefits could take many forms.
Interactive electronic linkages may be established between extension and relevant
institutions. The efforts to apply information technology should be started at
locations which have necessary infrastructure and pre-requisites. The information
technology should not be considered as a replacement of human effort in extension,
but just as a supporting tool.
• Build capacity of public sector and service providers: The funding should be
increased for capacity building and institutional strengthening to widen the pool of
qualified service providers.
• Introduce some cost recovery: Reforms should encourage valuing information and
knowledge services. This will encourage a market for knowledge services.
• The technical mandate should be broadened to educate farmers in interrelationship
between agriculture production, food security, population and environment. It should
engage in developing human capacities in farmers, which go beyond technology.
• Recognize rural men, women and youths as extension clientele,empower farmers to
organize them in groups, cooperatives and larger organizations. Ensuring their legal
status through formal registration should follow this. The next action should be to
provide them with training needed to make plans and make decisions.
• Farmer to Farmer extension should be encouraged for utilizing indigenous
knowledge and skills. For this, Farmers Organizations should be institutionalized,
made active and efficient.
• Time has come that there should be gradual initiation of fee charging extension
services with the commercial and competitive farmer.
• Multi sectoral coordination and linkages in terms of resource sharing and functions
should be promoted to meet current complexities in agriculture sector.
Contracting–out is conceived as shifting responsibility. It is the observation of the (country
paper) authors that many NGO-implemented programs on technology dissemination and
poverty alleviation have been highly successful but that efforts by the government to contract
out extension services have had challenges, particularly efforts to privatize extension for
whole districts. The private sector is able to directly provide extension services mostly for
high-value and export oriented crops. Mechanisms of private extension include:
- Embedded services provided by the sellers of inputs and buyers of outputs
- Contract farming relationships
• A key recommendation of this paper is for government to develop, formalize, and
implement mechanism to foster public private partnership and private sector linkage
with provision of extension services. Such mechanisms should include:
(i) Project Advisory Bodies. To link government services and public goods to the
efforts of donor funded agriculture development programs multi agency project
advisory bodies can play a key role, as exemplified by the SIMI advisory body.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 133
Such projects can also play a key role in fostering local level public private
partnership in activities such as marketing infrastructure.
(ii) Development Alliances. When initiating major sectoral development and when
substantial private sector partners are involved the use of development alliances
that include government agencies, producers’ organizations, processors/trader
organizations, and the development community are highly efficient. The Nepal
Tea and Coffee Development Alliances are successful models of this approach.
(iii) Development Boards. As development alliances mature the development
and/or strengthening of development boards is a key tool to bring together
national level stakeholders.
(iv) Embedded Services. The local level private sector agricultural community also
needs to be served and included in training and capacity building programs.
Agro input suppliers and traders have the ability to reach large numbers of
households with new technologies efficiently. But currently the private sector
lacks access to latest technologies and often has limited capacity. Agriculture
education should also be geared to develop technicians build private sector.
Pakistan
Present agricultural extension service is placing emphasis on the major crops grown in the
various farming systems. These include wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, maize, gram, and
oilseeds. Very little emphasis is placed on fruits, vegetables and fodders. Extension staff
needs to be apprized of the value addition aspects of farm products. They also need to be
made aware of the impact of globalization and market liberalization on national agriculture.
It is widely acknowledged that the government extension system is limited by lack of
technical competence and should be strengthened. It is also acknowledged that where private
sector organizations or NGOs are willing to extend their services to farmers, those non-
governmental initiatives should be encouraged and public sector extension system should
extend full cooperation. Rather extension staff be trained through NGOs in participatory
methods and village organization building skills
Monitoring and evaluation is very important to keep aptly aligned the focus of extension
efforts. It is noticed that this aspect is weak. Besides, having a rigorous monitoring system,
there is also a deficiency in capacity to evaluate, it is therefore recommended to phase in a
strong monitoring and evaluation component manned by the professional evaluators each
district government.
Farmer organizations are critical to coordinating the complex elements of farming systems at
the farm level. Such organizations are essential for credit delivery, diagnosing and meeting
specific needs of the production system, meeting increasingly high quantity and quality
requirements, and many other rapidly changing needs. Thus, community organization is a
major component that serves as an extension arm of extension system. It is proposed to build
upon the sizeable institutional capacity already in place.
The private sector is central to effective extension system and is instrumental in provision of
the key public goods to farmers. Public sector extension needs to capitalize on this
opportunity and vigorously pursue public-private-sector partnerships in dissemination of
scientific knowledge in a coordinated and re-enforcing mode.
134 Synthesis Report
Extension also needs to put in place an incentive structure that would encourage the private
sector to enter into contractual arrangements with farmer organizations and link delivery of
public services to marketing and agribusiness development. This initiative will facilitate and
speed up transfer of farm information and level of adoption.
Farmers are the dominant private sector operatives in agriculture, but they are served by
myriad private sector institutions ranging from an ordinary middleman who sells the farm
inputs on credit and buy-back their produce to a large-scale mega integrated commodity
processing plants/industry. Therefore, the improvement of services to small-scale entities is
recommended so they can expand their operations and increase their productivity. The large-
scale private sector institutions will have an important role in developing new approaches in
support of small farm operators.
In order to coordinate the wide range of activities at the village level, it is recommended to
strengthen the capacity of civil society institutions particularly the NRSP and the PRSP - -
two institutions with a long history and successful record in organizing the farm groups and
mobilizing rural resources for productivity enhancement and improved quality of life.
Because of the location specificity of farm practices, strengthening of national extension
system is necessary to raise capacity to handle such situations. The emphasis needs to be
placed on strengthening the linkages mechanism between research, education, extension, and
farmers to fasten up the application of research knowledge at the farm level. The extension
systems’ focus needs to be shifted from traditional means of communication and from
traditional crops to the modern means of communication and on high value crops and
commodities.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 135
CHAPTER
Recommendations of the Consultative Workshop on National Agricultural Systems in SAARC countries – An analysis of the system diversity
Historically agricultural extension system as a change engine played a significant role in the
development agriculture in these countries. There might be differences in agricultural
extension system and administration not only among the countries but also between the
regions within a country. In view of increased demand for agricultural production and stark
reality of food crisis, it is necessary that each individual country in the region becomes self-
reliant in agricultural production including food. And in doing so, agricultural research and
extension systems need to be revitalized. Learning from the regional development
experiences gained through agricultural extension management systems over the past years
may help carry the process forward.
Building a knowledge-based farming communities require effective and efficient extension
system. Agricultural research systems and agricultural universities in the region developed a
treasure of agricultural technologies over half a century. These technologies can be
replicated across boundaries with little effort provided an extension management system is in
place. SAARC nations can effectively develop efficient extension systems learning from
each other. However, effective and efficient management system for a country should build
on the societal needs and socio-economic conditions of the people.
For the improvement of the Agricultural extension sector in SAARC countries, a Regional
Consultative Workshop on “National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC
countries – An Analysis of the System Diversity” was organized with the following
objectives
• To study the existing national agricultural extension system
• To document the methods, approaches and models of extension work
• To study the research – Education –extension -farmers linkage
• To compare the NAES diversity among the number countries
• To identify the strength and weakness of the NAES
• To examine the most effective extension approach within the region
• To study the possibility of modifying the existing extension system
• To develop extension system in individual member countries based on shared
experiences
• To document a chronological of the development of agriculture extension system
SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC) organized this Consultative “Workshop on National
Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries – An Analysis of the System
Diversity” in collaboration with the Information & Communication Services and the Council
of RNR Research of Bhutan, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan held during 23-24
November 2011 in Thimphu, Bhutan. Lyonpo Dr. Pema Gyamtsho, Honourable Minister of
11
136 Synthesis Report
Agriculture and Forests, Government of Bhutan, Dr. Ugyen Chewang, Hon’ble Secretary,
National Environment Commission, Bhutan, Government of Bhutan; Ms. Singye Wangmo,
Honourable Member, SAC Governing Board and Program Director, Information &
Communication Services (ICS), Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan; ; Dr. Abul
Kalam Azad, Director, SAARC Agriculture Centre; Professor Dr. Ramesh Chand,
Honourable Member, SAC Governing Board and Director, National Centre for Agricultural
Economics and Policy Research (NCAP), India;
Keynote Speaker Mr. Chencho Norbu, Director, Department of Agriculture, Bhutan;;
Distinguished Resource Persons from six focal point scientists from Bangladesh, India,
Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka and Dr. Manzoor Hussain Dar, Senior Associate
Scientist
Seed Up-scaling and Coordination (STRASA), International Rice Research Institute;
distinguished participants from Bhutan, Officials from the Ministry of Agriculture and
Forests and Head of the Institutions, Scientists from Bhutan and SAC personnel were
present in the inaugural and concluding session of the consultative workshop.
Chief Guest Dr. Ugyen Chewang, Hon’ble Secretary, National Environment
Commission, Bhutan, Government of Bhutan in his inaugural address
emphasized the following points:
• Farming has been increasingly changing from traditional-subsistence to commercial
oriented system
• Adaptive measures and solutions – improved production technologies and strategies
should be made available at par with increasing challenges
• The extension system has helped farmers adapt to the relevant technologies to
enhance the quality of rural livelihood
• Farmers still need improved service delivery and better access to technologies
• Extension policies and strategies require as per the needs and changing times
• Research-extension-communities using ICT need to be strengthened
• Regional workshop of this kind provide a useful platform
Keynote speaker Mr. Chencho Norbu, Director, Department of Agriculture,
Bhutan focused on the following points:
• Focus “in the spirit of friendship, trust and understanding”
• Diversified role of extension services in the region comprising of various models
• Local knowledge system and cultural values
• Technology evaluation and assessment
• Simple institutional arrangements
• Formation of farmers’ group
• Access to location specific farming technologies Extension agents should be
equipped with IT facilities
• They should possess planning and statistical knowledge
• They should possess knowledge in social sciences
• They should be able to explore in managing “agriculture is the solution to global
warming”
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 137
Ms. Singye Wangmo, Honourable Member, SAC Governing Board and Program Director,
Information & Communication Services (ICS), Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan
presented background information on the workshop
Dr. Md. Nurul Alam, SAC in his welcome Address on behalf of Director, SAC emphasized
that to remain successful and competitive in agricultural production and trade, it is necessary
to build knowledge-based farming communities in the region. Building a knowledge-based
farming communities require effective and efficient extension system. Agricultural research
systems and agricultural universities in the region developed a treasure of agricultural
technologies over half a century. These technologies can be replicated across boundaries
with little effort provided an extension management system is in place. SAARC nations can
effectively develop efficient extension systems learning from each other. However, effective
and efficient management system for a country should build on the societal needs and socio-
economic conditions of the people. SAARC Agriculture Center intends to conduct a study
of the existing systems of agricultural extension management system and subsequently to
holding a regional consultative workshop to prepare a set of recommendations aiming at
developing and revitalizing national agricultural extension systems in the region.
SAC intends to hold the regional workshop where the participants including resource
speakers will present their case studies, discuss and exchange their views and ideas and will
come up with recommendations highlighting regional and national policies, programs, and
activities. The representatives will present their constraints, issues and policy agenda of their
respective countries for adoption and further actions
The regional experts participating in this workshop could come up with a number of good
recommendations at the end after the presentation of each country paper and thread bear
discussion. Actionable policies and programs of activities to strengthen National
Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC countries would be developed from the
workshop findings
On behalf of SAARC Agriculture Centre, he extended hearty welcome to all the participants
and distinguished guests, dignitaries, scientists and experts from various agricultural
institutions and research centre from Bhutan to this workshop for kindly attending this
morning’s function.
The regional consultation workshop was completed with two technical sessions and thematic
group works. Total nine papers were presented in the technical sessions including keynote
paper on the first day. Bangladesh paper on “National Agricultural Extension System in
SAARC Countries – An Analysis of the System Diversity in Bangladesh was presented by
Dr. Md. Matia Rahman, Former Deputy Director (Training Wing), Department of
Agricultural Extension, Dhaka; Indian country status report on “National Agricultural
Extension System in India” was presented by Dr. Ramesh Chand, Director, NCAP, New,
Delhi, India; Bhutan country report on National Agricultural Extension System in Bhutan
presented by Kailash Pradhan Thimphu, Bhutan; Nepal country status report on “National
Agricultural Extension Systems in Nepal-An Analysis of the System Diversity ” was
presented by Nil Kantha Sharma, Agriculture Extension and Communication Officer,
Agriculture Information and Communication Center, Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives, Government of Nepal; Pakistan Country Study Report on “National
Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries-An Analysis of the Systems Diversity,
A Case of Pakistan,” was presented by Dr. Waqar Malik, PARC, Islamabad, Pakistan and Sri
138 Synthesis Report
Lankan paper on “National Agricultural Extension Systems of Sri Lanka ” was presented by
Rose Rupasinghe Samuel, Deputy Director Extension HQ Department of Agriculture, Sri
Lanka. The two special papers were presented on “Agriculture Extension Services in Bhutan
by Mr. T.N Acharya and the OGTP model-an approach to agriculture growth in Bhutan
presented by Badrinath (BN) Bhattarai, DoA, MoAF, Bhutan.
Participants from Information & Communication Services and the Council of RNR Research
of Bhutan, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan were present in the workshop for two
days.
On the second day, all resource speakers from SAARC countries and all participants
discussed on the four thematic areas: a) Research- Education -Extension farmers linkages; b)
Agricultural Extension System diversity in SAARC countries c) Policies; d) Most effective
extension approaches in SAARC countries. After a whole day brain storming sessions, the
participants came up with a number of excellent recommendations by the total resource
speakers from SAARC member countries and participants. Field Visit to RNR Extension
Centre, Semtokha and Field visit to RDC, Yusipang was made on Second day of the
workshop.
Con Dr. Pema Gyamtsho, Minister of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan in his
concluding remark mentioned following points:
• Today the most important issue at global level is the climate change which besides
has direct affect to crop diversity and diminishing yield due to unforeseen weather
pattern particularly recurrent natural disasters, outbreak of pests & diseases, irregular
rainfall, flash floods and landslides. The already small land holdings are further
fragmented due to ever increasing population besides loss of potential arable land
under urbanization.
• The extension service being only the way forward to reach closely to the rural
families to cater to their daily needs and to prepare themselves for future. The most
needed support to the farming communities through extension service is delivering
them with right farming technologies and programs through right approach and
methodologies at correct time.
• I am particularly overwhelmed to note that the objectives of the workshop have been
addressed categorically with successful accomplishment.
• Distinguish Guests, Ladies & Gentlemen, The demand for agriculture products
worldwide have surpassed production and the challenge for agriculture is to feed 7
billion population and about half of it live in the SAARC countries.
• It is evident that production must be increased from within the resource base as
there is limited scope for expansion of potential production areas. The answer to the
problem is knowledge base extension service and sustainable production system that
supports increased yield per unit area of land.
• The effectiveness of extension service and research system lie how best they work
hand in hand and share information for improved farming system. Therefore drawing
experiences from each others at the national and regional levels will not only save
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 139
our resources but also make a great deal of differences in changing the life of our
rural people.
• The agriculture production environment is changing rapidly as a result of
globalization and climate change that farming has been increasingly transforming
towards commercialization, the challenge is for our small farmers to adapt to it and
the adaptive measures and strategies should be put in place by promoting farmers’
friendly technologies and innovations.
• We live in the diverse agro-ecologies and micro-climatic situations; it is becoming
paramount that the extension and research system directs its efforts based on specific
needs and production potentials. For Bhutan, we have been trying to adopt our
extension approach that addresses specific micro-level production system through
technical interventions focused to production and products development potentials in
line to the consumers’ demands and also towards poverty reduction.
• I am convinced to the fact that SAC leading towards improved extension network
through sharing information, ICT and technologies to address issues in the SAARC
region. Food production and natural resource degradation are the great challenges in
today’s World. The most affected and vulnerable group is the rural population of our
developing countries and more than 80% live in rural areas.
• The extension system should be pro-poor in its approach and technologies farmers
friendly. Therefore, there is a need to establish a strong coordinated extension
system that demands for minimal external resources and that direct effective and
efficient extension delivery system.
• The recommendations of the last 2 days workshop here in Thimphu have addressed
various relevant issues affecting efficient service delivery, to mention few: extension
coordination-linkages, policies, human resources, and technologies, funds… have
been worth mentioning and deeply rooted to the concern and the wisdom of all the
participants here. I am happy to note that such a regional level workshop will go
long way and always be a platform to share knowledge, experiences, issues,
opportunities and the recommendations for improvement of extension service
delivery to the rural masses.
• I am impressed with the idea of the SAARC Agriculture Centre conducting such
study on the existing agricultural extension management system and organizing
regional consultative workshop regularly to revitalize agriculture extension systems
in the SAARC region.
On behalf of SAC in concluding session, Professor Dr. Ramesh Chand gave concluding
remarks on the workshop specially mentioned common problems and challenges of the
SAARC member countries for hunger and food security in South Asia
The resource speakers of the SAARC member countries and all participants
from Bhutan, SAC and IRRI discussed the themes as follows in the group
discussion:
• Chronological development of agriculture extension system
• Existing national agricultural extension system
140 Synthesis Report
• Methods, approaches and models of extension
• Research – Education –extension -farmers linkage
• Comparison of the NAES diversity
• The strength and weakness of the NAES
• Effectiveness of extension approach within the region
• Human resource development
History of the chronological development of agriculture extension
• Preference for one line of control of extension service
• System vs services
Methods, approaches and models of extension work practiced
• Different models and approaches and the need to blend the models and to also take
into considerations the social aspects
• the need to develop social skills to respond to the situations
• Farmers should be encouraged to adopt the technologies by providing the required
facilities
• Options should be made available for farmers to choose a technology Priority in the
establishment of group and cooperative societies
• Use of participatory approaches an alternative to limited no. of extension agents
• OGTP approach
The research-Education-extension-farmers linkage or promoting incomes and
management of scarce resources
• Growing trends of pluralism in delivering agric extension services
Comparison of the NAES diversity
• All the extension experiences of the countries are revolving around the same
practices
The strength and weakness of the NAES
• High cost low impact extension program
• Inadequate technical qualifications of grassroots level extension workers
• Limited emphasis on the woman-extension agents (vulnerable)
Effective extension approach within the region
• suggestion to blend the public and NGO sectors
• Common forum to address feedback from the front line extension personnel
• Effective monitoring and evaluation system on the performances of field workers
Human resource development
• IT is not the replacement of the human resources (extension personnel)
• Establishment of extension training centres
• Potential-based placement of extension personnel
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 141
The Major Recommendations Emerging out of the Workshop
Sl.
No
Issues of National Agriculture
Extension System
Recommendations
1. Evolution / Development of Agriculture Extension System
1.1 Increasing engagement of Extension
personnel in non-extension ad hoc
activities
Devolution of extension system to
local government
One line control of extension service with
improved coordination with relevant
stakeholders
1.2 Systems vs. Services: extension
system with weak delivery
mechanism
Improve the extension services delivery
methodology in the local context
1.3 Inadequate financial support for
agricultural extension activities
Prioritize investment in extension activities,
methodologies and approaches
1.4 Involvement of extension personnel
in input supply deviating focus on
extension service delivery
Extension needs to be knowledge-based
2. Methods, Approaches and Models of Extension
2.1 Large variety of models are in
practice in different SAARC
member countries
Member countries need to adopt a blend of
approaches / models in vogue in
neighbouring countries
2.2 Inadequate facilities limit the
extension potential for dissemination
of technologies to the farmers
Farmers should be encouraged to adopt
technologies by providing the required
services and facilities
2.3
Limited technology options for
farmers to choose
Technology options should be made
available for farmers to choose and use as
per their preferences
2.4 Farmers’ group and co-operative
societies are playing significant role
in the diffusion of information
Extension system may incorporate the good
practices of NGOs and private sector in
applying participatory approach and
encourage working with NGOs and civil
society organizations
2.5 Limited extension workers against
wide-range of extension mandate
and coverage
Use of participatory approaches an
alternative to limited number of extension
agents
2.6 Extension system lacks expertise in
commercial farming
The role of extension systems may be
expanded to include dissemination of
commercial farming. The emulation of One-
Geog-Three-Product (OGTP) approach
being practiced in Bhutan can be a good
model to be replicated
2.7 Inadequate use of ICT tools for
technology transfer
Investment in ICT and human resource
development enhanced
142 Synthesis Report
3. Research-education-extension-farmer Linkages
3.1 Growing trends of pluralism in
delivering agricultural extension
services
Review of impact of pluralism in delivering
agricultural extension services
3.2 Wide yield gap between research
and farmers’ fields
Participatory on farm trials on new
technologies to be adopted
3.3 Poor responses from farmers on the
use of technologies
Promote generation of location-specific and
need-based technologies through
participation of relevant stakeholders
3.4 Scattered settlements and long
distance from extension centres
Additional deployment of extension
personnel and increase number of service
centres / improved access
3.6 Confusion and duplication in the
areas of activities, linkages and
coordination – different agencies
adopting different practices
Integration and realignment of services
sectors and promote one line of control
3.7 Research-education-extension-
farmers linkages are tenuous and
scarce
Extension system must institutionalize these
linkages
3.8 Regional forum greatly enhance
understanding and exchange of ideas
and information and connectivity
An extension forum maybe instituted under
the aegis of SAARC
4. National Agricultural Extension System Diversity
4.1 Crops, livestock, poultry, fisheries
and forestry sub-sectors engaged in
delivering similar services to the
same clients
All these Departments may be placed under
one Ministry
4.2 Inadequate technology testing and
dissemination mechanism
Model like Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK),
India, maybe replicated in member countries
5. Weaknesses of the National Agricultural Extension System
5.1 Inadequate technical qualifications
of grassroots level extension workers
Increase frequency of in-service training
and up-grade qualification from diploma to
degree level
5.2 Gender inequity–limited woman
EAs considering them as vulnerable
group
Encourage greater participation of qualified
woman EAs
5.3 Poor input supply system and lack of
agricultural insurance scheme
Adopt best mechanism and practices
functional in the SAARC member countries
5.4 Poor agriculture market system Proper networking of marketing agricultural
products in the SAARC / SAFTA
5.5 Inadequate central repository for
knowledge management at the
national and regional level
Strengthen networking and central
repository for information sharing for
scientific, local knowledge and socio-
cultural exchange
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 143
6. Effectiveness of Extension Approaches
6.1 Lack of common forum to address
feedback from the front line
extension personnel
Develop and strengthen common forum /
toll free communication system among the
front line extension personnel
6.2 Current phenomena of commodity
and supply driven approach lacks
assessment of technical potential of
the extension programme
Shift from commodity and supply driven to
demand and market driven extension
7. Extension Policy Issues
7.1 Inappropriate / lack of institutional
reforms and weak coordination and
support
Align functional-based institutional reforms
and strengthen coordination and support
services
7.2 Lack of Policy in public private
partnership
Re-visit / frame national extension policy
and incorporate coordination mechanism
keeping in view the important roles of the
private sector in extension services delivery
7.4 Accountability vested more to the
donors rather than to farmers
resulting in less attention dedicated
to the farmers
Shift from donor accountability to farmer-
centered accountability
7.5 Extension personnel lack knowledge
and broader understanding on
emerging global / regional issues
Create awareness and understanding on
emerging issues so that extension personnel
are able to address the global / regional
issues locally (climate change, global
warming, WTO, organic farming, etc.)
8. Human Resource Development
8.1 Fallacy of IT as the replacement of
the human resources (extension
personnel)
IT is a support tool for extension and should
be used to enhance delivery of services
8.2 Limited number of (in-service)
extension training centres
Outsource the in-service extension training
to private sectors
8.3 Mismatch on the placement of
extension personnel in accordance
with production potential (one EA
one block)
Commodity-based and knowledge-based
placement of extension personnel
9. Monitoring and Evaluation System
9.1 Absence of appropriate monitoring
and evaluation system de-motivates
the field workers
Effective monitoring and evaluation system
to monitor the job-performances of field
workers and also to assess the field impact
9.2 Lack of timely reporting / recording
of field activities and unrealistic
field data
• Put in place standard reporting and
recording mechanism supported by
mobile M&E team
• EAs should be properly trained on data
collection and simple data statistics
144 Synthesis Report
CHAPTER
Concept Note
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries – An Analysis of the System Diversity
Background
The history of agricultural extension was not properly recorded. But the process of
development activities and agricultural extension was in vogue since time immemorial as a
social innovation, which over time became a force and change in practices of agriculture
around the world. The present form of agricultural extension education is a recent
development, which has been revised, modified and adapted over decades based on the
changing situations of the respective countries. Its evolution extends over nearly four
thousands years, although its modern forms are nearly an outcome of the past two centuries.
Prior to the emergence of the modern form of agricultural extension in the 19th century, the
dissemination of agricultural information and advice to the farming community has a long
history.
Agricultural development in different SAARC countries seems to have followed different
pathways; so did the agricultural extension education systems. Over the past half a century,
for example, trajectories followed in the course of agricultural development in Bangladesh,
India and Pakistan were not similar Largely a food deficit country India became self reliant
in food three decades ago, while Bangladesh is still striving for it. Historically agricultural
extension system as a change engine played a significant role in the development agriculture
in these countries. There might be differences in agricultural extension system and
administration not only among the countries but also between the regions within a country.
In view of increased demand for agricultural production and stark reality of food crisis, it is
necessary that each individual country in the region becomes self-reliant in agricultural
production including food. And in doing so, agricultural research and extension systems
need to be revitalized. Learning from the regional development experiences gained through
agricultural extension management systems over the past years may help carry the process
forward.
No matter whether it is the harsh environment of Afghanistan or Indian Rajasthan, or
bountiful tropical environment of Bangladesh or Nepal’s tarai region, successful agricultural
production requires the use of modern tools and techniques. To remain successful and
competitive in agricultural production and trade, it is necessary to build knowledge-based
farming communities in the region.
Building a knowledge-based farming communities require effective and efficient extension
system. Agricultural research systems and agricultural universities in the region developed a
treasure of agricultural technologies over half a century. These technologies can be
replicated across boundaries with little effort provided an extension management system is in
place. SAARC nations can effectively develop efficient extension systems learning from
each other. However, effective and efficient management system for a country should build
on the societal needs and socio-economic conditions of the people. SAARC Agriculture
12
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 145
Center intends to conduct a study of the existing systems of agricultural extension
management system and subsequently to hold a regional workshop to prepare a set of
recommendations aiming at developing and revitalizing national agricultural extension
systems in the region.
Objectives:
1. To study the existing national agricultural extension system in SAARC member
countries.
2. To document the methods, approaches and models of extension work practiced in
SAARC countries.
3. To study the research – Education –extension -farmers linkage in SAARC country.
4. To compare the NAES diversity among the number countries.
5. To identify the strength and weakness of the NAES in SAARC countries.
6. To examine the most effective extension approach with in the rerion.
7. To study the possibility of modifying the existing extension system in SAARC countries
in the light of the most effective approach identified in the region.
8. To develop extension system in individual member countries based on the experience of
other countries .
9. To document a brief history of chronological development history of agriculture
extension in SAARC countries.
A more effective role for extension is possible:
(1) If we study, assess, learn from the prevailing pattern of extension, it offers extension opportunities to widen our horizon, deepen our insights and reshape or develop
extension strategies.
(2) It is believed that all the useful knowledge generated by the research system is not being availed fully by the extension system and this is weakness in the prevailing
research-extension linkages.
(3) In the past the extension system was regarded essentially as a means of communication, linking the source of research knowledge with the end users. Their
approach was in use for a couple of decades from 1960s, with the advent of new
agricultural technologies built on high-yielding verities, more responsive to
fertilizer, irrigation and pesticide.
This situation did not last beyond 1990s when the food production situation improved. The
enthusiastic acceptance of new technology by the farming communities started decelerating,
under such situation it is seen that whenever the extension staff performs the communication
role in an informal education mode , the adoption rate is not only high and is also more
efficient
146 Synthesis Report
Prospective issue to be dealt with
(1) Farming is what farmer do, what farmers depend upon , what they know , what they believe and what they are able to manage on their own. So, durable changes in
farming practices are possible only if the farmers’ perception, knowledge, attitudes
and skills are changed. At this point the educational role of extension will become an
invaluable factor.
(2) Farming is practiced only by the farmers, not by extension staff, research people, policy makers and other development agents. Farmers are the end users of the
research technologies, production resources such as soil , water , and for farmers to
play their due role . Here, again we need to remind our selves that the fundamental
objective of extension is human resource development . Agricultural development
today is the responsibility of the farmers and government. This is in fact becomes a
shared responsibility between the farmers and the government, farmers as the
producers and government as the enabler. From the foregoing discussion the
following future issues need to be dealt with:
(a) Management of natural resources such as soil, water, biodiversity etc.
(b) Farming as business –farmers need to earn cash income to meet both their family
commitments and farms.
(c) Building farmer’s capacity as efficient manager to enable them to cope with the
new responsibilities of commercial mode of farming.
(d) Multi- agency extension work- agricultural development has slowly become
multi-dimensional approach. Many extension experts believe that days of
nonlinear relationship of research – extension – education –farmer have come to
an end, yielding multi-agency development approach. Of course, so far as
agricultural development is concerned, the extension agency will have to play a
lead role.
Outline of country study
An analysis of system diversity of the NAES in SAARC countries may help extension
leaders and policy makers to obtain best option to develop the extension system. In order to
obtain complete information on extension system in the member counties, the experts are
expected to compile country studies in terms of the following guidelines:
Contents
Executive Summary
1. Introduction
i) Historical background with chronological development of agricultural extension
activities in the country
ii) Establishment of extension institutions
iii) Reformation and development
iv) Establishment of NAES
2. Organizations of National Agricultural Extension System (NAES)
i) Agencies involved in the extension system (GO and NGO).
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 147
ii) Organogram of NAES with major roles of each position of the organogram iii) Extension planning process
a. Problem identification process
b. Priority fixation of extension activities
c. Resource allocation and budgeting
iv) Coordination mechanism v) Decentralization of extension delivery system
3. Governance
i) Institutional reforms and efficiency enhancement
ii) Public-private-NGO partnership iii) Accountability hierarchy iv) Leadership development v) Management information system
4. Human resource development and capacity building
i) Involvement of academic and research institutions for HRD through curriculum
development and implementation support.
a. Areas of perception, skill and capacity building.
ii) Training of extension workers and farmers through public, NGO and private initiatives.
5. Research- Education- Extension – Farmers Linkages
i) Present linkage
ii) Emerging trends of linkages iii) Proposed integration mechanism iv) Institutional reforms for strengthening linkages
6. Incentive Structure
i) Incentive structure: Present status and future outlook
ii) Career advancement scheme iii) Prize and reward system iv) HR management
7. Monitoring and Evaluation
i) Institutional review and program review
ii) Monitoring of extension program
iii) Follow up of monitoring iv) Evaluation and follow up
8. Conclusion and recommendations
Regional Workshop
SAC intends to hold a regional workshop where the participants drawing from public, non-
government and private sector representatives will have participation. Participants will be the
focal points and their associates, resource persons, policy level experts from public sectors,
representatives of agricultural extension agencies, and other non-government agencies and
stakeholders. Participants including focal points will present their case studies, discuss and
exchange their views and ideas and will come up with recommendations highlighting
regional and national policies, programs, and activities. The representatives will present their
148 Synthesis Report
constraints, issues and policy agenda of their respective countries for adoption and further
actions.
Publication
The center will compile the country studies and recommendations, edit, and print as a
publication (printing and CD preparation).
Output
a. Publication on Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries
Actionable policies and programs of activities to strengthen National Agricultural Extension
Systems in SAARC countries.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in
Bangladesh
Dr. Md. Matiar RahmanFormer Deputy Director (Training Wing)
Department of Agricultural Extension
Khamarbari, Farmgate, Dhaka
E-mail: matiarkrishibidseed@gmail.com
Cell: 00880-1712953347
150 Bangladesh
Executive Summary
(1) Details are not known regarding agricultural development activities in the pre-British
regime. During 1800-1908 thirty two big famines occurred and 10 million people died,
as a result Department of Agriculture started functioning in 1870 in India as one of the
section of the Department of Revenue, to the Government of India. The well-known
Royal commission on Agriculture, worked during the period of Lord Erwine (1926-31)
which made some valuable recommendations for agricultural development. .As a result
the Department of Agriculture started functioning in1906. The function of this
Directorate may broadly be divided into four divisions viz: (a) research, (b) education
and training, (c) extension, and (d) supply and services.
(2) Agricultural extension in true sense is a recent introduction in the region. Agricultural
Extension actually started functioning after independence (1947). After Govt. took up
the agricultural extension work, several agricultural demonstration farms were
established in district headquarters. The agricultural extension organization expanded
greatly when the staffs of the defunct Jute Regulation Department were transferred to
the agriculture Department in 1951. The Department during those days regularly
published reading materials, conducted demonstrations, fairs and exhibitions, group and
mass meetings; organize crop competitions, made farm visits and personal contacts.
(3) A number of organizations were created during 1951-1980. The agricultural
Information Service came into being as a separate organization in 1961, EPADC-1962,
EPWAPDA-1959, PARD-1959, Village Agricultural and Industrial Development
Program (V-AID)-1954, Department of Agricultural Extension and Management-1968,
Directorate of plant Protection-1956, Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production)-1974,
Horticulture Department Board-1974, Tobacco Development Board-1974, Central
Extension Resource Development Institute-1976, Cotton Development Board-1977,
Sugar and Food Industries Corporation-1976.
(4) As an important step towards strengthening the agricultural extension work, the govt.
embarked upon program of reorganization of extension service. The following six
departments or agencies were merged in Sept. 1982 to from the Department of
Agricultural Extension (DAE): Directorate of Agriculture (Extension and
Management); Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production); Directorate of Plant
Protection; Horticulture Development Board; Tobacco Development Board; Central
Extension Resources Development Institute.
(5) The T&V system of doing extension activities was introduced in 1977 and operated till
1993. Since 1993 revision of T&V system started taken place to overcome the
weaknesses so far identified, such as: T&V system was top-down approach; It was
individual farmers contact approach; There were no or little scope to involve farmers
and field workers in program planning execution, monitoring and evaluation; It was not
responsive to farmers needs; Extension-research linkage was found weak;
Demonstration on proven technologies was not included; and Finally, extension
workers were not appraised on the basis of their performance.
(6) Agricultural extension in Bangladesh has followed an evolutionary process of
experimentation with components of several extension approaches. Until recently the
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 151
Training and Visit (T&V) approach which was established during the late seventies
formed the backbone of the DAE’s extension practices. To increase its effectiveness
and efficiency DAE has sought to develop the approach. DAE’s Revised Extension
Approach (REA) specially embraces the Department’s mission with context of NAEP.
The REA has retained many of the primary elements of the T&V approach in
combination with relevant aspects of other recognized extension approaches and
features developed locally with Bangladesh extension partners. The result is an
approach to extension, which is largely demand driven, reliant on client. Participation
based on working with groups and integrated among different extension providers.
(7) DAE already recognized the following weaknesses in the current status of REA
implementation: Farmers information Needs Assessment has been adopted in the
principle as the basis for all extension activities, but BSs/SAAOs lack the facilitation
and group motivation skills; The process of decentralization needs to mature to a point
where Thana/Upzila staff have the ability to identify locally relevant technologies; The
majority groups used by DAE are temporary and relatively weak as channels for
receiving effective technologies; DAE targets its technologies according to landholding
criteria which may not be a good reflection of wealth; Despite a major training
program, DAE personnel are not fully committed to the Seasonal Extension monitoring
System (SEMS) monitoring and evaluation system; The role of the regional Additional
Directors, with regard to the effective supervision of District and Thana/Upzila staff
remains weak; Not all DAE projects and special program have adopted the REA.
(8) The Department of Agricultural Extension Strategic Plan (1999-2002) was developed to
address these weaknesses and support a process of continuous service improvement.
The key objectives of the plan were as follows: Ensure full adoption of REA as the
routine method for all DAE extension activities and projects; Review and improve some
aspects of the current REA including FINA; targeting of extension services, the use of
groups, and monitoring and evaluation; Improve the supervision of extension services;
Restore the level of direct contact to at least 15% of the farming community; Increase
the use of low and no cost extension methods; Contribute to increase the coarse food
grain production to help achieve 25 million tones production; Promote the production,
utilization and marketing of other food and non-food crops; Generate foreign currency
earnings by encouraging the production and export of diversified crops; Mainstreaming
gender and social development issues extension service delivers; Strengthen DAE’s
commitment to sustainable agricultural development incorporating environmental
concerns; Strengthen research-extension linkages and develop similar linkages with
other agencies; Further strengthen DAE capacity to use the mass media and build links
with radio and television.
(9) The Department has completed the implementation of its first strategic plan (1999-
2002), and learnt much from the process. The strategic plan (2002-2006) is a bold
attempt to shape a new future for the Department as it enters the 21st Century. The
strategic plan is designed to support the entire policy framework of the Govt. of
Bangladesh, including the National Agricultural Policy, National Rural Development
Policy, National Strategy for Economic Growth, Poverty Reduction and Social
Development and the New Agricultural Extension Policy (NEAP). The strategic plan
has been framed on five objectives as mentioned below:
152 Bangladesh
• Increase agricultural productivity – Food security, Input and Credit support, Crop
Diversification, Appropriate land use, Soil health improvement, Sustainable
agriculture and environment, Commercialization and opportunities for non-farm
economy in Agriculture Development.
• Provide pro-poor services – Poverty reduction as a priority, Targeting, Gender
awareness, Women in agriculture and Farmers charters.
• Development partnership and Links with Local Government – UADC, UAECC,
DAECC, ATC, NATCC and EPICC (procedure for monitoring NAEP committees).
• Develop DAE as an effective Institution for providing Quality and Quantity
Services.
• Develop performance measurement.
(10) Agriculture in Bangladesh is characterized by small farm size and rice-dominated
farming systems. The productivity of rice and other crops is low and there are large
yield gaps between farmer's fields and research trials. Same is true for other agricultural
commodities such as fisheries and livestock. Over the last three decades, there has been
a significant increase in the production of rice to achieve near self sufficiency in food
grains. However, this could be threatened in the future due to increasing population,
declining land base and stagnating yields. Diversification of agricultural production
systems to high value commodities is slow with limited post-harvest value addition.
The private sector makes limited contribution to agricultural research and its investment
in agro-processing is a nascent activity. Acceleration of agricultural growth is being
constrained by: Weak technology generation and transfer; deteriorating and declining
natural resource base, especially cultivable land; Poorly functioning input and output
markets and delivery of other support services; Low private sector investment in agro-
processing; and Weak local institutions such as Producers' Organizations (POs) to
influence performance of the delivery of agricultural services by government agencies,
including the large agricultural technology system (i.e. research and extension) which is
ill prepared to meet the emerging challenges.
(11) Since several constraints to accelerate agricultural growth are directly influenced by the performance of the technology system, a program designed to address its current
weaknesses is critical for the success of a strategy to reduce rural poverty. The project
has four components: (i) Agricultural research support; (ii) Agricultural extension
support; (iii) Development of supply chains; and (iv) Project management and
coordination. Agriculture research support has the activities such as: Competitive grant
program, sponsored public goods research, enhancing institutional efficiency.
Agricultural extension support has activities like: mobilization of common interest
group, and producers’ organizations, decentralization of extension services, knowledge
management and human resources development, institutional strengthening.
Development of supply chain component includes strengthening farmers-market
linkages and enhancing institutional efficiency. :
(12) Agriculture extension in Bangladesh has followed an evolutionary process of
experimentation with component of several recognized extension approaches, such as:
General extension approach, The commodity specialized approach, The training and
visit system, Agricultural extension participatory approach, The project approach,
Farming system research and extension approach, Integrated rural development
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 153
approach, Conventional educational approach, Project approach, Group approach,
Farmer’s field school approach, Partnership approach.
(13) Work Programming is the system by which SAAOs former Block Supervisors plan and
assess the work they do. This was previously done using the Fortnightly Visit Schedule.
However, this had a number of weaknesses, for example it did not enable task
completion to be verified. DAE developed the work programming system in order to:
Provide SAAOs with increased freedom and responsibility for planning and assessing
their own work, and hence raise their motivation; Provide supervising officers with a
means of assessing SAAOs performance against verifiable indicators and provide a
framework for the recognition of good work.
There are five stages in the work programming process: Planning at the beginning of
each fortnight, by the SAAOs, of tasks to be carried out during the following two
weeks, and agreement of this plan with the supervisor; Assessment by the SAAO of
their own performance at the end of the fortnight; Constructive analysis of performance
in a meeting between the SAAO and supervisor; Agreement of a new work plan for the
next fortnight, incorporating initiatives to improve capability, resource availability and
motivation where required and learning from the successes and failures of previous
work programs.
(14) DAE define partnership as being a voluntary relationship based on trust and respect in which DAE and a partner organization work together to implement extension".
Examples of this kind of partnership include: Different extension providers
participating in TAECCs and DEPCs; Different organizations attending or participating
in upzila or district fairs; DAE staff working with groups formed by another
organization
(15) Farming systems, household economic activities, agro-ecological conditions, credit and
marketing opportunities vary considerably from place to place. For this reason, the
department has decentralized responsibilities for the planning, budgeting,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation of extension program to staff at block,
upzila, district and regional levels. The upzila level is the basic unit for planning,
implementing, monitoring and evaluating local extension program. This system ensures
that decisions about the services provided by the Department of Agricultural Extension
are taken at the lowest possible level, but with the full support of specialist staff at
district and regional level.
(16) A bottom-up, demand driven extension system must be able to respond to whatever
problems farmers identify. One of the difficulties faced is to ensure the skills and
capacity to solve farmers’ problems. DAE can only provide immediate assistance that is
within its capacity. Capacity is the overall ability of an organization or unit to carry out
various activities. Capacity always has limits. Each extension manager needs to know
the limits of their staff. Work plans must be within limits or within their 'capacity'.
There are many problems to overcome to meet the demands of extension clients. This
means that extension staffs need to have the appropriate skills and knowledge to be able
to provide the correct response to farmers. This might mean technical knowledge about
a particular crop and/or skills in extension such as how to handle a group of farmers so
as to be sure the messages are understood. District and upzila extension managers need
to be sure of the competence of their staff before selecting and assigning activities as
154 Bangladesh
part of the extension plan. The knowledge and skills required to carry out work plans
determine any immediate additional training required. This means both the technical
content of the extension program and the ability to carry out the extension method to be
used.
(17) To monitor and activate effective performance of the functions of the stakeholders in
the linkage systems and to provide guidance to the downstream and upstream linkages
are established through the formation and functioning of several committees. These
committees in the national level are called the Extension Policy Implementation
Coordination Committee (EPICC) and National Agricultural Technical Coordination
Committee (NATCC), and in the regional level, the Agricultural Technical Committee
(ATC), in the district level, the District Extension Planning Committee (DEPC).
Linkages are also functional through the adaptive and Farming Systems Research and
Development (FSRD) activities, research review and planning workshops of the
research institutes as well as special and thematic workshops.
(18) In extension, objectives are based on meeting farmers’ information needs. Success
occurs when objectives are met, and indicators are used to help determine the level of
success. Monitoring is the process of recording these indicators, while evaluation is
analyzing the recorded indicators and determining how to improve performance in the
future. Using monitoring and evaluation tools DAE is able to ensure that the
implementation of extension program follows their design and takes into account the
interests of farmers. Effective monitoring and evaluation should provide relevant and
accurate information, to the right people, at the right time, in the right format, to enable
them to take timely decisions and action. Decentralization provides local flexibility and
freedom of choice, and monitoring and evaluation helps staff make the right choices.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 155
Introduction
1) Historical background with chronological development of agricultural extension activities in the Bangladesh
Details are not known regarding agricultural development activities in the pre-British regime
except some improvements were made by Emperor Akbar, Sher Shah and several other
Muslim Emperors in respect of irrigation and land tenure system. It was due to disastrous
famine which swept over Bengal and Behar that a famine commission was constituted during
the period of Lord Laurence (1864-68), to find out reasons of famine as well as to
recommend for its prevention. During 1800-1908 thirty two big famines occurred and 10
million people died. As a result a scheme was prepared during the period of Lord Mayo
(1869-72) and the Department of Agriculture started functioning in 1870 as one of the
section of the Department of Revenue, to the Government of India.
The Department only arranged to supply irrigation water during drought and distribute food,
seeds and loans to the affected farmers. These were not sufficient to cope with gigantic
agricultural problems. Hence Lord Ripon (1880-84) recognized the importance of the
Agricultural Department and expanded its field of activities. The objective of the Department
was than to push up agricultural production and increase export. Another Famine
Commission was constituted in 1901 during Lord Curzon’s regime (1899-1905). This
Commission recommended for establishment of an agricultural department in each province
for conducting agricultural research and for adoption of scientific agricultural innovations in
practical fields. Government of India approved a scheme for establishment of research
laboratories in 1903 and granted a sum of Rs. 2.4 million for agricultural work in 1905. The
well-known Royal commission on Agriculture, worked during the period of Lord Erwine
(1926-31) which made some valuable recommendations for agricultural development.
In the beginning, this Department functioned as part of the Revenue Department in the
Centre and as a part of the Revenue and Land Records Department in the province. In 1906,
the Department was granted a separate entity in this province and the first Director was
appointed in the same year. In the year 1914, a nuclear stuff for Extension was added and
one Deputy Director of agriculture, six provincial agricultural officers and one officer on
special duty were appointed. Later on one agricultural officer was appointed for each district
and a few agricultural farms were started functioning in the district headquarters. Again the
Department was expanded and technician at union level and specialist at thana, district and
headquarter levels were appointed.
The function of this Directorate may broadly be divided into four divisions viz: (a) research,
(b) education and training, (c) extension, and (d) supply and services.
Agricultural extension in true sense is a recent introduction in the region. Agricultural
Extension actually started functioning after independence (1947). Before independence there
were some private extension service organized by some Zamindars and leaders like Rabidra
Nath Tagore, T.M. Nurun Nabi Chowdhury, G.S. Datta, Mohatta Gandhi. After Govt. took
up the agricultural extension work, several agricultural demonstration farms were established
in district headquarters. The agricultural extension organization expanded greatly when the
staffs of the defunct Jute Regulation Department were transferred to the agriculture
Department in 1951. The Department during those days regularly published reading
156 Bangladesh
materials, conducted demonstrations, fairs and exhibitions, group and mass meetings;
organize crop competitions, made farm visits and personal contacts.
2) Establishment of Extension Institutions
A number of organizations were created during 1951-1980. The agricultural Information
Service came into being as a separate organization in 1961, EPADC-1962, EPWAPDA-
1959, PARD-1959, Village Agricultural and Industrial Development Program (V-AID)-
1954, Department of Agricultural Extension and Management-1968, Directorate of plant
Protection-1956, Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production)-1974, Horticulture Department
Board-1974, Tobacco Development Board-1974, Central Extension Resource Development
Institute-1976, Cotton Development Board-1977, Sugar and Food Industries Corporation-
1976. In 1971 Bangladesh became impendent and in 1974 there was a disastrous famine. To
prevent further famine most of the organizations were created. Up to the early 1980, a unique
feature of agricultural extension in Bangladesh was the existence of many mono-crop
extension organizations. For example, under the Ministry of Agriculture there were six
agencies with extension functions. They were: (i) Directorate of Agriculture (Extension and
management), (ii) Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production), (iii) Directorate of Plant
Protection, (iv) Horticulture Board, (v) Cotton Development Board, and (vi) Tobacco
Development Board. Outside the Ministry, the Water Development Board, Sugar and Food
Industries, Tea Board, Directorate of Livestock and Fisheries have field staff with extension
functions.
3) Reformation and development
The creation of these agencies was justified either by the need to promote a new crop or
emphasis given to a particular crop (such as Jute) or an account of specialized method of
handling a commodity, particularly processing and marketing (Tobacco and Cotton). Thus
each of these services had different objectives, yet most were dealing with the same farmers.
The establishment of a large number of extension agencies over the years had created a
number of problems. These problems were:
(i) Inadequate demarcation of function and absence of definite areas of responsibility
leading to duplication and diffusion of efforts at the farm level. The multiple and
sometimes conflicting approaches by different agencies created confusion in the
mind of farmers:
(ii) There were increasing difficulties of integrating the works of so many agencies and
coordinating their programs at the farmers field, there was also wasteful
competition for the scarce resources of farmers and trained manpower;
(iii) It prevented the fostering of a coherent holistic view of the farm as a management
unit;
(iv) It engendered high overhead and supervision costs, seasonal under employment of
staff and duplication of facilities.
As an important step towards strengthening the agricultural extension work, the govt.
embarked upon program of reorganization of extension service. The following six
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 157
departments or agencies were merged in Sept. 1982 to from the Department of Agricultural
Extension (DAE):
(i) Directorate of Agriculture (Extension and Management);
(ii) Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production);
(iii) Directorate of Plant Protection; (iv) Horticulture Development Board;
(v) Tobacco Development Board;
(vi) Central Extension Resources Development Institute.
The extension wing of Water Development Board was also decided to be merged with DAE
in near future. The Cotton Development Board was expected to be merged by 1985. The
total staff strength of DAE was about 23000 including those involved in services and
regulatory functions.
The main features of the organizational model of DAE were:
i) Advice on crop production and ultimately all farming operations were to be
provided to farmers of a given area extension worker.
ii) Management and communication chain between headquarters and the field to be
shortened; accountability clearly assigned and the supervision arrangements
strengthened with establishment of appropriate spam of contact.
iii) Technical competence of DAE to be improved by introducing a cadre of well
trained SMSs and opening career opportunities for them by establishing a
“Technical stream” and
iv) Strengthening the linkages between Research and Extension and other organization.
There were a number of key points to be kept in view in performing extension along the
training and visit lines. These may be summarized as follows:
1. The farmer should be visited regularly by an able and qualified extension worker.
2. There should be a regular frequent training of staff at all levels in order to keep
them up to date on the latest technological development and enable them to develop
specific recommendation suited to changing farm conditions.
3. The extension message should be focused mainly on selected contact farmers and
other interested farmers as well as groups. All channels should be used for diffusing
recommended practices to other farmers.
4. The linkage with research must be two-way and close.
5. The work of the supervisory extension staff should be focused on supporting the
Block Supervisors presently designated as Sub Assistant Agriculture Extension
Officer(SAAO)
6. T&V is a flexible system to be adapted to meet to local situations.
4) Establishment of National Agricultural Extension Systems
The T&V system of doing extension activities was introduced in 1977 and operated till 1993.
Since 1993 revision of T&V system started taken place to overcome the weaknesses so far
identified, such as:
158 Bangladesh
(i) T&V system was top-down approach;
(ii) It was individual farmers contact approach;
(iii) There were no or little scope to involve farmers and field workers in program
planning execution, monitoring and evaluation;
(iv) It was not responsive to farmers needs;
(v) Extension-research linkage was found weak;
(vi) Demonstration on proven technologies was not included; and
(vii) Finally, extension workers were not appraised on the basis of their performance.
Agricultural extension in Bangladesh has followed an evolutionary process of
experimentation with components of several extension approaches. Until recently the
Training and Visit (T&V) Approach which was established during the late seventies formed
the backbone of the DAE’s extension practices. To increase its effectiveness and efficiency
DAE has sought to develop the approach. DAE’s Revised Extension Approach (REA)
specially embraces the Department’s mission with context of NAEP. The REA has retained
many of the primary elements of the T&V approach in combination with relevant aspects of
other recognized extension approaches and features developed locally with Bangladesh
extension partners. The result is an approach to extension, which is largely demand driven,
reliant on client. Participation based on working with groups and integrated among different
extension providers.
The key principles of REA are as follows:
Decentralization;
Responsive to farmers needs;
Working with groups;
Targeting;
Using a range of extension methods.
The Govt. policy must directly relate to the core operations of DAE and for which DAE is a
lead implementing agency of the New Agricultural Extension Policy (NAEP) published in
1996.
NAEP Principles are:
(i) Extension support to all categories of farmers;
(ii) Efficient Extension Services;
(iii) Decentralization; (iv) Demand-led Extension;
(v) Working with group of all levels;
(vi) Strengthening Extension-Research Linkages; (vii) Training of Extension Personnel; (viii) Appropriate Extension Methodology;
(ix) Integrated Extension Support to Farmers;
(x) Coordinated Extension Activities;
(xi) Integrated Environmental Support.
DAE already recognized the following weaknesses in the current status of REA
implementation:
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 159
(i) Farmers information Needs Assessment has been adopted in the principle as the
basis for all extension activities, but BSs/SAAOs lack the facilitation and group
motivation skills.
(ii) The process of decentralization needs to mature to a point where Thana/Upzila staff
have the ability to identify locally relevant technologies;
(iii) The majority groups used by DAE are temporary and relatively weak as channels
for receiving effective technologies;
(iv) DAE targets its technologies according to landholding criteria which may not be a
good reflection of wealth;
(v) Despite a major training program, DAE personnel are not fully committed to the
Seasonal Extension monitoring System (SEMS) monitoring and evaluation system;
(vi) The role of the regional Additional Directors, with regard to the effective supervision of District and Thana/Upzila staff remains weak;
(vii) Not all DAE projects and special program have adopted the REA.
The Department of Agricultural Extension Strategic Plan (1999-2002) was developed to
address these weaknesses and support a process of continuous service improvement. The key
objectives of the plan were as follows:
(i) Ensure full adoption of REA as the routine method for all DAE extension activities
and projects;
(ii) Review and improve some aspects of the current REA including FINA; targeting of
extension services, the use of groups, and monitoring and evaluation;
(iii) Improve the supervision of extension services;
(iv) Restore the level of direct contact to at least 15% of the farming community;
(v) Increase the use of low and no cost extension methods;
(vi) Contribute to increase the coarse food grain production to help achieve 25 million
tones production.
(vii) Promote the production, utilization and marketing of other food and non-food
crops;
(viii) Generate foreign currency earnings by encouraging the production and export of diversified crops;
(ix) Mainstreaming gender and social development issues extension service delivers;
(x) Strengthen DAE’s commitment to sustainable agricultural development
incorporating environmental concerns;
(xi) Strengthen research-extension linkages and develop similar linkages with other
agencies;
(xii) Further strengthen DAE capacity to use the mass media and build links with radio
and television.
To improve the overall organizational performance, DAE had formed a Management
Committee and under which there were 5 working groups to assist the management running
extension activities.
The Department has completed the implementation of its first strategic plan (1999-2002),
and learnt much from the process. The strategic plan (2002-2006) is a bold attempt to shape
a new future for the Department as it enters the 21st Century. The strategic plan is designed
to support the entire policy framework of the Govt. of Bangladesh, including the National
160 Bangladesh
Agricultural Policy, National Rural Development Policy, National Strategy for Economic
Growth, Poverty Reduction and Social Development and the New Agricultural Extension
Policy (NEAP). The strategic plan has been framed on five objectives as mentioned below:
• Increase agricultural productivity – Food security, Input and Credit support, Crop
Diversification, Appropriate land use, Soil health improvement, Sustainable
agriculture and environment, Commercialization and opportunities for non-farm
economy in Agriculture Development.
• Provide pro-poor services – Poverty reduction as a priority, Targeting, Gender
awareness, Women in agriculture and Farmers charters.
• Development partnership and Links with Local Government – UADC, UAECC,
DAECC, ATC, NATCC and EPICC (procedure for monitoring NAEP committees).
• Develop DAE as an effective Institution for providing Quality and Quantity
Services.
• Develop performance measurement.
Govt. has already taken steps for introducing Integrated Agriculture Development plan. The
background of developing such plan is explained here in brief: There is an emerging
consensus developing among different stakeholders in Bangladesh that the old project based
approach is no longer valid. The reasons are the project based weaknesses: fragmenting
development effort, too many projects, limited policy implementation, waste of resources
etc. The wider agricultural sector in Bangladesh is distributed among 10 different ministries;
including agriculture (crops); Livestock and Fisheries; Food; Lands; Water Resources;
Environment and Forests; Rural Development; Finance; Education; Jute etc. Now need to
think how best we can use of our resources for the development.
5) Strategic Context and Rational of National Agricultural Technology Project
Agriculture in Bangladesh is characterized by small farm size and rice-dominated farming
systems. The productivity of rice and other crops is low and there are large yield gaps
between farmer's fields and research trials. Same is true for other agricultural commodities
such as fisheries and livestock. Over the last three decades, there has been a significant
increase in the production of rice to achieve near self sufficiency in food grains. However,
this could be threatened in the future due to increasing population, declining land base and
stagnating yields. Diversification of agricultural production systems to high value
commodities is slow with limited post-harvest value addition. The private sector makes
limited contribution to agricultural research and its investment in agro-processing is a
nascent activity.
Acceleration of agricultural growth is being constrained by:
(i) weak technology generation and transfer;
(ii) deteriorating and declining natural resource base, especially cultivable land;
(iii) poorly functioning input and output markets and delivery of other support services;
(iv) low private sector investment in agro-processing; and
(v) weak local institutions such as Producers' Organizations (POs) to influence
performance of the delivery of agricultural services by government agencies,
including the large agricultural technology system (i.e. research and extension)
which is ill prepared to meet the emerging challenges.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 161
Since several constraints to accelerate agricultural growth are directly influenced by the
performance of the technology system, a program designed to address its current weaknesses
is critical for the success of a strategy to reduce rural poverty.
Project components
The project has four components: (i) agricultural research support; (ii) agricultural extension
support; (iii) development of supply chains; and (iv) project management and coordination.
A summary of project components, subcomponents and activities is provided below and
details are given in Annex 4.
Component 1. Agricultural Research Support
This component aims to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the national agricultural
research system through: (a) promotion of a pluralistic institutional structure by enabling
entry of new partners to support the research system; (b) making agricultural research more
participatory and demand-led; (c) developing technologies to promote sustainable
intensification and diversification of agriculture and for post-harvest value addition; and (d)
bridging the yield gap between what is possible and what is being currently achieved by
farmers. The component will have national coverage, and the following activities would be
financed.
Competitive Grants Program (CGP) GOB would establish an autonomous Krishi
Gobeshona (Agricultural Research) Foundation (KGF), with its own Governing Board, to
manage the CGP with independence, objectivity and transparency (this has already been
approved by the Government and registered with appropriate authorities). KGF would invite
multi-disciplinary agricultural research and development proposals from all organizations
with capacity to undertake such work, including NARS institutes, universities, NGOs, and
the private sector. By opening the CGP to non-traditional partners, a more competitive
pluralistic institutional structure for the NARS would be facilitated. The priority research
themes for competitive funding would be identified through a demand-led process involving
farmers, including researchable priority themes/constraints identified during micro-level
planning of agricultural extension (described under Component 2).
Sponsored Public Goods Research (SPGR) Long-term strategic and crosscutting research
would be supported on selected priority themes of public goods nature, e.g. issues related to
sustainable management of natural resources, germplasm conservation. The SPGR proposals
would be largely prepared and implemented by the ARIs under NARS and coordinated by
the BARC. However, partnerships between national and selected international institutions,
with excellence in research and education in areas of relevance to Bangladesh, would be
supported, especially to build capacity/skills of national institutions in 'new sciences', e.g.
molecular biology, bioinformatics.
Enhancing Institutional Efficiency To improve governance, institutional responsibilities
and management systems of NARS, the 1996 BARC Act would be amended; and, if needed,
the Acts of individual institutes under the Ministry of Agriculture (and possibly the Acts of
institutes under the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock) would be revised. The amended
BARC Act would also incorporate proposal for introduction of uniform service rules for
the NARS scientists. BARC', organizational structure would be rationalized and its
capacity strengthened for improved resource allocation, prioritization, coordination,
162 Bangladesh
human resource development, monitoring and evaluation of research, as well as for
promoting adoption of participatory research planning and implementation processes.
Concurrently, capacity of BARC and ARIs would be enhanced to manage fiduciary
responsibilities related to procurement and financial management. Funding would be
provided for preparation and implementation of a need-based human resource
development plan, including enhancement of capacity in social sciences, access to
information technology (IT) tools and techniques for improved communications and
dissemination of research information.
Component 2. Agricultural Extension Support
This component aims to establish a decentralized demand-led extension service, which
is knowledge-based with greater accountability and responsiveness to farmers, with a
focus on small and marginal farmers. The proposed interventions would draw on
lessons learnt from extension approaches previously pilot tested in Bangladesh and
other countries in the region, especially the decentralized and participatory technology
transfer mechanism and institutional innovations promoted under the National
Agricultural Technology Project in India, which was completed in 2005.
The national coverage under this component would be achieved in phases, starting with
about 25% of the Districts/Upazilas under the current project and expanding to other
districts and Upazilas during subsequent phases taking into account the implementation
experience and the changing needs of farmers. Multiple criteria, covering socio-
economic, bio-physical and institutional considerations, would be used to select the
project districts, followed by selection of Upazilas. The selection criteria would
include: poverty levels; population density; status of rural infrastructure; bio-physical
(rainfall, soils, irrigation water) potential; major production systems; status of natural
resource base; implementation capacity; and institutional support. The following
activities would be financed.
Mobilization of Common Interest Groups and Producers' Organizations A key
element of the decentralized and demand-led extension system would be. the
mobilization, organization and capacity building of small and marginal producers into
Common Interest Groups (CIGs) with the help of NGOs. Participating farmers would
be helped to form groups based on agricultural livelihoods or some other common
interest, e.g. credit, water use. Existing groups formed under other programs would also
be eligible to participate, following reorganization, where necessary, and orientation in
the overall extension approach under the project CIGs would be empowered to play an
increasingly important role in planning, budgeting, implementation and monitoring of
extension activities. CIGs would be federated into Producers' Organizations (POs) at
the Union, Upazila and District levels, with an initial focus on developing the Union
level organization. Capacity of POs would be strengthened to articulate, as well as to
prioritize needs expressed by CIGs, enhance responsiveness of the public service to
their needs, promote linkages with the private sector and play an advocacy role.
Decentralization of Extension Service Overall approach and key steps in
decentralization of responsibility for preparation, implementation and funding of
extension support to the Upazila level would include: (a) targeting, motivation,
organization and capacity building of CIGs to prepare and implement participatory
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 163
extension micro-plans at the Union level reflecting the priority needs of the CIG
members; (b) aggregation of Union extension micro-plans to provide the Upazila
extension plan, along with sub-sector (crops, livestock, fisheries) budget estimates, for
review and approval by the Upazila Extension Coordination Committee (UECC); ( c)
funding for implementation of extension micro-plans through the Upazila accounts of
the line departments (DAB, DLS and DOF) under the annual development program
budget of the project of which 5% would be financed by GOB and the remaining 95%
by IDA/IFAD Credit/Loan; (d) technical support and training of CIGs by the Upazila
and Union level extension teams (departmental staff, NGOs and farmer resource
persons), who in turn would be trained and technically supported by the district level
extension staff with the involvement of research scientists; (d) strengthening of
research-extension-farmer linkages; and (e) the national level policy guidance, inter-
agency/departmental coordination and monitoring and evaluation of the decentralized
extension system by the National Extension Coordination Committee (NECC),
supported by the District and Upazila level Extension Coordination Committees
(DECC and UECC), with representation of all relevant stakeholders.
Enhancing Institutional Efficiency This sub-component consists of:
(i) knowledge management and human resource development; and
(ii) institutional strengthening.
Knowledge management and human resource development To enhance two-way flow of
knowledge and information between CIGs and other stakeholders (extension staff, research
scientists, NGOs, the private sector and the local government), the project would support
establishment of Farmers' Information and Advice Centers (FIACs) at the Union level.
Dissemination of knowledge through demonstrations, exposure visits, workshops, seminars
and validation trials would be supported. Increased use of information and communication
technologies would be financed. Human Resource Development support would include
need-based training programs for staff of the line departments, NGOs and CIG members.
Emphasis would be placed on building skills in participatory extension management, as well
as technical subjects. The project would assist with rehabilitation of selected training
facilities, preparation of project specific training modules, training of trainers and
engagement of guest faculties for specialized training.
Institutional strengthening To improve the overall efficiency and responsiveness of the
public extension service, the project would: (a) empower grassroots organizations of
producers (CIGs/POs) to participate in planning, implementation and monitoring of
extension programs; (b) evaluate and revise current structure, functions and business
procedures of different line departments (DAB, DOF and DLS), including capacity to
manage fiduciary (financial management and procurement) responsibilities; (c) update
MOA's National Agricultural Policy (NAP) and the New Agricultural Extension Policy
(NABP) and Extension Policy of the Department of Fisheries. It would assist in preparation
of a new Livestock Extension Policy that is consistent with GOB's PRSP, and a national
extension implementation strategy to strengthen coordination and synergy between extension
activities of different line departments (DAB, DOF and DLS) and complimentarily with the
private sector service providers.
164 Bangladesh
Component 3: Development of Supply Chain
For increasing and diversifying sources of income for small and marginal farmers,
development of supply chains of selected commodities would be supported on a pilot basis.
The selection would be based on findings of the recently completed World Bank study to
identify opportunities and constraints to development and growth of high value agribusiness
in five agricultural sub-sectors, viz. aromatic rice, fruits and vegetables, dairy, poultry and
fisheries. For the pilot phase, the focus would be on the supply chains involving fresh
vegetables, primarily for the domestic market. To maximize profitability of rice and maize
crops, the project would also assist with the development of different rice and maize types
for markets demanding higher value differentiated products requiring minimal incremental
investment on the part of resource poor farmers. During implementation, supply chains of
other commodities would be examined to identify opportunities for the small and marginal
farmers.
Selection of Upazilas for pilot testing would depend on the degree of diversification and
market opportunities. For the pilot phase up to 200 CIGs, formed under Component 2, would
be selected for decentralized participatory planning and market-led integration in the supply
chain. To ensure that small and marginal farmers are not exposed to unsustainable risks in
the selected locations, potential participants would be risk profiled and farmers would self-
select participation through CIGs based on their own judgment of risk exposure. This would
provide the flexibility needed for vertical integration of different segments of the poor in the
selected supply chain. The following activities would be financed under this component.
Strengthening Farmer-Market Linkages To help CIGs to integrate with supply chains, the
project would support contractual arrangements with service providers for the
implementation of location specific participatory production and marketing plans., The
contracted service provider would help to develop POs, with focus on facilitating marketing
agreements, involving both the open market channel and contract farming. Under the open
market channel, CIGs would be able to choose from a basket of market options, including
sale in the local market or to a procurement agent procuring on behalf of a larger trader or a
processor. Under contract farming, CIGs would be linked with processors or trading
organizations, building on experience gained from the on-going contract farming activities in
the country. Where appropriate, contract agreements would include provision of technical
support, inputs and credit by the purchasing agency. In addition, CIGs/ POs would be trained
and demonstrated good agricultural practices. The project would also assist CIGs//POs to
establish low cost packing and storage facilities. Produce handling and sanitation facilities at
selected local markets, where CIGs may take their produce for direct marketing, would be
improved. Introduction of higher sanitary and phyto-sanitary standards required by the
national and export markets would be emphazsized. Although, the initial supply chain
extension contracts would be managed by Hortex, if successful, other options would be
utilized, including mechanism where CIGs/POs would enter in to contracts with service
providers of their choice, e.g. NGOs and the private sector services providers. Such contracts
would be financed on a cost-sharing basis between the project and CIGs/POs.
Enhancing Institutional Efficiency The focus of institutional strengthening interventions
would be to improve institutional and operational effectiveness of Hortex, the specialized
agency established by the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) to promote post-harvest value
addition and market linkages to accelerate growth of high value chains of agricultural
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 165
commodities. Technical assistance would be provided to Hortex through a long-term
international consultancy to develop capacity in promoting improved postharvest
management practices, quality, marketing options, agribusiness development and knowledge
management and communications. Support would also be provided for: (a) capacity building
of trainers and training programs aimed at capacity building of CIGs, POs, agribusiness staff
and public officials (research, extension, regulators) in commercial farming practices; (b)
information sharing with the public and private sector participants; and (c) development of
effective linkages with the research system and support for validation trials, especially for
work on local supply chains.
Component 4. Project Management and Coordination
The project would be implemented by MOA and MOFL jointly. However, MOA would be
the nodal ministry for the project. The Project Coordination Unit (PCU) would coordinate
and facilitate implementation of NATP. The PCU would be headed by the Project Director,
who would be responsible to the Additional Secretary, MOA. The KGF, Hortex and the
Project Implementation Units (PIUs) in BARC, DAE, DOF and DLS would be responsible
for implementing project activities assigned to institutions/units under their respective
organizations. The PCU would have 3-5 Technical Coordinators responsible for Agricultural
Research, Agricultural Extension and Development of Supply Chains components. It would
also have expertise in Administration, Financial Management, Procurement, M&E,
Communication, and Social/Environmental Safeguards to support and develop capacity of
implementing agencies, as needed. The GOB would appoint (depute/hire) relevant and
qualified full time staff to PCU and Pills in BARC, DAB, DOF and DLS. The staff needed
for Hortex and KGF would be recruited by their respective Boards from the open market.
The project would provide need-based supplemental support to strengthen procurement,
financial management, procurement, communication, M&E and social/environmental
safeguards capacity in the implementing units.
Lessons learned and reflected in the project design
International experience as well as the World Bank (along with other development partners)
experience in Bangladesh provides many lessons for designing agricultural research and
extension projects. The proposed program has been designed on the following critical
lessons:
• Institutional Reforms: The institutional reform of the existing agricultural
technology system is essential for improved efficiency and effectiveness. Under the
proposed program, the GOB would (i) amend the BARI Act and, if needed, Acts of
individual ARIs (without rescinding them), under the Ministry of Agriculture (and
possibly under the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock), to improve incentives,
productivity, quality and accountability; (ii) establish an autonomous KGF to
manage the Competitive Grants Program for financing agricultural research; and (iii)
decentralize the planning and funding for agricultural extension.
• Institutional Development: Institutional development for agricultural research and
extension is a long-tern process and hence there is a need to support the agreed
approach over a longer period. The proposed long-term programmatic approach for a
period of 15 years is the most appropriate for building and strengthening
development institutions dealing with agricultural technology.
166 Bangladesh
• Sustainability: Lack of sustainability of project activities is one of the recurring
problems. The main reason is lack of adequate resources to cover the operational
costs. Under this program, the policy, approach and operational procedures would be
changed to ensure adequate budgetary financing to meet the operational needs for
agricultural research and extension.
• Governance: Weak fiduciary system (both financial management and procurement)
not only leads to delays in project implementation but also creates governance
problems. The financial management and procurement capacity and systems would
be strengthened under this program.
• Impact: In the past, the main focus of agricultural research and extension has been
on monitoring inputs and outputs rather than the impact on effectiveness, agricultural
productivity and farm income. Under this program, the focus would also include
monitoring and evaluation of the impact (in addition to input and/ output) of
agricultural research and extension activities.
Implementation
Partnership arrangements
The project is strengthening pluralistic institutional structure of the research and extension
service providers, which would broaden partnership of public research and extension
institutions/departments with universities, NGOs and the private sector. The key
stakeholders would be important partners in supporting governance arrangements of the
project. In the case of research programs, partnerships would be supported through the CGP,
where all the agencies with appropriate capacity to undertake research, including
international agricultural research institutes, would be eligible to participate. In the case of
decentralized extension system, rural producers and their organizations would be key
partners in planning, implementation and monitoring of demand-led extension programs.
During project preparation, close dialogue was maintained with other international financial
institutions and development partners. As a result, International Fund for Agricultural
Development (IF AD) has agreed to co-finance the project.
In the context of Paris Declaration on harmonization and alignment of development
assistance and IF AD's Rural Poverty Partnership Initiative in Asia Region, the proposed
program to reform and strengthen the NATS has been identified by the Bank and IF AD as
an appropriate vehicle for developing strategic partnership in a sector prioritized by GOB's
PRSP for alleviation of rural poverty in Bangladesh. During discussions between the World
Bank and IF AD, it became clear that significant gains could be made through this
partnership.
Institutional and implementation arrangements
Project Steering Committee (PSC) This committee would have representation of key
stakeholders of the research and extension systems and would be chaired alternatively by the
Secretaries of MOA and MOFL. PSC would provide oversight, policy guidance and approve
the project's annual work plan and budget. It would facilitate inter-agency cooperation to
ensure achievement of the project's development objectives.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 167
Project Management Committee (PMC) Chaired by Additional Secretary, MOA and Co-
chaired by Additional Secretary, MOFL (when in place), other members of this committee
include BARC Executive Chairman; Director Generals (DGs) of DAB, DLS and DOF;
Heads of PIUs; Executive Director of KGF; and Managing Director of Hortex and Project
Director, NATP. This committee would be responsible for guidance on project management
and implementation, promotion of inter-agency cooperation/coordination, resolution of
conflicts and approval of annual work program, and budget.
National Extension Coordination Committee (NECC) Policy guidance and interagency
coordination for timely implementation of agricultural extension support component would
be provided by NECC, comprising of representatives from the key implementing agencies. It
would be chaired alternatively by the DOs of DAB, DOF and DLS.
Governing Board of the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC) Policy
guidance and oversight for the implementation of agricultural research support component
would be provided by the Governing Board of BARC.
Governing Board of the Krishi Gobeshona Foundation (KGF) Policy guidance and
oversight for implementation of the Competitive Grants Program would be provided by the
Governing Board of KGF. KGF Board would also approve the CGP budget and any
amendment to its operational procedures.
Supply Chain Facilitation Group Guidance for the implementation of the development of
supply chains component, including promotion of agribusiness enterprises in high value
products and public-private partnership, would be provided by the Supply Chain Facilitation
Group.
Project Coordination Unit (PCU) Operating under the overall direction of the PSC and
PMC, PCU would have the responsibility for coordination of NATP implementation by line
departments (DAB, OOF, DLS), BARC, KGF, Hortex, NGOs and grassroots organizations
of the participating farming communities. PCU will be headed by the national Project
Director (PD). The PD will have full freedom to make decisions related to the project as well
as financial management decisions independently within the financial powers that have been
delegated to the PD under the "Delegation of Financial Powers for Development Projects"
issued by the GOB. Based on inputs from different implementing agencies, it would
consolidate NATP annual budget and work plan for approval by the PSC. PCU would
facilitate compliance with fiduciary requirements of the project related to financial
management and procurement, overall monitoring and evaluation of project activities and
inputs from experts on any specialized subject matter to ensure timely implementation of the
project.
BARC This apex agricultural research organization would be responsible for prioritization,
review and approval of the SPGR proposals submitted by ARIs for implementation. It would
also assist KGF in identifying and prioritizing thematic areas for support under the CGP. It
would arrange independent reviews of implementation progress of research programs,
coordinate monitoring, evaluation, as well as impact assessment of research, preparation of
human resource development program for the national agricultural research system and
arrange special studies on thematic areas needed to support ARIs. The Pill in BARC would
be responsible for implementing SPGR and activities for enhancing institutional efficiency.
168 Bangladesh
KGF Operating under its own Governing Board with autonomy and transparency, KGF
would be responsible for managing implementation of the CGP.
Project Implementation Units (PIUs) in DAE, DoF and DLS PIUs in the participating
line departments would facilitate timely implementation of decentralized extension activities
by teams operating at District, Upazila and Union levels. They would have responsibility for
ensuring compliance with fiduciary requirements of GoB and the World Bank.
Upazila Extension Coordination Committee (UECC) would oversee planning, budgeting,
coordination and implementation of extension activities at the Union and Upazila levels.
UECC would have representation from all the key stakeholders (line departments - DAB,
DOF and DLS; farmer organizations, NGOs and the private sector, including input suppliers,
marketing agencies and credit). The participatory extension micro-plans prepared by the
Union level teams would be reviewed and approved by UECC. It would be chaired
alternatively by the Upazila level senior staff of DAB, DLS and DOF, and coordinated by
DAE.
Horticulture Export Development Foundation (Hortex) It would assist in the
implementation of Component 3 by promoting more equitable supply chain governance and
market linkages for selected high value commodities (such as aromatic rice, fruits,
vegetables, flowers, poultry, dairy, fisheries). It would organize training programs and
knowledge sharing on issues related to supply chain development for both the export and
domestic markets.
NGOs Under Components 2 and 3 (agricultural extension support and development of
supply chains), NGOs would be contracted to assist in the development of community-based
grassroots organizations (CIGs and pas). In addition, under Component 3, NGOs, would
assist in developing capacity of CIGs and POs to address their own technical, financial and
marketing needs related to high value commodities.
Common Interest Groups (CIGs) and Producers' Organization$ (POs) CIGs, based on
livelihoods or some other common interest, would be formed to prepare and implement
participatory extension micro-plans at the Union level reflecting the priority needs of the
CIG members in crops, horticulture, livestock and fisheries sub-sectors. CIGs would be
federated into pas at the Union, Upazila and District levels; with an initial focus on the
development of the Union level organizations. POs would facilitate access to technical,
financial and marketing services by the producer members.
Detailed information and organizational charts on implementation arrangements for the
project are given in Annex 6.
Monitoring and evaluation of outcomes/results
A basic results framework has been developed which will be adjusted, as necessary, during
implementation. The main methods and tools that will be used are:
• well-defined Results Framework based on clearly defined goals, objectives, outputs
and activities with corresponding key performance indicators (see Annex 3);
• a comprehensive M&E strategy which clearly defines the roles and responsibilities
of the implementing agencies with respect to information requirements, tools and
methodologies for data collection, analysis and reporting; and
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 169
• internal and external periodic assessments and evaluations which will include
participatory stakeholder workshops, beneficiary impact assessments (including
baseline assessment), mid-term review and implementation completion review.
Overall responsibility of the project M&E and reporting will rest with the PCU. Day-to-day
duties will be carried out by an M&E Specialist supported by a small team in the PCU. Each
implementing agency (BARC, KGF, DAB, DOF, DLS, Hortex) will be required to establish
an M&E Cell and design a specific M&E plan (i) to monitor and evaluate the project-
supported activities; and (ii) to report progress on key performance indicators. Close
collaboration will be established between the M&E Specialist and the M&E Cells. The PCU
and implementation agencies would be supported by international and national technical
assistance in M&E.
Participatory evaluation and independent impact assessment of project activities will be
carried out each year. A small household survey of project beneficiaries, and impact
assessment studies, will be outsourced to independent agencies to continuously track and
document project outcomes and impacts. Their reports will provide valuable source material
for annual stakeholder M&E workshops to be organized by the PCU. These workshops will
be held in different strategically important locations to provide a platform for stakeholders to
participate in the evaluation of project activities. The findings of the stakeholder M&E
workshops, and of the impact assessment studies, will be incorporated in the MISIM&E
system.
A 5-member Independent Expert Impact Assessment Team (BIAT), composed of well-
respected experienced specialists in economics, rural development and rural institutions, and
one representative each of fanners' associations and the private sector, will provide
independent assessment of success and failure of project activities. The EIA T will make
periodic field visits, and review the main findings, and actions taken by management in
response to the monitoring and evaluation, independent impact assessment studies and
stakeholder workshops. It will report its recommendati0'ps directly to PSC and PMC
6) Organizations of National Agricultural Extension System (NAES)
The following agencies are involved in extension system:
1. Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE)
2. Department of Livestock (DLS)
3. Department of Fisheries (DoF)
4. Cotton development Board
5. Water Development board
6. Bangladesh Rural Development Academy, Comilla
7. Bangladesh Rural Development Academy, Bogra
8. Tea Board
9. Agricultural Information Services (AIS)
10. Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC)
11. Proshikha 12. Center for Natural Resources Development (CNRS)
13. And many other NGOs
170 Bangladesh
Organogram of NAES with major roles of each position
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 171
7) Review of Extension Approaches
Agriculture extension in Bangladesh has followed an evolutionary process of
experimentation with component of several recognized extension approaches, such as:
General extension approach, The commodity specialized approach, The training and visit
system, Agricultural extension participatory approach, The project approach, Farming
system research and extension approach, Integrated rural development approach,
Conventional educational approach, Project approach, Group approach, Farmer’s field
school approach, Partnership approach
• General extension approach: Technology transfer (classical approach), increase
production, controlled by government (top-down), large number of field staff
throughout country, high in terms of salaries, increase in national production. Can
interpret national government policy. Covers whole nation. Continuity. Rapid
communication. Lack of two-way flow of information. Expensive and inefficient.
Smaller numbers of more competent staff more cost effective than larger numbers of
incompetent staff.
• Conventional educational approach: Besides the group members, the key farmers
are involved in the process of motivation and education. The farmers themselves in a
wider area disseminate the knowledge and skills taught to them. This approach has
been effective to facilitate the adoption of new innovation by interested farmer,
which eventually radiated demonstration effect to neighboring farmers.
• The commodity specialized approach: Focus on one commodity most effective if
research, extension, marketing and loans all dealt with by one dynamic body.
Increase production of specific commodity. Less complex and more straightforward.
Also ensure quality is appropriate. Controlled by commodity organization.
• The training and visit system: This system was based on the principle of single
line of command with continues training and contacts. Research extension linkage
was stronger through material support for adoption was quit weak.
• Integrated rural development approach: This approach was based on the
integration and coordinated management of resources for rural development.
Technology support was not adequate.
• Farming system research and extension approach: This approach viewed
research and extension in the whole farming system perspective, so that cropping
system research could be done. Farmers would know the interdependencies between
components and could relate to physical, biological and socio-economic factors.
• The project approach: Every commodity based production program has been
implemented on the basis of Project-designed within the frame work of time
duration, budge expenditure and expected output Package of activities which are
required to achieve the output are identified and included in the Project. This
approach has been adopted in all the seventy-five districts with a priority in the
production pockets.
• Farmers Group approach: The principle is to put the farmers of same interest
together and carry out the activities on group basis. This bas been very effective to
bring the innovation to the groups, which in turn expand to its command area
farmers. The limited manpower and other resources can be well utilized by means of
group.
172 Bangladesh
• Farmer’s field school approach: This is based on the principle of adult learning.
This has been very effective approach in reaching farmers and helping them to have
an access to the knowledge and skill required for crop management. This approach is
becoming popular because of its democratic and participatory process.
• Partnership approach: Government organizations is undertaking partnership
approach with other organizations like Department of Irrigation, NGOs, CBOs,
Private Organization etc. to effectively deliver the extension services. This strategy
has encouraged relevant stakeholders to join hands in development.
8) Extension planning process
Work Programming
Work Programming is the system by which SAAOs former Block Supervisors plan and
assess the work they do. This was previously done using the Fortnightly Visit Schedule.
However, this had a number of weaknesses, for example it did not enable task completion to
be verified.
DAE developed the work programming system in order to:
� provide SAAOs with increased freedom and responsibility for planning and
assessing their own work, and hence raise their motivation;
� Provide supervising officers with a means of assessing SAAOs performance against
verifiable indicators and provide a framework for the recognition of good work.
Work programming was piloted in two districts in order to test whether the concept,
developed by the DAE Management Committee, worked in practice. These pilot programs
showed Work Programming to be both effective in increasing performance levels and
popular with officers and SAAOs.
There are five stages in the work programming process:
� Planning at the beginning of each fortnight, by the SAAOs, of tasks to be carried out
during the following two weeks, and agreement of this plan with the supervisor;
� Assessment by the SAAO of their own performance at the end of the fortnight;
� Constructive analysis of performance in a meeting between the SAAO and
supervisor;
� Agreement of a new work plan for the next fortnight, incorporating initiatives to
improve capability, resource availability and motivation where required and learning
from the successes and failures of previous work programs.
Work Programs are prepared and assessed using the form shown bellow.
SAAO: Fortnightly Work Program
Name: Period Covered By This
Work Program
From:
Until:
Work Program
Approved
SAAO
Signature
Supervisor’s
Signature
Review
completed
SAAO Signature Supervisor’s
Signature
Description Of Task
(What, When and Where
Performance Indicator
(Verifiable Outputs)
Actual Outcome Comments
1
2
3
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 173
SAAO work programming forms have four columns:
Column 1: List of tasks to be completed during the work period;
Column 2: Verifiable indicator to show the expected output from the task;
Column 3: Record of what was actually achieved;
Column 4: Comments - causes of failure or consequences arising from experience.
SAAO are responsible for listing tasks and indicators in Columns 1 and 2. Supervisors are
responsible for reviewing and approving Work Programs. SAAOs are responsible for
implementation, then assessing performance using Columns 3 and 4. Supervisors are then
responsible for analyzing performance with the SAAO and agreeing a new work program.
The five stages of work programming are described below.
Stage 1: Planning and Agreeing a Work Program
Every Sub Assistant Agriculture Officer must complete Column 1 (Description of the Task)
and Column 2 (Performance Indicator) prior to a meeting with the supervisor to approve or
adjust tasks.
A task is an activity that needs to be undertaken, usually at a particular place and at or by a
particular time. The tasks on the Block Supervisors Work Programming form should contain:
� what is to be done;
� where it is to be done; and
� when (or by when) it is to be done.
Sometimes, supervisors may have work that SAAOs need to carry out over the coming
fortnight. These should be discussed with SAAOs prior to their completing the Work
Programming form, to provide a starting point for the SAAO in developing tasks and
completing the first column.
A performance indicator is the expected outcome of a task, allowing activities to be assessed
at the end of the fortnight, and showing if tasks that were agreed have been effectively
implemented. Performance indicators must be:
S - Specific and Stretching
M - Measurable
A - Agreed and Achievable
R - Realistic
T - Time-bounded
Once SAAOs have completed Columns 1 and 2, a meeting with the supervisor should be
held. During the meeting, the supervisors should check that the tasks that SAAOs have
suggested are consistent with:
� the DAE Mission Statement” and New Agricultural Extension Policy;
� the SAAO Job Description;
� the Annual upzila Plan; and
� the procedures and principles
Supervisors should also check the targets that SAAOs have set to ensure that they are not so
low that they are easily achievable, and not so high that they can never be attained.
174 Bangladesh
During the meeting, it is important that:
� SAAO's ideas are considered and only changed if the change is agreed between both
parties;
� the outcome of the previous periods work program is taken into account; and
� the meeting is used to identify development needs and as an opportunity to motivate
the SAAOs.
Work Programs give the SAAOs more of a chance to plan their own work. Allowing the
SAAOs to have more control in the planning of their work should increase their motivation.
Once the supervisor and SAAOs have reached an agreement over the work plan, they should
both sign it in the spaces provided.
Stage 2: Implementing the Work Program
SAAOs are responsible for implementing each task, to achieve the performance indicators
that were agreed. Block Supervisors should keep the work program, and refer to it frequently
over the fortnight. They can use their diary to record details about the tasks they have
implemented in order to provide information when reviewing progress.
Stage 3: Assessment of Performance
At the end of the fortnight the SAAO should record the actual outcome of the tasks that were
agreed. Each SAAO should complete Column 3 and Column 4 on the Work Programming
form.
Stages 4 and 5: Constructive Meeting, and Agreement of New Work Program
Once the Block Supervisor has implemented the Work Program, there should be an analysis
meeting with the supervisor. The meeting should be at the end of the fortnight so that the
assessment of the fortnight's work and the agreement of the next fortnight's work are
meaningful. The meeting will give the SAAO an opportunity to talk through the work they
have carried out in the last fortnight, and gives the supervisor an opportunity to assess the
effectiveness of this work. Supervisors should ensure that they have a copy of the SAAOs
Work Program for the previous fortnight and a copy of the Upzila plan.
Supervisors should remember that the performance of SAAOs is related to:
� Capability - the ability of each individual, in terms of their skills, knowledge and
understanding, to implement agreed tasks to a high standard;
� Resources - the resources available to implement tasks - such as training materials,
transport or other resources;
� Motivation - the willingness of each individual to perform their job to the best of
their ability.
Low capability, resources or motivation can lead to poor performance. The meeting is
designed to provide an opportunity to identify development needs and. areas where SAAOs
need assistance to improve the standard\ of their work. This might be by improving
capability, changing the level of resources, or developing motivation. The analysis meeting
helps to:
� measure the performance of SAAOs;
� measure changes in the performance of SAAOs;
� increase motivation by recognizing good performance;
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 175
� recognize the development needs of SAAOs; and
� recognize the role of each SAAO in the New Agricultural Extension Policy.
To achieve these objectives during the meeting, the supervisor must:
� behave in a friendly manor;
� end on a positive note;
� praise good work;
� invite the SAAO to contribute, state their position and views on performance;
� ask about specific problems
9) Coordination mechanism
The DAE Management Committee
In order to ensure co-ordination between Wings, to exercise a collective approach to
departmental management, and to provide a forum for strategic management, the Director
General heads a Management Committee comprising the heads of the eight wings and three
co-opted members. This committee has a broad remit, being responsible for:
• guiding operational policy concerning DAE's activities, and where appropriate
making recommendations for the approval of the Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture
(MoA);
• agreeing DAE revenue and development proposals to be submitted to Government;
• monitoring and controlling actual revenue and development budget expenditure;
• reviewing monitoring and evaluation reports from DAE regions on regional
performance to ensure achievement of DAE's Mission Statement and the NAEP;
• reviewing and approving annual regional extension plans and budgets;
• reviewing the activities of the Media Cell of DAE;
• ensuring that annual personnel appraisals are completed for all staff within DAE;
• reviewing and approving annual manpower plans, human resource development
plans and master training plans, and ensuring their implementation;
• periodically reviewing DAE's employment policy;
• periodically reviewing the DAE administrative manual and the DAE Extension
Manual;
• approving all transfers within the Agriculture Cadre up to the level of Additional
Director, and all inter; regional transfers of class III and class IV staff; .
• approving recruitment of staff in class III and class IV at headquarters level;
• approving the publication of the annual report of DAE;
• approving development projects controlled by DAE, reviewing and reporting
progress achieved as required by donors and Government of Bangladesh;
• ensuring full DAE participation in implementation of the NAEP and providing .
support services to other extension
• partners as required;
• managing overall institutional development and change within DAE, including the
setting of targets and monitoring of progress;
• reviewing and revising DAE management procedures and systems to ensure
maximum efficiency.
176 Bangladesh
There are many valid reasons for working in partnership with other extension providers but
the central reasons are that partnership enables extension organizations to:
� provide an integrated service to farmers; and
� share their strengths and resources, and learn from each other.
Integrated Service
The NAEP recognizes the integrated nature of agricultural practices in Bangladesh and, as a
result, a number of institutional mechanisms to encourage partnership between different
types of extension agents have been established This supporting environment enables GOs,
NGOs and the private sector, all of whom have different services to offer, to work together
so that they are able to provide an integrated service to farmers.
For example, most farmers in Bangladesh are not just dependent on crop production. They
also rear livestock and fish, manage trees and maintain the' environment surrounding their
homesteads and land. Often, these practices are related or are dependent upon one another in
some way i.e. they are integrated. For example, rice fish cultivation is an integrated system
because it is a combination of fish and rice production. It can also be linked to other
agricultural practices such as: bund cropping, integrated pest management and poultry / duck
production.
DAE is heavily biased towards crop production but the services it provides do not have to be
solely related to food crop production. For example, DAE can support the Department of
Livestock with extension services related to fodder production or the use of farm yard
manure to improve soil fertility. Other extension agencies may be keen to utilize the services
of DAE because it employs the most field staff in the Government agricultural sector and has
national coverage.
Sharing Strengths and Resources
The NAEP makes a commitment to developing all types of partnership between GO and
NGO extension agencies. Only by utilizing the strengths of all concerned agencies is it
possible to meet the diverse and specific extension needs of all categories of farmers
throughout Bangladesh. Improved co-ordination through the various committees established
under the NAEP, enables extension providers to share their strengths and resources.
Different agencies working in the same area may have complementary expertise and when
this is bought together the effectiveness of services can be significantly improved.
DAE recognizes the importance of partnership and is committed to working with other
extension providers. Partnership has become an important part of DAE's overall strategy for
achieving its mission statement in line with the NAEP. This chapter looks in detail at what
partnership is and how DAE encourages its staff to work in partnership with other agencies.
Understanding Partnership
There are two types of partnership:
� informal partnership; and
� a more formalized version or collaborative partnership.
They are shown and are briefly described below.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 177
Types of partnership
Partnership
DAE define partnership as being a voluntary relationship based on trust and respect in
which DAE and a partner organization work together to implement extension". Examples of
this kind of partnership include:
� different extension providers participating in TAECCs and DEPCs;
� different organizations attending or participating in upzila or district fairs;
� DAE staff working with groups formed by another organization.
Partnership activities are usually no-cost, or financed from existing resources. For example,
no extra funding is required for agencies to share training materials or share resource persons
for training sessions. This is particularly true when an informal arrangement is made
between agencies to provide staff or resources for a particular occasion.
Where minor additional expenditure is required, activities are included in the plans for the
respective agencies, and submitted through their normal channels for approval. For example,
DAE might add to its annual extension plan visits by SAAOs to the groups of a specific
NGO. The NGO might add to its annual work plan the provision of training to SAAOs in
working with its group members. The organizations would share the responsibility for
planning, funding and implementing activities in partnership. In this way, partnership is
formal in that it has been formally incorporated into normal practice but it does not require a
detailed separate agreement for the activities to take place.
Mode Status Characteristics
� Formal Joint activities;
interdependent; success depends upon each
side fulfilling its mandate
� Formal or Informal Areas of contact are neutral
(e.g. sharing resources
information) or mutually supportive (e.g.
exchanging ideas, joint visits;
UAECCs)
� Formal or Informal Can be conflicting, neutral
or supportive
Interaction
Cooperation
Collaboration
178 Bangladesh
Collaboration
Collaboration is also a form of partnership i.e. where two or more agencies work together to
provide services to farmers. However, collaborative partnership is defined as being formal in
that a specific program of activities is agreed in the form of a Memorandum of
Understanding (MoU). This establishes mutual accountability for all program activities as
well as defining specific roles and financial arrangements for each collaborating partner.
Collaboration is really a sub set of a general partnership relationship.
TAECC meetings provide the ideal opportunity for GOs and NGOs to discuss and agree
collaborative programs. To assist the design of collaborative programs UAECCs could use
the following criteria:
Criteria for collaborative programs
� the project should be concerned with agricultural extension;
� the project should be collaborative (joint implementation between one or more
EPICC members);
� the extension approach is in line with NAEP components, particularly
participatory approaches;
� it should benefit a local target group within the NAEP criteria;
� it is approved by the UAECC;
� adequate agreement i.e. Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) is drawn up; and
� arrangement for monitoring and dissemination are in place.
The MoU approved by EPICC's Institutions Sub-Committee which could be adopted by
organizations which undertake collaborative projects. It outlines the responsibilities of each
collaborating partner and provides details of the financial arrangements for collaboration.
Different Types of Partner
A partner will usually fall into one of the three broad categories.
� Non Government Organizations;
� the Private Sector; or
� Government Organizations;
Just like DAE, organizations within each group will have their own ways of planning{
implementing and monitoring their work programs. This manual cannot provide detailed
guidelines on how DAE should work with every kind of organization. There are too many
and the approach adopted needs to be locally applicable and relevant to all the agencies who
agree to work together in partnership. However, this manual outlines some general points for
DAE to consider when working with NGOs. Although emphasis has been given to working
with NGOs it is important to remember that partnerships between GOs can be as valuable in
terms of providing a more efficient and effective integrated service to farmers. Likewise
carefully planned and agreed work programs in partnership with the private sector can also
help field staff deliver a service which is better than DAE could provide on its own.
Working with Non Governmental Organizations
NGOs can be useful partners because:
� they can assist with ensuring that extension support is provided to all categories
of farmers: NGOs can often offer experience of working with small, marginal and
women farmers;
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 179
� they can assist with working with groups: utilizing existing groups within the
community to disseminate extension messages is an efficient way of reaching a
larger proportion the farming population and different categories of farmers. Most
NGOs in Bangladesh form groups as the central forum through which their
development activities take place. GO agencies utilizing NGO groups requires a
commitment to partnership by GO and NGO;
� extension activities can be coordinated: co-ordination of extension activities
involves sharing of information and expertise between different extension agents in
order to optimize resources.
Perspectives
The NAEP is a Government Policy which invites NGOs to work more closely with their
counterparts in government agencies. It is a positive gesture but it should not be assumed
that NGOs will adopt it in the same way that DAE has. There are a number of reasons which
are briefly discussed below.
There is a lot of variety within the NGO sector and amongst NGOs involved in agriculture.
Not all NGOs are good at the same thing. To maximize the skills and capabilities within the
NGO sector, DAE should be aware of the different strengths of NGOs. This is particularly
important for field staff when they are trying to identify opportunities for collaboration.
Many NGOs are keen to explore new methodologies and technologies. This requires that
they have highly qualified technical staff and sufficiently flexible management structures to
give local staff freedom to experiment. Once new technologies have been tested in pilots and
proven successful, an NGO may seek the cooperation of a government department to
replicate a new idea.
If DAE wishes to benefit fully from the capabilities of the NGO sector, as the NAEP
suggests, then the ability of NGOs to innovate, should be recognized and encouraged, The
revised extension approach also emphasizes the importance of decentralized decision
making, which should mean that locally based government staff should be confident to
introduce new ideas / technologies that they have heard about from NGOs.
As well as having a group of stronger well funded NGOs, Bangladesh has a growing number
of small local NGOs. Their strength is often in having local contacts and being able to
implement simple packages. They often need technical advice and cannot afford to pay for
highly qualified staff. They are obvious partners for situations where DAE is trying to spread
established technologies. The small NGO may be prepared to give DAE access to their
groups, or to disseminate a message or a technique among group members.
Establishing Good Relations with NGOs
Partnership and collaboration initiatives are more likely to succeed if both partners are
comfortable with the activities being implemented.
A useful guide for working with NGOs includes:
� recognizing that NGOs have different strengths. For example. are they good at
innovation, implementation, or other activities? NGOs are often very different from
each other. Options for partnership should be built on the true strengths of an NGO;
180 Bangladesh
� minimizing differences in organizational procedures which could cause problems in
the implementation of joint activities. This can be done through careful planning at
the initial stages of partnership I collaboration.
Promoting and Monitoring DAE / NGO Activities
DAE needs to continue to promote and monitor its activities with NGOs regardless of
whether they are formal or informal. The District Training Officers (DTOs) and the Regional
Additional Directors are responsible for these tasks as shown below.
DAE /NGO Liaison: The Role of District Training Officers
In addition to managing the training activities in the district, DTOs are required to monitor
DAE/ NGO partnership within the district and promote DAE / NGO partnership. The
specific activities for this are:
Monitoring:
� assimilating information from the level about the extent of DAE’s contact with
NGOs by extracting and analyzing data from SEMS showing collaborating
agency’ in consultation with the District Designated SEMS Officer;
� summarizing the forms prepared at than level which list ‘groups’ in each Block in
a upzila (i.e. community groups, NGO groups).
� comparing SEMS results with Group forms. This should show whether DAE is
working with groups that have expressed a ‘high’ interest in receiving DAE
support or whether there is more scope for working with NGOs in the district;
� finding out whether there are any successful collaborative initiatives between the
DAE and NGOs in the district whether there are any constraints to DAE / NGO
collaboration and whether NGOs are attending UAECC meetings;
� speaking with upzila and district staff to find out their attitudes to working with
NGOs.
Promoting:
� consulting with the DD, to use the monthly UAO Briefing Meeting to collect
information / problems about collaboration with NGOs and to encourage UAOs to
invite NGOs to the UAECC meetings;
� making and sustaining contact with NGOs in the district and encouraging upzila
level staff to maintain good relations with NGOs in each upzila;
� fostering NGO attendance and involvement in the UAECCs and the DEPCs
according to the published criteria;
� encouraging district and upzila staff to look for options for promoting joint
activities with NGOs and solving problems concerning DAE/NGO liaison where
possible;
� attending and supporting particular events which involve DAE and an NGO (for
example a review meeting of a DAE / NGO collaborative project)
Performance Indicators:
Preparing a brief quarterly report which assesses the status of DAE / NGO relationships in
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 181
the district for submission to the Regional Additional Director. This report should include:
� statistics on the number of NGOs that DAE has contact with;
� brief details of particular joint initiatives between DAE and NGOs;
� a brief description of activities undertaken to promote DAE / NGO liaison;
� problems or issues concerning working with NGOs that have been identified by
field staff;
DAE /NGO Liaison: The Role of The Additional Directors
The main role of the Regional Additional Director is to support DTOs monitoring of DAE
/ NGO relationships. The main responsibilities for DAE / NGO Liaison are:
� ensuring that the DTOs produce a quarterly report on liaison in their respective
Districts;
� convening a quarterly meeting with the DTOs, exclusively for the purpose of
reviewing DAE / NGO Liaison. The DTOs should present their quarterly reports
on DAE / NGO Liaison on this occasion. This meeting should be minuted and
used as the basis for preparing a Regional Quarterly Report on DAE / NGO
Liaison.
Supporting Partnership:
� attending events which foster DAE / NGO partnership (such as GO-NGO
workshops);
� supporting joint DAE / NGO projects and events (for example meetings reviewing
collaborative initiatives);
� attempting to solve problems concerning DAE / NGO liaison as highlighted in the
DTO’s quarterly report.
Reporting to the DAE /NGO Liaison Committee:
Regional Additional Directors may be invited to attend meetings of the DAE / NGO
Liaison Committee (see below) if they choose to discuss issues raised in specific quarterly
reports. Using the DTOs quarterly reports Regional Additional Directors are required to
submit a quarterly summary of the District reports;
These should include:
� details of successful collaboration between DAE and an NGO;
� issues of particular concern which require policy decisions from the DAE / NGO
Liaison committee; i.e. problems that DAE encounter in the field concerning
working with NGOs;
� suggestions (if any) for research / further investigation that could be undertaken
by the DAE / NGO Liaison committee to further understanding of DAE / NGO
partnership.
The DAE / NGO Liaison committee
The DAE / NGO Liaison Committee meets quarterly at DA~ HQ to consider ways of
fostering DAE/ NGO partnership and to make policy decisions on DAE's activities with
NGOs. It is chaired by the Director General DAE and is attended by senior representatives of
the key NGOs involved in agriculture.
182 Bangladesh
The committee is responsible for:
� recommending to DAE institutional mechanisms and procedures which will
facilitate collaboration;
� identifying areas for possible DAE / NGO collaboration, keeping a linkage with the
Extension Policy Implementation Coordination Committee (EPICC);
� developing a system for monitoring DAE / NGO collaborative activities including
documenting of experiences gained within the DAE / NGO agriculture sector; and
� liaison with the DAE management committee to advise the review and testing of
participatory planning.
A number of mechanisms are already in place for promoting partnership. Whether these
mechanisms are useful depends most of all on the attitudes of both DAE staff and members
of partner agencies. An attitude that welcomes and realizes the potential of partnership takes
time to develop. Informal contact with counterparts in other agencies, small scale
experiments in joint activities and exchange of information regarding farmers needs
represent the first steps towards embodying partnership as a normal way of working.
Partnership with the Private Sector
There is a rapidly growing private sector in Bangladesh, engaged in the sale of agricultural
implements, inputs and outputs. Obviously, the private sector is interested in increasing its
contact with farmers, to increase sales. Partnerships can be developed between DAE and the
private sector, where the private sector meets part of the cost of an extension event, and DAE
provides access to farmers for the private sector. However, DAE must remain non partisan
and should not develop close relationships with specific private products. Here are some
examples of partnership with the private sector.
Examples
� dealers could be invited to the upzila or district fair to show their products to
farmers, in return for the cost of the stall or information leaflets. DAE could even
assist the dealers in designing high quality leaflets;
� private sector representatives could be invited to UAECC, DEPC or ATC
meetings to see if they are interested in funding specific events at which their
products may from part of the event (for example, irrigation pump repair and
maintenance training courses);
� the private sector and DAE could agree to exchange training for example, private
sector pump dealers could train DAE staff (or farmers directly) in the operation
and maintenance of its pumps. DAE could provide the dealers with irrigation
information sheets to pass on to farmers who visit the dealer.
Partnership with Government Organizations
As the implementation of the NAEP begins to take effect agricultural services are likely to
become more closely integrated. This may require that DAE staff work more closely with
other Government agencies. For example, BS may be requested to provide basic information
to farmers on behalf of other agencies.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 183
In addition, there is likely to be an increase in joint activities between government
organizations. These can be discussed and agreed during UAECC meetings. Where these
activities are formal, they should be included in the annual plan. Less formal types of
partnership can also take place between government agencies. For example:
� other departments could be invited to attend the upzila or district fair; or
� government agencies, perhaps though the UAECC or DEPC, could agree to pool or
share resources such as slide sets, flipcharts flash cards, training curricula or other
visual aids.
10) Decentralization of extension delivery system
Farming systems, household economic activities, agro-ecological conditions, credit and
marketing opportunities vary considerably from place to place. For this reason, the
department has decentralized responsibilities for the planning, budgeting, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation of extension program to staff at block, upzila, district and regional
levels.
The upzila level is the basic unit for planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating
local extension program. This system ensures that decisions about the services provided by
the Department of Agricultural Extension are taken at the lowest possible level, but with the
full support of specialist staff at district and regional level. Responsibilities at all levels are
summarized in the following sections.
Block Level Responsibilities
Each Block Supervisor (BS)/SAAO is responsible for the provision of day to day extension
services in the block. A summary of their responsibilities follows:
SAAO Responsibilities
Technical Role
• assisting farmers to identify their problems and possible solutions to them;
• implementing extension events within the block, based on local needs;
• Providing ideas for suitable extension activities for farmers during the Upzila
Planning Workshop (UPW);
• assisting farmers to obtain information and other assistance from other extension
partners;
• collecting and recording information about the block on natural resources,
population, areas of different crops under cultivation, crop input requirements,
marketing systems for locally produced crops, number and extent of farmers
adapting, testing and adopting technologies.
Administrative Role
� maintaining a SAAOs Diary to record day to day progress, plan future activities and
record farmer information needs and responses;
� identifying active farmers groups; including those working with NGOs;
� agreeing a fortnightly World Program within the block in accordance with the annual
extension plan;
� attending and contributing to upzila meetings and training days;
184 Bangladesh
� monitoring the implementation of extension events in the block using the Seasonal
Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) and the registration systems used by DAE
(e.g. Demonstration registers).
Upzila Responsibilities
The role of the upzila is to ensure that an appropriate extension program is planned and
implemented in the upzila and that SAAOs have the necessary skills and resources to
implement the program. Upzila staff also implements some extension activities such as
Upzila fairs and farmer training. Ensuring service quality is very important at this level. The
decentralized responsibilities of the upzila agricultural extension office are shown below:
Upzila Office Responsibilties
Technical Responsibilities
� ensuring effective F1NA within the upzila;
� preparing high quality extension plans;
� preparing training material for farmers and technical staff;
� raising farmer's problems, which cannot be resolved at .block level by DAE, with
other extension. partner during the TAECC, or with District Specialists;
� liaising with farmer associations and other related agencies at upzila level, including
those responsible for farm inputs and marketing;
� providing high quality advice to SAAOs on a range of agricultural subjects,
including crop diversification, extension methods, input and credit supplies and
technologies for onward transmission to farmers;
� assisting SAAOs to organize field events (e.g. farmers rallies, field days and
motivational tours);
� planning and implementing upzila level extension activities (e.g. upzila fairs
and farmer training events).
Administrative/Management
� maintaining links. and co-ordinating activities with other extension providers
through the Upzila Agricultural Extension Co-ordination Committee (UAECC);
� organizing and conducting Upzila Planning Workshops;
� assessing and responding to staff training needs;
� planning and organizing fortnightly upzila training days;
� ensuring that the performance of all SAAOs is monitored through fortnightly Work
Programming assessment meetings and field visits;
� managing and co-coordinating SEMS and KAP at upzila level;
� ensuring that a senior member of upzila staff attends monthly meetings and training
workshops held at the District Office including District Extension Planning
Committees (DEPC)
� ensuring the management of the upzila budget arid the timely production of
accounts;
� collecting information including ad hoc information on emergencies from SAAOs
and reporting to Districts, Regions or Headquarters to an agreed format.
District Responsibilities
The role of the district is to provide technical and management support to upzila in planning,
implementing, monitoring and evaluating extension services. It is also the highest level at
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 185
which detailed extension planning takes place.
The decentralized responsibilities of the District Agricultural Extension Office are shown
below:
District Office Responsibilities
Technical Responsibilities
� reviewing and checking upzila plans to ensure that they are technically sound, high
quality and reflect FINA;
� Preparing a district extension plan;
� preparing and circulating a monthly district bulletin for all technical staff within the
district;
� ensuring that upzila officers have adequate technical knowledge on current extension
messages and assisting them to adjust messages so that they reflect local
circumstances;
� implementing KAP surveys within the district;
� preparing training materials for effective training of upzila officers;
� participating at ATC meetings and maintaining direct links with research institutes
for the purpose of facilitating the free flow of information on adaptive research,
f1eld trials, and new technologies;
� providing the main link between field officers and technical wing directors, passing
information to them receiving advice and program of extension message and
methods available for use in the field.
Administrative I Management Responsibilities
� organizing and conducting DEPC meetings to review seasonal activities and annual
extension plans;
� submitting all upzila and district plans to the Additional Director (Region) for
technical validation at the Agricultural Technical Committee (ATC);
� supervising the implementation of all upzila plans in the district. This includes
visiting selected extension events in a technical support capacity;
� supervising the assessment of training needs for all staff and drawing up proposals
for training within the district;
� assisting with upzila level training if required;
� managing monthly meetings at the district for all UAOs to discus problems,
solutions, progress and extension activities;
� maintaining a training record for all district staff and upzila officers;
� maintaining up to date staff records stationed in the district;
� authorizing staff to travel outside the district for special training purposes as planned
by Training Wing;
� monitoring DAE / NGO partnership within the district and promoting joint DAE /
NGO activities among district and upzila staff;
� Coordinating and consolidating SEMS;
� ensuring the effective management of human resources in the district and the
assessment of performance and management of their work;
� controlling district expenditure within approved budget ceilings and ensuring timely
submission of monthly accounts to administration and Planning Wing in
Headquarters;
186 Bangladesh
Regional Responsibilities
The role of the region is to: provide independent quality assessment of extension services in
the region; provide technical support in collaboration with research institutes; and, to act as a
focal point for the Management Information System. The main technical and administrative
responsibilities of the regional office are outlined below:
Regional Office Responsibilities
Technical Responsibilities
� providing technical advice on extension techniques and agricultural technologies to
districts directly, or indirectly through the ATCs;
� reviewing the technical and environmental quality of upzila and district plans prior
to ATC meetings;
� submitting technical information regarding planned extension activities to
Bangladesh Betar for broadcasting;
� conducting regular field visits and spot checks round the district and upzilas for the
purpose of providing on the spot technical advice and support;
� conducting training programs throughout the region as appropriate and when
required;
� analyzing and reporting of technical information from districts, such as annual crop
and input reports and ad hoc reports on emergencies such as pest and disease attacks,
flood and emergency relief programs.
Administrative/ Management Responsibilities
� chairing and coordinating the Agricultural Technical Committees (ATCs);
� consolidating extension plans and budgets and submitting them to Field Services
Wing for approval;
� updating databases holding regional office information;
� preparing data, summary. consolidation and analysis reports for submission or
transfer to Headquarters and the MIS handling centre;
� monitoring the implementation of annual extension plans throughout the region as
well as the implementation of all training activities in the region through the
Technical Audit;
� receiving and reviewing district level DAE / NGO liaison activity reports and
forwarding consolidated regional reports to the DAE / NGO Liaison Committee;
� providing support to extension events which foster DAE / NGO partnership;
� consolidating district staffing and training needs assessment reports for submission
to headquarters;
� maintaining liaison with farmers associations at regional level;
� maintaining links with Bangladesh Betar;
� preparing draft revenue and development budgets for the region for submission to
Administration and Personnel Wing and Project Directors respectively;
� controlling the annual regional revenue budget;
� producing monthly and annual accounts for the regional office's expenditure;
� ensuring the effective management of human resources in the region including
Deputy Directors, and the assessment of performance and management of their
works;
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 187
� approving the transfer and appointment of all Class III and IV staff within the region
and where necessary taking disciplinary action according to regulations;
� managing monthly meetings at the region for all Deputy Directors to discuss
progress, problems, solutions and extension activities and to deliver training so that
they in turn can train other field staff;
� ensuring that problems raised by district officers either through monthly meetings or
during ATCs receive timely responses.
Headquarter Responsibilities
DAE has eight wings based at its Headquarters in Dhaka. Each wing has specific
responsibilities. Many of the responsibilities traditionally associated with headquarters have
been decentralized to regional, district and upzila offices. In light of this, the general role of
Headquarters in providing the necessary management and technical support for
decentralization is shown below:
Headquarter Responsibilities
Technical Responsibilities
� reviewing, adjusting and approving upzila and district extension programs;
� receiving and responding to requests for technical advice sent by ATCs and District
Specialists;
� liaising with national and international research institutes through the Research
Institute Coordination Committee (RICC) and the National Agricultural Technical
Co-ordination Committee (NATCC) to gain up-to-date information on new
agricultural tephnq1ogies, and providing these to field staff in appropriate formats
through the Media Cell;
� raising farmers problems which cannot be resolved at field level with the appropriate
research institute through RICC and the NATCC;
� planning, producing, monitoring and evaluating national mass media materials and
campaigns through the DAE Media Cell and in partnership with Agricultural
Information Services (AIS);
� representing the Department on the Extension Policy Implementation Coordination
Committee (EPICC) in technical matters;
� formulating national policy options on tariffs, production, marketing, distribution
and utilization of agricultural products, and on agricultural extension.
Administrative/managerial Responsibilities
� working with Government and donors to obtain and manage financial support for the
implementation of appropriate extension program;
� providing budgets for implementation for upzila and district extension programs, and
for the payment of staff, maintenance of buildings and equipments and running
costs;
� assessing staff training needs, producing training policy and master training plans
and implementing ,monitoring and evaluating these plans;
� producing Human Resources Management initiatives aimed at improving
performance throughout the organization;
188 Bangladesh
� coordinating and supervising the national monitoring and evaluation of extension
programs implementation and overseeing the maintenance of the Management
Information Systema(MIS).
11) Human Resources Development and Capacity Building
i) Involvement of academic and research institutions for HRD through curriculum development and implementation support
a) Areas of perception, skill and capacity building
Introduction
A bottom-up, demand driven extension system must be able to respond to whatever
problems farmers identify. One of the difficulties faced is to ensure the skills and capacity to
solve farmers problems. DAE can only provide immediate assistance that is within its
capacity.
Capacity is the overall ability of an organization or unit to carry out various activities.
Capacity always has limits. Each extension manager needs to know the limits of their staff.
Work plans must be within limits or within their 'capacity'
Relationship Between Capacity Required and staff Development
There are many problems to overcome to meet the demands of extension clients. This means
that extension staffs need to have the appropriate skills and knowledge to be able to provide
the correct response to farmers. This might mean technical knowledge about a particular crop
and/or skills in extension such as how to handle a group of farmers so as to be sure the
messages are understood.
District and upzila extension managers need to be sure of the competence of their staff
before selecting and assigning activities as part of the extension plan. The knowledge and
skills required to carry out work plans determine any immediate additional training required.
This means both the technical content of the extension program and the ability to carry out
the extension method to be used.
Training Needs are Directly Linked to the Extension Planning Process
The Revised Extension Approach is centered on farmers needs. These needs are diverse.
Responding to diverse farmer information needs requires equally diverse extension
programming. Each upzila and districts have their own locally responsive extension
programs, which require specific staff knowledge and skills. Because each plan is different,
the responsibility for staff development rests with the District Deputy Director, the District
Training Officer, and at upzila level with the Upzila Agricultural Officer DAE Headquarters
provides additional assistance and resources but does not have the capacity to respond to all
the extension staff development demands.
During the planning process:
� it is essential that staff ability be considered; and
� it is essential that training possibilities be assessed.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 189
Extension plans can only include those activities that staff are already able to do, or can be
adequately trained to do before the activity is implemented
Female farmers have requested, and the extension plan contains, method demonstrations
on soybean storage. The SAAO does not know how to store soybeans, how to conduct a
method demonstration, or how to work effectively with women's groups.
What are the options?
� Provide the required training to the SAAOs before implementation of this activity,
or
� Give this assignment to another staff member who has the necessary expertise;
or
� Remove this activity from the extension plan. This may mean postponing this
activity until the following year in order to train the SAAOs. (District Specialists
and AEO!AAO may also need this training).
In order to assess the ability of staff to carry out the extension plan district and Upzila
managers must:
� know what skills and knowledge are required to carry out the planned activity;
� know what skills and knowledge staff currently have; and
� identify any gaps in the skills and knowledge that are required.
Once it is known what training is required, an assessment can be made of the feasibility of
providing this training in time to implement the planned extension activity.
Staff skills and knowledge are an essential factor in deciding what extension activities can be
undertaken. If training of staff can not be ensured in time to implement the activity, it cannot
be included in the current extension plan.
It is the responsibility of District and Upzila managers to ensure that their staff are
adequately trained to carry out their assignments under the District and Upzila extension
plans.
Assessing of Staff Competence
Competence is the level of knowledge, skills and experience of an individual to carry out
specific tasks. People have differing degrees of competence in different skill areas. No one is
completely competent at all things. An individual's overall competence is usually related to
the opportunities they have had to develop new skills and to practice the skills they have.
In DAE the main areas of competence are:
� agricultural technical knowledge skills;
� agricultural extension knowledge and skills; and
� management knowledge and skills;
All staff members should periodically assess their levels of competency in all general skill
areas· to do this, staff should complete an annual staff competence form. The completed
forms should be analyzed by the DTO/T AO and kept as a record of competence. This is best
done as part of the "work programming" process, particularly for Block Supervisors.
190 Bangladesh
Completed annual staff competence forms should be entered on computer wherever possible
to enable quick and ready analysis.
The work programming process, particularly with SAAOs, also identifies small gaps in
knowledge and skills where remedial action should be taken.
The information collected through the Annual Competence Assessment forms a database for
the upzila and district to use as a basis for extension planning and for assisting in identifying
areas of training need. If it is done by all field staff in a District, extension managers will be
able to see where further actions are required.
The staff competence database enables extension managers to:
� assess staff competence to implement proposed extension assignments;
� assign activities to individual staff members which they are fully competent to carry
out; and
� identify areas of extension work which cannot be undertaken due to limitations in
staff capacity.
The annual staff competence form identifies six categories of competence as shown in
bellow
Level of Competence Gaps Training Required
5 Expert none, can train others none
4 Completely
Competent
none, no supervision required unsupervised practice
3 Mostly Competent requires adequate supervision supervised practice,
on-the-job training,
2 Moderately
Competent
requires some assistance and
guidance
on-the-job training,
self directed learning
1 Partially
Competent
cannot complete task alone, lacks
some important knowledge and
skills
on-the-job training,
self directed learning,
focused training exercises
0 No Competence cannot perform task, no
significant knowledge or skill
comprehensive training
course
Increasing staff competence
It is the professional responsibility of each staff member to constantly increase their
competence in both existing and new knowledge and skill areas. In a bottom-up demand
driven system new skill areas are determined according to what is required to assist farmers
with the problems they identify.
Training is an essential part of ensuring that the extension advice provided is correct and
appropriate. DAE has over the years invested huge resources in training and continues to do
so. However, formal organized training classes are often not the most effective or most cost
effective way to increase competence. Everyone is responsible for his or her own learning
development and the practice of learning from experiences should become an integral part of
our daily lives.
DAE does not have the resources to provide formal training to meet all training needs and all
staff and officers are encouraged to develop their own abilities. Officers are responsible to
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 191
train and develop their staff and to help people to learn how to be more effective in their
personal and working lives.
How to Identify Training Needs
The competence assessment form gives an indication of general ability in different
knowledge and skill areas. Where lack of competence is indicated, further analysis is
necessary to identify exactly what knowledge and skill is lacking. This requires breaking
down the knowledge and skill area into its component parts. This is called job analysis
The job analysis process provides a comprehensive understanding of what is required to
adequately perform the various tasks the job requires. Jobs usually include a number of
different activity areas. Each activity area consists of a number of specific tasks which must
be performed. Analysis of a specific task identifies a number of actions required to complete
it. Finally, analysis of a specific action identifies a number of individual steps which are
involved.
Once all of the activity areas are identified, the learner's competence in each can be
measured. What the learner is currently able to do must be compared to what is required to
adequately perform the job tasks. This is called gap analysis. There is a "gap" when the tasks
require more skills and knowledge than the learner currently possesses. It is this "gap" that
must be filled through training. The same competence assessment categories used to indicate
competence in the overall knowledge and skill area are: expert, completely competent, mostly
competent, moderately competent, partially competent, no competence, can also be used to
indicate ability to perform each of the component tasks, actions and steps.
At each stage of the training needs assessment process, it is only necessary to breakdown the
items that competence assessment indicates require improvement. The process is a sequence
of job analysis followed by gap analysis, again followed by job analysis and so on.
The component parts of a "job" can be described in different ways depending on how
broadly the job itself is defined. Sometimes levels of breakdown are skipped. For example
DAE's Job Descriptions go straight to "tasks", skipping the "activity area" level. This is
useful when most of the activity areas within the scope of the job require similar sets of
tasks.
The level of break down necessary will depend on the nature of the activity area and tasks
concerned. Training will be most effective if it focuses on the particular areas where the
learner requires additional knowledge and skills.
The above Table provides example of a job gap analysis. In the general knowledge and skill
area "Tomato Production", a person may have a competency assessment of "2. Moderately
Competent." To find out what the actual training needs are it is necessary to break down the
general area of Tomato Production into its activity areas as shown. This is the "job analysis".
This is followed by a "gap analysis" exercise to focus in on the specific gaps in knowledge
and skills that resulted in the initial general competence rating of "2. Moderately Competent"
Once the activity areas have been identified, competence can be assessed for each activity
area. In this example the competence assessment of activity areas shows that the difficulties
are in 'pest and disease management'. It is now necessary to break down this activity area
into its component tasks. To identify learning needs in the 'pest and disease management'
activity area, competence can then be assessed for each task which has been identified.
192 Bangladesh
In this example, the task 'using a knapsack sprayer' has been identified as the difficulty. It is
now necessary to breakdown the task 'using a knapsack sprayer' into its component actions.
Competence assessment of each action reveals that the real problem is that the learner
doesn't know how to operate the sprayer. This action can now be broken down into its
component steps. The steps involved in correctly operating the sprayer should make up the
training exercise.
Using the process of job and gap analysis helps to focus limited resources on the training
needs which are most critical. After the training needs have been identified it is useful to
determine the frequency, relative importance and learning difficulty for each component.
12) Research-Education-Extension-Farmers Linkages
Introduction
Agriculture is the major economic activity of the people of Bangladesh. It contributes about
25% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and engages about 85 % of the rural people.
National poverty1 level is very high since 50 % of the population is still living below the
upper poverty line2. Thus, the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) has recognized agriculture
and rural economy as the key driver of pro-poor growth strategy. The overall policy of the
GoB is, therefore, to create an enabling environment and play a supportive role so that
agricultural production can move from a predominantly subsistence level to a more
diversified commercial pursuit. The agriculture sector is supported by both public and
private initiatives. The initiatives, among others, support agriculture mainly by generating
and transferring knowledge and technologies to the farmers. Therefore, technology transfer
systems, their performances are critical for the growth in agriculture.
Conceptually, research-extension-farmer linkages are participatory and specific task oriented
functional relationships. In research the approach involve from problem identification to
technology dissemination etc. And in extension activities involve from problem
identification to extension planning, technology demonstration, performance review,
assessing acceptability, piloting, technology diffusion, monitoring, feedback, etc. Field
demonstrations, field days, farmers’ rallies, visit to research centers/fields are also aid in
strengthening linkages.
To monitor and activate effective performance of the functions of the stakeholders in the
linkage systems and to provide guidance to the downstream and upstream linkages are
established through the formation and functioning of several committees. These committees
in the national level are called the Extension Policy Implementation Coordination Committee
(EPICC) and National Agricultural Technical Coordination Committee (NATCC), and in the
regional level, the Agricultural Technical Committee (ATC), in the district level, the District
Extension Planning Committee (DEPC). Linkages are also functional through the adaptive
and Farming Systems Research and Development (FSRD) activities, research review and
planning workshops of the research institutes as well as special and thematic workshops.
Importance of Linkage
Research-extension-farmers linkage is an important area of intervention for the 'Technology
Systems' to be demand driven, farmer led and effective. The importance of research -
extension - farmer linkage has been recognized in the National Agricultural Policy. The
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 193
policy suggested further strengthening of the linkage with a view to transferring new
technologies to the farmers. The policy also envisaged involving private sector
entrepreneurs, non -government organizations (NGOs) and farmers in strengthening the
linkage. The second part of the policy statement is to ensure a pluralistic face of the
extension systems in identifying location specific, problem oriented participatory research
agenda, in one hand and transferring the technologies in the appropriate production systems,
on the other. Without effective problem identification in a participatory mechanism of
stakeholders' research remains to be compartmentalized and entire effort and investment
appears to be futile and having no use to the ultimate beneficiaries. Similarly, extension
planning without meaningful participation of the stakeholders in the technology systems is
also without relevance to farmers' needs and aspirations.
The National Agricultural Policy on Agriculture
The overall objective of the National Agricultural Policy (NAP) is self-sufficiency in food
through increased production of all crops including cereals and ensuring a food security for
all.
The National Agricultural Policy (NAP) calls for:
� Implementation of the New Agricultural Extension Policy (NAEP)
� Strengthening of research-extension linkages with a view to transferring
technologies.
NAP reinforces the implementation of the NAEP. In NAEP, as mentioned above, has some
specific commitments. However, issues such as equity, commercial approach to farming and
cooperation and coordination among different public extension service providers (crops,
livestock, fisheries, forestry) remained virtually unfocused in NAP, although private sector
and NGOs are to be brought under a well-organized monitoring system and coordinated. The
extension system has not been able to set up sustainable community based organizations
(CBOs) that would allow an institutional base for group farming and commercial agriculture
and for addressing ecological problems. Without a strong linkage mechanism between
extension service providers and farmers of all categories and also among different extension
service providers, a holistic, bottom-up extension planning and equitable and integrated
extension service will not be possible and the goals of NAP may unrealized in the long run.
The National Fisheries Policy
The National Fisheries Policy (NFP) was formulated in 1998 with the following objectives:
� Enhancing fisheries resources and production
� Generating self -employment for poverty alleviation of fishers
� Meeting the demand for animal protein
� Increasing foreign exchange earning
� Maintaining ecological balance, conserving bio-diversity and improving public
health.
To attain these objectives, the DoF has also developed Action Plan. Activities are being
identified through different project approaches. The department does not have an extension
network down to Upazila level. Through capacity building of individual growers, leaders of
producers organizations under a pluralistic extension approach, the weakness of grass root
level extension approach should be improved.
194 Bangladesh
The Livestock Policy
The Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock (MoFL) has already drafted a Livestock policy
which is expected to be finalized and approved very soon. The major policy issues include:
� Promotion of small holder dairy and poultry development through private sector
interventions
� Development of goat, buffaloes and duck in high potential areas through special
projects
� Institutional reform of DLS to perform public functions, enactment of laws and
regulations for quality control of drugs, feeds and breeding materials
� Exploring all alternatives for fodder production. DLS in line with proposed
Livestock Policy has developed a Road Map and Action Plan which includes:
� Expansion of animal health cares through Community Based Organizations
(CBOs)
� Strengthening of veterinary services at Upazila and Union levels through its rural
service centers.
� Support private sectors for promotion of livestock
� Supporting production, quality control and standardization of feeds, breeding
materials and drugs
� Enhancing institutional reform for making DLS as a good public service.
Fish production from rivers and estuaries has declined but overall fish production has grown
at 6-8 percent over the years. Although open water capture fisheries declined, the rapid,
growth in inland culture fishery is offsetting the loss in capture tit fishery. The Department
Fisheries (DoF) has played significant role in promoting private sector fish culture. Fishery
sub-sector extension service be reformed and strengthened for demand-led extension.
Livestock and poultry sub-sector has turned to be a promising and dynamic sector for
poverty reduction. Milk has a huge potential for import substitution if it could be produced,
processed and distributed hygienically. Extension service of the Department of Livestock
(DLS) is weak and needs to be reformed.
Review of past Research-Extension-Farmers linkage
Formal linkage of the research - extension - farmers in crop sector was first built and
institutionalized in Training & Visit (T&V) system of extension in the Extension Research
Projects supported by the World Bank (WB) during 1977to 1991. In T&V systems linkage in
research-extension was institutionalized. During T&V Senior Scientific Officer (SSO),
Principal Scientific Officer (PSO), On-farm Research Division (OFRD), Bangladesh
Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) was the Member-secretary of the District Technical
Committee (DTC) and Regional Technical Committee (RTC), respectively. Linkage
activities in extension were confined to contacting farmers by Block supervisor(SAAO) in a
block in a fortnight with some relevant impact points developed in the DTC with active
participation of the researchers. These impact points were validated and refined with latest
technical information in the SMS-SSO workshop held monthly in the region and approved
by the RTC. In research linkages was in built in FSRD activities as well as research review
and planning workshops. Other than the above approach of linkage, joint visit by the
research and extension leaders of the region also helped to keep the linkage effective.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 195
Experience of Linkage in the Research System
In the research systems, through the FSRD and other adaptive research, activities, the
scientists identified farmers' problems in a participatory approach and conducted on-farm
trials with backup from on station research. The FSRD and other on-farm adaptive research
activities, supported by Extension and Research Projects (ERP), National Coordinated
Cropping System Research Project, Farming System Research Project and Agricultural
Research Management Project (ARMP), also institutionalized research-extension-farmers
linkages. The linkage activities, as were designed and implemented, though not free from
criticism, yielded some positive results. Among others, skill of both researchers and
extension officials was improved in assessing field problems to reflect in program planning.
Provision for strengthening linkage was also included in the New Agricultural Extension
policy. NARS vision for 2020 highlighted to promote between research-extension linkages
and to establish a functional feedback loop from extension unit to research program.
Mechanism for implementation of the upstream linkage was spelled out in the Strategy for
Implementing the New Agricultural Extension Policy (NAEP) .
Under the Agricultural Research Management Project (ARMP) supported by the Word Bank
research on integrated farming was conducted in 17 FSRD sites. These activities have
strengthened partnership between researchers, extension staff including NGOs and farmers.
These FSRD activities could develop entrepreneurship in small-scale poultry farming and
marketing. But linkage activities were not sustainable-because of withdrawal of funding
support and discontinuation of the support of the livestock and fisheries scientists. Moreover,
the Fisheries Research Institute and the Forest Research Institute did not have structure unit
to carry on with FSRD and linkage activities.
Linkage that existed within the institutes and between the institutes through exchange of
information and field visit had been very informal. Participation of private sector and
agencies other than DAE was almost absent in the downstream linkage. The reasons for
weak linkages might be assigned to (i) inadequate interaction between FSRD scientists and
commodity researchers, (ii) absence of clear-cut understanding of the responsibilities of'
each other positions, (iii) NARS institutes were dispersed over several ministries that made
the linkage very difficult, (iv) lack of adequate appreciation of leaders about the linking role
of FSRD in problem identification, prioritization and research planning, in one hand, and
technology transfer, on the other.
Experience of Linkage in the Extension systems
In extension systems linkages with research were maintained through the committees like
NATCC, RTC and DTC as well as through the monthly SMS-SSO workshops. In addition
field activities like demonstration, field days, etc were also used to maintain linkages with
both researchers and farmers.
Research - extension links had been characterized as weak towards the end of the T & V, and
ASSP supported DAB to re-vamp the system. Eighteen ATCs replaced 64 DTCs and other
government line agencies were brought in to ATC meeting. Regional Technical Committees
(RTCs) were abandoned. The NATCC was to be re-vitalized and Individual Research
Institutes Coordination Committees (RICC) established. But performance of the upstream
linkage was very weak.
Agricultural Support Service Project (ASSP) was designed to take over Training &Visit
196 Bangladesh
System in extension. The project (ASSP) designed Revised Extension Approach (REA) with
principle of decentralization, targeting, responding to farmers needs, using range of
extension methods and working with groups. Development of partnership was a key element
of the project. The upstream linkage activities were continued in the subsequent extension
initiatives like ASSP and ASIRP but were irregular and weak.
DAE operated some 26 projects in '2002-2003. The projects had some elements of linkage
arrangement with farmers in their individual approach but there were almost no inbuilt
arrangement to involve research in a meaningful participation in the downstream.
Experience of Linkage in Non-crop Sectors
Experience of research - extension - farmer linkage in fisheries and livestock was not
conductive to the desired technology systems in the years to come. In the fisheries sector,
lack of initiative on the part of the personnel entrusted with coordinating the research,
extension and farmer linkage exerted negative influence on technology transfer. In livestock
sector, linkage of research with extension was poor. Nevertheless, there was some sort of
linkage of research with DLS and other extension agencies in matters of transfer of some
technologies current linkage with concerned organization was grossly disjointed, coordinated
and weak and was not established on a permanent set up. A system of linkage as existed in
the crop sector might be established.
Experience of Linkage in FSRD Activities
Impact analysis of the World Bank investment in FSRD through ARMP clearly
demonstrated several cases of successful research leading to adoption. This was because of
good functional linkage at work with the farmers. Consequently, it recommended expansion
of the scope of FSRD to cover the entire research and development activities through further
concept/methodology development and institutionalization of the concept should be
attempted. All possible technical and material support to FSRD activities should be given to
continue the program for helping the farmer to utilize his scarce resources in the best
possible way. Immediate steps were needed to ensure continuing financial support for inter
institutional FSRD efforts15.
Current Constraints in research –Extension –Farmer Linkage
Weak research-extension linkages and weak linkage of crop extension with non-crop sector
were identified as constraints for technology generation and dissemination and suggested for
removal by strengthening existing mechanism through NATCC and ATCs to improve
research - extension linkage, and in non-crop sector by ensuring- participation by agencies
and relevant NGOs of the non-crop sector as enunciated in NAEP16. To this effect GOB
from time to time issued necessary instructions to improve efficiency of the ATCs. These
instructions could yield very little impact to improve the desired linkage. The main reasons
for weak linkage were the ineffective performance of the NATCC and ATCs. Some of the
bullets for poor performance of the NATCC and the ATCs were circled around the
followings:
� lack of commitment on the part of some of the heads of the mainstream line
departments.
� absence of a secretariat for NATCC with specific functions
� lack of a sense ownership to the linkage forums
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 197
13) Incentive Structure
SAAO Award Scheme
DAE's mission is to provide an 'efficient and effective' extension service to farmers. If this
mission is to be achieved, all DAE's employees must perform their specific roles to a high
standard - low performance is neither efficient nor effective.
The performance of staff is influenced by a variety of factors, but one of the most important
of these is how motivated those staff are. Motivation can be defined as the desire an
individual has to do a particular job. Motivation is effected by a variety of factors, these.
include promotion, pay, degree of responsibility and recognition of high performance.
There is very little DAE managers can do to influence the promotion prospects and wage
levels of DAE staff, but they can ensure that high performance is adequately recognized.
Recognition is an important 'management tool' that managers can use to improve the
performance of their staff. Recognition is the process whereby a manager will congratulate,
praise and/or reward a subordinate who has worked hard or achieved notable results.
SAAOs are perhaps the most important group of staff in DAE because they provide the front
line service to farmers. The quality and effectiveness of the service provided by the
Department depends on the skill, capacity, understanding, creativity and motivation of Block
Supervisors.
The SAAO Award Scheme aims to recognize the role of the Block Supervisors and to
reward outstanding performance.
The scheme takes place every year at Upzila level. The Upzila "SAAO of the Year" is
awarded with a certificate and a gift but, most importantly, is given public recognition and
appreciation for their role in helping to achieve the DAE Mission.
Selection of the SAAO
The selection of the 'Upzila SAAO of the Year' is made in the following way:
Deciding the SAAO of the year
� each officer in the Upzila (UAO, AEO, AAEO and JAEO) individually selects the
three highest performing SAAOs that they work closely with and assesses their
performance using an evaluation sheet;
� all the SAAOs fill in a self evaluation sheet;
� the supervisory officer in the Upzila meet to consider all the selections and
assessments and a decision is made to recommend the three highest performing
Block Supervisors from the Upzila to the Deputy director of the District. The
evaluation forms for the three highest ranked SAAO are sent to the Deputy Director,
the other evaluation forms are related in the Upzila office;
The Deputy Director audits the performance of these three SAAOs, by assessing their
performance against the standards expected of them and by speaking to farmers in their
Block, before making the final decision of ‘Upzila SAAO of the year’.
In selecting the 'SAAO of the Year' the Upzila Officers and the Deputy Director of the
District pay attention to the following sources of information:
� direct feedback from farmers;
� the SAAOs Diary;
198 Bangladesh
� the SAAOs Demonstration Register;
� SEMS Forms;
� Fortnightly Work Program; and
� FINA Reports
Any SAAO who is performing his/her job adequately should be able to demonstrate the that;
� their SAAO Diary is up to date, and contains the following:
- a completed Block Data section at the start of the diary;
- each day's activities;
- farmer problems;
- action taken in response to farmer; problems; and
- the 5 most important problems recorded during each Problem Census;
� over the last year show the range of extension activities that they have been
undertaking, including:
- work with groups; and
- liaison with NGOs;
� the SEMS forms that are being used to monitor extension activities are up to date for
the activities that they have undertaken and show the numbers of contacted farmers
and the number of testers;
� their Demonstration Register is up to date for all demonstrations and that they are in
the process of being or have been implemented (this can be verified by their work
programs);
� Farmer Information Needs Assessment (FINA) has been undertaken and at least four
Problem Census were completed in the preceding year.
However, if a SAAO can demonstrate all of the above it only shows that they are performing
their job to a satisfactory level. A high performing BS will have been doing these things and
more.
14) Management Information System
A Management Information System (MIS), is a system for collecting, storing and analyzing information that is needed by an organization to support its activities. Information
needs may be divided into two types:
• those required directly for the management of DAE's extension program; and
• more general, non-management, information which is used for longer term policy
and planning which are not directly related to the management of extension
activities.
The MIS described in this manual concentrates on the type of information which is directly
essential for the operation of the Department's extension services.
MIS and Computers
The DAE has computer equipment at all levels down to District offices. However, the MIS is
not dependant upon computer operations and there is also a manual system in operation.
The use of specially designed computer programs has great advantages: computers enable
the large amount of information to be stored and handled much more rapidly and analyzed in
more detail than if the information has to be recorded and analyzed by hand.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 199
While computers make it possible to handle more information, more rapidly and in greater
detail it is essential to remember that any system is only as useful as the information that is
put into it. If care is not taken in recording data then inaccurate data may be recorded and the
results will be misleading. Misleading information results in wrong management decisions.
It is essential that the tools used for MIS are looked after correctly. In particular computer
equipment must be handled with care and used in a disciplined manner – only trained and
authorized officers and staff should be allowed access to computer, only software programs
issued by DAE should be used with the equipment and no modifications should be made to
the software programs that have been specially designed for the Department’s MIS
Scope and Approach
The objectives of an efficient MIS are to enable officers to plan and manage their activities efficiently with the benefit of accurate and timely information. The improvement of DAE's MIS is a gradual process; a step-by-step approach has been taken with priority given to the information needed for the direct management of extension activities. The MIS is based on a number of separate components which can be linked by sets of common codes for location, extension method, crop, technical message, source of funds for the activity etc. Each component can be linked with the others or used on its own if there is any problem with another part of the system.
MIS Components
Ten components are included in the MIS. These are divided into three classes as shown in
Table 2.1 below:
Information System Component
(class and purpose)
Name Initials computerised
/ Manual
1 Direct extension management
farmer consultation Farmer information
Needs Assessment
FINA m
extension activity planning Extension Planning
System
EPS c / m
extension activity monitoring Seasonal Extension
Monitoring System
SEMS c / m
internal activity supervision Technical Audit TA m
medium term evaluation Knowledge Attitude and
Practice Survey
KAP m
2. Administration & Finance
finance Financial Information
System
FIS c & m
personnel Personnel Database PD c & m
training management Training Information
System
TIS c & m
3. Longer term policy & planning
crop variety data Crop Returns Database CRD c / m
non-management data General Information
Database
GID c / m
200 Bangladesh
Key c/ m = computerised or manual operation possible c & m = some parts computerised, some manual operation necessary m = manual operation only
The components classified above as direct extension management are described in detail in later sections of this Manual. The components related to administration and finance and longer term policy and planning are not covered since they are primarily used at DAE headquarters.
System Users and Responsibilities
Overall responsibility for the MIS lies with the Planning and Evaluation Wing's MIS Section headed by the Joint Director (MIS) who is supported by specialist MIS / computer staff located at headquarters and regional offices. The MIS Section is responsible for providing assistance to computer operators, the approval and issue of MIS and other software programs and the standards of equipment used by DAE.
There are dedicated specialist MIS staff to assist users in regions and districts posted at each
DAE Regional Office. Each Regional Office has ~ Statistical Officer and an Assistant Chief
(MIS) lor this purpose.
In addition to personnel in the field the information in each component has a number of users
in DAE Headquarters as shown in Table 2.2. The main users, however. are officers and staff
directly responsible for the planning and implementation of the Department's extension
activities.
Table 2.2 MIS users at DAE headquarters
MIS Component User – DAE Headquarters Wing
Primary Secondary Tertiary
Extension Planning System
FSW FCW WMAEW PPW
PEW
Seasonal Extension Monitoring System
FSW
CCW FCW WMAEW PPW
PEW
Crop Returns Database FSW CCW FCW
PEW
Financial Info. System APW PEW ALL WINGS
Personnel Database APW ALL WINGS
Training Info. System TW APW ALL WINGS
General Info. Database ALL WINGS PEW
PEW MIS Section officers have overall responsibility for developing and supporting MIS and its associated computer operations and for the proposed main database. Responsibility for the establishment, and continuing operation, of the individual components of MIS lies with the Wings and Sections to which the data relate which are shown in Table 2.2.
The EPS, SEMS and FIS components are primarily used at levels below Headquarters particularly in districts and thanas, nevertheless it is essential for supervision and control that
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 201
overall. responsibility rests in Headquarters. Table 2.3 shows the Wings and Sections and Headquarters' Officers who are responsible for the major MIS components.
The Headquarters' Officers are responsible for the operation and effectiveness of each MIS component but it should be clearly understood that:
PEW-MIS Section has full responsibility in DAE for approving all MIS software and
programs and computer standards. No changes to be made to MIS and/or computer
specifications, software standards and programs etc. without reference to, and formal
approval of the PEW-MIS Section on behalf of the Director General and the Management
Committee. Responsibility for FINA, KAP and Technical Audits lie outside DAE
headquarters. The Deputy Director (DD) Districts are responsible for FINA and KAP; the
Additional Director (AD) Regions for Technical Audit.
MIS
Component
Wing Section Officer In-Charge
(Supervising)
Officer
Directly
Responsible
System
Management
Planning and
Evaluation MIS JD MIS
Extension
Planning
System
Field Services Extension AD Extension DD
Extension
Seasonal
Extension
Monitoring
Systems
Field Services Monitoring AD Monitoring DD
Monitoring
Crop Returns Field Services Farm Economics AD Extension
Financial
Information
Systems
Administration
and Personnel Finance
Assistant Director
Finance
Personnel
Database
Administration
and Personnel Personnel
AD Administration
and Personnel
Training
Information
System
Training Farmer Training Director Training DD Farmer
Training
The Media Cell
The media cell is responsible for providing media support to field staff. It co-ordinates a
large number of productions such as videos, flip charts and posters and the Annual Extension
Planner. It provides a responsive service for field staff and considers request from thanas and
districts. These requests are sent from district offices once a year at the time of preparing
annual plans.
The media cell is chaired by the Director General and the Additional Director Extension acts
as member secretary. Members of the media cell include. all Wing heads, the director of the
Agricultural Information Service, the Director of the Transfer of Technology Monitoring
Unit, BARC, and Principle Scientific Officers from various research agencies.
202 Bangladesh
The media cell is based in Headquarters and meets prior to each season as follows:
Kharif II mid April
Rabi mid July
Kharif I mid January
Responsibilities of the media cell are divided into four main categories:
Production of media materials
distribution of materials
monitoring of media activities; and
co-operation in the production of media with other partners.
These functions are briefly outlined below:
Production
Co-coordinating all media productions at Headquarters with Bangladesh Betar and
Bangladesh Television; producing media in response to specific requests from all DAE
wings and from field offices; ensuring that DAE video productions are approved by the
Chairman of the media cell; producing guidelines for districts and thanas regarding media
production and training; advising the Director, Field Service Wing on national extension
publications and media campaign production expenditure; producing simple technical
bulletins from approved research results; delegating the responsibility for specific
productions and other relevant issues to cell members.
Distribution
Ensuring that all media produced by DAE Headquarters is sent to the field; ensuring that
DAE video productions are distributed with the necessary accompanying literature;
developing procedures for disseminating information to the field and advising district and
thana staff how they can request information; distributing technical bulletins to field offices;
distributing guidelines for media production.
Monitoring
Reviewing information provided by Additional Directors (Regions) from Technical Audit
results; conducting a random annual review of district bulletins.
Co-operation
Encouraging co-operation between DAE and other extension providers in terms of media
production of agricultural information.
15) Monitoring and Evaluation
Introduction
In extension, objectives are based on meeting farmers’ information needs. Success occurs
when objectives are met, and indicators are used to help determine the level of success.
Monitoring is the process of recording these indicators, while evaluation is analyzing the
recorded indicators and determining how to improve performance in the future. Using
monitoring and evaluation tools DAE is able to ensure that the implementation of extension
program follows their design and takes into account the interests of farmers.
Effective monitoring and evaluation should provide relevant and accurate information, to the
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 203
right people, at the right time, in the right format, to enable them to take timely decisions and
action. Decentralization provides local flexibility and freedom of choice, and monitoring and
evaluation helps staff make the right choices.
Monitoring and Evaluation in the Planning Process
In DAE monitoring is conducted during implementation and evaluation is usually conducted
after implementation. Monitoring comes first because without collecting information a valid
evaluation cannot be made. However, monitoring will only produce its full benefits if the
collected information is reviewed to learn lessons. This is evaluation. Information for
planning extension programs comes from both evaluation and farmer information needs
assessment - the absence of either source of information will lead to low quality planning.
In the planning process, monitoring and evaluation are tools to help managers in upzilas and
districts improve their performance. Extension monitoring and evaluation are self assessment
processes which should be carried out by upzila and district staff.
There are two kinds of monitoring and evaluation that are important in ensuring effective
extension services: assessment of outcome and assessment of process.
This chapter discusses assessment of DAE's successes in meeting the needs of farmers, and
shows the appropriateness of each District and Upzila's annual extension plan. This
assessment of outcome is accomplished through the review of SAAOs’ Diaries, the Seasonal
Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) and the Knowledge, Attitude, Practice (KAP) survey
system.
This chapter discusses assessment of the successes of Districts, Upzilas, and on an individual
basis of SAAOs, in achieving their work plans ie implementing their annual extension plan.
This assessment process is accomplished through the conduct of Technical Audits and the
Work Programming System.
SAAOs Diary
The SAAOs diary is one of the most important tools used in operating DAE's extension
approach, and can be used to support monitoring and evaluation. During the day to day work
of the SAAOs, the diary acts as a recording tool and should show what is done, with whom,
and what the response was. Farmer problems are recorded, farmers names listed, and farmers
reactions to participating in events are noted - especially in the case of individual farm visits.
The diary is an important source of detailed block level information about what is working
well, and why, and what is not working well and why.
The Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS)
The Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) is designed to help extension staff
record indicators of the performance of extension programs, and to summarize and interpret
this information in order to help make future planning decisions
Indicators Used in SEMS
The following primary indicators are included in SEMS.
Contact: How many farmers (male and female, large and small) attended extension events,
and what was the cost per farmer.
204 Bangladesh
Understanding: How many farmers who attended understood the ideas (technologies)
contained in the extension event, and what was the cost per farmer who understood.
Testing: How many of the farmers who attended think that they would try the ideas
(technologies) contained in the extension event and what was the cost per farmer who
intended to test?.
These are the primary indicators of the performance of extension programs. They should
occur in sequence based on the assumption that contact leads to understanding, which leads
to testing.
Decisions Made Using SEMS Indicators
Monitoring and evaluation helps to make better management decisions. The management
decisions which can be made with the help of SEMS are:
Technology Selection: What agricultural innovations should be included in extension
programs?
Method Selection: Which extension methods should be included in extension programs?
Area Selection: Which areas (specific upzila, districts or regions) should be supported or
supervised more closely.
SEMS should show which technologies are most or least successful, which extension
methods are the most or least successful, and which areas are running the most or least
successful extension programs. On the basis of the information, many decisions can be made
and actions taken to continually improve the extension service offered to farmers.
Listed below are some of the actions that can be taken to improve low performing
technologies, extension methods or areas.
Poor Technologies:
� adjust the technology, with help from research staff and the farmers who have tested;
� change the extension method - for example, use group training rather than result
demonstrations;
� improve the extension events - use better publicity, hold events at more suitable
times, use more appropriate venues;
� reduce the budget and resources for the technology in the next extension program.
Poor Methods:
� adjust the extension 'method;
� train staff to implement the method more effectively;
� reduce the number of events of this type in the next extension program;
� use the extension method in combination with other extension methods - for
example, add more field days to result demonstrations;
� delete the poor extension method from future extension programs.
Poor Area:
� organize extra training for the staff in this area;
� increase the frequency of supervision visits to this area, including the use of
Technical Audits;
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 205
� provide more advice on the selection of technologies and extension methods for
inclusion in programs;
� reduce the budget for this area, reducing the size of the program until performance
improves.
SEMS information about contact, understanding and testing also help improve the quality of
extension programs. Where contact, understanding or testing is low, the following actions
can be taken:
Low Contact:
� offer more interesting technologies;
� improve publicity to attract more farmers to events;
� hold events at appropriate times;
� review the selection of groups used for this activity;
� hold events in appropriate places.
Low Understanding:
� improve the way in which new ideas are presented - for example, use simple
language, visual aids, live specimens;
� train staff in implementing extension events;
� train staff in facilitation skills;
� use alternative extension events - for example, rather than Upzila Training Days, use
more village level group meetings.
Low Testing:
� improve the quality of extension events at which the particular technology is
discussed;
� adjust the technology, with the help of research staff and feedback from farmers, to
make it more appropriate to farmers needs and conditions.
The decisions that are taken will depend on the type of farmers involved. For example, when
changing the timing or location of extension· events, consideration should be given to
whether the target group are male or female, as they may have different preferences for
timing and venue. Decisions about corrective action can be made with the help of additional
items of information which are collected in SEMS - secondary indicators. A selection
includes:
Extension Methods:
� publicity effectiveness;
� timeliness of event;
� accessibility.
Technology:
� profitability, or cost-benefit analysis;
� risk;
� initial capital requirement;
� labour requirement.
206 Bangladesh
16) Conclusion and Recommendation
Agricultural Extension in SARRC countries faces challenging times in South Asia. Reforms
in public extension services are long overdue. Historically agricultural extension system as a
change engine plays a significant role in the development of agriculture in these countries.
There might be differences in agricultural extension system and administration not only
among the countries but also between region within the country. In view of increased
demand in agricultural production and stark reality of food crises, it is necessary that each
individual country becomes self reliant in agricultural production. In doing so, extension
system need to be revitalized. Learning from the regional development experiences gained
through agricultural extension management system over the past years may help carry the
process forward to remain successful and competitive in agricultural production and trade. It
is necessary to build knowledge based farming communities in the region. And in building a
knowledge-based farming communities require effective and efficient extension system.
Agricultural research system developed a treasure of agricultural technology over the last
half a century. These technologies can be utilized across boundaries with little effort
provided an effective and efficient management system is in place. SAARC countries can
develop effective and efficient extension system learning from each other. The needs and
interest of farmers knowledge and information on production technologies and market
competitiveness are changing fast. As a result of this paradigm shift in agriculture, the role of
extension has also changed. So, extension has to play more facilitation role .to educate
farmers so that they can help themselves in the fast changing environment.
Recommendation
1. In improving farming practices the basic task of extension is to provide facilities to help
farmers choose and try certain useful farming practices. Hence, the technologies have to
be put through field trials. The trail phase is needed because extension staff has to gain
experience and confidence and farmers also have to be made aware of the technologies.
2. Soil, water and biodiversity make up the natural resources base. In the past adequate
attention has not been given to their proper development, utilization and conservation as
part of a good farming practice. Now extension has a critical role to play in management
and conservation of natural farm resource.
3. Farming as a business is not known to most of the farmers. They need to learn quickly to
handle the investment and returns in farming more efficiently. They also need to be
made aware of marketing their produces.
4. Farming as a business is going to replace the family farming. Farming today is mostly
different from what it was about fifty years ago. So, farmers require better managerial
capabilities at present days in terms of farm resources, production planning, credit
requirement, input procurement, product handling and market operation.
5. A key element of the decentralized and demand led extension system would be the
mobilization, organization and capacity building of small and marginal producers into
Common Interest Groups (CIGS). Participating farmers would be facilitated to from
groups based on agricultural livelihood or some other common interest, eg, water use,
credit, marketing etc.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 207
i) 6 At the present days more farmers expects an extension out-reach to come to them. But,
the extension agencies have not proportionately grown. In the meanwhile, farming, being
highly dependent on externalities, needs a variety of inputs, services and support
facilities to make tenable. So, multi-agency extension coordinated work is necessary.
6. In response many more development players started working in the field. Hence,
agriculture-base development has become a shared responsibility among the public
agencies, including extension, local bodies, input and credit agencies, seed companies,
NGOs and other organizations. Of course, so far as agricultural development is
concerned, the extension agency will have to play a lead role.
7. Farmers need to be facilitated to have direct access to the institutional resources
available in terms of technologies, advice, inputs etc. for reducing technologies
dissemination losses and a mechanism in place for feedback and follow.
8. Research – Extension- Farmers Linkage: Linkage among research – extension and
farmers are generally weak and neither research nor extension was sufficiently conscious
of the need to understand the constrained and potentials of the different farming systems
as a basis for determining relevant technology and technology development requirement.
9. The revolution in information technology must benefit extension. The benefits could be
derived in many ways. Interactive electronic linkages may be established between
extension and relevant research or other institutes. The effort to apply information
technology should be started at locations where facilities are available. But the
information technology should not be considered as a replacement of human effort in
extension rather just as a supporting tool.
References
Agricultural extension manual, January 1999, Revision. Department of Agricultural
Extension, Khamarbari, Krishi Khamar Sarak, Farmgate, Dhaka.
Effective Communication Media for rural audiences, published in 1973. IARI, New Delhi
FAO’s Corporate Communication Policy and Strategy (2000). Available at:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x1200e/x1200e00.htm#p0_0
Proceeding of the regional workshop on research-extension linkages for effecti8ve delivery
of agricultural technologies in SAARC countries, SAARC Agricultural information
Center December 2006
Project Appraisal Document on a proposed credit for a National Agricultural Technology
Project, January 3, 2008
Strategic Plan, 1999-2002, Department of Agricultural Extension. DAE Khamarbari,
Farmgate, Dhaka
Strategic plan 2004-2006, Department of Agricultural Extension, DAE Khamerbari,
Farmgate, Dhaka
208 Bangladesh
National Agricultural Extension Systems in
Bhutan
Dr. Tashi Samdup and Dr. Kailash Pradhan Council for RNR Research of Bhutan (CoRRB)
Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Thimphu, Bhutan.
E-mail: tsamdup2001@moaf.gov.bt
Cell: 00975-17114221
Executive Summary
The Renewable Natural Resources (RNR) extension system in Bhutan is the means through
which the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests (MoAF) seeks to help farmers develop and
improve their livelihoods. The extension system comprises of frontline extension staffs
based in the Geogs (blocks) and Dzongkhags (Districts) and the institutional support
structure, including research and other knowledge and input centers.
With regards to the historic background of RNR extension activities in Bhutan, it is as old as
modern agricultural development. Initiated with the starting of the planned development
activities in 1961, extension services then was concentrated in and around the research and
demonstration farms. Extension services were responsible for introducing improved
technology and input supply.
A reformation and development strategy occurred with the initiation of decentralization
policy in early 80s, wherein extension activities were handed over to Dzongkhag while
MoAF was responsible for resource mobilization (financial and humans) and technical
support. The Ministry adopted the integrated concept in 7th plan whereby all the three
sectors- Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry was brought together to work hand in hand to
support the farmers’ need who depends on the interaction of these sectors for their
livelihood. Since then, the Ministry of Agriculture is known a Renewal Natural Resource
Sector or RNR sector. The Ministry of agriculture adopted draft National Extension Policy
(NEP) in 1995 which provided policy direction to RNR extension system.
There are several stakeholders/agencies involved directly or indirectly in the national RNR
extension system. At the national level three agencies viz- Ministry of Agriculture and
Forests (MoAF), Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs (MoHCA) and Gross National
Happiness (planning commission) (GNHC) play a vital role in the RNR sector development
interventions. The MoAF is the parent Ministry who has the overall responsibility for RNR
sector development and is directly accountable for all the technical matters including
extension services. The MoHCA through the Dzongkhag Administration and local
government development bodies Dzongkhag Yargay Tshongchung (DYT) and Geog Yargay
Tshongchung (GYT) implements the plan pogrammes. The GNHC supports the GYT and
DYT to plan development activities and monitor its implementation. Formally, National
RNR extension system has four levels: National, regional Dzongkhag and Geog.
The links between the Research x Extension x Farmers linkages are accorded high priority
by the government. It is through these mechanisms that the framers benefit and reap the
benefits of research technologies and interventions. Therefore a close collaboration between
research, extension and farmers exist wherein attempts are made to provide high quality and
timely RNR extension services to farmers. Linkages between the three are emphasized upon
since it is essential to obtain a holistic and systems analysis for research and development
priority settings. Linkages have been created through regional level research–extension
planning workshop, on-farm research programme and regular farm visit and interaction
between the three main stakeholders.
To analyse the benefits of any research and development interventions, the monitoring and
evaluation aspects are integral. The first level of extension programme monitoring is done by
Dzongkhag RNR sector and the geog administration based on the geog plans and the
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 211
progress report submitted by the geog staff. Beside, Dzongkhag administrations, concern
Departments, Extension Coordination Committee (ECC) also monitor extension activities on
regular basis. At the national level, the concerned Departments, Policy and Planning
Division of MoAF and the GNHC monitors and evaluate the progress and report it to the
government twice in a plan period. Such monitoring aspects off-late has been put in the
context of the Gross National Happiness agenda.
212 Bhutan
1. Introduction
Bhutan is a small landlocked eastern Himalayan country, bordered by China in the north and
India in the east, west and south. The geographic area of 38,394km is almost entirely
mountainous with the flat land limited to the broader river valleys. The elevation varies from
100 meters above sea level (masl) in the southern foothills to more than 7,500 masl in the
north. The population of Bhutan is close to 700000 and almost 70% reside in rural areas
(Population and Housing Census, 2005). Based on the national poverty line established at
Nu.1096.94 per month, 23.2% of Bhutan’s population is poor. Of this, 98.1% live in rural
area (NSB, 2007).
Agriculture in Bhutan has a dominant role in the economy of the country. Approximately
70% of the population of Bhutan is involved in agriculture. Agriculture sector (commonly
known as RNR sector) consisting of agriculture, livestock and forestry provide livelihood to
at least 66.6 percent of the population (NSB, 2007). Agriculture sector contributes 18.6% to
national GDP (10th FYP). Agriculture in Bhutan is characterized by its labor intensive nature
with relatively low intensity of farm inputs. Most of the farms in the country are small and
marginal.
The total cultivated agricultural land consists of 2.93%, out of that Kamzhing (dry land)
dominates with 61.90% followed by Chhuzhing (paddy land) with 27.86%. The horticulture
land constitutes of 10.24% i.e. Apple orchard (1.81%), Citrus orchard (4.52%), Areca nut
plantation (0.88%), Cardamom Plantation (3.02%) and others (0.01%) (NSSC, 2010)
The major mandate of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests (MoAF) is to enhance food –
self sufficiency, raise farm income and sustainable management of natural resources.
Agricultural development is constrained by poor irrigation structure, wild animal predation
on crops, rough terrain, poor soil quality, limited number of arable lands and rural –urban
migration.
1.1 Agriculture (RNR) Extension System
RNR extension services had played a very important role in whatever agriculture
development our farmers are enjoying. During the last 45 years of planned development,
agriculture has the maximum impact on improving rural livelihood in rural Bhutan (Planning
Commission 2007).
RNR Extension in Bhutan is the means through which the Ministry of Agriculture seeks to
help farmers develop and improve on their livelihood. It includes a wide range of services
from provision of production inputs, dissemination of improved production technologies and
management practices, communication and networking services to capacity building
activities. In keeping with the decentralization policy, extension system also assists local
government in planning and implementing development activities.
The extension system comprise of frontline extension staff based in the Geogs and
Dzongkhags and the institutional support structure, including research and other knowledge
and input centers. The frontline extension staffs have the day to day contact with the farmers,
and provide services and the institutions support structure for identification and adaptation of
technologies and other necessary inputs to the needs of the farmers.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 213
1.2 Historic background with chronological development of Agricultural extension activities
The agricultural (RNR) extension in Bhutan is as old as modern agricultural development. It
started with the establishment of the Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry in
1961 with the inception of 1st five year plans. Agricultural extension service has evolved in
relation to agricultural research systems under the assumption that research systems would
develop agricultural technologies, and extension systems would disseminate them to farmers
who are viewed as passive beneficiaries rather than clients, stakeholders, and active
participants.
The Department of Forest is the oldest department; it was established in 1952 with its head
quarter in Samtse which was later shifted to Thimphu in 1970s. Initially it was involved in
conservation of forest wealth and extraction of timber for export.
In the initial plan period, there was no clear statement on extension objectives pursued by the
Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry. Although extension service was
recognized to be further strengthened, there was no clear indication as how it could be done.
A review of plan documents showed that extension service delivery systems have gone
through number of transformation from centralized to regional, to area based to Dzongkhag
(District) and Geog (Block).
Initially extension services were concentrated in and around the research and demonstration
farms. In the subsequent plan periods efforts were made to expand the extension services to
cover all the Geogs in the country. By the beginning of 1980s, the whole country was
covered by extension network and extension activities were decentralized to the Dzongkhags
Extension activities were mainly aimed at promoting improved varieties of crops and
livestock breed and management practices. Efforts were made to increase the area under
fruits and vegetable, introduction of improved crop varieties, increase animal production and
improve livestock health.
During the 5th FYP, planning and implementation of developmental activities including
Agriculture and Animal Husbandry was decentralized to the Dzongkhag administration.
Development plans were prepared by DYT (Dzongkhag Yarkey Tshongchung or District
Development Committee) and central Departments used to provide technical support. It was
during this plan period that the deliveries of agricultural inputs were privatized and
distribution of credits taken out from the extension agents’ responsibilities. Decentralization
was further taken down to geog level in early 1990s with the establishment of GYT.
With the decentralization policy, the public participation became more pronounced. People
were actively involved in expressing their development and economic needs through GTY
(Geog Yarkey Tshogchung or Block Development committee) and DYT. People were also
involved in implementation of development activities such as irrigation channel, construction
of farm road, extension centres, transportation of inputs etc.
1.3 Establishment of extension institutions
Since the initiation of planned development, investment has been made to strengthen the
government institutions and improve the human resources. With the start of plan
development, Agricultural farms and research stations were established. Extension services
214 Bhutan
were built around these farms. Separate extension manpower was posted in the farm to
promote technologies in farmer’s field. More staff strength was placed in agriculture farms.
Extension staff strength in research stations was fewer in number. Later with the
commissioning of area development projects, extension services were attached to such
projects as well.
1.4 Reformation and development
The above institutional arrangement continued till the decentralization took place in 1980 or
the latter half of fourth plan (1976-1981). In the process of Agriculture development and
service deliveries, Agricultural institution went through various organization and
restructuring. Till the 2nd Five year plan, Departments were independent. During the 3
rd FYP,
Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry were brought under Ministry of
Development and Department of Forest was put under Ministry of Trade, Industries and
Forest. Ministry of Agriculture was established with the starting of 5th FYP in 1981 by
merging Department Agriculture and Animal Husbandry. Department of Forest was clubbed
under Ministry of Agriculture only from the starting of 6th FYP in 1987.
Major shifts in the Ministry of Agriculture took place during the 7th FYP, when the concept
of integrating crop, livestock and forest was adopted. Concept was adopted given the
dependents of farmers in crop, livestock and forests interaction for economic development.
Since then, the Ministry of Agriculture is known a Renewal Natural Resource sector or RNR
sector. The decentralization of extension program was further extended to the geogs during
this period.
Another milestones added to extension system was the i. establishment of Natural Resource
Training Institute (NRTI) which started diploma program in Agriculture, Livestock and
Forestry to build up the extension human resource and ii. The adoption of National
Extension Policy (NEP) in 1995.
During the 8th and 9
th FYP Ministry consolidated the concept of integration and various
organizational structuring was carried out to improve extension service delivery. Four RNR
Research centers were established with the placement of Extension Programme Officer to
link research and extension. At the end of the 9th Plan one more research centre was
established to cater the need of sub tropical research and development. College of Natural
Resources (CNR) the then NRTI started in-service undergraduate programme from February
2010 to upgrade the capacity of extension staff and meet the human resource requirement for
extension and research.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 215
The present organizational structure of Ministry of Agriculture and Forest Services (MoAFS) is as follows:
Fig. 1: MoAF Organogra
215
216 Bhutan
The Secretariat is supported by the Policy & Planning Division (PPD) and Administration
and Finance Division (AFD) discharging policy analysis, planning, administrative and
financial functions. The departments (DoA, DoL, DoFPS and DAMC) discharge technical
functions (Research and Development). The Non departmental agencies like National
Biodiversity Centre (NBC), Bhutan Agriculture and Food Regulatory Authority (BAFRA),
and Information and Communication Service (ICS) provide cross sectoral service and
support. Natural Resources Development Corporation Ltd. (NRDCL) and Food Corporation
of Bhutan (FCB) discharge commercial functions. The Council of RNR Research of Bhutan
(CoRRB) formulates RNR research policies and coordinate research programme within and
outside MoAF. The field programmes are implemented by the technical staff posted at
Dzongkhgas and Geogs. Central programmes (e.g. NSSC, NPPC) and regional establishment
(e.g. RLDC, RNR-RDC) under technical departments provides technical support to
Dzongkhag and Geog to deliver extension services. These central institutions also carry out
extension functions sometimes in collaboration with Dzongkhags and Geogs. In case of
forestry, functional divisions in addition to providing technical support to Dzongkhags and
Gewogs, provide technical support to territorial divisions, national parks and wildlife
sanctuaries implementing their programs as central programs. These agencies are also
responsible for law reinforcement.
1.5 Establishment of the National Agricultural Extension System (NAES)
As mentioned above, the Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry were established
in 1961 and the main objects were to facilitate input supplies and transfer of new
technologies to farmers to increase production.Till 4th FYP i.e. until early 80s, there was no
formal extension network to cover the whole country. Extension activities were centrally
controlled and implemented mainly through government research and production farms.
Country-wide Agriculture and Animal Husbandry development started only from 3rd FYP.
It was only with the initiation of decentralization process in 5th FYP, the agriculture and
animal husbandry activities were implemented through Dzongkhag administration covering
entire country.
Following the decentralization process, forestry development activities were also divided
into two groups. Those that implemented through community participation were designated
as Dzongkhag (extension) activities and handed over to Dzongkahg and all the rest were
identified as central programme. However, just after one year, in 1983 Forestry Dzongkhag
activities were re-centralized considering its technical nature and also due to conservation
mandate. It was only in 1994, Dzongkhag Forestry extension was re-decentralized and
Dzongkhag Forestry Officials and geog extension staff posted.
Extension structure at the Ministry and Department level evolved over the time with
different structure but the mandates always remained guided by the decentralization policy.
RNR extension system received policy direction with the adoption of RNR extension policy
in 1995.
2. Organization of NAES
2.1 Agencies involved in the Extension system
The technical agencies involved in providing extension service to the farmers are at four
levels: 1) Geog Extension Centre, 2) Dzongkhags Extension Service (DES), 3) Regional
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 217
RNR Research and Development Center and 4) The technical Departments programmes and
projects, which are at national and regional level. These programme and project provides
technical backstopping to Dzongkahg and Geog extension system. Further there is an
Extension Coordination Committee (ECC) at the MoAF, coordinated by CoRRB to
harmonize and sort out technical issues concerning RNR extension.
The Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and private entrepreneur are also involved in
promoting new RNR technologies to farming communities. The MoAF provides technical
support to these NGO’s and private entrepreneurs when ever required. The MOAF
encourages private entrepreneurs to promote RNR technologies at a commercial scale.
2.2 Organogram of NAES with major roles of each position of the organogram
Formally, National RNR extension system has four levels: National, Regional Dzongkhag
and Geog.
National level: The departments (DoA, DoL, DoFPS and DAMC) under the Ministry of
Agriculture and Forests are the national level agencies mandated with extension. Senior
officers are involved in coordinating field extension services.
Regional level: Regional RNR Research and Development Centers and other regional set-
up such as Regional Livestock Development Centers, farms do not have direct extension
mandate but supports Dzongkhag extension system with input supply and technical
backstopping.
Dzongkhag level: There are RNR heads (agriculture, Livestock and Forestry) at each of 20
Dzongkhags. In addition, there are veterinary hospitals in almost all the Dzongkhag to
support animal health.
Geog level: Most Geogs are staffed with an Extension Agent from Agriculture, Livestock
and Forestry though sometimes one RNR EA may cover two Gewogs.
While the RNR network at the village level is not mandatory as per government rules,
however, some voluntary extension organizations (farmers groups, NGOs, clubs, etc) are
involved in extension services at village level. The Organogram of the National Agriculture
Extension System (NAES) with major roles of different organizations are given below:
218 Bhutan
Figure 2: NAES, linkages and main responsibility of different agencies
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 219
2.3 Extension planning process
The planning of RNR development activities are basically done by Geog Yarkay
Tshokchung (GTY) and Dzongkhag Yarkay Tshokchung (DTY) in concurrence with RNR
sector development policy. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forests and Gross National
Happiness committee (GNHC) or Planning Commission facilitates the planning process at
different stages. At the Dzongkhag level, the Dzongkhag Planning Officer is entrusted with
overall responsibility to coordinate Geog and Dzongkhag plans.
From the 5th FYP till 8
th FYP, planning of extension programme was done by the Dzongkhag
RNR sector in consultation with the community and the Ministry’s policies and strategies.
But with the start of the 9th FYP it was decentralized to Geog administration (GYT). In the
present plan period (10FYP), planning at the geog including RNR extension programme
were done by the Geog administration.
Under the overall planning process of the Government as illustrated in Fig 2 below,
extension planning process for 10th FYP followed the following steps.
Figure 3: Illustration of RNR Sector Planning Progress
With the empowerment of the local government institutions, GYT and DYT play a vital role
in identifying the RNR sector development needs and priorities. Initial plans are prepared by
GYT which is represented by local leaders (Tshogpa) from different communities in the
220 Bhutan
geog. Local leaders present the development needs of the respective villages in the GYT for
consideration. GYT reviews the proposal and considering the technical feasibility and
government policy accept the proposal for inclusion in the plan. GYT is chaired by Gup
(village headman) and attended by Geog Administrative Officer and Tshogpa. Geog RNR
staff’s attend the GYT as an observer and provides information on RNR sector policy and
technological options. Once the plans are finalized by GYT, it is presented to DYT which is
chaired by Chairman (elected from among the gups) and attended by Dasho Dzongdag and
Dzongkhag sector heads. DYT after thorough review approves the plans submitted by the
GYT considering the budget ceiling provided to Dzongkhag. After finalizing the Dzogkhag
plan, it is send to GNHC (planning commission). Extension activities such as farmers
training, demonstration, study tour etc are all derived from the plans prepared by GYT and
DYT.
Besides Geog and Dzongkhags’ plans coordinated by GNHC, programme and project at
central and regional level under Ministry of Agriculture and Forests also develop extension
activities in consultation with communities and RNR field staff. Such activities are mainly
planned to achieve goals and mandates of the programme and project. Funding of such
activities is outside the budget ceiling allocated to Dzongkhag and often comes from project
and programme supported by donors and RGOB.
While the planning and implementation of the RNR extension activities are carried out by
the Dzongkhag and Geog administration, technical support are provide to the farmers by
Ministry of Agriculture and Forest through the extension network in Geog and Dzongkhag.
2.4 Coordination mechanism
Nationally four technical Departments are responsible for coordinating extension plans and
programmes at the Dzongkhag level. Each department has many functional divisions and
national programmes to support the districts extension activities. There are also regional
RNR research and development centre which partly coordinate research- extension
programme. There are five such regional centers and each center has extension unit to link
research extension activities. Besides, RNR-RDC, there are four Regional Livestock
Development Centre (RLDC) which provides technical backstopping to Dzogkhags and
Geogs, diagnosis and treatment of animal diseases especially in times of mass disease
outbreaks.
At the Dzongkhags level, there are three sector heads, responsible for Agriculture, Livestock
and Forestry extension. The major role of the District Extension System (DES) is to ensure
that the geog extension centre (GEC) is fully capable of fulfilling its mandate and will
provide technical back-stopping to the GES. DES has the following coordination functions
• Provides guidance for the development of annual RNR Extension programme for the
Geog and Dzongkhag.
• Coordinates to implement Dzongkhag-level activities in the field. Organize meeting
with the GEC to review and plan the field activities.
• Facilitates and mobilizes funds for RNR activities within the Dzongkhag.
• Collaborates with RNR related agencies in delivering effective extension services.
• Provides feedback to departments and relevant agencies carrying out monitoring and
evaluation of planned activities.
• Maintains vertical and horizontal communication linkage,
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 221
• Conducts monitoring and reporting of District extension programmes
• Support Local Governments in preparing development plans
Extension staffs at the GEC coordinate the planning and implementation of field activities
with the Geog Administration and concerned sector at the District level. Three sectors at the
geog level also plan the execution of field activities jointly so that there is minimum
disturbance to the farmers. As far as possible, activities such as farmers training, public
meetings, data collection are jointly organized.
The GEC provides feedbacks to service providers and government agencies in an attempt to
improve future services and also provides assistance to relevant agencies in conducting
priority RNR activities.
Extension Coordination Committee
To better coordinate the implementation of extension programme, Extension Coordination
Committee (ECC) is constituted at the national level. It is a cross sectoral committee and the
senior officers, assigned with extension service coordination functions, from each
department and agencies under Ministry of Agriculture and Forests are the members. The
ECC has overriding mandate to facilitate the coordination and integration of RNR extension
services amongst the various agencies of the MoAF. ECC is structurally based with Council
for RNR Research of Bhutan (CoRRB.) The Functions of ECC are as follows:
• Review and develop extension policy framework (strategy, approaches and
methodologies) to generate input for policy decisions.
• Ensure coordination on cross cutting extension themes e.g. extension guidelines and
approaches, social science and management related trainings and recommend
working modalities.
• Identify various extension issues among various agencies of MoAF and beyond.
• Promote and represent MoAF on forums such as conference, seminars on cross
cuttings themes, policies and strategies.
• Review and propose innovative integrated extension approaches to be adopted.
• Strengthen linkages between research and extension.
2.5 Decentralization of extension delivery system
The beginnings of the decentralization process can be traced back to 1981 (start of 5th FYP)
with the establishment of the Dzongkhag Yarkey Tshogchung (DYT) as a semi-
representative Dzongkhag development committee comprising of gups as head of a geog
(block) and chimis (national assembly representative) and establishment of GTY in 1991.
Current decentralization initiatives are part of a gradually evolving process of empowering
people to participate in planning and decision making in all aspects of local development.
The RNR staff posted in the Dzongkhag and Geogs are administratively under the
Dzongkhag administration.
Agricultural inputs like simple tools, fertilizers and seed/seedlings are decentralized and sold
through commission agents located at Dzongkhag and Geog level. However, sale of agro
chemical and large farm machineries such a power tiller tractors etc are centrally operated.
222 Bhutan
3. Governance
3.1 Institutional reforms and efficiency enhancement
The Ministry of Agriculture and Forests has evolved in the process of efficiency
enhancement in term of institutional reforms. Ministry has always been dynamic and
responsive to the development need and the changing situation. During the start of the plan
development in 1960s, three technical Departments were established. Initially, these
technical Departments were responsible for the development of respective sector.
In the process of institutional reform, quite many changes took place and mandates and
functions of the each department were changed. Once all the inputs supply of agriculture and
livestock were mandate of one department (DALSS) and similarly research and development
of the other. To a larger extent, mandate and functions of the Department of Forest and Park
Services has remained same besides research aspects. Until the recent restructuring the
research aspect of the entire three departments was with the Council for RNR Research of
Bhutan (CoRRB). Presently, three technical departments have again been mandated with all
the development and research of the own sector. In 2010, new department has been
established, Department of Agriculture Marketing and Cooperatives to encourage and
support commercialization of farming sector.
Beside changes at the Ministry level, there was changes/reorganization within the department
as well. Inline with the mandate and function given by the Ministry, division and units in the
department were created and restructured to enhance and support service delivery at the field
through extension service.
Extension system at the Dzongkhag and Geog level has not seen many changes but has been
strengthened constantly. There has been a steady improvement in enhancing extension
delivery. All 205 geogs have fully functional RNR centers. Old Agriculture and Animal
Husbandry extension centers have been upgraded to RNR extension centers with the
inclusion of forestry sector. On a pilot basis concept of one stop centre is also promoted, it
houses RNR centre, office of geog administration, and also sales and services of agricultural
inputs and machineries.
3.2 Public-Private-NGO partnership
RNR sector development and the extension services has been an exclusive mandate of
Ministry of Agriculture & Forestry or the government. Involvement of private sector has
remained minimal mainly limited to input supplies. But recently with the Government policy
of encouraging Public Private Partnership (PPP) more and more private and FDI investment
is coming in for commercial production and marketing. Some of the private FDI initiatives
are Bio –Bhutan, Coffee and Hazelnut, Dairy Development etc. Many more proposals are
under review with the Ministry. Involvement of NGO is also in the initial stage.
3.3 Accountability hierarchy
At the geog level Geog Administration headed by Gup and the RNR extension staff are
responsible for implementing and achieving the local plan target and over all RNR sector
development.
Dzongkhag Administration is accountable for the RNR sector development at the
Dzongkhag level. Dzongkhag RNR sectors heads has the responsibility of coordinating and
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 223
supporting geog extension activities. Dzongkhag Administration is also administratively
accountability for the RNR sector management.
Regional RNR centers such as Research and Development Centers, Regional Veterinary
Centre, Regional Agricultural Machinery Centre etc are also accountable for the support and
supply of required technology. At the same time development projects under the Department
and Ministry are also accountable for providing requires financial and support services.
Overall, accountability and responsibility of RNR sector development and extension services
lies with Ministry.
3.4 Leadership Development
Empowering local communities is an important development goal of the Royal Government
and in line with the government policy RNR sector also gives priority to develop local
leadership. One of the important mandates of the geog RNR extension services is to develop
a capacity of the local people to plan and manage their enterprises. This is done through
promotion of farmers group and cooperatives where the office bearers are train on group
management and leader ship development.
GNHC (planning commission) also provide regular training and workshop to local leaders in
planning and project management. International development partners like UNDP, SNV,
DANIDA, HELVETAS, FAO etc also support local leadership development initiatives of the
Bhutanese Government.
3.5 Management of information system
Extension information management is done at all level. Geog extension centre have the basic
information of geog such as land use, production and extension activities. They are also the
first hand information provider to other agencies. Sector head at the Dzongkhag level
maintain information of the Dzongkahg level.
At the national level, each technical department has Information Management Section (IMS)
which has a responsibility to collect, analyze and maintain information of the respective
sector. IMS conduct annual 10% (farming population) sample survey to gather information.
Policy and Planning Division (PPD) of the Ministry conduct RNR census every five year.
Last RNR census (2nd of such kind) was done in 2009. Beside Ministry of Agriculture and
Forests, National Statistical Bureau (NSB) also collect and manage RNR extension related
information.
4. Human resource development and capacity building
4.1 Involvement of academic and research institutions for HRD through curriculum development and implementation support
Most of the extension staff posted in the Geogs are trained in college of Natural Resources
(CNR) which is under the Royal University of Bhutan. Before inducting with RUB in June
2004, CNR was under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests. CNR so far has trained 1000
plus extension workers with diploma in Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry who are now
working in Geogs and Dzongkhags.
224 Bhutan
Curriculums for the diploma courses are develop in consultation with the Departments and
Agencies under the Ministry of agriculture and Forests. Researcher and scientist working in
research centers and central programmes are actively involved in teaching diploma students.
Research centre and programme also guide the diploma students during their field
attachment which is a part of the diploma programme. Recently, CNR has also started degree
programme for in-service diploma holders. Candidate with undergraduate degree in
agriculture, livestock and forestry from foreign countries also join extension system.
a. Area of perception, skill and capacity building
Programmes and projects under the Ministry provide training opportunities in-country and
abroad. Similarly international and bilateral development partners also offer training support
for the extension workers. Awareness on new and emerging technologies in the RNR sector
are imparted to extension staff through study visit, seminar etc.
4.2 Training of extension workers and farmers through public, NGO and private initiatives
(This part (below) was given in the text of the Country Report under ‘Area of perception,
skill and capacity building’. This seems to fit in better here which was not been covered in
the original text)
Regular training to enhance skill and knowledge of the extension staff are organized.
Programme and projects under the Ministry conducts such training in-country and aboard.
Similarly international and bilateral development partners also offers training support for the
extension. Awareness on new and emerging technologies in the RNR sector are also provide
to extension staff through study visit, seminar etc.
Involvement of NGO and private sector in training extension worker and farmers are
negligible. Recently with the establishment of NGOs, farmers and communities are getting
training and support from them. But in a broader scale, farmers training are an affair of an
extension system which is mainly funded by Government and development partners.
Research centers, central programems, CNR and Rural Development Trainning Centers
(RDTC) are actively involved in farmers training as resource person.
5. Research-Education Extension- Farmers linkages
5.1 Present linkage
A close collaboration between research and extension is vital in providing the high quality
RNR services to farmers. Given the diverse agro-ecological conditions of Bhutan, RNR
research recognizes that the research undertaken must be applied and adaptive research on
farmers need. Both extension and research must understand that they are the strong
components of the same system. At present there are number of forums and procedure which
works on strengthening the extension research linkage.
• Extension Coordination Committee (ECC):
At the National level, the Extension Coordination Committee is mandated to review research
and extension policy to generate to policy decisions. The directors and senior policy level
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 225
officers represent their department in the ECC. It is expected that this will increase the
efficiency of the information flow from research-extension-farmers and vice versa.
• Regional RNR planning and Coordination Workshop:
This is one of the important forums, where research and extension staffs meet each other
once a year. They discuss and exchange emerging and available technologies. Extension
agents provide the information on potential locations and interested farmers for on farm
trials. Such forum meets to review and plan through joint problem diagnosis, setting priority
and programming. As both research and development are under the same department, it is
expected that the coordinating planning and review exercise will be more oriented toward
national goal and targets. In recent years, this conference is renamed as national level annual
field crops, horticulture, livestock and forestry planning and coordination workshop.
• On farm research programme:
This is yet another means of linking research extension and farmer. An on farm research
programme helps to develops innovations consistent with farmer’s circumstances,
compatible with the actual farming system and corresponding to farmer’s goals and
preferences. These are drawn up in consultation between research and extension staff with
the participation of farmers. RNR Sector officers and Dzongkhag specialists participate in
planning, implementation and evaluation of on farm programmes and work closely with
farmers. Results are discussed at joint meetings with a view to develop future programmes
including its use in extension.
5.2 Emerging trends Proposed integration mechanism for improved linkages
• Collaborative professional activities:
Both research and extension can strengthen the linkages when they are involved in:
− Formal collaboration for on-farm trials, surveys and dissemination activities,
− Regular Joint visit,
− Informal sharing of tasks and responsibilities,
− Informal consultations,
− Periodic meetings,
• Communication approach:
Both researchers and extension can share their publications, audio materials, reports, success
stories. Experts from RNR-RDC many times are invited to be resource persons in the
training organized by extension agents. Some trainings and seminars are organized and
participated jointly.
• Resource sharing for joint activities:
Some resource for strengthening linkage can be placed at one e.g. at Dzongkhags for on farm
trials but funds could only be used jointly with research.
• Assigning coordinating responsibilities:
Formal assignment for specific focused programme or activities can be given to a certain
individual, groups, programme in the research or extension.
226 Bhutan
5.3 Institutional reforms for strengthening linkages
Recently, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests undertook restructuring whereby research
implementation mandate of CoRRB has been transferred to respective technical departments.
CoRRB is mandated to develop research policy and maintain its quality. This reform was
primarily put in place to strengthen research –extension linkages and collaboration. After
restructuring, research centers are also given the mandate of development and renamed as
Research and Development Centers.
6. Incentive Structure
6.1 Incentives structure: - Present status and Future outlook
Incentive for outstanding and excellent performance is encouraged at all levels. Incentives
are given in the form of cash awards, out of turn promotions, certificate of recognition and
training opportunities. Continuous under performance is dealt in appropriate ways. In
addition to the provision of the civil service rules, this could mean, delayed promotion,
limited training opportunities which could lead to disciplinary actions. The concerned
Dzongkhags and the Departments monitor the performance of the Extension staff. Cash
reward and recognition at present in done at the national level and only best few are
recognized.
This leads to discouragement for rest of the extension workforce. Recognition of extension
staff need to be decentralized and could be done at Dzongkhag level. More incentive
structure could be put in place so that more and more extension staff could be accommodated
to recognize there input.
6.2 Career advancement scheme
In line with the Position Classification System, extension staff is provided with opportunities
to improve his/her their professional qualification in order to enhance their career
opportunities. Priority is given to those, who have the potential and proven outstanding
performance and contribution. To this effect, the departments initiate proper training
identification and training need assessment to ensure proper and required impact (HR
committee). Based on the identification appropriate in-service training is made available.
The ex-country training is also decided on the training needs identification and the selection
is based on their performance.
HRM Division coordinates with the line departments and agencies based on the database the
selection of the candidates to ensure transparency, fairness and relevance. Development and
institutionalization of the Subject Matter Specialist (SMS) is pursued to strengthen the
capacity of the extension system. In country B.Sc in Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry has
been initiated since 2010. First batch of student with in-country B.Sc degree will come out in
December 2011.
Geog extension staff with diploma that enter the civil service in S-2 level can rise up to P-5
in the position classification system. Those with under graduate degree can go up to P-2
level. In the PCS, educational degree is one of the main factors for upward movement. PCS
however allows horizontal movement of staff at all level. Extension staff those with Master
degree and above can vertically move up to EX/ES –I which is equivalent to Secretary level.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 227
6.3 HR management
The Ministry of Agriculture and Forests at present have more than 3000 staffs (RNR 10th
Plan, 2009).These human resources are posted at different departments, divisions and
centers. The human resource management has become vital for the Ministry in order to make
the optimum use of its human resources. Almost half of this staffs strength is working at
Dzongkhags level. In the 10th FYP, the MoAF has proposed to increase its staff by 50
percent but at the same time around 300 existing staff will retire from their service.
Most geog are staffed with an extension staff each from Agriculture and Livestock. Recently,
forestry extension staff’s are also posted in the geog centre. Most of the extension staff at the
geog level have diploma from the College of Natural Resources (CNR). Sector head at the
Dzongkhag level mostly have undergraduate degree.
Recruitment, posting and transfer of extension staff are done by the Ministry but once they
are posted in the Dzongkhags and Geogs they are administratively under the Dzongkhag
administration. Although extension staff are technically responsible to the Ministry of
Agriculture and Forests their direct line of authority is through the Dasho Dzongdag (District
commissioner) who is an official within the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs. The day
to day engagement and incentives of extension staff are looked after by Dzongkhag
Administration. Dzongdags have authority and do control the availability of extension staff
for training and in some cases allocates them to other duties. At times, in the interest of the
public and the programme of the local government, Dzongdags recommend the Ministry to
retain or cancel the transfer of extension staff. Promotion of extension staff posted at geog
and Dzongkhag is handled by Dzongkhag authority till P-1 level.
7. Monitoring and Evaluation
7.1 Institutional review and Program review
The need to streamline and institute an effective system for monitoring and evaluation of
development plans in the country has been recognized for a long time. In response to this
need, Gross National Happiness Commission has developed the National Monitoring and
Evaluation System (NMES) as a standard system for monitoring and evaluating the
development plans by line Ministries, Agencies, Dzongkhags and Geogs.
Gross National Happiness Commission (GNHC) as the central coordinating agency for
development planning, monitoring and evaluation has developed a standardized monitoring
and evaluation system for efficient and effective undertaking of monitoring and evaluation of
development policies, programs and projects. The system has been developed in conformity
with the Good Governance Plus Report 2005.
At the Ministry level RNR–GNH committee is the highest body to monitor the progress of
the plan programme and project. It is chaired by Secretary and represented by head of the
departments and agencies.
7.2 Monitoring of extension program
The first level of extension programme monitoring is done by District RNR sector and the
geog administration based on the geog plans and the progress report submitted by the geog
staff. They participate in random sample survey for result monitoring.
228 Bhutan
Field activities are also monitored through regular visit by the Dzongkhag sector heads and
the official from the Department and Ministry. There is a quarterly reporting system whereby
Geog staff submit report on the progress made in a prescribed format to the Dzongkhag RNR
sector head. At the Dzongkhag level, report from the geogs are compiled and submitted to
planning officer who finally upload the report online using National Monitoring and
Evaluation system.
Beside, Dzongkhag administrations and Departments, Extension Coordination committee
(ECC) also monitor extension activities from time to time.
7.3 Follow-up of monitoring
Observation made during the monitoring and the follow-up activities are presented to GTY
and DYT which normally meets twice a year. Follow-up are also done during the quarterly
RNR meet at the Dzogkhag level and the field visit by sector heads and MoAF staff from
region and central agencies.
7.4 Evaluation and follow-up
At the government level or Ministry level programme are review or evaluated twice: once in
the middle of the plan period and the other at the end of the plan period. Evaluation of the
extension activities carried out by the central and regional programme/projects are evaluated
by the Departments and RNR –GNHC. However, during the government’s mid-term and
terminal evaluation, the Ministry has to present all the achievement along with the field
programme/activities implemented by the central programmes, dzongkahg and geogs.
8. Conclusion and recommendations
8.1 Conclusion
Currently the RNR sector contributes 18.6% to the national GDP. During the last 45 years of
planed development, agriculture has had the maximum impact on improving rural livelihood
in rural Bhutan. Considering the importance of RNR services to the rural agrarian
communities, there is a need to increase accessibility to such services. Presently, just above
90% of the farming communities have access to RNR services but only 40% of the
communities are within 1 hour of walking distance from the RNR service centre.
The extension services system in Bhutan is the fundamental building blocks for rural
development. The field staff’s posted in Geogs and Dzongkhag are responsible for educating
farmers and facilitate input supplies and services. They also help the local government in
developing plans and programmes.
Decentralization of agriculture development and extension system started from 5th FYP.
With the initiation of decentralization, programme planning and implementation were
handed over to local government. Gross National Happiness Committee (Planning
Commission) coordinates planning and M&E of all the development activities. Local
government under the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs has the responsibility of
implementing RNR development and extension activities. MoAF and its technical agencies
and programmes are responsible for technical backstopping and resource mobilization
including HR development.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 229
In view of the farmers’ dependence on crop, livestock and forest and their interactions,
Ministry of Agriculture and Forests adopted the concept of integration, since than Ministry
of Agriculture and Forests is better known as RNR sector. To promote the integrated
concept, programme planning and review of three sectors are jointly organized. Five regional
RNR – research and development centers are established to carry out research and maintain
research –extension farmers linkages. Council for RNR Research of Bhutan (CoRRB) and
four technical committees including Extension coordination Committee (ECC) under
CoRRB help and facilitate development of integrated RNR concept.
RNR extension system has always been an important component of Ministry of Agriculture
and Forests (MoAF) and will continue to be so. More than 50% of the human resources in
the Ministry is involved in extension service delivery directly. The National Extension
Policy was adopted in 1995 which gave extension system a legal policy directive. To fulfill
the increasing demand for extension personnel, College of Natural Resources (CNR) was
established in 1992. Till date more than 1000 extension personnel have passed out form the
college with diploma degree and they are actively working in the field. Recently CNR has
started a degree course; the first batch of graduate will pass out in December this year.
Despite the maximum impact, efficiency and effective extension service is still one of the
major obstacles in the development of agriculture in our context. There is a big scope for
enhancing extension service delivery professionally and administratively. Ministry of
Agriculture and Forests has always put maximum priority for extension services.
8.2 Recommendations
The following recommendations are made to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the
extension system and the overall improvement of the service delivery by the Ministry of
Agriculture and Forests through the extension systems:
i. Supporting decentralization of RNR extension to produce results
As per Local Government Act, 2007 the Dzongkhag and Geog level RNR extension service
is decentralized and it is under Local government administration. There will be increasing
trend to strengthen the power of elected officials. This is global trend and there are lot of
evidences that this move will make the extension participatory and demand driven.
Unless these important groups (LG officials) are oriented to RNR extension, the threat is
RNR development programme may be marginalized. Thus, the following measures may be
suggested:
• Provide training on decentralization approach, participatory extension, demand
driven approach, community based organization development, farmers group and
cooperatives development, bottom up planning, etc to the RNR extension staffs .
This will change the mindset of the EAs and will be easier to work under the
changed context of decentralization. Build the management capacity of the RNR
extension staff in the new areas e.g. like road and irrigation, community
development, local governance, etc
• Include a module on RNR extension in the training programme for the local
government officials or organize special orientation session on RNR extension. This
will help LG officials to see RNR extension not merely as “technology transformer”
(Technical wing) but an active player and contributor in local development.
230 Bhutan
ii. Creating conducive environment for RNR service providers (public, private and civil
society Institutions) in delivering extension service widely
In the past there were only government institutions providing extension service. But now,
several NGOs and civil societies are involved in providing the extension services. As such
MoAF need to develop policy guidance and coordination mechanism to encourage and
support private, NGOs and civil societies involve in extension service delivery. This will
save time and resource of the public agencies. A well structured pluralistic extension
planning and delivery mechanism will be in the interest of farmers, traders, NGOs and
government.
iii. Enhancing accessibility of farm inputs and information including credits:
Accessibility and availability of improved farm inputs have always been a concern for
farmers and the Ministry. In absence of required inputs and information, farmers are forced
to continue with the traditional practices. Extension staff in the geog is the main source of
information, but given the scattered and isolated distribution of farming communities getting
timely information is impossible.
As such, it high time that we utilize the ever influential ICT for information sharing between
farmers and extension service provider. National and Local print and broadcast media should
be encouraged to carry news and information of farming. Decentralization and privatization
of sales and service of farm inputs such as fertilizer, tools and machineries, planting material
need to be promoted with more favorable policies and resource support.
Another important input for farming is credit. Presently, there is only one bank which has the
mandate to support rural development. Availing credit on time has always been difficult and
fulfilling long formalities have further discouraged farmers from availing it. Many times, the
credit needs of the subsistence farmers are small and immediate, which are often met by
borrowing from local money lender at high interest rate. Therefore, MoAF and Government
should promote affordable and farmers’ friendly credit systems so that it facilitates adoption
of improved farming practices promoted through extension systems.
iv. Budget for extension staff:
In the present system, front line extension staff’s work as per the plans/programme given to
them by the local government. Their main aim is to fulfill the physical target rather than
creating impact. The present system does not provide any room or opportunity to be
innovative as they have no resources at their disposal. Moreover, their performance is judged
on the achievement of physical target than on innovative performance or impact. As such,
government should consider providing financial resources to extension staff posted in the
geogs so that they can be innovative and initiate activities suitable to their local working
environment. At the same time system should reward or recognize their innovation by means
of fast track promotion, training etc.
v. Enhancing moral and capacity Building of RNR Extension staff
The professionalization of the agricultural extension service and incentives for front-line
staff to live in remote areas will be a key to promote better services to the farmers. More
frequent trainings, especially on extension methodology and approaches should be given to
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 231
front line extension staff. At the same time, exposure to new and emerging technologies in
the RNR field should be made available to these staff.
9. References
Council for RNR Research of Bhutan, 2010. Draft Renewable Natural Resources Extension
Reference Manual, MoAF.
Dendup, T., D.M. Rai, and S. Rigyal. 2011. Understanding the challenges facing extension
gent working in RNR Extension.
GNHC, 2009. Local Development Planning Manual - Standards for annual planning at
Dzongkhag and Gewog level, Royal Government of Bhutan.
GNHC, 2011. Five Year Plan Documents (1st to 10
th) Available:
http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/five-year-plan/, Royal Government of Bhutan.
Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, MoAF). 2010. RNR Census 2009, MoAF.
Ministry of Agriculture, 1995. Technical Annex to The National Extension Policy, Royal
Government of Bhutan.
National Soil Service Centre, 2010. Bhutan Land Cover Assessment (LCMP), DoA, MoAF.
National Statistical Bureau,. 2005. Population and Housing Census Royal Government of
Bhutan.
National Statistical Bureau, 2007. Bhutan Living Standard Survey Royal Government of
Bhutan.
National Statistical Bureau, 2007. Poverty analysis report Royal Government of Bhutan.
Planning Commission, 2007. Rapid Impact Assessment of Rural Development. Royal
Government of Bhutan.
232 Bhutan
National Agricultural Extension Systems in
India
Dr. V. VenkatasubramanianAssistant Director General (Agricultural Extension)
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India
E-mail: vvsmn@yahoo.com, adgaex@yahoo.com
Cell: 0091-11-25843279
and
Prof. Dr. Ramesh ChandDirector, NCAP
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India
E-mail: rc@ncap.res.in, director@ncap.res.in
Cell: 0091-11-25842684
Executive Summary
In India, organized extension came into being in the year 1952 with the launching of
Community Development Programme followed by National Extension Service in 1953.
Earlier extension programs in sixties focused on creating conducive environment for
production by arranging inputs and demonstration–input intensive agriculture that too for
major food grain crops in high yield potential areas. The involvement of ICAR in extension
started with the formulation and implementation of several front line extension programmes.
The Directorate of Extension/Extension Division is the nodal agency in the Department of
Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture for agricultural extension programmes.
National Agricultural Extension System in the country is now being organised under the
Department of Agriculture, Govt of India and operationalised through Directorate of
Extension at the national level, extension wing of state department of agriculture, animal
husbandry and fisheries, at state level. The district level agencies like ATMAs and KVKs
help in implementing the extension and technology application programmes benefiting the
farming community. There are many extension service providers in the field, providing
different kinds of useful services like information and service support to farmers. They are
state, central government agencies, agribusiness companies, agri-preneurs, input dealers,
manufacturing firms, NGOs, farmers organisations and progressive farmers
Under the extension reforms, emphasis is given for decentralising the technology delivery
system through the involvement of farmers and farmer organisations. The organisation of
farmer interest groups, commodity interest groups, farm schools and self help groups at grass
root level mainly aims at the decentralisation of the extension delivery system through
making the users as the responsibility centres in deciding their technological options, their
dissemination and adoption.
The human resource management in the extension is governed by the well structured
provisions of in service trainings, short, medium and long duration trainings. Presently, the
vacant posts are about 32 percent and efforts are made to fill up these posts during the XII
plan period. Lack of quality manpower dedicated to the cause of agricultural development is
a serious constraint and challenge encountered by the system. Agricultural extension should
be on agri-business extension mode and this is possible only if the system recruits personnel
who can bring in different kinds of expertise. For instance expertise related to cutting edge
technologies, organizational development, market development, legal issues related to farmer
rights, IPR etc are crucial for extension. This would also involve some de-learning of its
conventional technology dissemination approach and learning new ways of doing things.
Extension is weak in animal husbandry and fisheries sectors and this would need
considerable strengthening. Strengthening of national and regional level training facilities for
continuous skill up gradation of extension professionals is to be taken up immediately.
Assessment of the quality of extension personnel is a must and a national level mission mode
approach is needed in this regard.
Several organization implement extension programmes with very little coordination.
Establishment of national extension agency/board (NEA) can potentially bring about much
needed integration for objective planning and delivery of programmes. Integration of
extension activities at the district level also needs policy support. Several initiatives that
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 235
were successful at the pilot stage had failed when external support was withdrawn. Another
major constraint is the declining financial support for extension. Enhanced funding is crucial
for improving the ability of extension to deal with the complex challenges faced by it. It also
needs crucial research back up on new approaches, methodologies and management tools
and techniques relevant for different situations.
Among other things, (i) enhanced funding, (ii) strengthening extension research and
education, (iii) creation of a national extension authority, (iv) developing technology
inventory and methodology modules, (v) developing strategies to improve sustainability of
pilot initiatives, (vi) Farming System Approach in Extension along with district resource
mapping and planning, (vii) networking and partnership approach, (viii) inclusion of newer
concept and methodologies, (ix) Creation of national and regional level knowledge
management system for continuous technology and methodology backstopping and (x)
Resource and market led approaches for sustainability are the most important areas to be
focused upon for developing a frame work for technology development and delivery system.
236 India
1. Introduction
The National Agricultural System was evolved in India with an establishment of agricultural
department at the Imperial and Provincial governments before Independence. Realizing the
Country’s technological needs, the Pusa Research Institute was established at Pusa (Bihar) in
1903. The Royal Commission on Agriculture (RCA) was appointed in 1926 to examine and
report on the condition of agricultural and rural economy in India and to make
recommendations for the improvement of agriculture and the promotion of the welfare and
prosperity of rural people. The RCA, 1926 has made valuable recommendations which
formed the basis of a coordinated research and effective agricultural administration. One of
the important recommendations of the RCA was the creation of Imperial Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR), which was set up in 1929.
The British Administration has formed several committees to understand the features of
livestock farming system and ways for its development. Among the various committees and
their reports, the reports submitted by the Royal Commission on Agriculture (RCA) and W.
A. Burns report on the Technological Possibilities of Agricultural Development in India
(1944) are considered as significant. However, the pre-independence attempts on agricultural
development were limited in scale and geographical coverage. These attempts did not have
any follow-up action and lack specificity in terms of programme planning and
implementation. The above constraints in the agricultural development have been done away
through the introduction of planning in the post-independence period which is emphasized
by a systematic and intensive approach.
1(i). Historical background with chronological development of agricultural
extension activities in the country
In India, organized extension came into being in the year 1952 with the launching of
Community Development Programme followed by National Extension Service in 1953.
Education and research studies began in 1955 with the initiation of Post Graduation
Programme in Agricultural Extension Education in Agricultural College, Sabour, Bihar. The
early extension efforts had two distinct patterns. First, there were attempts by some
benevolent persons and private agencies to improve rural life. Second, attempts were made at
the Government level to initiate some projects to solve the pressing problems in agriculture.
The attempts made by the individual persons and private agencies are Gurgaon project in
Haryana by Mr. F.L. Brayne; Sriniketan Experiment in Bengal by Sri Rabindra Nath Tagore;
Servants’ of India Society, Pune, in Tamilnadu, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh; Sir
Daniel Hamilton’s Scheme of Rural Reconstruction at Sundarban in Bengal; Rural
Reconstruction Work by Christian Missions through Allahabad Agricultural Institute: The
Christian College, Nagpur; Marthandam project by Dr. Spencer Hatch under the auspices of
YMCA; Sevagram experiment in Wardha by Mahatma Gandhi; Adarsh Seva Sangh, Pohri,
Gwalior, Indian Village Service in Lucknow and Etwah in Uttar Pradesh by Mr. A.T.
Mosher and Sri B.N. Gupta and Sarvoday Programme in Bombay Province.
Among the above attempts, significant extension initiatives during pre-independence were
Gandhian Experiment in Rural Reconstruction (1920), Sri Niketan Project (1921),
Marthandam Project (1921), Gurgaon Project (1927), Rural Reconstruction Movement
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 237
(1932), Indian Village Upliftment Scheme (1944) and Nilokheri Project and Grow More
Food Campaign (1947).
Post-independence initiatives include Etawah Pilot Project and Sarvodya Programme (1948).
However, food crisis experienced in the country, in late 1950s refocused the efforts of
extension on food security and increasing food production in the form of Community
Development Programme (1952); National Extension Service (1953) and Intensive
Agricultural Development Programme (1960).
Earlier extension programs in sixties focused on creating conducive environment for
production by arranging inputs and demonstration–input intensive agriculture that too for
major food grain crops in high yield potential areas. The Intensive Agriculture Area
Programme (1964) and National Demonstration Project (NDP) was initiated in 1964-65 to
demonstrate the technology package on major crops; High Yielding Varieties Programme
with combination of Green Revolution technology in the late 1960s and single line of
command Training &Visit System in the mid 1970s enabled India to achieve food self-
sufficiency..
The post independent extension education and development programmes launched by
Government of India can be generally grouped into five categories. They are:
1. Community development programmes
2. Programmes for technology development
3. Programmes for development with social justice
4. Frontline extension programmes of ICAR
5. Agricultural Research and development programmes by ICAR and Govt. of India.
All these programmes, though not attempted towards development of agricultural extension
but definitely aimed at improving production and productivity which ultimately helped in
obtaining more income and livelihood security. But all the programmes followed extension
approaches to reach its clients and target groups to provide them with education,
information, knowledge, skills, understanding and other related matters so as to empower
them in accomplishing their goal of economic up liftment.
Today, both field extension and extension education are going side by side, helping each
other to reach farming community more effectively by translating research findings into
action through extension and building capacity among the farmers in their farming
endeavour. The self sufficiency in food production and the success of green revolution in
India definitely a testimony for the effective extension service launched in the mid 20th
Century and will be continuing with the larger dimension and strategy orientation
considering change in global agricultural scenario.
Frontline Extension Programmes: The involvement of ICAR in extension started with the
formulation and implementation of several front line extension programmes such as National
Demonstration (1966), Operational Research Project (1972), Krishi Vigyan Kendra (1974),
Lab to Land Programme (1979), Frontline Demonstrations and Technology Assessment and
Refinement (TAR) - Institution Village Linkage Programme (IVLP), National Agricultural
Technology Project (NATP), Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA),
National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) and Horticultural Mission.
The frontline extension programmes of ICAR were designed to organize the demonstrations
by scientists to show the production potentiality of modern agricultural technologies to
238 India
identify its location specificity in the farmers’ field. The ICAR took up Operational Research
Project (ORP) in 1975 to identify technological as well as socio-economic constraints and to
formulate and implement the problem solving technology modules on area/watershed/target
group basis in an operational area. On the eve of Golden Jubilee Celebrations, ICAR
launched Lab-to-Land Programme (1979) to transfer low cost technologies in agriculture and
allied enterprises. As part of Technology Mission on oilseeds and pulses, the Council started
frontline demonstrations in 1990-91. The ICAR piloted under AP-Cess Fund Scheme an
innovative approach for Technology Assessment and Refinement through Institution-Village
Linkage Programme (TAR-IVLP) in 1995 which was further implemented as a program
under NATP. A brief about the selected extension programmes launched by ICAR is given
here under.
National Demonstration Project (NDP) was implemented during the year 1965 to
demonstrate the production potentialities of technology package on major crops to fully
exploit these demonstrations for the purpose of training the farmers’ and extension workers.
Further, it provided the scientists feedback of the problems faced by the farmers with respect
to adoption of new technologies.
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) was initiated during 1974 for providing vocational training
through work experience to the farmers and extension personnel. The KVK is an institutional
approach to understand technology assessment through On-farm-testing and Frontline
demonstration and technology dissemination through training and extension. The KVK is a
need based, skill based vocational training institute. It is comprehensive in its activities, farm
based support, inbuilt research extension linkage, participatory management,
multidisciplinary team of scientists and mechanism for both feedback and feed forward.
Operational Research Project (ORP) was initiated in 1975 to identify technological as
well as socio-economic constraints and to formulate and implement a combination of
technology modules on area/watershed/target group basis. The performance of the new
technology is to be tested on farmers’ fields at operational level under the existing resources
and socio-economic and cultural conditions to address the common agricultural problems
affecting the existing farm production system on community basis.
Lab to Land programme (LLP) was implemented in 1979, by ICAR as a part of its Golden
Jubilee celebrations. The aim of the programme is to assist the selected farm families for
improving their farming systems and thereby generating more employment and income. The
basic idea is to bring the scientists and farmers into a common forum and to introduce
appropriate technologies facilitating the diversification of labour-use and creating
supplementary sources of income in the fields of agriculture and allied enterprises.
Technology Assessment and Refinement (TAR)- Institution Village Linkage
Programme (IVLP). In 1995, the ICAR launched this innovative programme and the
objectives are to:
i) introduce technological interventions with emphasis on stability and sustainability
along with productivity of small-farm production systems;
ii) introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to sustain technological
interventions and their integration to maintain productivity and profitability taking
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 239
environmental issues into consideration in a comparatively well defined farm
production system;
iii) introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to increase the agricultural
productivity with marketable surplus in commercial on and off farm production system;
iv) facilitate adoption of appropriate post harvest technologies for conservation and on-
farm value addition of agricultural products, by-products and waste for greater
economic dividend and national priorities;
v) facilitate adoption of appropriate technologies for removal of drudgery, increased
efficiency and higher income of farm women;
vi) monitor socio-economic impact of the technological intervention for different farm
production systems;
vii) identify extrapolation domains for new technology/technology modules based on
environmental characterization at meso and mega level.
National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP): The National Agricultural
Technology Project was launched by the “Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
on June 30, 1998, with the support of the World Bank, to strengthen and complement the
existing resources and to augment the output of the National Agricultural Research System
(NARS). The NATP implemented its objectives through Strategies for Organization and
Management Reforms and Research. The Research comprised various modes of objective-
based funding, namely, Teams of Excellence (ToE), Mission Mode (MM), Production
Systems Research (PSR), Institution Village Linking Programme (IVLP) and Competitive
Grants Programme (CGP). Another important component which was funded under NATP
was Innovations in Technology Disseminations (ITD). Projects under ITD were executed by
the Department of Agriculture and Co-operation (DAC), Government of India, and the
ICAR. Production Systems Research (PSR) mode of funding divided Agro-ecological-Zones
into five sub-modes, namely, Rain-fed, Irrigated, Arid, Coastal, and Hill & Mountain. All
five sub-modes were recognized as respective Agro-ecosystem Directorates and were
empowered to source funds and administer & monitor the progress of the projects.
NATP Glimpses: NATP was the world's biggest World Bank assisted agriculture project
worth Rs. 992 crores developed and executed by NARS. NATP lifespan was seven years,
from 1998 to 2005. NATP was the first project in NARS to shift the focus from discipline
oriented research to production system research.NATP was the first project in NARS to
involve competitive funding, & have pluralistic approach to involve and fund partners from
outside NARS. NATP successfully completed a whopping total of 852 projects
National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP): The National Agricultural Innovation
Project was launched in the year 2007 by ICAR. The overall objective of NAIP is to
facilitate the accelerated and sustainable transformation of Indian agriculture in support of
poverty alleviation and income generation through collaborative development and
application of agricultural innovations by the public organizations in partnership with
farmers groups, the private sector and other stakeholders. The specific objectives are to:
a) build the critical capacity of the ICAR as a catalyzing agent for management of change
of the Indian NARS,
b) promote production to consumption systems research in priority areas/themes to enhance
productivity, nutrition, profitability, income and employment,
240 India
c) improve livelihood security of rural people living in selected disadvantaged regions
through innovation systems led by technology and encompassing the wider process of
social and economic change covering all stakeholders, and
d) build capacity and undertake basic and strategic research in strategic areas to meet
technology development challenges in the immediate and predictable future.
National Agriculture Development Programme (NADP) or Rashtriya Krishi Vikas
Yojana (RKVY): Concerned by the slow growth in the Agriculture and allied sectors, the
National Development Council (NDC), resolved in 2007 that a special Additional Central
Assistance Scheme (RKVY) be launched. The NDC resolved that agricultural development
strategies must be reoriented to meet the needs of farmers and called upon the Central and
State governments to evolve a strategy to rejuvenate agriculture. The NDC reaffirmed its
commitment to achieve four percent annual growth in the agricultural sector during the XI
Plan.
Basic Features of the RKVY: The RKVY aims at achieving 4% annual growth in the
Agriculture sector during the XI Plan period, by ensuring a holistic development of
Agriculture and allied sectors. The main objectives of the scheme are to:
1. incentivise the states so as to increase public investment in Agriculture and allied
sectors;
2. provide flexibility and autonomy to states in the process of planning and executing
agriculture and allied sectors schemes;
3. ensure the preparation of Agriculture plans of the districts and the states based on Agro-
Climate conditions, availability of technology and natural resources;
4. ensure that the local needs/crops/priorities are better reflected in the Agricultural plans of
the states;
5. achieve the goal of reducing the yield gaps in important crops, through focused
interventions;
6. maximize returns to the farmers in Agriculture and allied sectors;
7. bring about quantifiable changes in the production and productivity of various
components of Agriculture and allied sectors by addressing them in a holistic manner;
These guidelines are applicable to all the states and Union Territories that fulfill the
eligibility conditions.
The lists of programmes implemented under these five categories are given in Table 1.
Table 1: List of Extension/Development Programmes implemented in India
Community Development
1952 CDP Community Development Programme
1953 NES National Extension Service
1954 CDB Community Development Block
1957 Panchayati Raj Democratic Decentralization
Technological Development 1960 IADP Intensive Agricultural District Programme
1964 IAAP Intensive Agricultural Area Programme
1964-65 ICDP Intensive Cattle Development Project
1966 HYVP High Yielding Variety Programme
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 241
Development with Social Justice
1970-71 SFDA Small Farmers’ Development Agency
MFAL Marginal Farmers’ and Agricultural Labourers Programme
DPAP Drought Prone Area Programme
1972-73 PPTD Pilot Project for Tribal Development
1974 T&V Training and Visit Programme
1978-79 IRDP Integrated Rural Development Programme
1979 TRYSEM Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment
1980 NREP National Rural Employment Programme
1982 DWCRA Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas
1983 NAEP National Agricultural Extension Project
1986 TMO Technology Mission on Oilseeds
1989 JRY Jawahar Rozgar Yojana
1993 EAS Employment Assurance Scheme
1994 SFAC Small Farmers Agri Business Consortium
1999 SGSY Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
ICAR Frontline Extension Programmes
1965 NDP National Demonstration Project
1974 KVK Krishi Vigyan Kendra
1975 ORP Operational Research Project
1979 LLP Lab to Land Programme
1995 TAR-IVLP Technology Assessment and Refinement – Institute
Village Linkage Programme
Agricultural Research and Development Programme
1979 NARP National Agricultural Research Project
1989 TMDD Technology Mission on Dairy Development
1998 NATP National Agricultural Technology Project
2007 NAIP National Agricultural Innovation Project
2008 NADP National Agriculture Development
Programme/Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY)
1(ii). Establishment of extension institutions
Extension education as a discipline started from late in 1900 AD in Agricultural extension in
India has undergone several changes over the last six decades, in terms of activities,
organizational types and available manpower. A brief about the important institutional
arrangements for agricultural extension in India are given here under:
Directorate of Extension: The Directorate of Extension was set up in 1958 in the wake of
launching of Community Development Programmes and National Extension Service
throughout the country in 1953. Apart from functions of dissemination of specific knowledge
to farmers and supervision of the countrywide extension training infrastructure, Directorate
of Extension was also later called upon to implement National Programmes like Intensive
Agricultural District Programme (IADP) and Intensive Agricultural Areas Programmes
(IAAP). Since 1974 the emphasis was shifted to T &V system of Extension, which was
introduced in 17 major states.
242 India
The Directorate of Extension is the nodal agency in the Department of Agriculture and
Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture for agricultural extension programmes. It assists and
encourages the State Departments in organising, maintaining and operating professional
extension services. The role of Extension Division/Directorate of Extension is essentially
collaborative, providing guidance, technical support to the Extension Division.
The Extension Division is headed by Joint Secretary (Extension)-cum-Extension
Commissioner who is assisted by an additional commissioner and the three Joint
Commissioners. The Directorate of Extension is a subordinate office, provides technical
support to the Extension Division. The four principal functional areas of the Directorate of
Extension are, Extension Management, Extension Training, Farm Information and Farm
Women Development. The Directorate of Extension has five units i.e. four units
corresponding to those functional areas and the fourth one is Administration Unit.
The Training Unit of Directorate of Extension regularly assess the training needs at the
national level and provides technical support to State Departments and training institutions to
follow a systematic approach for quality improvement in the delivery of training
programmes. The national level training schedule for the Model Training Courses and four
Extension Education Institutes are developed at national level and State Department officials
are sensitized to develop a perspective State training plan. The set of formats has been
developed and standardized for the evaluation/impact assessment of training programmes.
In order to re-orient and develop an effective training strategy, the Directorate of Extension
acts as a nodal agency at the national level to strengthen agricultural extension services and
net-working of training infrastructure in the country.
Extension Education Institutes (EEIs): Since 1952 changes and modification in extension
organization have been brought about to meet the needs of that particular time. However,
training of extension personnel continue to be an integral part of the extension system. Four
Extension Education Institutes have been established on regional basis to meet the training
requirement in the field of Communication Technology, Extension Methodology, Training
Management, Participatory Rural Appraisal Techniques (PRAT), Mgt. of Agricultural
Information System, etc. to middle level extension functionaries of States and UTs as well.
EEIs provide training in different subject matter areas as also cater to the varying training
needs of extension managers, marketing managers and extension functionaries of State
Deptt. of Agriculture and other line departments on a continuing basis. Details of about the
Extension Education Institutes are given here under:
S.
No.
EEI No. of
States
States Covered
1. Nilokheri,
Haryana,(1958)
10 Haryana, Punjab, H.P., J&K, U.P., Bihar, Delhi,
Chandigarh, Uttrakhand and Jharkhand
2. Hyderabad, AP
(1962)
8 A.P., Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa,
Anadaman & Nicobar, Pudicherry & Lakshdweep.
3. Anand(Gujarat)
(1962)
8 Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Goa, Dadar Nagar & Haveli, Daman and Diu and
Chattisgarh.
4. Jorhat, Assam
(1987)
9 Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya,
Manipur, Tripura, Sikkim, Mizoram and West Bengal.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 243
National institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE): MANAGE was
established in 1987, as the National Centre for Management of Agricultural Extension at
Hyderabad, by the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India as an autonomous Institute,
from which its acronym ‘MANAGE’ is derived. In recognition of its importance and
expansion of activities all over the country, its status was elevated to that of a National
Institute in 1992 and re-christened to its present name i.e., National Institute of Agricultural
Extension Management. MANAGE is the Indian response to challenges of agricultural
extension in a rapidly growing and diverse agriculture sector. The policies of liberalization
and globalization of the economy and the level of agricultural technology becoming more
sophisticated and complex, called for major initiatives towards reorientation and
modernization of the agricultural extension system. Effective ways of managing the
extension system needed to be evolved and extension organizations enabled to transform the
existing set up through professional guidance and training of critical manpower. MANAGE
is the response to this imperative need and it offers various Professional Services in the
following five streams viz., Management Training, Consultancy, Management Education,
Research and Information Services
Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs): Further, upon the hallmark recommendation of Mohan
Singh Mehta committee constituted by ICAR, in the year 1973, country witnessed a different
kind of experimentation which was mandated to impart vocational training in agriculture
with the establishment of first Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) means Farm Science Centre at
Pudducherry in 1974. As the KVKs continued to gain strength and spread, its mandate also
changed with time in order to meet the changing needs and challenges. From vocational
training, focus shifted to testing and demonstration of technologies during 1990s; to
technology assessment and refinement in X Plan (2002-2007) and in 2009 of XI Plan as
'Knowledge and Resource Centre' of agricultural technology. Therefore, the KVKs are
involved in the application of science and technology of agriculture in the field. At present,
the core activities of KVKs are:
• On-farm testing to identify the location specificity of agricultural technologies
under various farming systems,
• Frontline demonstration to establish the production potential of improved
agricultural technologies on the farmers fields,
• Training of farmers to update their knowledge and skills in various aspects of
agriculture, training of extension personnel to orient them in the frontier areas of
technology development,
• Work as Knowledge and Resource Centre of agricultural technology for supporting
initiatives of public, private and voluntary sector for improving agricultural economy
of the district.
The journey of KVKs has been remarkable enabling its existence in 588 districts till date,
2010. By end of XI plan, establishment of 667 KVKs is envisaged.
Agricultural Technology Information Centres (ATICS): Interestingly, farmers needs
irrespective of their locations and farming practices are not realized by the existing transfer
of technology projects. Hence a new and innovative transfer of technology mechanism
named, Agricultural Technology Information Centre (ATIC) has been conceived and put into
practice since 1998-99 under National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) sponsored
244 India
by World Bank and implemented through ICAR Institutes and State Agricultural
Universities (SAUs) located in various parts of the country.
The Council has established 44 Agricultural Technology Information Centres (ATIC) in 16
ICAR Institutes and 28 State Agricultural Universities to work as ‘Single Window’ support
system for linking the various units of research institution with intermediary users and
farmers in decision making and problem solving exercise though supply of technology
inputs, products, information and advisory under Innovations in Technology Dissemination
(ITD) component of National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP), which was funded
by World Bank.
Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA): In the case of public sector
extension, the major reform in recent years has been the establishment of a district level
coordinating agency, the ATMA, in 24 pilot districts across with the World Bank support.
Under ATMA, grass root level extension is mainly channelized through the involvement of
Block level Technology Teams and Farmer advisory committees, farmer groups/ farmer
interest groups and self help groups. ATMA is a district level autonomous agency entrusted
with the role of agricultural technology management in the district.
ATMA is a registered society of key stakeholders in agricultural activities responsible for
technology dissemination for sustainable agricultural development in the district. It is a focal
point for integrating research and extension activities and decentralising day to day
management of the public Agricultural Technology System (ATS).
The ATMA at district level would be increasingly responsible for all the technology
dissemination activities in the district. It establishes linkages with all the line departments,
research organisations, NGOs and agencies associated with agricultural development in the
district. ATMA management committee comprises of the Project Director of ATMA as the
Chairman and members are drawn from line department heads, NGOs and farmers’
organization. The management committee carries out PRA, Strategic Research Extension
Plan for the district, establishes Farmer Advisory Centres and co-ordinates the execution of
annual work plan through participatory line departments such as ZRSs, KVKs, NGOs,
FIGs/FOs and allied institutions. The ATMA creates Farmers Advisory Committees to
provide feedback.
SREP (Strategic Research and Extension Plan): It is the process of finding the best
scenario for agricultural development and setting the best path to reach that destination by
rigorous analysis and choices about goals, opportunities and threats, strengths and
weaknesses with respect to agricultural development in a district.
• Goals-what is intended to be accomplished?
• Opportunities and threats- what is needed and feasible?
• Strengths and weaknesses-what is the capability of doing things?
SREP document provides the details of problems and technological needs for agricultural
development in a district. Basic aim of SREP is to link the research and extension system
with the farmers. It is a bottom up approach exercise carried out at the district level to
identify the technological and training needs of the farmers. It speaks about extension and
research priorities to be undertaken by the extension and research system based on the grass
root analysis carried out by the SREP team. It is a comprehensive document prepared for the
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 245
purpose of understanding the district agricultural scenario and to undertake need based
research and extension programmes.
While the farmers require a wider range of support to address the emerging challenges,
extension mainly functions as an agency for technology dissemination. Market extension has
been a recent addition but it is understood and implemented mostly as provision of output
price information in various markets and this is highly inadequate to address the challenges
in marketing. Other extension support facilities created in the country include, farmer
training centres at the district level; SAMETI (State Agricultural Management Extension and
Training Institute) at the state level; EEI (Extension Education Institute) at the regional level;
and MANAGE (National Institute for Agricultural Extension Management) at the national
level.
SAMETI: To meet the requirement of capacity building, a large number of training
activities are needed in the areas of technical as well as human resource management in
Agriculture. SAMETI is a State level institution which is autonomous with greater flexibility
in structure and functioning and are responsible for organizing need based training
programmes for the project implementation functionaries of different line departments as
well as the farming community. This can be achieved through linkages with other technical
and management institutions in the State to support desired training input. 'SAMETI' has to
function with the technical guidance of the National Institute of Agricultural Extension
Management. Its role is as follows.
• To provide need based consultancy services to Agricultural Technology
Management Agency (ATMA) in the areas like project planning, appraisal,
implementation etc.
• Develop and promote appropriate and specific management tools for improving the
effectiveness of agricultural extension services through better management of human
and material resources.
• Organize need based training programme for middle level and grass root level
agricultural extension functionaries.
• Management, Communication, Participatory Methodologies etc. as a sequel to the
feedback from training programmes.
• It should have close linkage with institutions like KVKs, ZRS, State Agricultural
Universities, NGOs, Management Institutions MANAGE, to use appropriate faculty
resource from these institutions for training and consultancy services to ATMA
functionaries, farmers and other clients.
• To conduct studies on problems related to Agriculture Extension Management,
Communication and information technology, agriculture product marketing, human
resource development using participatory approaches.
A brief about the current institutional arrangements of Extension organisations in the country
is given in table-2
246 India
Table 2. Current Extension Institutional Arrangements
Sl.
No
Extension
organisations
Functions/ Roles / Capacity
1 ATMA Aimed at decentralized decision making and bringing
convergence among extension providers in a district:
Promotion of commodity interest groups:
Developmental of a strategic research and extension plan:
Provide additional funds to these agencies for key extension
activities such as farm schools, demonstrations, exposure visits
and trainings.
2. KVK Technology application (technology assessment and refinement)
through on-farm trials, front-line demonstration and training
Formation of FIGs, SHGs, etc.
3. State line
departments
(Agriculture,
Animal
Husbandry,
Fisheries, etc.)
Regulatory role;
Implementation of development programmes that involve
distribution of subsidies and subsidized inputs;
Organizing extension programmes, farmers training etc.
4. FTC Training farmers on new technologies
Formation of SHGs, FIGs, etc.
5. SAU (Directorate
of extension)
Implement extension programmes of the SAU and oversee
activities of KVK
6. NGOs Exhibit wide diversity in terms of reach, credibility and
capacity;
Have good knowledge and networks with communities in
villages they operate;
Present in difficult and remote regions;
Innovative in their approaches;
Can potentially complement approaches of the public sector
extension.
7. Private Agri-
business firms
Agri-input firms mainly involved in product demonstration;
Agro-processing and marketing firms mainly commodity
oriented but do provide integrated support (inputs, technical
support and marketing) for contract growers;
8. Media Dissemination of information on new technologies.
E.g. E TV – Annadata, Krishi Dharsan etc.
9. Private
consultants
Support large farmers growing cash crops and high value
horticulture
10. MANAGE Training senior and middle level extension managers
Conduct studies on extension systems and policies
Conduct management educational programmes in agriculture
Provide Consultancy
11. SAMETI Training middle level extension staff at the state level
Conduct studies on extension systems at the state level
12. EEI Training middle level extension managers at the regional level
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 247
1(iii). Reformation and development
Post T and V innovations in extension could be broadly classified into two types: Centrally
driven (implications for more than one state) and State specific attempts.
Centrally driven changes: The Directorate of Extension of the DAC has been supporting the
states for implementing the following programmes on the following items in the IX Plan.
• Support to NGOs and Farmer Organisations
• Women in Agriculture
• Farmer Scientist Interaction and State/District level R-E Interfaces
• Exposure visit of Farmers/Extension functionaries
• Print media/Kisan mela support to SAUs
• Support for training for improving the technical competency of extension
functionaries
However, the most ambitious has been the Innovations in Technology Dissemination (ITD)
component of the World Bank funded National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP).
ITD component of NATP: During 1998, the project on a pilot basis implemented in seven
states namely Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Orissa
and Punjab. The project aimed at pilot testing the innovations like: new institutional
arrangement for technology dissemination at the district level (28 districts, 4 each in 7 states)
and below through establishment of Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA)
as an autonomous body moving towards integrated extension delivery adopting bottom-up
planning procedures for setting the research-extension agenda making technology
dissemination farmer driven and farmer accountable addressing gender concerns in
agriculture and increasing use of information technology for effective dissemination
Programme interventions are based on a strategic research and extension plan prepared in a
participatory mode.
Farm Information and Advisory Centres (FIAC) are created at the block level to act as the
operational arm of ATMA. A Block Technology Team (BTT), comprising technical
personnel at the block level and a Farmer Advisory Committee (FAC) comprising all key
stakeholders and farmers representatives are also constituted at the block level. Under the
project, a state level Agricultural Management and Extension Training Institute (SAMETI)
has been created in all the project states to provide training to state extension functionaries
on innovative areas of project management, participatory planning, HRD and information
technology. Presently, ATMAs have been established in different phases across 604 districts.
As a result the impact of the project has not been uniform in all the districts. A summary of
performance of ATMA is given below.
ATMA- lessons so far
• The integrated implementation of field activities is workable but depends
considerably on the state government's commitment to internalize and practice these
new concepts.
• All ATMAs have made considerable progress on diversification and intensification
of different farming systems.
• The Block Technology Teams (BTTs) and Farmer Advisory Committees (FACs)
need to play a more active role in preparation of block action plans
248 India
• Several farmer interest groups and women farmer interest groups have been formed
and some of them have initiated joint activities. There is a need to involve NGOs in
forming groups of farmers
• Integrated package of exposure visit, training and demonstration has resulted in
better technology adoption
The flexibility to quickly respond to training and information needs of farmers, the
availability of a reasonably good untied operational budget and the participation of the
farming community by way of FAC at the block level are the major factors behind the
apparent success of ATMA. However the project suffers from weak process documentation
and internal Monitoring and Evaluation system. There is inadequate information on
utilisation of IT facilities and progress in implementation of adaptive research through SAUs
and KVKs.
Agri clinics-agri-business centres: The main aim of the scheme is to provide accountable
extension services to farmers through technically trained agricultural graduates at the village
level. The programme is financed through bank loans, and the central government would
provide 25% of the cost as subsidy. The plan is to establish 5,000 agri-clinics to provide
testing facilities, diagnostic and control services and other consultancies on a fee-for service
basis. The programme implemented joinlty through SFAC and MANAGE has attracted a
large number of unemployed agricultural graduates.
State level innovations: Most of the state level innovations emerged after the end of external
funding for T & V system. They emerged to address the limitations of the T and V approach,
the reduced funding available for extension and also in response to the changing national and
state level priorities. Broad basing extension (to include messages related to horticultural and
livestock sectors) was one of the immediate response. However the performance on broad
basing has been highly uneven as the DoA has no administrative control on personnel of
different line departments.
Horticulture, Soil Conservation and Watershed Development wings of the DoA became
separate departments or a separate directorate in many states. States such as Maharashtra
subsequently merged these separate departments to provide a single window system
delivery. Other major innovations include: decentralisation (extension planning and control
under elected bodies at the district level); contracting NGOs for some extension activities;
promotion of private extension initiatives; adoption of group approaches (instead of the
earlier individual approach); the use of para extension workers (as substitutes for DoA field
extension workers and also to increase the reach of the public sector extension system); and
setting up of multi-disciplinary SAU teams at the district level. Another trend has been the
formation of specific organisations (with less bureaucracy, more flexibility and wider
expertise) to implement special programmes related to agricultural development. However,
the functioning of state DoAs exhibit more similarities than differences and these are too
glaring to leave unnoticed. This include:
• A strong linear hierarchy (from Commissioner/Director of agriculture at the top to
Joint Directors, Deputy Directors, Assistant Directors, Agricultural Officers and
Agricultural Assistant or the Village Extension worker at the village level). Each
extension personnel on an average cover about 2-7 villages, except in Kerala where
every village has about 3 extension personnel.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 249
• Some features of T & V still continue in the organisational structure of DoA and
implementation of extension programmes. The notable among them is the
mechanism of research-extension linkages through monthly/bi-monthly workshops,
fortnightly meetings, meeting of zonal research extension advisory committee etc.
States such as Tamil Nadu still follow the permanent field visit schedule for village
extension workers.
• Implementation of a large number of schemes (state schemes, central sector
schemes, centrally sponsored schemes and externally assisted schemes) with specific
targets on demonstrations, distribution of subsidised inputs and subsidies and
training, leave only little time for VEWs for assisting farmers with advice on solving
specific field problems.
• DoA has a number of farms for producing seeds and other planting materials, several
training centres for training staff and farmers and labs for testing seeds, pesticides
and fertilisers. Delivery of inputs such as fertilisers is an important activity of DoA
in North-Eastern States like Tripura.
• Relatively few staff at operational level (district and below) to implement large
number of programmes. Restrictions on fresh recruitment, reduction of cadre
strength and deputation of staff to other departments are the main reasons for this
situation. The manpower available with the Department of Horticulture in all the
states is limited, with the exception of Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal.
• There are serious constraints on mobility of staff for implementation and monitoring
of programme due to limited operational budgets
• DoA staff perform a very narrow extension role, limited to technology dissemination
for increasing agricultural productivity.
Group approach: Kerala initiated the group approach to extension for rice farming in 1989
and this was subsequently extended to other crops. This approach envisaged formation of
commodity groups to improve productivity and reduce cost of cultivation through collective
purchase of inputs and services. To strengthen this approach, extension efforts and delivery
of subsidised inputs were routed through these farmers groups.
Rajasthan adopted the group approach to extension in 1992 and currently village extension
workers operate mainly through kisan mandals, ie. groups of 20 farmers. Now, VEO visits a
revenue village and impart training to kisan mandal farmers once in a fortnight. In Andhra
Pradesh, farmer clubs are formed at each village primarily to facilitate group extension.
These clubs are expected to propagate developmental schemes and facilitate transfer of
agricultural technology among farmers in the village. VEW visit farmer clubs once in a
fortnight.
Himachal Pradesh is also currently forming farmer interest groups (FIGs) primarily to
implement many schemes. The group approach is also an important strategy for many other
agricultural programmes. For instance, the Central Sector Scheme on Women in Agriculture
(CSSWA) is being implemented through women SHGs promoted through this programme.
Formation of FIGs is also an important objective of ITD component of NATP.
The UPSLRP and UPDASP provide a lot of emphasis on formation of SHGs/FIGs for
programme implementation. The Kerala Horticultural Development Programme (KHDP)
formed SHGs of vegetable and fruit growers to help promote new technology and
participatory technology development (PTD) skills, help farmers access credit and strengthen
250 India
their negotiating power through collective marketing. These farmers SHGs currently control
50% of the share of the new company that has replaced the programme, namely the
Vegetable and Fruit Promotion Council, Kerala.
Contact centres below the block level: One of the difficulties with the T and V system was
that a farmer could meet the VEW only once in a fortnight during his fixed village visit. The
nearest office of the DoA was at the taluka or block level, which is far away from most of the
villages. In response to this problem, Kerala created offices of the DoA (Krishi Bhavans) at
each panchayat (roughly covering 1.3 villages in Kerala) in 1987. Maharashtra established
offices of DoA at each circle level (on an average covering 44 villages) in 1998.
In Karnataka, since 2000, a permanent office called Raitu Mitra Kendras (RMKs) /Farmers
Contact Centres are being established at the hubli level. In Rajasthan, a Kisan Sewa Kendra
has been established at every agricultural supervisor circle where agricultural supervior
would be available every Thursday of the week to interact with farmers.
Towards more intensive trainings: The limitations of routine delivery of messages related
to technologies in foodgrain production became apparent in the nineties and several efforts to
provide intensive training on new technologies to large number of farmers were initiated.
There are several training centres (for staff and farmers) under the different line departments.
But considering the large number of farmers to be trained, the DoA has been trying to
explore other facilities available with it and help of other organisations to train more number
of farmers.
For instance, in Andhra Pradesh, since 2000, two farmers training and two farmer-scientist
interaction meetings are organised at each of the 286 Agricultural Market Committees every
year. These training programme are held in collaboration with the Department of
Agriculture/Horticulture and the SAU.
In Maharashtra, efforts are currently on to establish "agri-poly clinics" in each tehsil of the
state on government farms viz, taluk seed farms, trial cum demonstration centres and
horticultural nurseries. Out of the 352 talukas in the state, 232 talukas have government
farms and these are being converted to agro-poly clinic cum training centres. Training halls
are being constructed supported with audio-visual systems and boarding facilities. These
farms are also strengthened for demonstration of improved technologies and with facilities
for water and soil testing and diagnosing pest and diseases from samples brought by farmers.
The Department of Horticulture in Himachal Pradesh has recently established nine
developmental fruit canning units all over the State for providing community canning service
to the farmers, training of the farmers in the home scale preservation of fruits and the
utilization of unmarketable fruits through processing. Besides this, five Community Training
Centres have been established by the Department to train villagers in fruit preservation and
prepare products at the village level commercially for improving the local economy.
Increasing role of private and NGO sector: The NGOs and the private sector have
started to play a greater role in extension in the last two decades. There is an increasing
realisation that public extension by itself cannot meet the specific needs of various regions
and different classes of farmers and the draft Policy Framework for Agricultural Extension
of the Ministry of Agriculture also affirms that the "policy environment will promote private
and community driven extension to operate competitively, in roles that complement,
supplement, work in partnerships and even substitute for public extension".
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 251
The Ministry of Agriculture has initiated a scheme "Agricultural Extension through
voluntary organisations" in the year 1994-95 with a view to integrate their efforts with those
of the main extension system. Initially the scheme was implemented on pilot basis by
involving 14 NGOs from 8 states. The scheme was later expanded to 50 NGOs. Under this
scheme NGOs are funded for documentation of farming systems at the micro level, audio-
visual preparation and procurement, training and demonstrations, farmers visit to research
stations, administrative support and contingencies.
The states are also encouraging the NGOs to take up extension activities. The DoA,
Rajasthan initiated agricultural extension and development programmes with participation of
NGOs under the World Bank assisted Agricultural Development Project (1992). Under this
project the functioning of three assistant agricultural officers circles were handed over to
NGOs. Many NGOs were also given grants for specific projects related to heifer
development, integrated watershed development, vermi-composting etc,.
Farmers' organisations and producers co-operatives provide a wide range of extension
support to farmers, but their presence is restricted to very few crops/commodities and
specific regions. Notable among them is the Maharashtra Grape Growers Association.
Extension services provided by dairy co-operatives also have been exemplary.
Newspapers (especially local language dailies), farm magazines, and television media are
important sources of information for farmers. Input companies, especially fertiliser firms
organise several extension activities. The number of private consultancy firms providing
agricultural consultancy to farmers is on an increase. Private extension initiatives by agri-
business companies have been expanding in India. Notable among them are the recent efforts
by several agri-business companies, such as Mahindra & Mahindra, Rallis and ITC.
Mahindra and Rallis model provide an integrated service ranging from information, field
visits, quality inputs, reliable access to output markets and non-exploitative and timely
credit. It also reveals the increasing willingness of farmers to pay for quality services in
agriculture.
Only a few states have tried to partner with the private sector in extension. In Karnataka, the
RMKs are being planned to provide facilities in its campus for the private sector input
agencies to display and sell their products. Punjab Agro-Foodgrains Corporation (PAFC), a
wholly owned subsidiary of the Punjab Agro Industries Corporation, has entered into
agreement with private extension services providers such as Rallis and Mahindra Shubh
Labh Services for contract farming in Punjab. These companies provide professional
extension services to farmers, charging a nominal fee from farmers as well as PAFC.
Para extension workers: The increasing inability of the DoA staff to reach more number of
farmers in distant villages became apparent in the nineties. Para extension workers (PEWs)
belonging to the local community were selected and employed to draw down advice from the
DoA staff, first in Rajasthan as part of the externally funded ADP. Rajasthan is currently
continuing with this approach to supplement field extension in those areas where the DoA
posts are vacant. A provision exists to pay a stipend of Rs.1000/- per month and over a
period of time they are expected to levy charges for their services rendered to the farmers.
For example, The UPSLRP is presently using the kisan mitras (para extension worker) and
mahila kisan mitras (women para extension workers) for farmer led extension. With the
redeployment of kisan sahayaks (village extension workers of DoA) as multi-purpose village
panchayat development officers (VPDOs), the whole extension system in Uttar Pradesh now
252 India
currently revolves around para extension workers (kisan mitra) selected from each
panchayat. There are about 52,000 kisan mitras in Uttar Pradesh and they are given training
under various schemes. Kisan mitras are provided with some assistance to meet the
expenditure for further training of farmers.
In Madhya Pradesh, one or two members and chairman of the permanent agricultural
committee are declared as "kisan bandhus" and are trained to perform the role of master
trainers. They are expected to train other farmers in the village. There are about 50,000 kisan
bandhus in Madhya Pradesh.
Women in Agriculture: Since the 1980s, special programmes to address the information
and technological needs of women farmers were initiated through the DoA in several states.
These include:
• Danish assisted programmes in Karnataka (WYTEP, since 1982); Tamil Nadu
(TANWA, 1986 to 2003); Orissa (TEWA, 1998 to 2003); Madhya Pradesh
(MAPWA, 1993-2002)
• Dutch assisted programmes in Gujarat (TWA, 1989 to 2003); and Andhra Pradesh
(ANTWA, 1994- 2007)
• Central Sector Scheme for Women in Agriculture (CSSWA) in one district each in
15 States (1992-2003)
Village based and institutional training, formation of farm women SHGs, and demonstrations
have been a part of these women specific programmes. Performance evaluation reports
reveal that these programmes have made impact in terms of improving access to information
on agricultural technology, adoption of new technology and gaining benefits from their use.
However the planning and implementation of these programmes could be considerably
improved.
Efforts are currently being made to mainstream gender in agricultural extension, whereby the
General Extension System is drawn into providing services specifically to women
farmers.The Ministry of Agriculture has developed a cafetaria of approaches for
implementation of women in agriculture. Maharashtra and Himachal Pradesh have already
initiated schemes to expand the women in agriculture programme to more blocks based on
the experience of CSSWA.
University role in Extension: State Agricultural Universities in India have been playing
only a limited role in field extension activities. The Directorate of Extension (of SAUs)
implements and co-ordinate extension activities through its three major units, namely,
training Unit, communication centre and farm advisory services. Activities of KVKs under
the SAU are also co-ordinated by the Directorate of Extension.
But two SAUs, one in Punjab (PAU) and the other in Andhra Pradesh (ANGRAU) have
expanded their extension activities to provide more comprehensive services to farmers.
Punjab Agricultural University employs its own multi-disciplinary extension team in each
district, engaged in adaptive research, training and consultancy. ANGRAU has established a
District Agricultural Advisory and Transfer of Technology Centre (DAATTC) in all the
districts, (comprising a team of 2-4 scientists of various disciplines) to refine technology,
make diagnostic visits and organise field programmes in collaboration with DoA and other
line departments.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 253
Information Technology and Media: The widespread availability and convergence of
information and communication technologies (ICTs) - computers, digital networks,
telecommunication, television etc in India in recent years have led to unprecedented capacity
for dissemination of knowledge and information to the rural population. The village
knowledge centres initiated by the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) in
Pondicherry aims at building a model for the use of ICTs in meeting the knowledge and
information requirement of rural families. Value addition to the raw information, use of local
language (Tamil) and multi-media (to facilitate illiterate user participation) and participation
of local people from the beginning are the noteworthy features of the project.
ITC has established e-chaupals, which are village internet kiosks that enable access to
information on weather, market prices and scientific farm practices. Launched in June 2000,
the company has so far established 1200 e-chaupals across four states (Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh). A local farmer (sanchalak), selected from the
village and provided with short training runs each kiosk. Agricultural Market Committees in
various states are computerised and networked at present to provide uptodate and reliable
market information to farmers. Karnataka plan to provide internet facilities to all RMKs to
help the staff and farmers in accessing useful farm information. Maharashtra has a more
ambitious plan to set up a "virtual university for agrarian prosperity" to consolidate, process
and disseminate information on various aspects of agriculture using advances in information
technology.
DoA in Madhya Pradesh is currently utilising the SATCOM centres in 350 blocks to telecast
live agricultural programmes every monday (3-5 PM). The system works on a one-way
video-two way audio mode and farmers' querries are addressed by the experts during the
programme. Teja TV in Andhra Pradesh telecasts an on-line (live) phone in programme in
collaboration with DoA and ANGRAU to answer farmers' questions every day. E-TV also
telecast agricultural programmes in Telegu, Kannada and Marathi languages every day.
National Agricultural Innovation Projects (NAIP) for rural livelihood security:
Agricultural innovations and diffusion of new technologies are the important factors in the
country’s quest for food, nutrition, environmental security and enhancement of income and
employment. Agricultural research in India has generated outstanding productivity increases
in the past and shall continue to play an important role in supporting rural livelihoods and
accelerating rural growth. However, rising population and per capita income are pushing up
the food-demand, which needs to be met through enhanced productivity per unit area, input,
time and energy. At the same time, the issues of decreasing factor productivity and resource-
use efficiency have also emerged. Furthermore, many promising research findings have not
reached the farmers, due to either inadequacies in research designs or research results,
deficiencies of delivery systems or lack of economic incentives.
This is particularly visible in the complex environments and less-favored areas. In order to
address the problems of poverty and hunger, it is critical to redirect and augment resources
devoted to agricultural research to the farming and livelihood systems of the poor rural
communities. Further, to utilize the technological breakthroughs that are already available
for commercial use, the agricultural research priorities and strategies will have to be revisited
and new system-wide approaches need to be developed and adopted.
The NAIP will address the above issue through a coordinated effort on changing the content
and process. Policy and technology options will be screened or tested by the end-user for
254 India
applicability as well as for economic social and environmental sustainability. In the applied
and adaptive research projects, the end-user of innovations will be involved from the start of
programmes and projects and will remain partner till their completion. Both indigenous
knowledge and frontier technologies will be used to generate the targeted products. The
overall objective of the NAIP is to facilitate an accelerated and sustainable transformation of
the Indian agriculture so that it can support poverty alleviation and income generation
through collaborative development and application of agricultural innovations by the public
organizations in partnership with farmers’ groups, the private sector and other stakeholders.
The specific objectives envisaged are :
a) To build the critical capacity of the ICAR as a catalyzing agent for management of
change in the Indian NARS
b) To promote ‘production to consumption systems research’ in priority areas / themes
to enhance productivity, nutrition, profitability, income and employment.
c) To improve livelihood security of rural people living in the selected disadvantaged
regions through technology-led innovation systems encompassing the wider process
of social and economic change covering all stakeholders.
d) To build capacity to undertake basic and strategic research in frontier areas of
agricultural sciences to meet challenges in technology development in the immediate
and predictable future.
The NAIP was planned for six years (2006-12) to allow time for piloting, learning and
scalingup, wherever possible. Currently, the period of NAIP is extended up to March, 2014.
1(iv). Establishment of NAES:
National Agricultural Extension System in the country is now being organised under the
Department of Agriculture, Govt of India and operationalised through Directorate of
Extension at the national level, Extension wing of state department of agriculture, Animal
Husbandry and fisheries, at state level. The district level agencies like ATMAs and KVKs
help in implementing the extension and technology application programmes benefiting the
farming community.
Under the ICAR system, the extension largely assumes the role of technology application
through assessment, demonstration of proven technologies, capacity building of farmers,
rural youths and extension functionaries. The supply and service role of general extension
system are not the part of extension programmes implemented by the ICAR system.
Under the National Agricultural Extension System institutions like MANAGE (at national
level),EEI (regional level),SAMETI (at state level) assumes the role of capacity building and
training activities. At, District level ATMA assumed the responsibility of managing the
extension programmes and KVKs by ICAR functions as resource and knowledge centres
apart from the technology application and capacity building activities.
2. Organisations of National Agricultural Extension System (NAES)
Extension in this context includes all those agencies in the public, private, NGO and
community based initiatives that provide a range of agricultural advisory services and
facilitate technology application, transfer and management.. While public sector line
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 255
departments, mainly the Department of Agriculture was the main agricultural extension
agency in the 60’s and 70s, the last two decades have witnessed the increasing involvement
of private sector, NGOs, community based organisations and media. In the public sector, the
extension machinery of the state Department of Agriculture (DoA) reaches down to the
block and village level.
The village extension workers of the DoA continue to be an important source of information
for farmers in India, even though information is clearly targeted at grain production, visits
are irregular, and the service is pre-occupied with the implementation of government
schemes linked to subsidies and subsidised inputs. With the external support drying up with
the end of the T&V (Training and Visit) system of extension in the early 1990s, states have
been left to fund their extension machinery and this has led to considerable weakening of
public sector extension.
In the case of public sector extension, the major reform in recent years has been the
establishment of a district level co-ordinating agency, the ATMA (Agricultural Technology
Management Agency),initially tested in 28 pilot districts with the World Bank support is
now successfully replicated in 604 districts of the country as a Plan programme of
Department of Agriculture and Cooperation. Under ATMA, grass root level extension is
mainly channelized through the involvement of BTTs (Block level Technology Teams) and
FACs (farmer advisory committees), farmer groups/ farmer interest groups and self help
groups.
ATMA is a district level autonomous agency entrusted with the role of agricultural
technology management in the district. The district collector/deputy commissioner heads
ATMA Governing Body, with members drawn from the line department, KVKs, farmers and
NGOs (Fig 1)
Fig.1 Organizational Structure of Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA)
Based on the experiences gained from the pilot district, the Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India in 2004-05 decided to expand the ATMA model across all the districts
in the country. Apart from bringing some additional resources for extension activities to be
256 India
decided at the district level in consultation with farmer representatives, ATMA is yet to fully
address many of the institutional constraints affecting extension performance
The number of KVKs (Krishi Vigyan Kendras) funded by the ICAR has increased during
this period. Presently 600 KVKs are established in the country. The motto is to cover each
district with one KVK with a mandate of technology application through OFTs,
demonstrations and training. It is an institutional approach and is comprehensive in nature.
It functions on farm based model with a built in research-extension linkage through a multi-
disciplinary team. It ensures feedback and feed-forward through participatory management.
It is the largest research based extension body in the country by the ICAR at the district
level. However, the effective reach of these KVKs is marginal mainly due to inadequate
linkages with other development agencies. Moreover, their main focus is on technology
testing, assessment and application under farmers’ condition through conducting on-farm
trials, demonstrations and training.
Extension services in the case of animal husbandry and fisheries continue to remain weak.
While public sector extension arrangements have weakened, the number and diversity of
private extension service providers has increased during last two decades. These include
NGOs, producer associations, input agencies, media and agri-business companies. Many
provide better and improved services to farmers, but their effective reach is limited and many
of the distant and remote areas and poor producers are neither served by the public nor the
private sector.
Extension continues to be funded as part of central and state level schemes/programes
without much operational freedom at the local level, though the strategic research and
extension plans (SREP) under ATMA envisage bottom up planning for extension. While the
farmers require a wider range of support to address the emerging challenges, extension
mainly functions as an agency for technology dissemination. Most of the organizations
including the public sector departments continue to work in isolation. Govt of India launched
Kissan call centres to leverage the extensive telecom network in the country to deliver
extension services to the farmers. The purpose of these call centres is to respond to queries
and issues raised by farmers instantly in the local language on a nationwide toll free number
1800180 1551
Marketing extension has been a recent addition but is understood and implemented mostly as
provision of output price information in various markets and this is highly inadequate to
address the challenges in marketing. Other extension support facilities created include,
farmer training centres at the district level; SAMETI (State Agricultural Management
Extension and Training Institute) at the state level, EEI (Extension Education Institute) at the
regional level; and MANAGE (National Institute for Agricultural Extension Management) at
the national level.
2(i). Agencies involved in the extension system (GO and NGO)
Major Govt agencies are:
1. Department of Agriculture, Govt of India and of different States
2. National Agricultural research and Extension System comprising of ICAR and SAUs
Major Non Government agenies are:
1. Farmers Co-Operatives, FIGs CIGs,FFS etc
2. Industrial houses like ITC, Nagarjuna fertilizers, Seed companies etc
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 257
2(ii). Organogram of NAES with major roles of each position of the
organogram
The organisational structure of the NAES comprises of various institutional arrangements
like department of Ag. extension under ministry of agriculture responsible for field extension
work and the ICAR system responsible for the technology application and integration in the
system. These two structures are integrated at the field level through their programmes and
activities. Recently a joint statement signed by both the secretaries envisaging functional
convergence of ATMA and KVK system has been issued by the ministry of agriculture, GOI
for implementation. The organogram of NAES is given at fig.2 and detailed at table.3.
Fig. 2. National Structure of the Indian agricultural extension system
258 India
Table 3. Organogram of NAES showing the major roles of each position
Table.3 National Agricultural Extension system
technology and
Knowledge Source
Management centres Knowledge Delivery System
NARS ICAR Govt agencies EEIs at the
regional level
for extension
training
ATMA at the district
level looking after the
technology delivery
system by
coordinating various
agencies functioning
in the district.
Farmers training
centres at the district
level for capacity
building of the
farmers
ICAR
research
Institutes
SAUs
Directorate of
Knowedge
Management,
ICAR
Directorate of
Extension,
MoA, GOI and
State Depts of
Agriculture
Farmers
ITKs.,
innovation
etc
CGIAR
institutes
JDs of
Extension,
ICAR,
National Inst.
like IARI,
and IVRI
Agriculatural
technology
information
Centres
(ATICs).Single
window
arrangement for
technology and
technology
products
SAMETI at the
state level
looking after
the training
components
Public and Private
institutes outside
NARS
BPD/ZTM
Zonal level
technology
magmt
centres by
ICAR
MANAGE
National level
HRD and
MGMT inst
KVKs for
technology
application,
demonstration,
and capacity
building
Farmers
coops,
FIGs,
CIGs,
FFS,SHGs
etc
NGOs,
e-
choupals,
RKCs
etc
National Agricultural Research and Education System (NARS): National Agricultural
Research and Education System (NARS) in India constitutes a vast network of research
institutes (49), project Directorates (25), National Research Centres (17), Bureaux (6), All
India Co-ordinated Research and Net-work projects (78), Agricultural Technology
Information Centres (44), 591 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (Farm Science Centres) etc., under
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and there are about 55 State Agricultural
universities and one Central Agricultural University currently functioning in the country.
NARS is one of the largest in the world with respect to human resource engagement and
infrastructure and ICAR is the apex body of the National Agricultural Research System.
Administratively, ICAR is an autonomous organisation under the Department of Agriculture,
Government of India. ICAR is involved in coordinating, guiding and managing research,
education, and extension in agriculture, including horticulture, fisheries, and animal sciences
in the country.
Agricultural Knowledge and Technology Management: An Overview
(i) At National Level: Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture (DKMA),
Indian Agriculture Statistical Research Institute and Intellectual Property Right and
Technology Management unit are the important institutional arrangements at national level
to deal with the agricultural knowledge management in the country.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 259
(ii) At Zonal Level: ICAR has established the Zonal Technology Management and Business
Planning units to ensure a strong Intellectual Property Management system. The Zonal
Technology Management &Business Planning units (ZTM-BPD) are one stop shop for
entrepreneurs who can receive pro-active, value added support in terms of technical
consultancy, access to critical tools such as entrepreneur ready technologies, vast
infrastructure and other resources that may otherwise be unaffordable, inaccessible or un
known. The units will provide links to industries; business support services to enhance and
develop business; upgrade skills and techniques; technological advice and assistance with
intellectual property protection; initial test marketing and also provide access to potential
investors and strategic partners.
(iii) At State level: In the state level, ICAR has established Agricultural Technology
information Centres (ATICs) to provide direct access to the institutional resources to the
farmers and stake holders. ATIC is a single window support system linking various units of a
research institution with intermediary users and end users (farmers) in decision making and
problem solving exercise. It has got an inbuilt mechanism for providing feedback to the
scientists and research managers.
There are 55 State Agricultural Universities are presently functioning in the country
imparting agricultural education and carrying out research and extension activities to meet
the local needs of the state. The agricultural universities through their zonal agricultural
research stations, and district level university research, training and extension centres cater
the location specific needs of the farmers and other stake holders like agri – entrepreneurs
2(iii). Extension Planning process
(a. Problem identification process, b. Priority fixation of extension activities and c.
Resource allocation and budgeting)
At national level the planning process is undertaken through a well defined rigorous exercise
of formulating a national extension plan for five year. This exercise is carried out by the
planning commission in collaboration with ministry of agriculture, ICAR, SAUs reputed
NGOs and farmers. For every five years, a national level working group is constituted for
this purpose under the Chairmanship of a Secretary level officer with a good experience in
the field of agriculture, planning, evaluation, finance and various aspects of governance.
Under the core group various sub groups are constituted to review the ongoing programmes,
current status, future needs and challenges. Leading agricultural scientists, extension experts,
administrators, technocrats, representatives of NGOs working in the agricultural
development, farmers’ representatives etc are included as members of the working group and
sub groups.
After reviewing the development during the current plan period, the sub group members
work out various programmes and budgetary requirement for the next five years with respect
to various aspects like training, HRD, extension for dis advantaged areas etc .For the
planning process for forth coming XII plan period a total number of nine sub groups have
been constituted covering various aspects of Ag Extension. Various theme areas identified
for the formulation of XII plan are given here under:
• Technology Mapping, Adoption, Impact, Farm Innovations & Agricultural
Education
260 India
• Extension Planning and Management in Agriculture and Allied Sectors
• HRD, Training & Accreditation
• Involvement of Panchayati Raj institutions, Literacy Missions, Cooperatives, Urban
local bodies, Schools & Colleges, farmer groups and other organisations for
community Mobilization and Farmers Empowerment
• Extension through Information & Communication Technology, Electronic Media,
Print Media, Documentation and publications
• Public-Private Partnership for agricultural development
• Convergence and programme delivery for agricultural development
• Extension Strategies for difficult areas (J&K, NE & Hill Areas, Sensitive Coastal
areas, Bundelkhand, Naxal affected, Rainfed/ drought prone) disadvantaged farmers
(tribal, small & marginal and tenant) and farm workers
• Empowering Women for Agricultural Development
Similarly, individual state Governments, also constitute expert groups for planning their
agricultural development and extension programmes based on the national priorities and
their current relevance to their states.
Budgeting for the individual theme areas are worked out based on the components
incorporated. A final consolidated report is prepared by the working group by examining the
individual sub group reports and budget proposed. National level review and discussions are
made to prepare the final plan document o extension programmes for the plan period along
with the budgetary requirement is submitted to the planning commission. The planning
commission finally examines the document and approves the programmes for
implementation along with programme wise financial allocation. The funds will be made
available by the Govt of India under the respective programmes/schemes to the
implementing agencies and the states.
2(iv). Coordination mechanism:
The extension programmes in the country are implemented through various agencies and at
the district level the programmes are coordinated through the ATMA which is a society of
stake holders in agriculture for sustainable agricultural development in the district. It is a
focal point for integrated research and extension activities endowed with the responsibility of
all technology dissemination activities at the district level. The budgetary requirement for
different programmes coordinated by ATMA is routed through ATMA for beer coordination
and utilisation of the funds.
ICAR has established eight Zonal Project Directorates in the country to coordinate and
monitor the activities of KrishiVigyanKendras established in the country. At ICAR HQs, the
activities are monitored by Division of Ag Extension headed by Deputy Director General
along with a team of two Assistant Director Generals.
In the SAU system the programmes are monitored by the Director of Extension and his team.
A joint guideline signed by the Secretary, DARE and Secretary, Agriculture was issued for
achieving coordination between the KVK and ATMA. Zonal level coordination meetings are
organised to review the programme progress and suggesting further course of action as per
the mandated activities.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 261
2(v). Decentralization of extension delivery system
Under the extension reforms, emphasis is given for decentralising the technology delivery
system through the involvement of farmers and farmer organisations. The organisation of
farmer interest groups, commodity interest groups, farm schools and self help groups at
grass root level mainly aims at the decentralisation of the extension delivery system through
making the users as the responsibility centres in deciding their technological options, their
dissemination and adoption.
ATMA again comprises of a management committee which carries out PRA, strategic
research and extension planning for the district, establishment of farmer advisory centres and
coordinates the execution of annual work plan through participatory line departments such as
ZRSs, KVKs, NGOs, FIGs,/FOs, and allied institutions. The ATMA also establishes farmers
Advisory Committee to get the feedback. The funds required for the district extension
programmes are routed through ATMA and thus conventional hierarchical bottlenecks are
avoided.
Panchayat Raj institutions and extension services: After the 73 rd Amendment most states
are conducting regular elections to the Panchayats. Some states have also delegated suitable
administrative and financial powers to the three tier Panchayat Raj institutions. In these
states the extension personnel are placed under the administrative control of Panchayat,
whereas for technical guidance they remain under the control of respective technical line
departments. Since the Panchayat system are evolving in different states and are currently in
a state of flux, the ATMA model at the district, BTCs and FACs at the Block and the FOs at
the village level offer suitable linkages with the Panchayat Raj institutions.
Accountability to farmers: Efforts to make the extension system farmer driven and farmer
accountable were initiated in several states. The constitutional amendments that strengthend
the Panchayat Raj Insitutions (PRI) have further accelerated this trend. Many states such as
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh have a separate wing for agriculture development at Zilla
Parishad and block levels. Their role is mainly planning and implementation of schemes for
agriculture primarily funded through district governements or Zilla Parishad.
Priorities for the development of agriculture in respective villages have to be approved by
the gram sabha (village assembly). Administrative control of DoA staff rests with the gram
panchayat or block panchayats in those states that have implemented democratic
decentralisation more seriously (West Bengal, Madhya Pradhesh, Kerala). In Madhya
Pradesh, there is a permanent agricultural committee at the village level. In Maharashtra, the
Agricultural Development Officer at the Zilla Parishad is Secretary to the Agricultural
Committee of the district.
Agricultural Development Committees (karshika vikasana samithi) comprising farmers and
elected representatives of people are constiuted at the panchayat and district levels in Kerala
to advise farmers on issues related to agricultural development. In Rajasthan a Krishi
Salahkar Samiti has been constituted at the Asst Agricultural Officer level to guide, monitor
and evaluate the working of kisan mandals. It also scrutinises the various proposals received
from kisan mandals for funding by DoA. In ATMA districts, the Farmer Advisory
Committee (FAC) comprising key stakeholders and farmer representatives exert
considerable influence in the preparation and scrutiny of block action plans.
262 India
3. Governance
3(i). Institutional reforms and efficiency enhancement:
The technology generation and its application is focusing upon the themes of optimization by
producers of their valuable resources, sustainability and copying with diversity by adapting
technology more specifically to agro-ecological or social circumstances. The details of
extension reforms initiated are given in the table 4 below:
Table 4. Details of Extension Reforms
SI.
No.
Extension
Reforms
Issues addressed and Approaches
1. Policy
Reforms
i) Farming systems Approach Multi agency extension service
(a) public extension services
(b) private extension services
(c) mass media and information technology
ii) Promotion of farmer participatory approach
iii) Promotion of demand driven and farmer accountable
extension
iv) Public extension to enable farmers for problem solving skills
v) Encouraging private sector involvement in technology transfer
vi) Public funds for private extension services
2. Institutional
Restructuring
(i) District level Agricultural Technology Management Agency
(ATMA) model
(ii) Strategic Research and Extension Plan (SREP) through
participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
(iii) Block/Mandal level technology centre for single window
extension system.
(iv) Group Approach to Extension (v) Strengthening Research-Extension-Farmer linkages.
(vi) Promotion of multi-agency extension service for widening the
range of extension delivery agencies
3. Management
Reforms
(i) Central support to state Govt. of extension services on their
undertaking of policy and institutional reforms.
(ii) Routing of Central Govt. funds through ATMA
(iii) Central Assistance to SAUs for expanded role in field extension
(iv) Promotion of community based private extension services
(v) Promotion of NGO based private extension services and
contracting out extension services
(vi) Promotion of para-professional based private extension
(vii) Linkage of performance with funding for public sector
4. Strengthening
Research
Extension
Linkages
(i) Promotion of direct interface between farmers and scientist
(ii) Activating existing interface mechanisms
(iii) Research priority setting based on SREP
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 263
SI.
No.
Extension
Reforms
Issues addressed and Approaches
5. Capacity
Building of
Extension
Functionaries
(i) Formulation of HRD policies by states
(ii) Formulation of training plan for extension functionaries
(iii) One time catch-up grant for training infrastructure
(iv) Upgrading State level extension Training Institutions (v) Strengthening role of MANAGE
(vi) Developing professionalism in cost effective manner and
networking among extension institutes
6. Empowerment
of Farmers
(i) Involving farmers in setting extensive agenda
(ii) Implementation of programme through farmers users groups
(iii) Involving rural youth and mainstreaming of women with crop
and livestock
(iv) Improving access to extension and training
(v) Expounding the sphere of women extension workers and
redesigning of extension services to reach women farmers
7. Use of
Information
Technology
(i) Wider use of electronic mass media and increasing use of
information technology in extension
(ii) Farmers participation in IT Programme
(iii) State support for information technology and networking
(iv) Promoting private information Kiosks
(v) Capacity Building for use of IT
8. Financial
Sustainability
and Resource
Mobilisation
(i) Cost cutting mechanisms for extension services and efficient
use of available resources
(ii) Privatization of agro services (iii) Towards a realistic cost recovery of agro-services (iv) Co-financing of public extension (v) Initiating new financial systems and management for avoiding
bottlenecks and redtapism
3(ii). Public-Private-NGO partnership
Widening the range of extension delivery agencies for the resource poor farmers and those
residing in the hilly, tribal and remote areas , the public system will have to remain as the
chief extension mechanism with NGOs possibly being able to play a significant role.
ICAR has so far established 598 KVKs in the country out of which 99 KVKs are established
under the NGOs. The participation of NGOs in the implementation of KVK project by the
Govt of India is one of the successful Public-private partnerships in the country. Strength of
NGOs is in their ability ability to mobilise communities into Farmers organisations
(FOs)/Farmers Interest Groups (FIGs)/Watershed Associations/Market Associations. As
such NGOs complement the public extension effort in several centrally sponsored
programmes. Also extension services are contacted out and out sourced to NGOs at Block
level in some states. In such cases the NGOs substitute the public extension.
Promotion of para –professional based private extension: Para –extension workers are
organised at the grass root level to supplement public extension in a relatively cost-effective
manner and overcome constraints of absentee public extension functionaries (for example,
Gopals for AI services, Mitra Kisan for agri-services such as soil testing etc.).
264 India
Private Extension Initiatives in India: Many of the private extension initiatives in India
emerged without any active state support. Quite often they emerged in response to deficiency
in public extension service provision. The private extension service providers in case of
agriculture extension include the following:
• Input agencies (dealing with seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, equipments).
• Large agri-business firms (involved in manufacture and sale of inputs and purchase
of outputs).
• Farmer organisations and producer co-operatives.
• Non-governmental organisations (NGOs).
• Media (print, radio and television) and web based knowledge providers.
• Financial agencies involved in rural credit delivery.
• Consultancy services.
Input Agency Extension: Many agro-input companies perform some extension functions.
This may also be viewed as one function of marketing and often it is the marketing officers
who oversee the extension-related functions. Major categories of agro-input companies
include, those dealing with seeds, fertilisers, pesticides and agro-machinery. All these
agencies publicize their products through billboards, wall paintings, leaflets and
advertisements in newspapers, farm magazines and television channels. A few of them also
take up few demonstrations to publicize new products. These companies generally do not
provide any extension support to individual growers or farmer groups as they employ only
limited manpower in their target area.
Unlike the case of seed companies, the extension activities of fertiliser companies are more
visible and diverse, though it is difficult to fully differentiate market promotion and
extension activity. Indian Farmers Fertiliser Co-operative Limited (IFFCO) and Krishak
Bharati Co-operative (KRIBHCO), the two major fertiliser co-operatives in the country are
actively involved in organising several extension activities. They conduct farmers meetings,
organise crop seminars, arrange soil testing facilities and also implement village adoption
programmes. Though the technical manpower available with them is limited, they arrange
several programmes in close collaboration with agriculture departments and state agricultural
universities.
KRIBHCO Initiated Gramin Vikas Trust
Gramin Vikas Trust (GVT) was established as an independent legal entity by KRIBHCO,
a premier fertiliser company of India, in the cooperative sector under the Government of
India. For the past one and a half decades, it has managed and implemented programmes
for enhancing sustainable livelihood development and poverty reduction and empowering
communities to manage resources in rural and tribal areas, initially under direct control of
KRIBHCO, and since 2000, independently. Initial funding was made available by the UK
Department for International Development (DFID-UK). GVT believes that community
participation in development programmes is crucial towards ensuring peoples'
contributions, financial as also their physical energies and innovative insights. The
objectives of GVT are to:
• improve socio-economic conditions of the poor and the marginalized
• develop gender responsive participatory approaches
• establish village based institutions for sustaining change
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 265
• maintain partnerships with diverse stakeholders
• promote, coordinate and conduct applied research and
• create a centre for knowledge assimilation and sharing
The strength of GVT lies in their long experience in sustainable livelihoods support in the
rainfed and resources poor tribal areas and successful participatory models in farming
system development. GVT believes that communities have the capacity to take decisions
and implement them effectively, if they have enough knowledge and their approach is
based on this belief. GVT engages in various aspects of development which include,
natural resources management; agriculture; sustainable livelihood improvement; migrant
labor support programme apart from different projects of state and central governments on
partnership basis. The GVT team comprises of well-qualified, experienced,
multidisciplinary and full-time professionals - 165 in the Western region (Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat) and 64 in the Eastern region (Jharkhand, Orissa, West
Bengal); 30% of these professionals are women. The teams include specialists in the fields
of community development, gender, savings and credit, forestry, crops, livestock, soil and
water conservation, water resource development, monitoring and impact assessment,
development management and financial management (Source: http://www.gvtindia.org).
Tata Chemicals Limited, an agro-chemical company has initiated Tata Kisan Kendras
(TTKs) in 1998 with the objective to provide the farmer with a package of inputs and
services. This model was subsequently expanded as Tata Kisan Sansars (TKS) which is a
network of nearly 600 farmer resource centres that caters to more than 3.5 million farmers in
22000 villages in the northern and eastern part of India.
Tata Kisan Sansar
The centres are one-stop solution shops that provide farmers access to a wide range of
agricultural inputs such as fertilizers, seeds, and pesticides along with agricultural services
such as soil testing, crop advisory and foliar application services. The objective of the
TKS network is to enable and empower the farmer in creating and generating more value
for farm produce by providing information on new and improved agronomic practices and
by facilitating better and more efficient use of agricultural inputs. TKS functions as a hub
and spoke model. Each TKS centre is a franchised retail outlet and solution provider that
caters to about 30-40 villages in the surrounding area. The centres are in turn serviced by
about 30-odd resource centres (known as Tata Krishi Vikas Kendras or TKVK), with each
resource centre looking after 17-18 TKS centres. There are more than 60 agronomists
available at the hubs to provide advice on crops and farming issues. New services being
explored include financial services and IT enabled market information
Agri-business Firms:Major agri-business firms ITC and Pepsico during the last few years
have initiated innovative arrangements to provide farmers with integrated production and
marketing support.
Indian Tobacco Company (ITC) is a market leader in tobacco products, hotels, and
packaging, and its International Business Division is one of India’s largest exporter of
agricultural commodities. ITC’s extension effort revolves around e-chaupals, which are
village internet kiosks that enable access to information on weather, market prices and
scientific farm practices.
266 India
E-chaupals
Launched in June 2000, the ITC has so far established more than 6500 e-chaupals
covering 40,000 villages and serving over 4 million farmers. Currently, the 'e-Choupal'
website provides information to farmers across the 10 States of Madhya Pradesh, Haryana,
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala
and Tamil Nadu. The services reach more than 750,000 farmers growing soyabean,
coffee, wheat, rice, pulses and shrimp. Each kiosk is run by a local farmer (sanchalak),
selected from the village and provided with short training. The company provides the
infrastructure for the choupal, including a computer, a printer, UPS system, solar panel
and internet connectivity through VSAT. The sanchalak provides the space and has to
meet other operational expenditures such as electricity charges. Producers could access
information on cultivation practices, daily information on prices prevailing in different
markets and the price offered by ITC, detailed district-specific weather information
through computers installed at the e-chaupal. It is a virtual market place where farmers can
transact directly with the processesor and can realize better value for their produce. The
sanchalak has a transaction-based income. Farmers are free to use this facility and there is
no fee or registration charge. ITC target to cover 25 million farmers in 1 lakh villages by
establishing 20,000 more e-choupals in 15 states by 2010. (Source:
http://www.itcportal.com/rural-development/echoupal.htm)
Farmer Organisations and Producer Co-operatives: User groups, including farmer
interest groups, farmer clubs, commodity groups, women farmer groups, special interest
groups’ etc play a very important role in extension. Government is also keen on promoting
farmer organizations as it could create mechanism at the village level among farmer
members to empower them for their own problem solving. However, there are only very few
functional farmer organisations in India. One of the oldest and most successful farmer
organisations in India is the Grape Growers Association of Maharashtra (Maharashtra Rajya
Draksha Bagaitdar Sangh or MRDBS). MRDBS provides a wide range of services to its
member producers.
Extension by Farmer Association- a case of MRDBS
The Maharashtra Rajya Draksha Bagaitdar Sangh (MRDBS) established in 1960, has been
the main force behind the development of grape cultivation in Mahrashtra. The
Association is managed by elected representatives of the growers. The association
regularly conducts group discussions and seminars at different locations for grape
cultivators. It also publishes leaflets and booklets covering different aspects of grapes
cultivation. The association has full-fledged independent R&D wing headed by competent
scientist. Evaluation of new varieties of grapes, pest controls are some of the subjects
researched upon. It also seeks the expertise of scientists in research centres and
universities and other experts on viticulture in India and abroad to support grape farmers
with technical support. The association had been instrumental in the creation of
MAHAGRAPES, a confederation of 16 grape grower societies from Sangli, Solapur,
Latur, Pune and Nasik areas of Maharashtra in 1991. The main objective of Mahagrapes is
to boost the export of grapes for which facilities like pre-cooling and cold storages has
been erected at each grape grower co-operative society. Due to the concerted efforts of
'Mahagrapes' the brand of Maharashtra's Grapes is well established in the international
market.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 267
Non-Governmental (voluntary) Organisations (NGOs): Estimates of the number of
NGOs active in rural development in India range from fewer than 10,000 to several hundred
thousand depending on the type of classification used. Some 15,000-20,000 are actively
engaged in rural development. India has a number of NGOs with varying levels of capacity,
implementing a wide range of programmes. Bharatiya Agro-Industries Federation (BAIF),
Professional Assistance for Development Action (PRADAN) and Action for Food
Production (AFPRO, Foundation for Ecological Security (FES) are some of the important
NGOs working in several states. Wide variation in density of NGOs exists among states.
Within states, certain districts have high density of NGOs, which overlap and compete for
clients, while in other areas, there are hardly any NGOs active on the ground. The eighties
saw a spurt in the growth of rural development focused NGOs and several of them got
actively involved in watershed development. In the nineties, several NGOs got involved in
promotion of micro-credit through organising SHGs. Due to their effectiveness and flexible
operational mechanisms, governments are increasingly finding partnering with NGOs
attractive. Several Ministries of the Union Government have a separate provision to fund
NGOs for specific activities.
Media and Information Technology: The widespread availability and convergence of
information and communication technologies (ICTs) – computers, digital networks,
telecommunication, television etc in India in recent years have led to unprecedented capacity
for dissemination of knowledge and information to the rural population. Mass media and
print media have been traditionally linked with extension programmes in India. The All
India Radio and the Doordarshan (state run radio and television units respectively) transmit
programmes on different aspects of agriculture every day. In the nineties, private TV
channels like E-TV started telecasting daily programmes on agriculture.
The village knowledge centres initiated by the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation
(MSSRF) in Pondichery aims at building a model for the use of ICTs in meeting the
knowledge and information requirements of rural families by taking into account the socio-
economic context and gender dimension. In 2004, MSSRF, IDRC, Microsoft, NASSCOM
Foundation and ISRO initiated steps to extend the Village Knowledge Centres (VKCs) to
different parts of the country by creating multi-stake holder partnership called "Mission
2007: Every Village a Knowledge Centre".
Village Knowledge Centres
Since 1992, M S Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) – a non-profit research
organization has been implementing the Village Resource Centres (VRCs) and Village
Knowledge Centres (VKCs). Normally the VRC is located at block level or commune
level or mandal level or at the centre point of a cluster of villages. VKCs are normally
located among a cluster of villages or panchayat level. Space and electricity for
operationalising the VKC are provided by the partners (elected village administration,
traditional village administration, farmers and fishermen associations, milk societies,
youth clubs, NGOs, religion based institutions such as temples and churches, village
development council, etc.).
Most of the operators and volunteers providing information are women. Information
provided in the village knowledge centres is locale specific. For instance at Pondicherry,
information provided include prices of agricultural inputs (such as seeds, fertilisers,
pesticides), outputs (rice, vegetables, sugarcane), market entitlement (the multitude of
268 India
schemes of the government), health care (availability of doctors and paramedics in nearby
hospitals, women’s diseases), cattle diseases, transport (road conditions, cancellation of
bus trips) and weather (appropriate time for sowing, areas of abundant fish catch, wave
heights in the sea). Most of the information is collected and fed in by volunteers from the
local community itself. Much of the content has been developed in collaboration with the
local people. The volunteers were trained in PC operations and in using the data-cum
voice network.
Financial Institutions: Financial institutions lending to agricultural sector provide advice
and consultancy to potential borrowers on financial viability of their proposals. All banks
involved in agricultural lending organises farmer meetings and seminars every year.
Rural Lending and Livelihood Promotion- A Case of BASIX
The Holding Company of the BASIX Group is called Bhartiya Samruddhi Investments
and Consulting Services (BASICS) Ltd.) which started operations in 1996 as India’s first
“new generation livelihood promotion institution” . BASIX works in 15 states - Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamilnadu,
Rajasthan, Bihar, Chattisgarh, West Bengal, Delhi, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Assam. It is
currently working with over 1.5 million customers, over 90% being rural poor households
and about 10% urban slum dwellers. BASIX mission is to promote a large number of
sustainable livelihoods through the provision of financial services and technical assistance
in an integrated manner.
BASIX strategy is to provide a comprehensive set of livelihood promotion services to
rural poor households under one umbrella and it operations are guided by its “livelihood
triad” strategy. The rationale behind the Livelihood Triad strategy is as follows: Micro-
credit by itself is helpful for the more enterprising poor people in economically dynamic
areas. Less enterprising poor households need to start with savings and insurance before
they can benefit from micro-credit, because they need to cope with risk. However, in
backward regions, poor people, in addition to microfinance, need a whole range of
Agricultural/ Business Development Services (productivity enhancement, risk mitigation,
local value addition, and market linkages). Agriculture and Business Development
Services aim to strengthen the livelihoods of the rural poor and women by identifying the
sub sectors on which a significant number of people are engaged and institutionalize the
services to work on the gaps identified. The services include productivity enhancement,
risk mitigation, facilitating input and output linkages and value addition to ensure a fair
return to the producer.
Consultancy:Farmers generally consult other relatively progressive farmers for information
and advice related to production, post harvest management and marketing. Another major
source of advice is the local input dealer. Some input firms such as AGROCEL and Tata
Kisan Kendras provide free consultancy services. Emergence of paid extension services in
agriculture is a relatively recent phenomenon.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 269
Agri-clinics and Agri-Business Centres
To tap the expertise of a large pool of agricultural graduates in the country, the Ministry of
Agriculture in association with NABARD and MANAGE is implementing the Agri-
Clinics and Agri-Business Centres (AC&ABC) Scheme.
The objectives of this scheme are as follows.
• supplement the efforts of government extension system,
• make available supplementary sources of input supply and services to needy
farmers and
• to provide gainful employment to agricultural graduates in new emerging areas in
agricultural sector
Agricultural graduates are provided training in agri-business development for two months
through institutions in public/private sector. The entire cost of training and handholding is
being borne by the Government of India. The trained graduates are expected to set up
AC&ABCs with the help of bank finance. More than 11500 graduates have been trained
resulting in establishment of 3750 centres in various parts of the country spread across 36
categories of agri-ventures.
Privatisation of Livestock Extension Services: In India, Livestock extension is carried out
mostly by the Departments of Animal Husbandry and to some extent by the Milk Unions,
State Veterinary/ Agricultural Universities (SAUs), Research institutions of ICAR, and
NGOs. The animal husbandry information and other technical inputs and services are being
provided to the livestock owners through public sector organisations. With the increase in
the pressure on the land and other resources and emphasis on efficiency on the use of
resources, public spending on animal husbandry extension services is being questioned.
Recognizing the limitations of public extension services in meeting the wide ranging
demands for agricultural technology, it was suggested to promote private and community
driven extension to operate competitively with pubic extension. The government expenditure
on animal husbandry extension is justified in view of the fact that animal husbandry is one of
the very important secondary occupations to a large population of poor cattle owners, which
include small and marginal farmers and landless agricultural labourers. The livestock
owners are being trained by different organizations by offering incentives to the trainees
such as free board and lodging to encourage their participation in such training programmes.
The National Commission on Agriculture (NCA, 1976) recommended that cattle owners
should be charged for AI in areas where it is popular. However, it is being done by
collecting nominal charges by the Departments of Animal Husbandry, on cost basis by some
of the Milk Producers' Cooperative Societies and NGOs like Bharatiya Agro Industries
Research and Development Foundation (BAIF). Similarly, the Milk Unions and AHDs are
supplying cattle feed and vaccines on subsidy to milk producers. Some of the Milk Unions
have implemented welfare measures like free cattle insurance, scholarships for children of
the milk producers and accident insurance cover for the milk producers etc. In the case of
poultry, which is being run more on commercial lines compared to other livestock, the
Animal Husbandry Extension services are more organized and the poultry farmers are
charged for almost all the services, which include vaccination, debeaking, post mortem,
diagnosis and treatment of chicks.
270 India
Based on the study conducted on Privatizing Agricultural Extension in India, Rasheed and
Sadamate (2000) suggested that the public sector should concentrate on organizing
educational programmes for farmers, which are less attractive to the private agencies. The
public sector should also take up the role as facilitator in the formation of farmers' groups,
building linkages with other extension agencies and initiating paid consultancy services by
maintaining a cadre of qualified staff at district and sub district levels and some of these
services can later be entrusted to the farmers' groups.
Private sector extension cannot completely substitute for public agencies in those
circumstances where direct benefits do not assure to the firms involved, target populations
are diffuse or remote, where infrastructure is inadequate and when production consists
mainly of basic food grown by subsistence farmers. Research clearly indicated that
investments in agricultural research and extension yield high returns. Ahuja and others
(2000) concluded based on a study conducted in three states of India that there is a
significant demand for the delivery of veterinary services at home and the cattle owners
including the poor are willing to pay to receive these services.
The public extension service has still an important role to play in increasing the production
of backyard poultry, which even today is the major contributor for egg and chicken
production in the country. The Animal Husbandry Departments (AHDs) continue to provide
free inputs and technical services such as vaccinations to the backyard poultry.
Based on a review of private extension initiatives in India, Sulaiman (2003) has identified
the following lessons on private extension:
• The private extension offers much scope for supplementing and complementing
public sector extension.
• Crop/commodity focussed extension of private sector though very useful, is narrow
in one sense as they do not engage with other related issues such as farmer
organisation development or those issues related to sustainability of resource use.
• Remote areas and poor producers (especially those growing low value crops and
having little marketable surplus) are poorly served by both private as well as public
sector extension.
• While public funding would remain important, the delivery of all kinds of services
need not necessarily be though the public sector. Several of these services could be
either contracted by the public sector to other private extension providers such as
NGOs and private consultancy firms for delivering specific services in select
regions and client groups or jointly funded and implemented by public and private
agencies
• Public funds also could be utilised to fund farmer organisations to help them contract
services from other service providers including public sector. However, efforts
should be made to strengthen the capacity of farmer organisations to prioritise,
demand, contract and monitor services.
• Private extension is not a substitute for public extension and there is a need for
significant public funding for extension in the years to come.
• As farmers are also willing to pay for value-added services, the challenge is to create
quality services so that partial cost recovery can commence.
• Financial participation needs to be seen more as an accountability enhancing
mechanism and not purely as a mechanism to reduce costs.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 271
3(iii). Accountability hierarchy
The national agricultural extension system prescribes a well laid in built accountability
system. The top level officers in the system decides about the policy reforms, programmes
budgeting and implementation strategies.
In the planning commission, activities related to extension programme planning, finalisation,
budget allocation under the plan to respective programmes and the states are carried out
under the direct supervision of Member Agriculture and Advisors.
In the ministry of Agriculture, the extension system is placed under the administrative
responsibility of a joint secretary level officer assisted by an additional commissioner and his
team who are mainly responsible for the national level implementation, monitoring and
evaluation of the progress of various extension programmes including ATMA..
The directorate of extension and training is responsible for the implementation process by
coordinating with various states and agencies.
In ICAR, the responsibility of implementing the front line extension programmes like KVK
project lies with agricultural extension division. Deputy Director General (Ag. Extension)
assisted by two Asst. Director General implement the KVK project through eight Zonal
Project Directorates in the country.
The KVKs in each zone are monitored, coordinated and supervised by the Zonal Project
Directors. The Director of Extension Education in the university are bestowed with the
overseeing responsibilities and providing the technology back stopping from SAUs and
ICAR institutes in the zones. KVK programme coordinators are responsible for the
technology application through conducting assessment and refinement, evaluation,
demonstration and capacity building.
Similarly, ATMA Project Directors are responsible for the coordination of activities related
to technology management and delivery system in the district level.
3(iv). Leadership development
For the purpose of leadership development for the extension functionaries the Govt of India
has established institutions like MANAGE, EEI, SAMETI and KVKs. Along with these
institutes National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM) also gives
specialised training programme in the area of research management and leadership
development for the research and extension managers in the country.
3(v). Management information system
At National Level: Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture (DKMA), Indian
Agriculture Statistical Research Institute and Intellectual Property Right and Technology
Management unit are the important institutional arrangements at national level to deal with
the agricultural knowledge management in the country.
As a commitment to deliver cost-effective and production-oriented technologies for the
welfare of farming community, ICAR has adopted ICT based information dissemination
system. There are considerable resources of knowledge and information in the ICAR system
that can be harnessed for realizing full potential of technological interventions developed so
272 India
far. Several ICT-driven information delivery mechanisms have been developed for quick,
effectual and cost-effective delivery of messages.
The e-connectivity of ICAR institutes has been strengthened and state-of-art data centre has
been established to cater the ICT services and provide connectivity to various stakeholders.
192 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (Farm Research Centres) have been provided e-linkage for
establishing an interactive interface between farmers and scientists. The research journals
have been made available in open -access mode for the benefit of students, researchers,
farmers and various stakeholders belonging to national and global communities.
The ICAR research journals are made available in the inter-net with a provision of online
submission of manuscript, review and downloading of articles. Web based knowledge
dissemination, weather based agro-advisory and news updates are some of the important
features of the user-friendly website of ICAR. Use of database, expert system, decision
support system and web based dissemination of knowledge, inter and intranet services, i-
telephony and video conferencing are some of the major initiatives by ICAR for knowledge
sharing and AKS management in the country.
IT Based Interventions for Sharing of Knowledge: The ICAR website (www.icar.org.in):
Developed by using an open source content management system called DRUPAL, the
website is a unique platform for sharing and dissemination of information to a wide range of
users and stakeholders in agriculture sector. The News section is updated daily with inputs
from the centres of National Agricultural Research System across the country.
Interesting Success Stories of Indian farmers are presented weekly on the homepage of
website to inspire and motivate farming community. The Weather Based Agro-Advisory
developed by subject matter experts is also updated weekly for the direct use of farmers. The
website provides links to international agricultural organizations and to ICAR library and
other libraries of interest. A useful link connects the visitors to the global agricultural news
released from various international agencies. More than 2.05,436 visits are recorded per
month from 157 countries.
The ICAR research journals (The Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences and The Indian
Journal of Animal Sciences) are available in open-access mode and have been downloaded
in 157 countries from a knowledge portal developed and hosted by the Directorate of
Knowledge Management in Agriculture (DKMA) of the Council. The online research
journals provide facilities like registration for reviewer, author, reader and manuscript
submission for publishing.
The status of articles submitted may also be viewed (http://epubs.icar.org.in). A host of other
useful publications including newsletters can also be viewed on the website. The Hindi
(national language) version of the website is also available with regular updates. Around one
lakh farmers/ visitors are making use of updated information on website every month. The
website has proven its potential for sharing and delivering knowledge at national and global
level.
National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) Initiatives: Under NAIP 10 crop
knowledge models have been developed along with Portal based decision support services.
In addition, advanced Q&A forum designed for content management. About 2.2 million
SMS texts transacted with over 26,000 farmers. It was adjudged as best ICT- enabled agri
project in 2010. A rice knowledge management portal and re-usable learning objects (RLOs)
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 273
in ODL system were developed under this project. Nine communication centres set up to
enhance public awareness of ICAR.
KVK e-Linkage Project: ICAR as part of its mega ICT driven knowledge management and
technology application strategy has envisioned for providing e-linkage to its networks of
KVKs and Zonal Project Directorates (ZPDs) during XI five year plan (2007-2012). The
linkage facilities helped to achieve an enabling environment to KVKs for developing close
fruitful partnership and collaborations between subject matter specialists of KVKs and also
research scientists, extension personnel and farmers for sharing and upscaling of appropriate
agricultural knowledge and technologies, best practices and innovation among them and
other stake holders. Initially, this facility is being created in 192 KVKs and all eight ZPDs.
In the course of time this linkage will be expanded to all the KVKs in the country. The major
objectives and rationale behind this initiative is to improve KVKs connectivity with;
• technology generating institutes such as SAUs, ICAR institutes and other related
national and global centres of excellence
• farmers, grass root level organisations like co-operatives, Self- help groups and
commodity interest groups
• technology delivery system and public and private extension service providers at
district level
Govt of India launched Kissan call centres to leverage the extensive telecom network in the
country to deliver extension services to the farmers. The purpose of these call centres is to
respond to queries and issues raised by farmers instantly in the local language on a
nationwide toll free number 1800180 1551.
Agriculture Knowledge Products from ICAR: ICAR through its sustained efforts involved
in the creation of data bases, information and expert systems for the benefits of various stake
holders. The summary of the same is given here under.
Information System: There are more than 60 information system products developed and
some of the most important products among them are Plant Variety Information System,
Plant Variety Germplasm Registration System, NORV-Notified and Released Varieties of
India, INDUS-Indian Information System as per DUS guidelines, National Information
System for Pest Management (Bt–Cotton), Phenotypic Characterization of Animal Genetic
Resources of India (AGRI-IS), Water bodies information systems for West Bengal, E-Pest:
Awareness-cum-surveillance programme for the management of major pests, Digital
Herbarium of Medicinal & Aromatic plants, Networking of herbal gardens in India, Fodder
Resources and Waste land of Bay Islands, NISM-National Information Sharing Mechanism
for the PGR-GPVR (Germplasm and Plant Varieties Registration), National Information
System on Long Term Fertilizer Experiments, Project Information & Management System
Network for NATP, Personnel Information Management System Network (PERMIS NET)
and National Information System on Agricultural Education Network in India (NISAGE
NET).
Decision Support Systems/ES: There are more than 20 decision support systems available.
Most important among them are; Wheat Crop Management, Marine Fisheries Management,
Advisory System for Potato crop Scheduling, Nutrient Management in Tuber Crops, GIS
Based Decision Support System for Aquaculture in Cold Water Region, Rice-Crop Doctor,
Expert System for SERICULTURE, Expert System for GROUND NUT CROP, KMART-
Decision support system for farmers, researchers, policy makers and development officials,
Poultry Expert System (PES) on poultry farming etc.
274 India
E-Advisory/E-Learning Resources: There are more than 20 e-advisory and e-learning
resources available with ICAR. The most important among them are; Geo spatial Village
Knowledge Management System (GVKMS -Web Based), Knowledge Management for
Agricultural Research and Technologies - KMART (Web Based) and e-GRANTH for
strengthening of Digital Library and Information Management under NARS. Under
Consortium for e-Resources in Agriculture (CeRA), libraries in NARS and contents from
2917 journals were covered. In addition, ICAR also created a data ware house with more
than 59 data bases and a web based integrated National Agricultural Resources Information
System.
Collection, Documentation and Validation of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK)
and Farm Innovations: A major initiative was undertaken by ICAR in documenting and
validating the Indigenous Knowledge Systems practiced by the farmers in the country.
Through the country wide initiative a total number of 4880 Indigenous Technical Knowledge
(ITK) in 23 thematic areas were collected, validated and published in seven volumes.
Further, seven ITK e-Books and a resource Book for training on ITK was also published.
Similarly, potential innovative ideas, methods and inventions made by the farmers were also
documented and published for cross country reference by various stake holders.
AKS National Projects and Products: Some of the most important AKS project under
NARS and their output is given here under in the Table 5.
Table 5. Details of important national projects on AKS and their output
Project Major Focus
FERTNET Network for Integrating Nutrient Management
VISTARNET Agricultural Extension Information System Network
PPIN Plant Protection Informatics Network
APHNET Animal Production and Health Informatics Network of 42000 Animal
Primary Health Centers
FISHNET Fisheries Informatics Network
LISNET Land Information System Network
AFPINET Agricultural and Food Processing Industries Informatics Network
ARINET Agricultural and Rural Industries Information System Network
NDMNET Natural Disaster Management Knowledge Network
Weather NET Weather Resource System of India
AGRISNET Network of Agricultural Offices for Extension & Agribusiness
Activities
AGMARKNET Network of Agricultural Produce Wholesale Markets (7000) & Rural
Markets (32000)
ARISNET Agricultural Research Information System Network
SeedNET Seed Informatics Network
CoopNet A Network of Agricultural Primary Credit Societies (PACS) and
Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Societies (93000)
HORTNET Horticultural Informatics Network
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 275
4. Human resource development and capacity building
Government support for HRD in agricultural extension is available through providing
training support to the agricultural extension functionaries for their knowledge and skill up-
gradation. The XI plan had several schemes with built-in HRD and training components for
farmers and extension personnel. Strong institutional base has been created for catering to
training and HRD requirements of farmers and extension personnel, the quality of training
infrastructure, training module design, delivery, trainers etc. have been matters of concern to
improve overall effectiveness of training and HRD.
Approach of training and capacity building components built in to most of the centrally
sponsored, central sector and state plan schemes in agriculture and allied sectors suffers from
the following practical problems: Multiplicity of schemes adds lot of confusion among the
implementing agencies and their personnel as to which scheme to prioritize and focus for
implementation. Often times, training and HRD end up as a ritual to either meet the targeted
numbers or to spend the allocated budget. It also leaves no clue among stakeholders (farming
community) as to which scheme to choose for availing benefits.
4(i). Involvement of academic and research institutions for HRD through
curriculum development and implementation support.
(a. Areas of perception, skill and capacity building).
A long term training plan keeping in view of the requirements of extension system is
developed by the national and regional training centres in the country. The training
programmes are planned based on the needs and skill gap analysis. For this purpose the
training institutions periodically conduct the need analysis through systematic studies.
Identified Priority areas of Training of Farmers and Extension Professionals are; Climate
change implications and coping mechanisms
Scaling up of water productivity in agriculture, Scaling up resource use efficiency in
agriculture and allied sectors, Scaling up energy use efficiency in agriculture, Selective
mechanization in agriculture, Secondary agriculture (post harvest handling, storage and
processing),Innovative extension models and approaches, ICTs for knowledge & enterprise
management, Group based approaches for production, processing and marketing, Micro-
level implications of IPRs – PPV&FRA, GIs, TK, etc.,
Bio-diversity conservation and management for sustainable use and benefit sharing,
Integrated farming systems, Dry land agriculture and horticulture, Conservation agriculture,
Organic farming, High value farming, Marketing – domestic and export, Agricultural finance
and insurance, Planning and management of development plans (SAWP, SAP, CDAP, BAP,
etc.),Project formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, Skill development for
entrepreneurship, Negotiation skills for farmers and other primary stakeholders in agriculture
and allied sectors, group formation, development of entrepreneurial skills for agri-business,
agribusiness management, WTO and its implications, marketing of agricultural produce,
PHT management, conflict resolutions and negotiations management of common property
resources use of different type of media, communication, project preparation etc.
276 India
4(ii). Training of Extension workers and farmers through public, NGO, and
private initiatives:
Training institutes like MANAGE, NIAM EEI, SAMETI, NAARM, KVKs etc involved in
specialised training for the extension professionals and farmers. National Academy of
Agricultural Research management (NAARM) under ICAR is the apex institute in the
country involved in the training of scientists, programme coordinators of KVKs in various
aspects of project management techniques. NAARM carries out research on HRD planning,
training need analysis, developing various e-learning modules, training modules,
standardisation of training methodology etc.
NAARM also runs a diploma programme agri business management helping the agricultural
extension system in the country with qualified professionals. SAU system in the country and
National institutes under ICAR like Indian Agricultural research Institute(IARI) , Indian
Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), National Dairy Research Institute(NDRI),Central
Institute of fisheries Education(CIFE) which are also recognised as deemed universities,
contribute to a great extent carrying out systematic research studies in agricultural extension
to formulate suitable HRD programmes. Apart from this the NARS also actively engaged in
training of extension professionals in teaching, training and field extension works. The
major training facilities in the country is given in table.6
Table 6. Major Training Institutions in India
IInnssttiittuuttiioonn HRD & Training Focus Clients served RReemmaarrkkss
I National Level
ICAR Institutes Higher education
Technology & extension
centred training
Students, Scientists, Faculty,
Extension personnel, Farmers and
others
CCoommmmooddiittyy//aarreeaa
ssppeecciiffiicc
Directorate of
Extension,
DAC
Technology and
extension centered
training
Scientists, Faculty, Extension
personnel MMTTCCss
NAARM Higher education
Research, education &
extension management
Students, Scientists, Faculty,
Extension personnel, Farmers and
others
MANAGE Higher education &
extension training
Students, Scientists, Faculty,
Extension personnel, Farmers and
others
PGDM
PGDAEM
DAESI
NIRD Higher education &
extension training
Students, Scientists, Faculty,
Extension personnel, Farmers and
others
PGDSRD Agri &
Rural Devt.
NIPHM Technology centered
training
Students, Scientists, Faculty,
Extension personnel, Farmers and
others
Plant health
management
NIAM Higher education &
Marketing extension
training
Higher education
Technology & extension centred
training
Commodity
Boards
Technical, extension,
market and export
oriented training
Extension personnel, farmers and
others
IGNOU,
YCMOU and
Education, vocational
education and training
Students, Scientists, Faculty,
Extension personnel, Farmers and
Mostly in ODL
mode
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 277
IInnssttiittuuttiioonn HRD & Training Focus Clients served RReemmaarrkkss
other Central
Universities
others
APEDA &
MPEDA
Technical, extension and
export-oriented training
Extension personnel, farmers and
others
CICEF,
CIFNET, IFP
Technical and vocational
training
Fisheries extension personnel,
fishermen, etc.
II Regional Level
EEIs (4) Extension training Scientists, Faculty, Extension
personnel, Farmers and others
III State Level
SAUs (51) and
affiliated
institutions
Higher education
Technology & extension
centred training
Higher education
Technology & extension centred
training
SAMETIs (27) Extension training Extension personnel
SIRDs Rural development &
Extension training
Extension personnel & PRIs
IV District Level
KVKs (594) Technical, extension and
vocational training
Farmers, Extension personnel,
rural youth
ICAR, SAU and
others
ATMAs (598) Planning and financing
FTECs Technical, extension and
vocational training
Farmers, Extension personnel,
rural youth
SDAs in some
states
Agricultural
Schools/
Polytechnics
Technical and vocational
training
School drop-outs, Farm youth SDAs in some
states
V Others
NGOs Social mobilization,
conservation agriculture,
allied enterprises
Farmers and others At different levels
Private Higher education,
Technical and extension
training
Students, Scientists, Faculty,
Extension personnel, Farmers and
others
5. Research- Education- Extension – Farmers Linkages
5(i). Present linkage
There are many extension service providers in the field, providing different kinds of useful
services like information and service support to farmers. They are state, central government
agencies, agribusiness companies, agri-preneurs, input dealers, manufacturing firms, NGOs,
farmers organisations and progressive farmers. There is duplication of efforts with
multiplicity of agents attending extension work without convergence. There should be a
coordinated attempt to synergise and converge these efforts at the district level and below to
improve the performance of various stake holders. One such frame work for Technology
Development and Delivery System by ICAR is given at Fig. 3
The critical areas in which convergence efforts made are :
• Farmer empowerment and farmer organisational development
• Technology backstopping and management
278 India
• Public private partnership’s
• Frontier areas for extension, HRD and skill development
It is beyond doubt that combination of human performance with proper resource structure
lead to development. An effective convergence of method/ procedure, Agency/ infrastructure
no doubt will ensure proper use of scarce resources, time and energy. An exercise has been
made to indicate the types of convergence in the above critical areas of extension and
presented hereunder.
Institute Village Linkage programme (IVLP) -Technology Assessment and refinement
Programme implemented by of ICAR under National Agricultural technology Project
(NATP), is one of the institutionalised approach of linking the farmers with the research,
education and extension system in the country. Main Objectives of TAR – IVLP are:
• To introduce technological interventions with emphasis on stability and
sustainability along with productivity and profitability taking into account
environmental issues in well endowed and small production systems.
• To introduce and integrate appropriate technologies to increase the productivity with
marketed surplus in commercial and off farm production systems.
• To monitor socio-economic impact of technological interventions for different
production systems.
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) means Farm Science Centre are the interface mechanism
between the research and extension system in the country. They are engaged in the process
of customising the technology in agiven farming situation through conducting on farm trials.
The KVKs undertake technology refinement with the involvement of farmers and scientists.
As the KVKs continued to gain strength and spread, its mandate also changed with time in
order to meet the changing needs and challenges. From vocational training, focus shifted to
testing and demonstration of technologies during 1990s; to technology assessment and
refinement in X Plan (2002-2007) and in 2009 of XI Plan as 'Knowledge and Resource
Centres'
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 279
ACTIVITIES INSTITUTIONS OUTPUT
SAUs / AICRPs
---------------------
Private Sector
KVKs,
ZRSs
Technologies & Products
------------------------------
Proprietary Products
Location,
Situation,
System specific
Technologies
KNOWLEDGE
Technology
Assessment,
Refinement and
Demonstration
ICTs,
Mass
Media,
etc.
Basic &
Strategic
Research
Applied & Adaptive
Research
ATMAs
(District Level)
Block Co-Ops,
NGOs
Panchayat & Village
Farmers
Outcome
Enhanced Profitability, Productivity, Sustainability, Livelihood Security, Employment
Generation, Competitiveness and Food, Nutrition & Environmental Security
National: ICAR Institutes and
Universities
National / Region- Specific Strategic
Research : SAUs, AICRPs, Private
Sector
Principles, Processes
and Methodologies
Line
Departments
Fig. 3. A Framework for Technology Development and Delivery System (Source: ICAR)
280 India
Therefore, the KVKs are involved in the application of science and technology of agriculture
in the field. At present, the core activities of KVKs are:
• On-farm testing to identify the location specificity of agricultural technologies
under various farming systems (KM process – transforming data into information)
• Frontline demonstration to establish the production potential of improved
agricultural technologies on the farmers fields (KM process – transforming data into
information with field experiences – there by transforming into useful knowledge)
• Training of farmers to update their knowledge and skills in various aspects of
agriculture, training of extension personnel to orient them in the frontier areas of
technology development (KM process – sharing implicit knowledge and skills – by
converting into explicit knowledge/ skills)
• Work as Knowledge and Resource Centre of agricultural technology for supporting
initiatives of public, private and voluntary sector for improving agricultural economy
of the district (harnessing a cafeteria of KM processes, tools and strategies)
The journey of KVKs has been remarkable enabling its existence in 600 districts till date and
by the end of XI plan, establishment of 667 KVKs is envisaged.
The Council has established 44 Agricultural Technology Information Centres (ATIC) in 16
ICAR Institutes and 28 State Agricultural Universities to work as ‘Single Window’ support
system for linking the various units of research institution with intermediary users and
farmers in decision making and problem solving exercise though supply of technology
inputs, products, information and advisory under Innovations in Technology Dissemination
(ITD) component of National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP), which was funded
by World Bank.
At present, National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) launched during 2006-07 is
being implemented by the Council in ‘Consortium’ mode through four major components;
ICAR as catalyzing agent for management of change of National Agricultural Research
System (NARS), Production to Consumption research, Sustainable Rural Livelihood
Security and, Basic and strategic research in frontier areas of agricultural sciences. These
consortia aim at developing scientific knowledge for the immediate benefit of the value
chain. In case of component 4 of NAIP, the aim is to develop basic/strategic scientific data/
information.
5(ii). Emerging trends of linkages
The Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Government of India with the assistance of
World Bank designed and piloted a decentralized extension approach in the form of
Agriculture Technology Management Agency (ATMA) under NATP, which focused on
agriculture diversification and thereby made it more demand and market driven. ATMA is
functioning towards increasing farm income by organizing the farmers & farm women and
making the system viable through ‘decentralized, participatory and market driven’ approach.
Participatory knowledge generation, dissemination and sharing are integral part of ATMA.
The storage and retrieval issues at higher magnitude could be addressed with technology
mediated KM strategies.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 281
Moreover, the Department has initiated a number of programs in XI Five Year Plan (2007-
2012) to help and guide the State Governments so as to take up scientific and technological
interventions for higher agriculture growth. Programs like Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
(RKVY-National Agriculture Development Scheme), National Food Security Mission
(NFSM), National Horticultural mission (NHM) & Technology mission on horticulture,
Macro Management of Agriculture (MMA) scheme, Micro irrigation and watershed
management, Integrated Scheme of Oil Seeds, Pulses and Maize (ISOPAM), Promotion of
Maize for food, nutrition and livelihood security, enhancing sustainability in dryland and
rainfed farming, Technology Mission on Cotton (TMC), National Bamboo Mission have
been launched. Recently Ministry has started Special Initiatives for Pulses and Oilseeds in
Dryland Areas under RKVY by organising demonstrations in 60, 000 pulses and oilseed
villages. Further, Terminal Market Complex Scheme has also been initiated in few states for
providing state-of-art facilities for electronic auction, storage, handling, and strengthening
offline backward and forward linkages to agricultural produces.
The Indian Metrological Department (IMD) in collaboration with NARS rendering Agro-
metrological Advisory Services (AAS) about crop and livestock management to farmers,
extension personnel and other stakeholders in 127 agro climatic zones of the country, which
contributed to contingency planning, biotic and abiotic stress management, managing
enterprises of agriculture, livestock and fishery sector in changing climatic situation and
helps to macro and micro-level planning. These services are delivered through All India
Radio, Television, Print media, Webinars, Emails, Mobile and other Multi-media tools.
5(iii). Proposed integration mechanism
The technical convergence of ATM and KVK at the grass root level during the XII plan
period is one of the important aspects in strengthening the linkages between institutions and
farmers. In the similar way linking the famers institutions like dairy cooperatives, farmer
interest groups, SHGS etc with research and extension system through creating a national
level coordinating agency during the XII plan is planned.
5(iv). Institutional reforms for strengthening linkages
In the larger district two KVKs have been established by the ICAR. Through National
Agricultural Development Programme the state governments are provided with adequate
financial assistance for strengthening their research-education-extension infrastructure in the
country. In addition, ICAR has taken initiatives to strengthen the SAUs with experiential
learning units, state of art facilities for creating e learning facilities. Through the
establishment of e connectivity facilities, ICAR has facilitated the interaction of scientists
from ICAR research institutes with the subject matter specialists of KVKs, farmers, and
extension specialists in the country. The grass root level convergence of various
infrastructure in agriculture extension is given in table 7.
282 India
Table 7: Infrastructural convergence at Grass root Level
Sl
No.
Areas of capacity building Method / Procedure Agency/ Infrastructure/
convergence
1. Farmers knowledge, skill and attitude
i) Breeding ii) Feeding iii) Health care and disease
prevention iv) Value addition and
marketing
i) Training/ Demonstration ii) Exhibition & farmers fair iii) Extension literature iv) Mass Media v) Use of ICT and cyber
extension vi) Field campaign
KVKs, SIRD, NIRD, IIE, ICAR & SAU Extension system. State level livestock development agency and Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry.
2. Leadership, communication, skill and managerial development
i) Strengthening of village level leadership
ii) Developing interpersonal communication
iii) Managerial skills such as planning, organizing, coordination etc.
i) Training/ Role play ii) Success stories and cases iii) Management games
KVKs, EEI, IIE, MANAGE, NIRD & SIRD
3. Organisational Skills
i) Organisation of farmers groups.
i) Organisation of producer/ cooperatives/ societies/ union or federations.
i) Training in leadership ii) Training in group dynamics
& group formations iii) Performance linked
specialized training iv) Record keeping v) Financial management
i) Cooperative training institute.
ii) IIE iii) NIRD/ SIRD iv) EEI
4. Marketing and Business Skills
i) Market Analysis ii) Demand and supply
Forecasting iii) Supply chain, Cold chain
and networking iv) Retail marketing and
creation of market network
i) Lectures and skills training by practical
ii) Exposure visits to progressive states and leading co-operative dairies
i) Cooperative training institutes
ii) MANAGE iii) IIE/EEI iv) NIRD/SIRD v) Leading management
institutes in Rural development.
5. Establishment of grass root level infrastructural facilities
i) AI Centres ii) Mobile unit iii) Fodder demonstration
units iv) Milk Collection centres v) Bulk Coolers vi) Chilling centres vii) Rural Marketing
Network and centres viii) Establishment of Milk
Processing centres at regional level
i) ix) Value addition and manufacturing facilities at district level
i) Analysis of the types of breed requirement and quantity of semen requirement
ii) Ensuring quality semen supply and availability of skilled insemination
iii) Training of rural youths for paid insemination services.
iv) Preparation and submission of suitable projects for the establishment of milk collection centres, chilling centres and rural marketing centres through funding agencies.
i) Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying
ii) State Milk Federation
iii) NDDB iv) NEDFI v) NABARD
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 283
6. Incentive Structure
6(i). Incentive structure: Present status and future outlook
The pay and allowances of the extension professionals in the country are governed by the
provisions of sixth pay commission pay structure.The pay scale varies according to the level
and cadre of the employee.Some of the state Govt adopts their own pay scale instead of
central Govt prescribed pay scale. The details of various pay band adopted across different
levels may be seen from the web site of DoPT,Govt of India.
6(ii). Career advancement scheme
There is a well laid promotion policy is adopted in the NARS wherein the ARS scientists
working with ICAR are covered under the revised CAS implemented by ICAR according to
the sixth pay commission pay scales. The entry level scientist are assessed to the next grade
pay after four years in a well defined assessment criteria. In a similar way the subsequent
promotions are granted after subjecting the scientists in a periodical manner according to
their job structure and responsibilities.The subject matter specialists working in the KVKs
are governed by the technical service rules of ICAR for those KVKs under ICAR and the
SAU system follows the UGC pay scales and the CAS.
6(iii). Prize and reward system
A good number of awards and reward system is established in the country to encourage the
employees, farmers, rural youths. ICAR has instituted nineteen national level awards in
various fields of agriculture. Among them, for KVKs there is one national level best KVK
award and eight zonal level best KVK awards instituted for encouraging the good work by
KVKs across the country. The award amount for the best KVK comes about Rs.12 lakh
which includes Rupees five lakh for over- seas training for the Programme coordinator,
Rupees three lakh for the infrastructure development, one lakh for sharing among the staff,
and a cash prize of three lakh.
Individual awards like best extension worker/scientist award, awards for press coverage on
agricultural news items, best teacher awards, young scientists awards, rural youth awards,
society awards by different extension societies, annual awards by department of agriculture
at central and state level are existing to encourage the extension professionals, famers and
extension activities in the country.
6(iv). HR management
The human resource management in the extension is governed by the well structured
provisions of in service trainings, short, medium and long duration trainings. The number of
vacant posts are about 32 percent and efforts are made to fill up these posts during the XII
plan period. The details of present manpower deployment in agricultural extension is given
in table 8.
284 India
Table 8: Human resources in Agricultural Extension
Level Sanctioned Filled Vacant Vacancy (%)
State 2047 1682 365 17.83
Regional 806 653 153 18.98
District 3655 2811 844 23.09
Sub divisional 1228 955 273 22.23
Block 22848 16853 5995 26.24
Sub Block 13168 9121 4047 30.73
Circle 4488 2412 2076 46.26
Panchayat 40610 25572 15038 37.03
Village 7851 5413 2438 31.05
Total (All
India) 96701 65472 31229 32.29
7. Monitoring and Evaluation
7(i). Institutional review and program review
The inbuilt component of ATMA is concurrent monitoring and evaluation of the
programmes undertaken at the district level. The governing body and AMC of ATMA
monitor and evaluate the work during its monthly meeting. In case of KVKs.
7(ii). Monitoring of extension program (including follow up)
Monitoring and evaluation cells were established in 32 institutes to strengthen priority
setting, monitoring, and impact assessment work within and outside the NATP Project.
Similarly, NAIP also has got a well laid monitoring and evaluation system inbuilt in the
project component. The periodical review through quarterly, half yearly and annual reports
project progress review workshop are some of the monitoring and evaluation mechanism in
operation.
KVKs are monitored through the Zonal Projectors situated in eight zones. In addition the
Director of Extension of SAUs are given the overseeing responsibilities. Scientific Advisory
Committee of the KVKs review the progress of the KVK work in the district.
Zonal workshops, regional committee and interface meetings are other inbuilt provisions in
the KVK system for continuous monitoring of the project. The KVK activities are evaluated
by a group of experts during the annual zonal workshop and annual action plan meetings.
Periodical third party evaluation also conducted by high power committee through travel
workshops and quinquennial review team. The strong evaluation of the activities helps to
revisit the mandate, activities and continuous improvements in the programme. National
level rabi and kharif conferences help to evaluate the programmes progress with respect to
demonstrations, yield improvement achieved in the farmers field etc.
Extension programmes are investments where capital resources are expended to create
functional units at gross root level from which we can expect to realize the benefits over an
extended period of time. According to USDA, evaluation is the process of determining how
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 285
well one is doing in what one is trying to do. Evaluation when applied to the field of
extension may be defined as a process of systematic appraisal by which we determine the
value, worth or consequences of the extension programme/activity. Most of the evaluation
study conducted in extension was of mostly comparison of production yield before and after
the implementation of the programme. However, it must be understood that evaluation is not
simply a measurement of achievements, which is usually done after a programme is
executed.
A complete evaluation for extension is one which aims at the full length enumeration of both
tangible and intangible costs and benefits involved. Both tangible costs and benefits are easy
to identify but it is not so for intangible ones. The application of such knowledge by farmers
is generally termed as adoption and is usually measured by adoption rates, that is, the
proportion of farmers applying knowledge of a particular technology that they have acquired
from extension agents. Economic evaluation is a part and parcel of all phases in an extension
programme right from its initial planning to implementation and completion.
The economic concept of extension is applied at all the three stages of the project that is i) at
project selection, ii) during implementation and iii) after completion of the project.An
evaluation that takes into account only the cash inputs (such as gross margin analysis) may
be appropriate for certain type of technologies only (Amir and Knipscheer, 1989). The net
cost and benefit in any extension programme includes both tangible and intangible costs. The
social cost is anything the society pays/sacrifices save monetary contributions for the
execution of an extension programme.
Likewise the social benefits are those benefits other than its monetary benefits derived from
the outcome of the project on its execution. Mostly, the social cost and benefits are indirect
in nature. The social cost which the society incurs on the execution of the programme cannot
be ignored. Even though it is intangible, it is considered for the cost estimation because of
the social value attached to it. The difficulties involved in measuring the social cost benefit
are in the realm of anybody’s imagination. Yet without the inclusion of these intangible costs
the efforts to evaluate the extension largely remains non-functional.
The animal health services rendered by the State Departments of Animal Husbandry
involves social costs in providing the subsidized services to the livestock owners. However,
these services like vaccinations, diagnosis and treatment of animals, prevention and control
of zoonotic diseases have far reaching social benefits in terms of getting quality livestock
products and in the control of spread of diseases. Since economic cost-benefit analysis is one
aspect of the whole which we have to measure for determining worth of an extension project,
it is the responsibility of the extension professionals to undertake a complete evaluation in a
holistic manner to do justice in this job. This helps to obtain a complete picture on project
cost, output, outcome and impact created across the system.
8. Conclusion and recommendations
With fifteen discrete agro climatic regions, country’s agriculture is very diverse and so the
distribution of livestock population. The impact of research and development efforts is
reflected in remarkable increase in an all round productivity w.r.t. crop, horticulture, animal
and fishery sectors. Compared to 1950, the productivity in 2005 became 3.3 times in case of
food grains, 2.1 for vegetables, 1.6 for fruits, 5.7 for fish, 4.8 for eggs and 1.8 for milk. In
286 India
spite of these remarkable achievements, country faces great challenges in further increasing
the productivity of all these sectors to match the population demand. The livestock and
fisheries sector play an important role in generating income and employment for marginal
farmers and landless labourers in meeting nutritional and livelihood security.
Addressing the emerging challenges would require new approaches which must be supported
by extension research and education system. The extension research and education system
should focus on the application of cutting edge technologies, thrust on technology
integration, use of information communication technology, quality aspects in addition to
increase in quantity, thrust on post harvest, food processing and value addition, resource
management etc.
Right technology and Right methodology are the two key elements required to be focused by
the extension research and education systems. The inventory of right technology and
methodology need to be made available by the system. Extension Research and education
system must reform itself in terms of content and adequate focus has to be given on effective
technology selection, optimization, application, sustainability and management.
The frame work of strengthening the Extension research, education and delivery system
includes.
• Assessment of existing extension education system, approaches and organizations
against the back drop of changing scenario to come out with practical solutions for
strengthening/ restructuring the system.
• Broadening the scope of technical mandate keeping in view the current demand
scenario.
• Development of location specific, participatory gender sensitive and customized
extension materials and methodologies.
• Emphasis on FSR/E and farmer participatory approach.
• Strengthening the operational linkages and partnership between research, extension,
farmer, market and other key stake holders.
• Empowering farmers and organising them into commodity groups/associations and
federating them.
• Integrating ICT in the extension research, education and technology development
system.
• Focus on issues like IPR, Farmers Rights and DUS guidelines.
The technology delivery system needs to gear up their capacity in terms of manpower,
expertise, finance, structure, institutional linkages and the kinds of methods, approaches and
delivery system they employ. The issues to be taken up for strengthening the delivery
system are;
i) Farmers empowerment and farmer organizations development
ii) Institutional linkages, convergence and Partnership issues
iii) Technology backstopping, application, integration, ICT use and management
iv) Frontier areas of extension, HRD and skill development
v) Policy issues
Lack of quality manpower dedicated to the cause of agricultural development is a serious
constraint and challenge encountered by the system. Agricultural extension should be on
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 287
agri-business extension mode and this is possible only if the system recruits personnel who
can bring in different kinds of expertise. For instance expertise related to cutting edge
technologies, organizational development, market development, legal issues related to farmer
rights, IPR etc are crucial for extension. This would also involve some de-learning of its
conventional technology dissemination approach and learning new ways of doing things.
Extension is weak in animal husbandry and fisheries sectors and this would need
considerable strengthening. Strengthening of national and regional level training facilities for
continuous skill up gradation of extension professionals is to be taken up immediately.
Assessment of the quality of extension personnel is a must and a national level mission mode
approach is needed in this regard.
Strengthening the expertise of extension organization includes :
• frontier areas of technology
• resource conservation and management
• market development, linking with markets and export development
• quality and standards
• organic agriculture
• enterprise/entrepreneurship development,
• skill development in horticulture, seed and plant material production
• research and extension in response to adaptation to climate change and risk
management
• financing and insurance
• extension for resource conservation and management
• extension management techniques (programme/project management- PERT, CPM,
log frame, 5-S etc)
• legal and regulatory issues (farmer rights, IPR)
• promotion of public-private partnership
• application of ICTs, content development and updating
• skills related to farmer organizational development and farmer empowerment
• Strengthen extension in animal husbandry and fisheries sector
• Initiate manpower planning in extension organizations, create new positions and fill
existing vacancies based on manpower planning
• Address HRD and skill development in extension organizations through the
following strategies:
- new recruitments,
- contract arrangements,
- consultancies,
- staff trainings
- partnering with organizations having expertise
Policy Issues
Several organisations implement extension programmes with very little co-ordination. Co-
ordination is lacking even among public sector organisations. Establishment of a national
288 India
extension authority (similar to the National Rainfed Area Authority), can potentially bring
about the much needed integration for effective planning and delivery of extension
programmes. Integration of extension activities at the district level also needs policy support.
Several initiatives that were successful at the pilot stage had failed when external support
was withdrawn. Another major constraint is the declining financial support for extension.
Enhanced funding is crucial for improving the ability of extension to deal with the complex
challenges of the second green revolution. Extension also needs crucial research backup on
new approaches, methodologies and management techniques relevant for different situations.
Policy issues need to be addressed through
• Enhanced funding
• Strengthen research in extension
• Establish a national extension agency/board
• Developing strategies to improve sustainability of pilot initiatives
• Strengthen mechanisms for district level planning
• National Centre for Agricultural Knowledge management
Way Forward
Several organization implement extension programmes with very little coordination. Co-
ordination lacking even among public sector organizations. Establishment of national
extension agency/board (NEA) can potentially bring about much needed integration for
objective planning and delivery of programmes. Integration of extension activities at the
district level also needs policy support. Several initiatives that were successful at the pilot
stage had failed when external support was withdrawn. Another major constraint is the
declining financial support for extension. Enhanced funding is crucial for improving the
ability of extension to deal with the complex challenges faced by it. It also needs crucial
research back up on new approaches, methodologies and management tools and techniques
relevant for different situations.
To summarize, among other things, (i) enhanced funding, (ii) strengthening extension
research and education, (iii) creation of a national extension authority, (iv) developing
technology inventory and methodology modules, (v) developing strategies to improve
sustainability of pilot initiatives, (vi) Farming System Approach in Extension along with
district resource mapping and planning, (vii) networking and partnership approach, (viii)
inclusion of newer concept and methodologies, (ix) Creation of national and regional level
knowledge management system for continuous technology and methodology backstopping
and (x) Resource and market led approaches for sustainability are the most important areas to
be focused upon for developing a frame work for technology development and delivery
system.
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National Agricultural Extension Systems in
Nepal
Dr. Nil Kantha SharmaCommunications Specialist
Nepal Economic, Agriculture and Trade (NEAT) Activity
(USAID Project), Lalitpur, Nepal
E-mail: nksharma200@hotmail.com
Cell: 00977-9841272108
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 292
Executive Summary
Agricultural extension service is one of the major under takings of government to educate,
disseminate information and support the livelihoods of the Nepalese farmers. The extension
service provides both productive inputs and services to teach farmers about improved
technologies so that they can improve their productivity, incomes and standard of living. The
extension service also helps to empower the farming communities by forming farmers
groups to help them to decide on how best use of available local resources and to articulate
the needs of farmers.
Since 1950, government has implemented several extension models and approaches with
donor support or support from the government's own resources. The models / approaches
adopted in Nepal are conventional, T and V, Block Development, IRDP, Tuki, Farming
System Research, Farmer Group Approach, Contract out / Partnership of Extension
Programs, IPM (Farmers Field School) and others. These approaches all have some strengths
and weakness but all of these approaches / models have made significant contribution to
educate and transfer of technology to the farmers.
Initially, Agricultural Extension System in Nepal was mostly used as synonymous to
government/public services. The economic globalization, liberalization, privatization and
advent of information and communication technologies have been brought tremendous
changes in the field of agriculture development. The needs and interests of the farmers,
knowledge and information on production technologies and production objectives are
changing rapidly. Thus, farming is now closely linked with quality production, market
competitiveness and sustainability rather than the increasing production alone. As a result of
this paradigm shift in agriculture, the role of government extension services has also
changed. There is a shift for government to play more of facilitation role and for more
services to be provided by the private sectors. Now, there are different types of organizations
other than government agencies providing extension services to the farmers on contract out
or partnership basis. The extension service providers in Nepal can be identified as
governmental, community based organizations (CBOs) such as farmers associations and
cooperatives, developmental and institutional organizations (IAAS, NARC, vocational Trade
Schools, NGOs, training institutions, etc.) and private service providers (agrovets,
traders/processors, contractor/consultant, etc.)
In spite of the significant efforts made by extension system, however, there are still several
problems and issues that require attention to perform its function more efficiently and
effectively. One of the major challenges for agricultural extension system is how to serve the
majority of rural poor and socially disadvantaged groups who had long been neglected by
extension and other services. Other problems are inadequate linkage among research and
extension, education, farmers and other stakeholders, poor infra-structural development,
insufficient number of extension personnel etc. to carter diversified agricultural services.
Government has decided to implement the full fledge devolution modality in 14 district out
of 75 districts to provide quality services based on the needs and interests of local
communities. But it seems that there are several issues to be resolved in this modality,
particularly the full fledges devolution of agricultural extension programs. In past,
agricultural sector had always been placed at lower priority both in terms of program
planning and budget allocation in district level planning, which may create both financial as
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 293
well as managerial problems in the long run. It should be noted that it is agricultural services
that have the most direct impact on increasing the incomes of poor rural farmers.
The country paper consists of different technical chapters including one main theme paper on
Review of Agricultural Extension System in Nepal. There are all together 7 chapters in the
paper. The first part of the paper attempts to provide an overview of the agricultural service
system in Nepal including historical perspectives of extension organizations, comparative
analysis of different models and approaches adopted in past and at present and out comes of
these approaches in over all agricultural development.
The paper also describes the national extension strategy of the country, with historical
background and periodic reformation of the system. This paper has made an attempt to
justify the need of national extension system. The second chapter has tried to analyze the
different organizations of National Agricultural system, agencies involved in the system,
extension planning process of the country, coordination mechanism between public and
other different agricultural development sectors. It also describes the aspects of devolution,
some experiences of devolution practices adopted in different countries. It has also discussed
about the possible consequences of agricultural extension devolution in Nepal and has made
some suggestions to move ahead.
Third chapter consists of institutional reform including partnership and collaborative effort in
agricultural extension. The paper has made an attempt to foster the areas of partnership,
comparative strength of public and private service providers and some experiences of
partnership program in Nepalese agricultural extension system. This chapter also describes
the accountability hierarchy in over all government system in Nepal related with Agricultural
Extension Development and over all management information system of the nation. Fourth
chapter is trying to explore on human resource development and capacity building and fifth
chapter regarding the linkage system, mechanism and their importance for the development
of agriculture. Sixth chapter provides an over view of monitoring and evaluation system of
agricultural extension system of Nepal in general. The paper has thoroughly analyzed the
common features and issues in extension service delivery with more emphasis on
agricultural extension system with some meaningful recommendation.
The paper is trying to indicate that legislation on agricultural extension is essential to provide
the policy mandate, direction and necessary support to build a stable and effective extension
system.
294 Nepal
1. Introduction
Nepal is a land locked country situated between the People’s Republic of China in the north
and Republic of India in the remaining sides. It has an area of 147181 km2 of which 51817
km2 are covered by Mountain region, 61345 km
2 are covered by Hilly region and 34019 km
2
are covered by Terai region. Nepal has a population of nearly 30 millions.
Around 85 per cent of Nepal’s people live in rural areas. They draw their livelihood
primarily from agriculture and related activities. The share of agriculture in GDP was 39.16
in 2002/2003. However, majority of people still continue to depend heavily on agriculture
sector for income and employment opportunities. The 2001 census indicate that till now 65.6
per cent of economically active population in Nepal are employed in agriculture and related
activities (Economic Survey 2000/2001). Women constitute about 60 per cent of labour
force. They have little access to alternative employment opportunities. They are among the
poorest in the country. With small operational land holding averaging even less than half
hectare, agriculture reflects low level of productivity and absence of viable employment
opportunities for the rural people and thus poverty perpetuates.
Nepal is a multiethnic and multilingual society. The 2001 Census identified 103 caste or
ethnic groups and subgroups of the population. Similarly, same Census lists 93 different
languages or dialects prevalent in the country. These languages originated from two major
groups: the Indo-Aryans, who constitute about 85 percent of the population, and the Tibetan-
Burmese, who constitute about 15 percent of the population. Nepali is the official language
of the country and is the mother tongue of about 49 percent of the population. Newari,
Maithali, Awadhi are other languages spoken in the country.
Map of Nepal
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 295
Nepal, noted for her majestic Himalayas, the roof of the world, Sagarmatha, Mount Everest
(8848 m) in the north and the lowest point Kechanakal (70 m) in the south. The Himalayas
which in Sanskrit means the home of snow, the water towers, which supply water to the
Indo-gangetic plain of Indian subcontinent, are the proud of the mountainous and hilly
country, Nepal. Its shape is roughly rectangular, about 650 kilometers long and about 200
kilometers wide. Climate of Nepal varies from cool summers and severe winters in north to
subtropical summers and mild winters in south.
Agriculture sector still has prime role to play in Nepalese economy. This sector has 38
percent contribution to the National GDP and 13 percent of the total foreign trade of the
country. Keeping in view of the contribution, the agriculture sector was given priority for its
development from the onset of the periodic plans till the Eighth Five Year Plan. In this
background, the major objective and challenge of agriculture is to reduce poverty and to
support the development of non-agricultural sectors through high growth in agriculture.
1.1. Review of Agriculture Extension System in Nepal
1.1.1. Agriculture Extension in Conceptual Framework
Different extension specialists have conceptualized agriculture extension in different ways.
This is natural that the definition has been retuned on the basis of changing context. The
basic concept of extension is to transfer the appropriate technologies to the farmers and get
them adopted for their benefit. Extension always puts emphasis on educating the cliental to
solve the problems absorb the changes and stand on their own. However, some of the
concepts have been mentioned below:
(i) Agri. Extension relates to the process of carrying the technology of scientific agriculture
to the farmer in order to enable him to utilize the knowledge and a better economy. It
seeks to impart the necessary skills to the farmers for undertaking improved agriculture
operations, to make available to them timely information about improved practices in
an easily understandable form suited to their level of literacy and awareness, and to
create in them a favorable attitude for innovation and change (Benor et. al 1984)
(ii) The extension is an ongoing process of getting useful information to people (the communication dimension) and then in assisting those people to acquire the necessary
knowledge, skills and attitudes to utilize effectively this information or technology (the
educational dimension). Thus extension is central mechanism in the agriculture
development process, both in terms of technology transfer and human resources
development (Samantha, 1993).
(iii) Van dun and Hauking (1997) states that synthesized perspectives of extension are:
• Transferring knowledge from researchers to farmers.
• Advising farmers in their decision-making.
• Educating farmers to make similar decisions in the future.
• Enabling farmers to clarify their goals and possibilities and to realize them.
Stimulating desirable agricultural development.
(iv) To fit into current context, the agriculture extension should be capable enough to provide advisory services to farmers, processors, traders and other stakeholders
involved in the value chain system of agriculture.
296 Nepal
1.1.2. Historical Background of the Department of Agriculture
• 1942: Agriculture Office was established as an institutional effort.
• 1952: Department of Agriculture was established.
• 1966: Restructuring of Department of Agriculture and establishment of five
Departments:
− Department of Agriculture Extension
− Department of Fishery
− Department of Horticulture
− Department of Livestock Health
− Department of Agricultural Education and Research • 1972: Lack of effective coordination among the departments again led to the creation
of the Department of Agriculture.
• 1972: The need and sensitivity of agricultural markets gave rise to the establishment
of the Department of Agricultural Market Services.
• 1979: In view of effective program implementation of agriculture and livestock
sectors two separate departments; one for agriculture and another for livestock were
established - Department of Agriculture and Department of Livestock Services.
• 1990: Establishment of Department of Horticulture.
• 1992: under one umbrella policy all the five Departments - Horticulture; Crop and
Fishery; Food, Agriculture and Market Services; Livestock Health and Food
Research Laboratory were brought into one department called the Department of
Agricultural Development. Under this department one Director General and seven
Directors were posted.
• 1995: Under the new restructuring program three departments came into existence;
viz -Department of Agriculture, Department of Livestock Services, and Central Food
Research Laboratory.
• 2000: To enhance the effectiveness of services and supports to the Department of
Agriculture, 11 Technical Divisions at the center were reorganized into nine
Program Directorates.
• 2004: Program Directorates were reorganized and established 12 Program
Directorates and 14 National Programs under the Department of Agriculture.
1.1.3. Agricultural Extension in Nepal
The Tribhuvan Village Development Program (TVDP) included agriculture extension as one
of the components, which was the first in its kind. It was essentially an integrated
development program, where promotion of agriculture was the core component. Following
"Block Development Approach" TVDP encompassed other social components like
education, adult literacy, health and the general community development activities.
However, TVDP could not continue longer.
The subsequent approaches followed in agriculture extension included the establishment of
Zonal Agriculture Development Offices (ZADOs) and District Agriculture Development
Offices (DADOs) and recruitment of field level extension workers - Junior Technicians (JTs)
and Junior Technical Assistants (JTAs), the JT/JTAs with a modest training in general
agriculture, which also included agriculture extension as one of the subjects, were supposed
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 297
to make the farmers aware and persuade them towards adopting new technologies,
considered superior to those already in practice.
Awareness raising methods among the farming communities were used. These included
individual contacts, group contacts and mass contacts. Attempts were also made to convince
the farmers about the superiority and usefulness of the modern/improved advocated
technologies, applying the most common extension tools, such as method and result
demonstrations, agriculture fares and farmer's day, farmer's field visit and observation tours,
and use of audio-visual aids.
The traditional extension approach was based on the "Trickle down" theory of the
dissemination of technologies. The underlying assumption of this approach was that if
innovation is introduced to small number of farmers (progressive/contact/leader farmers) the
diffusion process would automatically take place, and there will be multiplier impacts of the
interventions. This approach was successful to a limited extent. There was inadequate
motivation for the poor farmers to take the benefit of technology adoption. To overcome this
problem, the need for deliberate attempts to reach such farmers was realized. To support and
provide reinforcement to the field level extension workers -(JT/JTAs), Para extension
workers (such as " Agriculture Assistants", and 'Tukis") were employed. However, these
grassroots level extension support workers very soon became non-functional as they were
poorly paid and inadequately motivated. And the JT/JTAs again remained the sole extension
agents with a lot of limitations. More emphasis was laid on technical support while social
mobilization was neglected.
It was considered important that government alone may not be able to cater fully to the needs
of providing necessary production inputs and technical service to all farmers and in all
geographical areas. Realizing this, the government has adopted the policy of farmers' group
approach and involving the Community Based Organizations (CBOs) and Non-Government
Organization (NGOs) in the development efforts. It is assumed that it will be easier for the
extension workers to reach the maximum number of farmers and would be sustainable even
after the phasing out of the external assistance.
Despite many perceived weaknesses in farmer group approach, the government is pursuing
this approach to serve as the vehicle for bringing socio-economic changes at the grass root
level. The government is trying at best to remove the weaknesses identified so far about the
group and redefine the role of government.
Past Efforts
The history of agricultural development can be traced since 1950 and even before. But to
have a comprehensive idea it can be divided into two parts, as follows:
Before 1950: This period includes the opening of Nurseries, Veterinary Hospitals, Central
Research Farm, and Technical School etc. Administration was centralized, and there was no
problems regarding linkages and coordination. Level of farmer's awareness and ambitions
were very low and the farming was almost subsistence type.
After 1950: Systematic efforts towards national development began in the fifties with the
formulation and subsequent implementation of the first five-year plan in 1956. All the plans
formulated since then have emphasized generation of appropriate agricultural technologies
and their effective dissemination.
298 Nepal
The agriculture extension program was first included as a build in component of the
comprehensive Tribhuwan Village Development Program (TVDP), implemented through
USAID assistance. It was essentially the integrated village development program, where
promotion of agriculture was the core component. Following "Block Development
Approach" TVDP encompassed other social components like education, adult literacy, health
and the general community development activities. However, TVDP could not continue
longer.
The subsequent approaches followed in agriculture extension included the establishment of
Zonal Agriculture Development Offices (ZADOs) and District Agriculture Development
Offices (DADOs) and recruitment of field level extension workers - Junior Technicians (JTs)
and Junior Technical Assistants (JTAs), the JT/JTAs with a modest training in general
agriculture, which also included agriculture extension as one of the subjects, were supposed
to make the farmers aware and persuade them towards adopting new technologies,
considered superior to those already in practice.
Various extension methods such as individual contacts, group contacts and mass contacts
were used for awareness rising among the farming communities. Attempts were made to
convince the farmers about the superiority, usefulness and profitability of the advocated
technologies, applying the most common extension tools, such as method and result
demonstrations, agriculture fares and farmer's day, farmer's field visit and observation tours,
and use of audio-visual aids. This traditional approach of extension continued for many years
before some of its basic weaknesses were recognized as the limiting factors in motivating
adequately the farming community to adopt the recommended agricultural practices. It was
realized that these were some inherent drawbacks in the system in a way that majority of the
farmers could not be reached. Specially, the poor and deprived communities remained, by
and large, out of the reach of the extension services. The main reason attributed to such
situation was the limited number of field level extension workers, as compared to the vast
number of farm households, combined with difficult terrains especially in the hill and
mountain.
The traditional extension approach was based on the "Trickle down" theory of the
dissemination of technologies. The underlying assumption of this approach was that if
innovation is introduced to small number of "progressive farmer" "contact farmer", "leader
farmers" and likes, the diffusion process will automatically take place, and there will be
multiplier impacts of the interventions. This approach met with limited success, mainly due
to the limited resources in terms of technical advice, production inputs and credit, service in
remote areas. Adequate motivation and persuasion were not there for the poor farmers to
take the benefit of technology adoption. To overcome this problem, the need for deliberate
attempts to reach such farmers was realized. To support and provide reinforcement to the
field level extension workers - (JT/JTAs), Para extension workers (such as "Agriculture
Assistants", and 'Tukis") were employed. However, these grassroots level extension support
workers very soon became non-functional as they were poorly paid and inadequately
motivated. And the JT/JTs again remained the sole extension agents with a lot of limitations.
Carrying out agriculture extension activities solely by JT/JTAs was not only the numerical
problem of non-availability, but it also suffered conceptually. Under this system, too much
emphasis was laid on technical support, and social mobilization aspect was neglected. It was
deemed necessary that delivering the technical services without social preparedness, at the
receiving end, is not going to achieve the purpose of agricultural development. Restoration
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 299
of multiparty democracy in the country in 1990 gave Nepal a new multiparty democratic
constitution in 1991, which appropriately recognized decentralization as a means to ensure
optimum involvement of the people in the governance. In this context it was therefore
realized that social mobilization at farmer's community should be done through farmers
groups empowered to effectively participate in development programs. It was also
considered important that government alone may not be able to cater fully to the needs of
providing necessary production inputs and technical service to all farmers and in all
geographical areas. Accordingly, the government has adopted the policy of carrying out the
extension activities through following the farmers group approach and involving the
Community Based Organizations (CBOs) and Non-Government Organization (NGOs), in
the development efforts of the government, It is assumed that it will be easier for the
extension workers to reach the maximum number of farmers through groups; and the groups
if properly developed can efficiently manage its activities through their capacity build up.
The approach may be sustainable even after the phasing out of the external assistance.
Despite many perceived weaknesses in farmer group approach, the government is pursuing
this approach to serve as the vehicle for bringing socio-economic changes at the grass root
level. The government is trying at best to remove the weaknesses identified so far about the
group and redefine the role of government.
1.2. Review of Extension Approaches
1.2.1. Approaches adopted in the past
(i) Training and Visit System: This system was based on the principle of single line of
command with continues training and contacts. Research extension linkage was
stronger though material support for adoption was quiet weak.
(ii) Integrated Rural Development Approach: This approach was based on the
integration and coordinated management of resources for rural development.
Technology support was not adequate.
(iii) Tuki Approach: This approach had the thrust of utilizing trained local farmers based on self-motivation principle. These farmers were also working as agri. input dealer, so
that the technological message could go along with inputs required.
(iv) Farming System Research and Extension Approach: This approach viewed research
and extension in the whole farming system perspective, so that cropping system
research could be done. Farmers would know the interdependencies between
components and could relate to physical, biological and socio-economic factors.
(v) Block Production Program: This program was based on the principle that intensive
use of resources consolidated together in an area called "Block" could increase the
productivity. This was not effective for scattered area.
1.2.2. Approaches at present
(i) Conventional Educational Approach- Besides the group members, the key farmers
are involved in the process of motivation and education. The farmers themselves in a
wider area disseminate the knowledge and skills taught to them. This approach has been
effective to facilitate the adoption of new innovation by interested farmer, which
eventually radiated demonstration effect to neighboring farmers.
300 Nepal
(ii) Pocket Package Approach- Pocket package approach refers to the production strategy on pocket area basis. The feasible pockets for a certain commodity are selected and then
a project is developed through bottom up process. This has been positive to introduce
the package of technologies as demanded by pockets. It has also helped to develop the
crops/commodities on commercial scale.
(iii) Projectization Approach- Every commodity based production program has been implemented on the basis of Project-designed within the frame work of time duration,
budget expenditure and expected output Package of activities which are required to
achieve the output are identified and included in the Project. This approach has been
adopted in all the seventy-five districts with a priority in the production pockets.
(iv) Farmers Group Approach- The principle is to put the farmers of same interest
together and carry out the activities on group basis. This has been very effective to
bring the innovation to the groups, which in turn expand to its command area farmers.
The limited manpower and other resources can be well utilized by means of group.
(v) Farmers Field School Approach-This is based on the principle of adult learning. This
has been very effective approach in reaching farmers and helping them to have an
access to the knowledge and skills required for crop management. This approach is
becoming popular because of its democratic and participatory process.
(vi) Partnership Approach- Government organizations is undertaking partnership
approach with other organizations like Department of Irrigation, NGOs, CBOs, Private
Organizations etc, to effectively deliver the extension services. This strategy has
encouraged relevant stakeholders to join hands in development.
Comparative Performance Indicators of Various Extensions
Approaches Adopted in past
S.
No.
Particular T & V IRDP Tuki FSR/E Conventional Block
Production
1. Relevancy of Technical
recommendation
Low Low Low High Low High
2. Agent client ratio 1:1621 1:1244 1:1154 1:451 1:1270 1:192
3. Research Extension
Linkage
High Poor Medium High Poor Medium
4. Coordination Low Low Low Low Poor High
5. Contact cost by
JT/JTAs (Rs.
3.59 2.13 7.69 8.74 6.37 7.59
6. Information flow Effective
and Rapid
Effective and
Slow
In effectice NA Ineffective and
slow
Effective
and Rapid
7. Visit to farm High and
Scheduled
Low and non-
scheduled
Non-
scheduled
Non-
scheduled
Low and Non-
scheduled
Non-
scheduled
8. Generation of
Technology
No No No Yes No Yes
9. Competency of
workers
Low Low Low NA Low High
10. Privatization of inputs No No Yes Yes No No
11. Training of field
staff
Regular
and
Scheduled
Irregular and
Non-scheduled
Irregular
and Non-
scheduled
Irregular
and Non-
scheduled
Irregular and
Non-scheduled
Irregular
and Non-
scheduled
12. Clarify in job
description
Yes No Yes Yes No No
13. Supervision and
Monitoring
Yes No No Yes No yes
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 301
1.3. Latest National Agricultural Extension Strategy
Background
With the devolution of agricultural extension function to the local elected bodies (District
Development Committees) as per the letter and spirit of the Local Self Governance Act 1999
(LSGA), the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has been attempting to formulate
National Agricultural Extension Strategy (NAES) consistent with the LSGA, APP, national
agricultural policy and national periodic plan. The work was initiated by the World Bank
supported Agricultural Research and Extension Project in 2001. As we all know, a taskforce
was formed and a national workshop was held in September 2001. Several excellent working
papers were prepared and presented at the seminar. However, efforts of AREP to reformulate
NAES by accommodating changed political, institutional, social, and economic landscape
and the visions on service delivery approaches appropriate to the 21st century remained
incomplete. The AREP was terminated as it completed its planned period. Prior to the above,
we recall to other National Agriculture Extension Strategy which was formulated in 1994
keeping in view of the upcoming Agricultural Research and Extension Project. Despite that
the official status of the 1994 strategy is not known, the Agricultural Research and Extension
Project (AREP) was approved by the World Bank after the formulation of this strategy and
that the MoAC and World Bank both were happy with the then strategy formulated in 1994.
Implemented in 19 Terai districts and 4 hill districts of Nepal between 1997 and 2002, AREP
is credited for its attempts to introduce several reform measures, methods and approaches in
the agricultural services delivery, which, among others, include the farmer centered
participatory group approach, projectization, privatization and partnership (GOs, NGOs and
private sector) approaches in agricultural service delivery. The influences of this project in
Nepal's agricultural history will remain for many years. With the termination of the AREP,
the Agriculture Perspective Plan Support Program implemented by the MoAC in July 2003
with the support of the DFID agreed to support the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
to resume the task of formulating NAES. A new taskforce was formed under the
chairmanship of Mr. Aseshor Jha (Then Joint Secretary of MoAC) in April 2004 recognizing
the need for a nationwide strategy to provide new directions, mechanisms and processes for
the service delivery. This taskforce prepared two reports- a Background Paper on NAES,
2004, and the draft NAES 2004. However, prior to the presentation of the draft NAES to
different key stakeholders and its subsequent approval by the government, further actions
related to the NAES formulations were deferred by the APPSP. The reason was the initiation
of a higher level study on APP Review* which aimed at the formulation of the Agriculture
Perspective Plan (APP) Implementation Action Plan (APP-IAP). The postponement was
necessary as APP would provide policy framework and contexts for the NAES. It is very
important that the NAES and the APP-IAP be consistent to each other and the one reinforces
the other. As the APP implementation Action Plan has been prepared and is now within the
MoAC for further discussions and actions, the APPSP is expected to expedite the completion
of the NAES.
1.3.1. The Rationale for National Agricultural Extension Strategy
Issuance/ proclamation of a national agricultural extension Strategy (NAES) is necessary for
the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives as the global and national environment and
contexts for agricultural extension has tremendously changed in recent years. Business as
302 Nepal
usual will not meet the increasing expectations of the people. Poor and disadvantaged groups
will continue to be greatly ignored and their access is likely to be limited. Gaps between the
policy and its implementation are a reality. Nepalese agricultural extension services which is
now at the verge of transition from production focused to people focused, from hard systems
thinking to soft systems thinking and from transfer of technology types of approaches to that
of participatory approaches which are driven by the ethos of participation and put people at
their centre.
1.3.2. Reforming Agricultural Service Delivery, a National Agenda
In Nepal, agricultural extension is dominated by the activities of the two departments under
the MoAC- the Department of Agriculture (DOA) and the Department of Livestock Services
(DLS). Despite many encouraging evidences with regard to the performance of public sector
agricultural extension in the past, Nepalese public sector agricultural extension is often
criticized for its strong technology transfer and seemingly failure to contribute to sustainable
agricultural growth. Problems such as the following are often noted with regards to Nepal's
public sector agricultural extension:
• Domination of supply driven approaches rather than demand driven.
• Failing to cater the needs of the specialized client and demand for location specific
extension services as required by the commercialization of agriculture.
• High cost, low impact of extension programs.
• Insufficient face-to-face contact between extension worker and farmers.
• Inadequate funds for operational purpose.
• Inadequate technical qualifications of grassroots extension workers such as
JTs/JTAs,
• Inefficiency of extension personnel
• Dilution of impact by thin coverage.
MoAC's efforts to facilitate the evolution of self-standing and self-sustaining groups and
their empowerment to become self-reliant and capable of articulating their needs and
problems effectively have hardly matched with the resources, opportunities and capacities of
the public extension system. Furthermore, the current extension system is still out of reach of
majority of people. The extension worker: farmer ratio is very wide.
WTO Membership
After many years of efforts, exercises and controversies, with effect from April 23, 2004,
Nepal has become 147th member of the WTO Accession to the World Trade Organization is
often heralded as a major breakthrough in Nepal’s trading history. Getting membership in
the WTO was crucial for Nepal in the sense that no country, whether developed or
developing, can exist in isolation without trade with other countries. And the WTO is a
global body that makes global trade more disciplined and equitable. However, benefits to
WTO accession are potential and intangible; the costs are immediate and real. Unless
domestic policies, which include services delivery approaches and method, are reformed,
likelihood of benefiting from WTO membership for countries like Nepal is bleak. For
producers to benefit from the WTO, they need to be aware about the quality standards
imposed by the importing countries, produce quality products at competitive prices and
know all necessary phyto-sanitary rules and regulations, otherwise let the country be
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 303
prepared to observe the share of agricultural exports in total exports being declined, and the
economy of the country moving towards collapse.
While above problems remain, the government has devolved agricultural extension to the
local bodies. The devolution of the agricultural extension to the local elected bodies, has
however, created new challenges and opportunities.
Furthermore, the formulation of NAES has become crucial for the following reasons:
• Institutionalizing the participatory demand driven extension system;
• Sustaining the institutional parallelism within the public sector agricultural extension
service delivery;
• Making extension service delivery pro-poor and inclusive;
• Mainstreaming gender concerns in the agricultural extension services
• Strengthening the devolved agricultural extension systems
• Shifting the focus of agricultural extension system from the production to the people,
from the technology to the innovation system, and from farming to livelihoods;
• Making the public sector agricultural extension system work within the present
conflict situation (conflict sensitive service delivery approach)
• Revisiting the current agricultural extension educational methods the norms for
which have been so formulated that the materials and expenditure criteria hardly
differ either with the changes in the geographic diversities and physio-graphic
conditions of the district nor with the nature of technology;
• Strengthening the research, education and extension triangle and so forth
• Making extension efficient and effective in helping traders, producers and
consumers to benefit from the WTO membership and the implementation of
SAFTA.
1.3.3. Global Context
While national needs have necessitated us to formulate the national agricultural extension
strategy, changing global context, demands and expectations have made it urgent. The
following highlight a few global concerns.
Millennium Development Goals
A global development agenda, agreed by all the world’s countries, is now in place. The
agenda is set out in particular in the UN Millennium Declaration which was adopted in 2001.
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) represent concrete step-by-step objectives and
targets in specific areas. The MDGs consists of eight-time bound, mutually-reinforcing and
interrelated goals. These include:(a) eradicate poverty and hunger, (b) achieve primary
education, (c) promote gender equality and empower, (d) reduce child mortality, (e) improve
maternal health, (f) combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases, (g) ensure environmental
sustainability and (h) develop a global partnership for development. Achieving MDGs would
be remote if we go with the same approaches and methods of service delivery.
Food Security
The challenges facing agriculture and of assuring global food security and the sustainable
management of natural resources are manifold and immensely complex. Achieving the food
security requires two things. First it should be placed in a broad context and secondly it is
necessary to acknowledge the "multifaceted character of food security, as has been argued
304 Nepal
in" The Rome Declaration on World Food Security” in 1996. For this, the "business as
usual" will not work any more.
Globalization
Globalization refers to interdependence and linkages of the world economies, markets,
services, and people. It presents both emerging challenges and new opportunities. For
enabling Nepal’s agriculture to enter through new doors and get benefits from new
opportunities created under globalization by escaping its threats and meeting the challenges
requires reforms in the service delivery approaches and strategies.
A Rights Perspective on Development
The rights perspective comprises democracy and respect for human rights. Central to rights
based perspective is the realization that democracy and human rights are mutually
reinforcing, and one can’t exist without the other. The rights perspective focuses on
discriminated, excluded and marginalized individuals and groups. It urges that people must
be able to enjoy their rights regardless of sex, age, disability, ethnic background and sexual
orientation. This perspective helps to identify areas in which special actions are required to
ensure that the effects of various decisions are as fair as possible. Gender equality is a key
element of the rights perspective. It is necessary to give attention to the different conditions,
interests, capacities and needs of women and men, girls and boys. As many women are
among the poorest of the poor, securing women’s access to land, credit, clean water and
other resources as well as their participation in decision making is vital to their prospects of
overcoming poverty.
Good Governance
There has been increasing realization among development stakeholders that good governance
is needed for achieving sustainable development and poverty reduction. Likewise, there is
increasing recognition that the highly centralized institutional structure that characterizes
many government administrative systems can lead to losses in effectiveness of development
investments and policies. During the 1990s, pluralistic democracy replaced authoritarian
regimes in many countries including Nepal. The nature of governance also changed. The
concept of good governance, which rests on the four pillars (ownership, equity, transparency
and accountability, and efficiency) transcends the idea of governance as just “methods that
societies use to distribute power and manage public resources and problems” to champion a
process that “provides an enabling environment for human development and eradication of
human deprivations” (NHDR 2001).
Sustainable Livelihoods
Because livelihood strategies of the poor people are complex, a livelihoods perspective will
provide better insights into the ways in which agricultural growth can reduce poverty and
vulnerability. Needless to say, poor people in rural areas, including those with no land,
typically derive half their household income from farming. This includes working on the
farms of others.
Therefore, Sustainable Livelihoods Framework is gaining popularity for it offers a
conceptual and analytical framework to understand causes of poverty, analyze relationship
between relevant factors at micro, intermediate, and macro levels. The approach explicitly
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 305
requires going beyond sectoral barriers, to look at more of the context in which people live.
The framework for sustainable livelihoods dynamic recognizes changes due to both external
fluctuations and the results of people’s own actions. The starting point for the sustainable
livelihoods perspective is to look at first the vulnerability context within which people
operate.
Shrinking Funds and Resources
While investments in agricultural research and extension grew at a rapid pace, estimated at a
global average of over 6% per year during the 1960’s and 70’s, it has begun to stagnant or
decline from the 1980s, and this has been more drastic in the case of extension. Most of the
developing countries, extension services are often widely seen as having become grossly
inefficient, burocratised and ineffective. Donors are no longer willing to bear the running
cost of extension organizations for they are often viewed inefficient, monolithic and costly.
1.3.4. National Agricultural Extension Strategy
Mission
The mission of the NAES is "the efficient and cost-effective need-based participatory
delivery of agricultural services, prioritized and targeted to the needs of different categories
of farmers, particularly focused on small, poor and deprived.
Overall objective
The overall objective of NAES is to reform and reorient public sector agricultural extension
service in order that it will strengthen decentralized agricultural extension services and
ensure the access of the poor, deprived and socially excluded to the agricultural extension
service.
Specifically, it will
1. Provide a common framework for funding and delivery of agricultural extension services which will (a) be responsive and flexible to farmers’ needs (b) ensure farmers’ equitable
access to opportunities and benefits created provisioning of services, (c) be transparent
and disciplined in actions and (d) ensure active participation of all relevant actors and
stakeholders as to the nature of innovation/technology.
2. Create favorable opportunities and appropriate environment to support and sustain currently initiated learning centered participatory service delivery approaches.
3. Increase farmer's capacity and self-reliance to improve their livelihoods through farming systems.
4. Develop pro-poor professionalism in agricultural extension and keep the frontline extension workers active, motivated, disciplined and updated to both (a) technical
knowledge and skills and (b) social skills.
Thrusts of the NAES
• Poverty Reduction: NAES is oriented towards attacking poverty through multi-
approaches and actions at multi-layers in a coordinated and coherent way.
• Sustainable Livelihoods: In harmony and coherence with long-term NARC
research vision, the NAES will centre around the sustainable livelihood approach
(SL approaches) which is gaining popularity as an approach for addressing poverty.
306 Nepal
• Food Security: NAES will be directed towards improving food security in line with
the commitments made in the World Food Summit 1996, and followed by World
Food Summit, 5 years later.
• Conservation of Agricultural Biodiversities: NAES will work towards fulfilling
our commitments on improving biodiversity conservation and respond to declining
agricultural biodiversities.
• Equity and Inclusion: The NAES will aim at reforming service delivery modality,
particularly the dominant blue print approach- the Transfer of Technology Model, in
order that many, who are excluded from the present agricultural development efforts
due to factors such as the socio-economic reasons, sex, effect of the dominant trickle
down model of development, geographical isolation, remoteness, cultural factors, the
lack of the capacity poor to present their voices and concerns etc., are included
• Commercial Agriculture: The NAES will facilitate the implementation of centrally
supported/ administered programs in close collaboration with the Nepal Agricultural
Research Council (NARC) and concerned program directorates for the development
of the commercial farming sectors.
NAES Framework
• Decentralized agricultural services Delivery: In the last four decades, Nepal has
traveled a long road towards decentralization in an attempt to bring government
closer to the people. When power is brought closer to the citizens, the political
process is expected to become more tangible and transparent. As a result, more
people can become involved. The LSGA lays down the vision for decentralization,
the end goal where Nepal wants to go.
• Institutional pluralism (promote the private and community driven extension to
operate competitively, in roles that complement, supplement, and work in
partnership with public sector extension and outsource some of the activities
performed by the public sector extension)
• Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems (AKIS): AKIS views
agricultural research and extension as necessary but, by themselves, insufficient
elements in complex innovation-oriented institutional arrangements. It emphasizes
towards achieving synergy among diverse and complex institutional actors and
stakeholders.
• Participatory extension to enhance the capacity of the local people to actively take
part and influence decision making process about the cause of development that
affects their livelihoods.
Key Programmatic Elements
Key programmatic elements of our NAES include the following:
• Enhancing local bodies capacities
• Projectization approach (Cluster approach)
• Establishment and operation of demonstration farms (Resource centers and private
demo- farms)
• Convening village workshops
• Farmers' group organization and development
• Coordination and linkages
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 307
• Livelihood analysis
• Developing and mobilizing community based organizations and locals resource
persons
1.4. Contribution of Agriculture Extension in Agriculture Development:
Until the faculty system was established, whatever was done in agriculture, it was considered
to be the contribution of agriculture extension and research Faculty system in spite of its
positive aspects has significantly compartmentalized the manpower of the department,
creating confusions misunderstandings and rivalry within the organizations. It is really
difficult to demarcate the contribution made by research and extension, which are considered
as the two pillars of agriculture development, yet it can be said that they share almost equal
level of contribution in general. However, the contribution of Agriculture extension could be
noticed as follows:
1.4.1. Extension as a vehicle
Agriculture extension, as a matter of fact, is serving as a vehicle for carrying messages to
farm communities and in turn bringing back the solution seeking feed back to the concerned
organizations and so on.
• Massive awareness: Extension agents tried to reach the farmers as much as they
could. They started answering the questions raised by the farmers and gradually
farmers started using improved technologies in their field. They heard about new
things and they applied them in the practice and ultimately obtained benefit from it.
In this way farmers raised their level of awareness in getting information, knowledge
and skills for using the information in the field and then generate income out of it.
The extension educational activities, trainings and vigorous interactions with farmers
tremendously helped to make the farmers aware, alert and educated in agriculture.
• Introduction of modern concepts and approaches: It is well known that every
thing in the universe is changing. What is today does not necessarily remain
tomorrow. So is the case with agriculture. Now concepts, approaches and
technologies of agriculture generated around the world greatly influenced Nepalese
farmers also by means of different media such as contacts by the extension agents,
exposure visits, publications, telephones, electronic media and so on Farmers now
are very much aware of different actors of development and know to join hands with
them. They have been professional to go into the depth of the techniques and use
them to improve their farming.
• Adoption of new technologies/innovations: The main job of agriculture extension
is to communicate, educate and convince the farmers about new technologies or
innovations that are suitable to adopt in their conditions. In this context, several
extension techniques such as demonstration, group discussion, educational visit,
trainings are applied, so that the farmers are motivated and also become technically
able to adopt new technologies in their field.
1.4.2. Creation of farmer's demand for the facilities and services
Farmers when realized the importance of agriculture extension started putting their demands
for facilities and services. They used to ask for Agriculture Service Centers, qualified
308 Nepal
JT/JTAs, input and credit facilities, irrigation, marketing centers etc in their area so that they
could make use of them in their farming purposes.
1.4.3. Improvement in the Production System
Towards Commercialization: Agriculture extension by using several tools and techniques,
attempted different concepts and approaches towards improving production system. Pocket
package strategy as pinpointed by APP was implemented for the commercialization of
agriculture by focusing one or two main commodities in the pocket. Farmers with similar
interest were put into the group or lager organizations to consolidate and establish a working
mechanism towards commercialization. In this context one of the major extension services
these days has been to transfer subsistence farming into commercial farming.
Cropping Intensity: With the efforts of extension services the cropping intensity in many
cases has been increased even up to 300 per cent and per unit area production per year thus
has increased in the country,
Towards Food Security: Several attempts have been made to increase production and
productivity to address food security issues. Needs regarding the production inputs have
been catered both by private and public sector. Local farmers have been involved in
generating resources such as seeds, seedlings etc. Some of the special programs implemented
for this purpose are as follows:
Small Irrigation Scheme: Small irrigation scheme program has been implemented in the
needy are as or needy farmer groups of all the seventy-five districts. Since, these schemes
could be scattered even within the district, it could in deed hit the problem. The small and
marginal farmers, women farmers and disadvantaged sector are specially paid attention while
deciding the schemes.
2. Extension Organizations
Organizational structures of agriculture extension are changing several times. Some times
there is one department and some times different departments. So far as the specific
extension organization is concerted it stunted as Agriculture Extension Section first and
gradually enlarged to Directorate of Agriculture Extension and its main mandate is to
facilitate the working by supplementing the operational guidelines for field extension
activities to be conducted as per their technical standard. However, after the restoration of
democracy two major changes occurred in the organizational front. In 1991, first the
responsibility of agricultural research was detached from the then Ministry of Agriculture
(MOA) and handed over to Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), an independent
and autonomous research organization. Second, the Department of Agriculture (DOA) and
the Department of Livestock Services (DOLS) were merged into a single Department of
Agriculture Development (DOAD). But merging two departments into one could not
continue for longer. Following Local self Government Act 1999, HMGN since 2001/02 has
devolved the agriculture extension services to District Development Committees (DDC)
adding one more dimension to the ongoing reforms in the delivery aspect. All the regional
and district organizations have been adjusted accordingly. Recent structural change has
substantially reduced the number of Agriculture Service Center (4 per Tarai district, 6 per
hill district and 4 per high hill district. This has resulted for JT/JTA to serve quite large area
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 309
and farm families. Special working mechanisms need to be established to properly address
the emerging issues faced by the farmers and other stakeholders involved in the system.
2.1. Agencies Involved in the Extension System (GO and NGO)
2.1.1. Public Level
There are various service delivery institutions to ensure the agriculture service delivery to
meet the need and demand of farmers in Nepal. The detail of different institutions is attached
at annex 1 (Organizational Chart of MoAC). Following are the agriculture extension service
delivery institutions.
310 Nepal
District Agriculture Development Office (DADO)
District Agriculture Extension Offices (DADOs) are the service providing organization at
district level regarding agriculture and livestock sector respectively. Likewise, District
Livestock Offices (DLSOs) are concerned with delivery of extension services on livestock.
Agriculture Service Centre
The Agriculture Service Centres (ASCs) are the grass root institutions to provide the
agriculture extension service that work closely with the farmers. As the numbers of ASCs are
limited, some supplementary provisions have been made to provide the services for the
farmers. These include:
Contact Centre
After the restructuring of MoAC in 2061 BS, the numbers of ASCs per district were reduced.
This created the pressure in the ASC to cover the larger clientele. In this context, DoA
provided flexibility to districts to establish contact centers (Samparka Kendra) to effectively
utilize the existing physical resources such as Agriculture Sub-Service Centers as well as
demand of VDCs.
Model Agriculture Service Centre
The concept of model service centre was put to increase the efficiency and implement the
service delivery with improved effectiveness so that it could be internalized in other service
centers. Priorities have been given to improve the physical condition and equip with essential
facilities. Such model service centers have been established in following five districts in each
development region.
1. Agriculture Service Centre, Urlabari, Morang 2. Agriculture Service Centre, Gunjanagar, Chitwan 3. Agriculture Service Centre, Shishawa, Kaski 4. Agriculture Service Centre, Ramghat, Surkhet 5. Agriculture Service Centre, Attariya, Kailali
Community Agriculture Service Centre
The concept of Community Agriculture Service Centre (CASC) has been put forward by
MoAC with the objective of making service delivery more inclusive as well as to help
commercialization in agriculture through best utilization of local resources and skills of local
individuals. Though the establishment of 25 CASC was announced by Nepal Government in
annual budget and program of FY 2065/66 it has not been implemented yet. The proposed
model emphasize the participation of farmers groups and cooperatives in the management
and implementation of program at service centre level to make service more responsive and
client oriented. The contribution of local government bodies (VDC/DDC) and concerned
NGOs/CBOs/private sectors is also expected. Farmers improved access is expected to
through the representation of each groups and cooperatives in a management team for
CASC.
Similarly, recently farmer's cooperatives are equally utilized in the delivery of agriculture
extension service.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 311
2.1.2. International/National Nongovernmental organizations (I-NGOs)
There are ten thousand nongovernment organizations involved in community and rural
development sector (Three year interim plan). I-NGOs have played very significant role in
Nepalese society in a number of ways including successfully arousing consciousness and
making advocacy of/for a number of developmental issues and other global democratic
values( good governance, civil society, globalization, privatization, liberalization,
transparency, responsibility, participatory democracy and development, decentralization).
NGO Strengths
• The majority of NGOs are small and horizontally structured with short lines of
communication and are therefore capable of responding flexibly and rapidly to
clients' needs and to changing circumstances. They are also characterized by a work
ethic conducive to generating sustainable processes and impacts.
• NGOs' concern with the rural poor means that they often maintain a field presence in
remote locations, where it is difficult to keep government staff in post,
• One of NGOs' main concerns has been to identify the needs of the rural poor in
sustainable agricultural development. They have therefore pioneered a wide range of
participatory methods for diagnosis3 and, in some contexts, have developed and
introduced systems approaches for testing new technology,
• NGOs' rapport with farmers has allowed them to draw on local knowledge systems
in the design of technology options and to strengthen such systems by ensuring that
the technologies developed are reintegrated into them
• NGOs have also developed innovative dissemination methods, relying on farmer-to-
farmer contact, whether on a group or individual basis
• In some cases, NGOs have developed new technologies such as by Li-bird and
SEAPRED
• Undoubtedly, one of the main strengths of NGOs has been their work in group
formation. This has been in response to perceived needs at several levels.
NGO Weaknesses
• NGOs' small size means that their projects rarely address the structural factors that
underlie rural poverty. Small size, independence, and differences in philosophy also
militate against learning from each other's experience and against the creation of
effective forums, whether at national or district levels.
• Some "fashionable" locations have become so densely populated by a diversity of
NGOs that problems have arisen not merely of competition for the same clientele,
but of some undermining the activities of others
• NGOs have limited capacities for agricultural technology development and
dissemination and limited awareness of how to create effective demand-pull on
government services.
• Some NGOs are more accountable to external funding agencies than to the clientele
they claim to serve. Donor pressure to achieve short-term impacts, combined with a
lack of cross-learning, has led in some cases to the promotion of inappropriate
technology,
312 Nepal
The I-NGOs have either interacted or linkage with the beneficiaries, user groups, self help
organizations (SHOs), CBOs, and other people’s organizations or part of them and have also
linkages with external actors/forces ,they have successfully mediated or played the role of
mediators and communicators between the state /government and the people and tried to
bridged the gap. They have played important role in empowerment (poor, women,
marginalized, Dalits, Adibasi janajaties, powerless, voiceless, vulnerable groups, and
empower the poor for self help development and networking), governance, capacity building
(e.g. Of institutions, development planning , information exchange, training of personnel,
institutional building) and management(coordination of activities monitoring control
evaluation feedback and reporting) .They have also played significant role in identifying
developmental needs priorities and activities and recommending the policy makers to
correcting their weakness and for their effective implementation .Some I-NGOs have also
worked as umbrella organizations including many intermediary institutions ,voluntary
organizations and associations, user’s groups .CBOs and SHOs. Some have even tried to
penetrate in a remote rural areas contributing or monitoring the developmental activities of
the local organizations. Some of them have even contributed to strengthen the developmental
power of the people to overcome their existing problem, issues, challenges (e.g. poverty,
illiteracy, malnutrition and powerless), miseries and inequalities.
2.1.3. Community Based Organizations
A CBO is an organization that provides social services at the local level. It is a non-profit
organization whose activities are based primarily on volunteer efforts. This means that CBOs
depend heavily on voluntary contributions for labor, material and financial support.
Indigenous CBOs were well established traditions in Nepal in the past. Their powerful
presence, which existed among all ethnic communities prior to the unification of Nepal in
1768, has since eroded. Most indigenous CBOs treat ethnicity as a major focus. These
culture sp0ecific organizations are characterized by social, religious and developmental
practices, quite unique to each ethnic group. Some examples of these ethnic groups are:
Dhikuri- associated with the Thakalis, Bhotias and Gurungs of western Nepal.
DharmaPanchayat- a sociopolitical and legal organization of the Thakali ethnic community
that helped them exercise local autonomy even during the feudal Rana regime.
Guthi- an indigenous social and religious organization of Newars of the Kathmandu valley.
Rodi- a unique social organization of the Gurungs of western Nepal.
Bheja- an indigenous social political, economic and legal organization of the Magars.
Kipat- a similar organization of the Limbus.
These organizations function within their own traditional practices and codes of ethics, but
are quite different from the emerging modern concept of local NGOs in Nepal.
Funding agencies should be aware that in rural areas, the rural elites tend to have overriding
decision making powers. The rural population is highly heterogeneous in terms of caste
ethnicity and socioeconomic status. In some cases user groups such as water or forest user
groups being promoted in grass root projects may not be representative of the majority
population of the area.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 313
CBOs are recognized as organizations that provide development services to grass root
communities at village and district level through the mobilization of paid members or unpaid
volunteers. CBOs are rooted in the communities they serve.
CBOs in Nepal sometimes are based in ethnic group, seeking benefit for a particular ethnic
group. It is important to differentiate between induced and indigenous CBOs. CBOs that
originate with projects are regarded as induced.
Characteristics of a CBO
• It is non-profit;
• It relies on voluntary contributions;
• It acts at the local level; and
• It is service-oriented.
There are many forms of community based organizations in Nepal. They are in the form of
mere farmer groups to well organized structures such as federations, forums, networks,
cooperatives, and so on.
2.2. Extension Planning Process
According to Kelsey and Hearne (1967) an Extension program is a statement of situation,
objectives, problems and solution. It is relatively permanent but requires constant revision. It
forms the basis of extension plans.
Extension planning is a process, which involves studying the past, and present in order to
forecast the future and in the light of that forecast determining the goals to be achieved and
what must be done to achieve them. Program planning is a decision making process
involving critical analysis of the existing situation and the problems, evaluation of the
various alternatives to solve these problems and the selection of the relevant ones, giving
necessary priorities based upon local needs and resources by the cooperative efforts of the
people both official and non-official with a view to facilitate the individual and community
growth and development.
Problem Identification Process
With in the DOA and DOLS Participatory Bottom-Up Planning (PBUP) process of
agricultural extension program planning is followed in planning process. Based on national
agriculture policy and priority the planning is done. For this, Central Program Directorate
and Offices of DOA and DOLS prepare technical guidelines in their respective areas. The
departments compile technical guidelines along with the guidelines provided by the National
Planning Commission (NPC) and MOAC. Thus prepared guidelines and directives are made
available to DADOs and DLSOs through RD. The DADO and DLSO Chief inform their
SMSs and Incharges of ASC/ASSC and other technicians about central guidelines and
directives and guidelines receive from DDC. The guidelines and directives should reach
ASC/ ASSC before the PBUP at the ASC/ASSC level starts.
Levels of planning
1. ASC/ASSC level planning can be divided into; planning for pocket area and planning for non pocket areas.
2. District level planning
314 Nepal
3. Regional level planning workshop 4. Central level program reconciliation and approval
2.2.1. ASC/ASSC level planning (Planning for pocket areas)
Agricultural production pockets are geographical locations that are agro-climatologically
suitable for the production of particular commodity or for other agricultural productions. For
the intervention of agricultural extension, pockets bearing potentialities of commercial
production and with access of irrigation, road, market, electricity and agro-based industries
are selected. Agricultural production pockets may cover certain areas of a word or tit may
spread in more than one VDC and even areas of more than one ASC/ASSC.
Planning in the pocket area is done by using participatory planning tools mainly PC/PS.
PC/PS can be supplemented by one or more PRA tools to get necessary information about
eh pocket area. Detailed aspects of PC/PS approach will be discussed in the following
section.
Outcomes of the PC/PS exercise will be the activities related to one or more elements of
production packages that include small irrigation, inputs management, agricultural land,
agricultural roads, rural electrification, production technology, agro-processing and market
management etc. These packages are provided in the pocket area to fully exploit the
production potential of the particular commodity; that what we call is Pocket Package
Program (PPP). These activities related to elements of production package are combined to
give a form of time bound project with specific objectives, activities to be carried out,
resources required, roles and responsibilities of major actors. Thus prepared projects, in
crude form, are later translated by the ASC/ASSC in to the standard Project Formulation
Format (PPF) circulated by DOA.
2.2.2. District Level Planning
DADO is the converging point for the adjustment in the district agricultural need and
priorities and central directives, guidelines and resources (budget ceiling). Programs/ projects
generated in ASC/ASSCs provided the basis for DADO annual program. In addition to that,
it compiles analyses and updates the data coming form the ASC/ASSCs.
DADO itself prepares programs that are implemented directly from the DADO headquarter.
These programs are to support the programs/ activities, but beyond the capacity to run, of
ASC/ASSCs themselves. These programs include district and regional in-service and farmers
training, district level workshop, feasibility study, impact studies, agricultural business and
market promotion, coordination and management of inter5nal external resources, monitoring
and evaluation etc. All these activities should necessarily be the activities of different
projects. Projects thus formed are discussed in the District Agricultural Development
Committee (DADC).
In line with concept of promotion partnership and pluralism in extension, DADO can offer
some of its selected activities of NOGs/CBOs, farmers' groups and private sectors to
implement in partnership or contract-out on competitive basis according to the guidelines
provided by the MOAC.
Finally DADO will prepare a comprehensive scenario of agricultural development of the
district that also include annual program to be launched in the district, their objectives,
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 315
responsibilities of personnel and organization, resources required, calendar of operations etc.
Program thus prepared by the DADO are discussed in detail in DADC and are submitted in
District Assembly (DA) thorough Agriculture Forest and Environment Committee and
District Level Planning Coordination Committee of DDC for approval.
2.2.3. Regional level planning workshop
DADO presents program approved by DA in the regional program budget workshop to be
organized by the concerned RDA. In regional workshop mainly technical aspects of district
programs are discussed and resource matching is done. Besides DADOs, other participants
are central program directorates, regional offices of line agencies, government farms and
resource centers, laboratories. Line agencies are invited into the workshop to ensure better
coordination in program implementation. There may be amendments in the district programs
only from technical point of view.
2.2.4. Central level program reconciliation and approval
DOA reconciles the district programs on the basis of guidelines and directives provided by it,
technical aspects of the program and budget ceiling in the presence of central level program
directors. After that it forwards the programs to MOAC. Several round of discussions are
held at MOAC, National Planning Commission (NPC) and Ministry of Finance and
programs are approved with or with out trimming them. DOA receives that approved budget
and programs that it sends to each DADO to implement.
2.2.5. Projectization of Agricultural Extension Activities
DOA has started to adopt projectization approach for district extension programs. District
extension activities have now converted into project format. Any extension activity is now a
component of a defined project with clear title, purpose, objectives, indicators, and
institutional arrangements of managing implementation and monitoring and evaluation.
2.2.5.1. Projectization Process
1. Farmers' problems are identified and prioritized using PC/PS process in the pocket area with the involvement skateholders. PC/PS process clearly identifies project purpose and
logic.
2. Prioritized problems and solutions lead clearly to project components. Project components are fited together into a project design format.
A good project design/document, in a simple way, makes clear:
• Why the project is proposed, and exactly what the project sets out to accomplish
• Who will benefit
• Why and how the project is expected to accomplish its purpose and objectives- its
strategy and set of activities
• How those involved will know when they have accomplished what they set out do
• The timeframe, resources, polices, and implementation arrangements for doing so
3. Projects are then fitted into a prevailing program-budget formulating formats. DADO forwards the annual programs for the approval of related authorities.
316 Nepal
2.2.5.2. Implementation of Projects
After the approval of annual programs, DADO implements projects through the Project
Management Committee (PMC). The PMC comprises:
Chief, DADO Coordinator
Agricultural Extension
Office (AEO)/Assistant AEO (AAEO) Member
Assistant Planning Officer Member
Accountant Member
Concerned SMS Member-secretary
Terms of Reference (TOR) of Project Management Committee (PMC)
• The concerned SMS should prepare calendar of operation and communicate it to the
chief and APO.
• At the project level, if necessary, a Project Implementation Committee should be
formed and that should take care of implementation issues.
• The SMS should coordinate with line agencies and other stakeholders.
• Given the workload of SMS in the district, responsibility may be entrusted to other
SMCs as well. The decision may be made by the PMC.
• PMC should meet a day prior to DADO staff meeting.
• Financial administration of the project will depend upon the recommendation of the
SMS or the designated staff associated with the project. Accounts will be made
transparent and the APO will maintain project-wise expenses as well.
2.2.6. Recent Interventions in Reforming Extension Planning Services
• Participatory project planning process is developed, and accordingly, extension
activities of all districts (75) are projectized from FY 2001/02. The projects are
based on local priorities identified through a participatory bottom -up planning
process institutionalized throughout the organizations in DOA. Projects such as
AREP (HMGN/WB), TLDP (HMGN/ADB), HARP (HMGN/DFID) etc have
established participatory planning tools such as PCPS, SLA, PRA, VLW etc.
• With projectization, it has now become possible to identify components based on
local priorities directly benefiting the users, linking measurable outputs to objectives
for a given timeframe and designing activities/inputs to produce the desired outputs
and impacts. The process could establish a system, within the organization from
national to grassroots level, of standard project management, staff utilization and
monitoring. Project profiles are documented at each level of the organization
(national planning commission, ministry, department, region and district).
• In preparation for implementation of projectization process, extension staffs in field
are oriented in mass followed by a refresher training to prepare a cadre of at least
one master trainer in each district, regional and central program unit. The
projectization process enhanced the need of linking central program units to districts
for technical back up in project identification, project formulation and monitoring.
Visits of senior subject matter specialists from these units to district project sites
become more frequent.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 317
• With projects’ initiative, the government introduced policy reform to promote public
private partnership, partnership with beneficiary groups and community
organizations.
• Agencies within the organization began to be oriented to change the mindset to
promote such collaboration and partnerships. Policy of contracting out extension
programs is emphatically introduced.
• The newly introduced reforms in national extension strategy initiated under the
projects created heavy need for staff orientation across the organization to reorient
the extension agents associated with GOs and NGOs, PSOs and CBOs and also
policy makers affiliated to local bodies. The key contents of this mass training are
the changed role of public sector as a facilitator rather than a service provider,
commercial outlook to service delivery, social mobilization and participatory
development tools.
• Sustainability of these initiatives is ensured from the fact that DOA/DLS reformed
national training strategy commencing implementation from the beginning of the
tenth five-year plan (2002-07). New training modules for areas such as project
planning, project monitoring and evaluation, marketing, commercial farming,
mainstreaming gender in agriculture and agricultural resource management needed
to improve human resource capability are prepared.
• Available socio-economic studies and district database analysis indicates that farm
level productivity and income during various projects’ period has significantly
increased. However, this gain is realized in limited resourceful areas and among
resourceful farmers, making the national benefit at large very nominal and far behind
the national requirement.
• For feedback to national extension system, the impact studies, case studies and
special technical studies are initiated. These studies validate the impacts of priority
national programs or, in more cases, the impacts of micro-level projects at
beneficiary level.
• Joint research-extension-farmer–nongovernmental research provider planning,
implementing and monitoring systems are established.
2.3. Coordination Mechanism
Agriculture development program aims at improving the quality of life of rural people.
Agriculture development implies the shift from traditional method to new methods of
production that include the use of better and improved seed, fertilizers, tools, pesticides, even
new farming system, etc.
Extension component is essential in the agricultural development process but it is, by no
means, the only factor in the process. Equally important components are the development
support systems such as research unit, various service and supply agencies, government
bodies, etc. Each unit in its own way shares responsibility of agricultural development. In
theory the extension system, beside its educational communication function, is expected to
help farmers learn about new technological alternatives and the way to gain access to inputs,
credit and marketing services so that farm output and incomes can be increased. The
extension also intends to inform farmers about the si9tuation of inputs, credit, market
problems, etc. So there is a dire need of having close relationship and linkage among the
various agencies involved ion agricultural development programs.
318 Nepal
District Coordination Committee is of the mechanisms to establish coordination of regular
program activities of the districts. The project activities are decided jointly by project
personnel and extension workers. The planned activities are coordinated by Agriculture
section of the project.
Under the decentralization policy of the HMG/N, District Development Committee is
responsible to build and approved programs in different fields in consultation with all
concerned agencies (DADO, AIC, LSC, ADB/N, Cooperatives, Research farmers, etc.) and
the representatives from different users' group. It is also a mechanism to established
coordination of regular program activities of the District.
AIC with necessary farm inputs chanalizes its activities through the Cooperatives, sales
depots, private dealers, etc. in various parts of the country and works in close contact with
extension for what, when and how much inputs to be supplied. On the other side, ADB
makes available loans/credits either through Cooperatives or directly to the needy farmers in
consultation with the District Agricultural Offices. It is, therefore, necessary that for the
success of a program the function of these agencies must be integrated with one another.
2.3.1. Coordination and Linkage Model of Agro-Technology Transfer
A model of agro-technology development and dissemination has been outlined (Paudel and
Thakur, 2008) in Nepal (Fig, 2). This model depicts how agro-technology is generated,
verified and disseminated to the end users/clienteles. The model is based on participatory
concept involving public-private-partnership where international, national, regional, and
local stakeholders are linked to agriculture research and development (R&D). The limit of
research is up to outreach research (OR) site where extension agencies are supposed to take
fine tuned technologies for wider dissemination. In Nepal, Nepal Agricultural Research
Council (NARC) is responsible for technology development while Department of
Agriculture (DoA), Department of Livestock Services (DLS) and Community Based
Organizations (CBOs) are the partners of technology dissemination. International/National
Government Organizations (I/NGOs) are involved into research and development according
to their priority and target set as well. Institutions which have strong linkage at OR site and
which have poor linkage serve their function to deliver technologies to the clienteles with
strong commitments and weak commitment, respectively, which is clearly indicated in the
following fig.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 319
Agrotechnology
Generation Dissemination Verification
NARC IARS/Donor/CBOs University// NARC University
DoA DLS I/NGOs/CBOs
OR Site
Agriculture Service Centre
End Users/
Clients
Agro-technology development and transfer model in Nepal
Abbreviations included in Fig. 2
IARS
CBOs
NARC
DoA
DLS
I/NGOs
OR
International agricultural research systems
Community based organizations
Nepal agricultural research council
Department of agriculture
Department of livestock services
International/national government organizations
Outreach research
319
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 320
2.3.2. Different Extension Organizations and their Coordination at Grassroots Level
An efficient extension organization needs to develop the capability of responding to changes
in relation to its environment. Extension organizations have to cope with changes within and
outside the organization, such as changes in farm technology, communication methods,
needs of farmers, rural situations, export and import of farm produce, and market economy.
Organizational development allows for planned changes in the organization's tasks,
techniques, structure, and people. Attitudes, values, and practices of the organization are
changed so that it can cope with changing situations. The employees also gain greater skills
to deal with new problems.
Extension, though controlled and regulated by the central level organization, is in practical
sense carried out by the grass-root level organizations. Extension institutions at grass-root
level are of public (government) organizations, international or national non-governmental
organizations, community based organizations and private organizations.
Government Organizations
Government organization at grass-root level are the Agricultural Service Centers (ASC) and
their sub-centers located at particular locations to serve assigned number of VDCs. Earlier
Junior Technicians (JT) and Junior Technical Assistants (JTA) were supposed to provide
mobile extension services in the villages. With the growing demand of the farmers and their
limited number they could not cater their services efficiently. Then the government changed
its policy to station these JT/JTAs in the ASCs and provide extension service to Farmers'
Groups (FG) through these stations. They have to go to the villages of farmers' field to
advise whenever there is a group meeting or problem en mass.
The number of ASC in each district is 4 for high hills, 6 for mid-hills and 4 for terai. The
number of sub-centers is not fixed and is being assigned as per need by DADO. It mostly
depends upon the availability of field staff and office building to station them. The number
of ASCs and field level staff has been drastically cut off after the organizational restructuring
of Department of Agriculture (DOA) in FY 2060/61. Earlier ASCs were established and
operative in almost all ilakas of the district. The government policy was to establish all
developmental and administrative service centers in each ilaka. The number of , nine in each
district during Panchayat regime, however varied district wise. Foreign aided projects like
Integrated Rural Development Projects (IRDP), Agricultural Extension and Research
Project(AERP), Upper Sagarmatha Agricultural Development Project(USADP), Hill Fruit
Development Project(HFDP), Hill Agriculture Development Project (HADP) and others
supported to construct ASCs in different ilakas of the project districts. Now these structures
exceeding the number of ASCs are being used as sub-centers.JT/JTAs stationed in ASCs
provide extension service to the farmers, collect information for management and policy
formulation and also play regulatory role. In the changed context they work as agriculture
development workers rather than agricultural extension workers.
2.4. Decentralization of Extension Delivery System
2.4.1. Decentralization: Concept and Issues
Decentralization is the transfer of authority and responsibility to lower level of government,
quasi-government or private sector organizations for the public functions otherwise
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 321
implemented by the central government. However, this term should be interpreted with
caution since decentralization differs, in forms and combinations, from country to country
given the specific situation of its own. Decentralization comes by desire of the central
government, demand from below or compulsion of the central authority because of
government constraints to provide effective services. Following the pace of development,
fulfilling farmers’ demands at the local level in such a varied agro ecological zones and
often-rugged terrain in Nepal by the central government has become a challenge for
agricultural extension services.
The reasons why the central governments prefer to decentralize stems from the facts of:
• Need to address complex situations at the local level
• Central level funding may not be enough to finance agricultural extension services
demanded by the farmers
• The grassroots farmer's participation may be better solicited through devolution
In our situation, the Agriculture Service Centers (ASCs) have to serve a large area often
diverse in agro-ecological make up, natural resource endowments, category of farmers, and
socioeconomic circumstances. Further, the political boundary of the ASC at the sub district
(Ilaka) level and of the District Agriculture Development Office (DADO) at the district do
not match with agro-ecological domain. This renders agricultural extension service provision
even more difficult to fulfill farmers’ demand for relevant, responsive and sustainable
agriculture. There is a difference between the extension service and the advisory services—
the former is to teach what the extension agent knows and is to accomplish the given task by
their boss as targets and the latter is to respond to farmers’ demand for specific problem
solving.
Because the location specific problems/needs are as diverse as the locations themselves,
demand for services are innumerable and require a large sum of extension budget as well as
the knowledge and skill on the part of extension worker. This has implication for
competently qualified manpower, program budget, and so forth. The central government in
any country may not be in a position to fulfill this demand of the lower tier local
government. This is very true in Nepal as well. Both the DADO and Farmers Group (FG)
request for annual plan budget that far exceeds the actually available at the end. This has
been insoluble as has been experienced in the past. Hence, the central government feels it
necessary to decentralize in the excuse that local level agricultural extension funding is
raised locally on top of central grants. Thus, in recent years decentralization has been the
“excuse for escape” to avoid criticism from the local governments. Nepal is no exception.
Agricultural extension has been always the subject of criticism at the district level, both from
farmers and local leaders, and at the parliament alike for not serving the clients to affect
vibrant agriculture in Nepal.
Linkage has been one of the talked about areas even in the centralized agricultural extension
function. After decentralization, linkage is still another very important area in the context of
limited research centers rested with Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), more so
because of the numerous microclimates interwoven in the complex production subsystems in
Nepal. Expanding research base would mean added burden on budgetary resources from the
central government.
322 Nepal
Decentralization may bring the decision makers closer to the farmers, but there is no
guarantee that farmers will be heard responsively. If the extension personnel have no
different orientation, attitude and improved skill and knowledge, there will be no positive
change towards improving the farming community livelihoods and reduction of poverty
which is the overarching objective of the Tenth Plan.
Different forms of financing extension comprise users’ contribution to extension programs.
For this the farmers must be organized as farmers groups (FGs) and raise funds on their own
initiative. Then the agricultural extension service can be sustainable. Mutual trust is all the
more overriding for FGs to invest, and or share cost, in agriculture based on the advice of
extension agents, and participatory decision making in management of extension prevails.
2.4.2. Types of Decentralization
Broadly, decentralization can be categorized into:
• Political decentralization
• Administrative decentralization
• Fiscal decentralization
• Economic or market decentralization
Political decentralization
The first type of decentralization, aims to encourage the participation of citizens or their
representatives in public decision-making. The assumption behind this decentralization is
that through local electoral jurisdictions the elected representatives know better the needs
and aspirations of the voters/citizens who elected them and the policies thus formulated
would be more geared towards meeting their needs. In so doing, the initiatives of the central
government orient towards strengthening the local institutions through the enactment of legal
measures like the Local Self Governance Act (LSGA), 2055 BS and Regulation 2056 BS and
the associated Guidelines in Nepal.
Administrative decentralization
This takes the form of redistributing responsibility, authority and financial resources from
the center to plan, to fund and to manage central level public functions by lower tier
government agencies, corporations, semiautonomous bodies, or functional authorities. Not
all functions of the central government are decentralized. The 3Ds of administrative
decentralization are: deconcentration, delegation and devolution.
Fiscal decentralization
This is the vital component in the decentralization initiative, for: one, that the local
institutions or the private organizations must have adequate revenues for financing the
decentralized functions; two, that these local institutions must have authority to make
decisions on their own.
In the beginning, central grants form substantial component of the revenues and the rest is
raised locally. Fiscal decentralization can be of different types in combination, such as:
1. total grant from the centre, and central and local combined, 2. fee-for extension charging the farmers for services,
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 323
3. partnership and/or collaboration with farmers groups in the form of cash or kind, 4. raising funds from direct or indirect taxes.
In developing countries like Nepal, extension funding from the local government is generally
difficult and there is a resistance for this type of decentralization from below. The central
grant or subsidies becomes an obvious source for finance.
Market decentralization
In the liberalized economy, this form of decentralization is possible since privatization and
deregulation policies become evident and functional. Therefore, it is said to be the most
complete form of decentralization. With this, private business houses, NGOs, local
community organizations, voluntary groups, cooperatives, etc run the extension functions
which, otherwise, were carried out by the government entities. Contracting out of extension
services is one type that has been introduced in Nepal. Public-private partnership
arrangement could be another type of extension decentralization based on market forces.
Deregulation policies will encourage the participation by the private sector and thus promote
competition among service providers.
2.4.3. Historical Perspective of Decentralization in Nepal
There have been attempts for decentralization in the past by assigning lead roles to Chief
District Officer (CDO) under the District Administration Plan 2032 BS or to the then District
Panchayat (now the DDC). In the former decentralization, the CDO who was previously
responsible for law and order situation in the district was also given the responsibility of
development works signifying the development oriented administration. Nothing changed
significantly except that the chief of DADO was put directly under CDO’s limited
administrative control for permission to leave the district and to take the approval for the
leave of absence which previously fell under the Regional Director of Agriculture. Similarly,
in the later the Local Development Officer (LDO) was the focal point and things did not
change significantly from the former except the official pad and the sign board. Business was
done as usual. At certain occasions, the JTAs (Junior Technical Assistants) were put under
Pradhan Pancha (village chief) of the then Village Panchayat for administrative control, and
programs and budget remained with the DADO as before. Things did not seem to improve
because mutual relation between the JTAs and the Pradhan deceived the DADO in most
occasions and vice versa. An account of the decentralization initiatives is given in the annex.
2.4.4. Description of the Reform Measures: Devolution
The Constitution of the Nepal 2047 BS had made a provision for the decentralization.
This time, some seven years have passed in attempting to institutionalize devolution in
Nepal.
The legal framework comprises of three basic acts and regulations this devolution stems
from:
(a) Local Self- Governance Act, 2055 BS (b) Local Self -Governance Regulation, 2056 BS and (c) Local Body (Financial Administration) Regulation, 2056 BS.
324 Nepal
To oversee the implementation status of devolution according to LSGA and to monitor,
Decentralization Implementation and Monitoring Committee (DIMC) have been formed
under the chairpersonship of the Right Honorable Prime Minister and the working committee
under the minister of local development (DIMWC). The Tenth Plan has also envisaged the
decentralized functions based on basic principles of people’s participation and
empowerment.
The devolved structure comprise of three main aspects as (Mahesh Dahal, 2005):
1. Function: duty, authority and responsibility 2. Functionaries: staff, office space, equipment, liability, monitoring and evaluation 3. Funds: tax and non-tax revenues and grants
The twenty one-point program of the last government aims to effect decentralization on
political, financial, social, administrative and semi-judicial authorities to the village level. As
Ministry of Local Development (MLD) is the focal ministry charged with the responsibility
of devolution, its action plan includes the study to find ways to make capable the local
bodies. In so doing, the appropriate institutional structure, number and provisions with the
concept of inclusive democracy for a viable unit will be sought for. The sectors of
agricultural extension, livestock services, primary education, primary health and local
infrastructure development will be fully devolved and internalized within the DDC in fiscal
year 2062/63. While this is aimed at,
Decentralization Implementation Program 2058 will also be reviewed for any new changes
to be adjusted for smooth devolution. The full devolution considered includes such aspects
as disciplinary areas (in this case the agricultural extension), funds, offices and physical
facilities, personnel, capacity building of local bodies to discharge devolved functions,
monitoring and evaluation. Interactive consultations with concerned central ministries are
underway by MLD and a Task Force is working to formulate Devolution Guidelines and
Procedures. The Budget Speech has already earmarked 14 districts, one from each zone, as
pilot districts for full devolution this fiscal year. The indicators used for the identification of
these districts include: geography (i.e., one from each zone), accessibility, resource base,
institutional capability, level of conflict, and level of infrastructure development. The
districts thus identified are: Jhapa, Morang, Saptari, Dhanusha, Chitwan, Bhaktapur, Kaski,
Rupandehi, Parbat, Dang, Banke, Jumla, Kailali and Kanchanpur. Under MoAC, District
Agricultural Development Offices and Agriculture Service Centers, District Livestock
Service Offices and Service Centers, and Cooperative Division Offices will fall under the
devolved institutions. But closely related research and irrigation institutions are not covered
which may imply some coordination issues during implementation.
Staffing
One very sensitive issue is with the staff in the present central civil service cadre; these staffs
are to be deputed as and where they are basis until the time local service act is in force and
reconciliatory solution is worked out. These positions have to be treated as central reserve
pool under the same service and faculty and all the remuneration, career development and
salaries according to the prevailing civil service act continued. As situations arise, the
recommendation of local authorities may be entertained where applicable and thought
appropriate.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 325
Funding
The fund flow is very direct from the Ministry of Finance (MOF) to the District
Development Fund (DDF) of the DDC.
Institutional arrangements
National Planning Commission will act as coordinating body with the participation of
concerned ministries. A facilitation committee is proposed with the secretary of MLD as a
chairperson. At the local level, DDC is to facilitate implementation. Again, to assess an
appropriately structured viable unit of the local body, a high level commission will work on
it and determine therein.
2.4.5. Proposed program for devolution in the agriculture sector
• Local level periodic and annual program formulation, approval, implementation and
M&E
• Agriculture and livestock extension services
• Quality inputs production and distribution, improved livestock and poultry breeds,
fingerlings
• Agriculture, livestock and cooperatives basic training and human resources
development
• Animal health preventive and curative services, treatment of animals and veterinary
drug management
• Agriculture market development, agriculture fair and exhibitions
• Statistics collection, analysis, documentation and updating
• Regulatory and M&E functions
• Quality control of agricultural inputs
• Technical services to farmers and awareness raising programs
• Income generation through fruit and vegetable cultivation, floriculture, apiculture,
sericulture
• Registration, approval, regulation and monitoring of cooperatives
• Production, marketing and promotion of milk and milk products
• Modern slaughter house construction, management, regulation and monitoring
• Quality control and regulation of food, beverages and meat products
• Observing food health standards in hotels, restaurants and canteens
• Promotion of organic manures and organic farming
• Extension and promotion of IPM
• Any other activities determined as other than central functions
2.4.6. Lessons Learnt
1. One limiting factor working with devolution may be imposed by the lack of agricultural legislation in the country. This legislation as a guiding and umbrella principle for the
agriculture sector should also be compatible with LSGA.
2. The present day agriculture should integrate the Nepalese youth in the wake of modernization and commercialization. The future agriculturists of the country are very
poorly attracted to this enterprise, more so given the insurgency situation. The educated
326 Nepal
youth would be an asset for new initiatives towards globalization as they are more tuned
to recent information through internet, which is a limiting factor for the old and illiterate
farmers, and take more risk. Thus the unemployed agricultural graduates and young
entrepreneurs should be attracted to agricultural business like undertakings. In fact, the
earlier 4-H youth program should be revived with refinement to suit to the present day
need.
3. The knowledge base of extension is very weak. As there is a need of closer working relation between farmers (producers, entrepreneurs), research and extension, the demand
for agricultural information has become more pressing than ever before (e.g., web
search).
4. In the attempt for extension reform, many developed as well as developing world agriculture have resorted to strategies suitable for each country. Of course, there is no
such model as a panacea but experiences are abounding in different continents. Good
practices should be tried based on the lessons learnt from them. One strong consideration
is of the incentive mechanism built in the extension system. The extensionists should be
tied with producers challenging them to deliver the services demanded by the enterprise
on performance basis entered into agreement with the producers. To begin with
manpower quality in high priority areas should be developed and or managed
accordingly.
5. In the wake of devolution, earlier attempts may demand at least as much funding as was supported by the central government previously, if not more. The assumption that
devolution reduces budget burden as it is financed by the local government also may not
hold true in many cases because preparatory works to devolution itself may be costly to
train manpower, upgrade institutional set up and implement devolution through
monitoring support. Otherwise, the task of devolution becomes one of frustration to local
bodies, extensionists and farmers. This gives the impression that “earlier system was
better than the devolved one” and the whole task of devolution carries a negative
message and to begin with extension staff tend to choose the central service commission
in favor of the local one.
3. Governance
3.1. Institutional Reform
Institutional reform and organizational development are cross-cutting issues that impact on
all areas of development. Building a strong, accountable and responsive bureaucracy is
essential to providing a stable environment for private sector development; economic
growth; sustainable resource management; livelihoods; and service provision (e.g.
agriculture, education and health). Therefore many program with a technical theme focus on
strengthening the target organizations. Key aspects of these programs include:
• restructuring and capacity building;
• conflict management;
• financial management systems;
• personnel management systems;
• information systems; and
• monitoring and evaluation systems.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 327
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives’ (MOAC) Agriculture Perspective Plan Support
Program (APPSP) was designed to deliver appropriate agricultural support services to the
rural poor through improved policy and institutional arrangements. This project provided
technical advisory support and fund management implementation for the APPSP.
The program was focused on two levels of government:
i. At the district level, where a fund for agricultural service delivery (District
Agriculture Development Fund - DADF) was established in twenty districts. The
DADF was managed by the District Development Committees, and the program
built the capacity of these committees to plan for and manage the DADF, ensuring
that the poor and excluded beneficiary groups were targeted by the fund.
ii. At the central level, where the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC)
and other Agriculture Perspective Plan implementers were assisted with
organizational and policy support.
In order ensure opportunities and lessons learned from the program are incorporated into
future government initiatives, good practice and other key lessons that emerged from the
APPSP were captured and disseminated within the MOAC and more broadly to the 75
districts of Nepal.
3.2. Public-private-NGO partnership
3.2.1. Introduction
Agriculture extension activities of the public and private sector for technology transfer have
largely been undertaken separately in Nepal and South Asia over the years. The search for
more effective ways to deliver public services dates back to the early 1980s when several
agricultural extension models were tested. The private sector has worked to promote
extension activities in the marketing of agricultural inputs and outputs largely in isolation
from public sector activities.
The lessons of 1980s and 1990s have shown that neither the public nor the private sector
alone can be effective in delivering services. There is a strong need for different types of
public private partnerships in agricultural extension and development programs.
There is fine line dividing partnership and collaboration. Without entering into a debate on
semantic differences this paper treats these two concepts grossly as one.
Partnership/collaboration may be conceived as mutually beneficial and well defined
relationships entered into by two or more organizations to achieve results they are more
likely to achieve together (Winer and Ray). In general partnership/collaboration involves:
• A minimum of two organizations,
• An agreement about roles and responsibilities,
• Common objectives and activities aimed at the delivery of services, and
• The sharing of risks, benefits, and resources-both tangible and intangible.
Rosenbeth Moss Kantor (1990) described productive partnership as those which evolve,
continue to yield benefits, create value, work through interpersonal connections and internal
infrastructures that enhance learning. She identifies eight characteristics of best partnerships:
• Each partner contributes something of value,
• The strategic objectives of all partners are addressed,
328 Nepal
• Partners have complementary skills and assets,
• Each partner makes an investment in the other,
• Communication is reasonably open,
• Mechanisms for smooth working together are in place,
• Each partner becomes both teacher and learner, and
• There is integrity and mutual trust.
The practice of partnership and collaboration logically leads us to acknowledge pluralism in
agriculture extension and in reality there are a broad variety of institutions providing
agricultural extension services. There has been a realization that farmers are best served by
the broadest possible array of information sources and structures. The complexity of rural
development demands a plurality of technological solutions and service structures. Farmers
need access to many services such as input supply, credit, and even emergency responses to
disease/pest infestations.
The emergence of the value-chain approach to address agricultural development also points
to the comparative advantages of public and private partners in the delivery of extension
services and in creating an enabling environment for agricultural development. The value-
chain approach as applied to agriculture seeks to identify services that are missing or weak in
a sector and develop the capacity of private and public service providers to address
weaknesses. There are a variety of services where market failures occur. Government has a
key role in providing public goods including market and productive infrastructure, research,
the provision of basic knowledge, and the role of setting the policies and rules by which
economic actors interact.
Experience has shown that the private sector is most efficient at providing inputs, embedded
information with the sale of specific inputs, marketing channels, and the promotion of
products/markets. The NGO sector has shown greater flexibility and efficiencies in
introducing and supporting farmers to adopt new technologies, conducting planning and
analysis activities, working with the business community and civil society to lobby for
reforms, and to act as a facilitator of public private partnerships.
In the case of many agricultural export markets important public infrastructure, testing
facilities and policies must be developed to enable the private sector to take advantage of
market opportunities. Export facilities, laboratories, phyto-sanitary certifications, tax
policies, and sector policies need to be developed in close public-private partnership to be
successful.
Partnership is not a model administered or implemented by the state, but rather, it is a
process how government agencies, development oriented NGOs, business and farmer
organizations, private sector firms and others can support development. The purpose of
entering into partnership is to take into consideration the presence of ongoing activities and,
rather than trying to gain control over them, to instead choose niches and to identify common
concerns where different approaches may lead to synergy.
In the recent past public extension has come under scrutiny for its limited accountability,
inefficiency, and lack of responsiveness to changing farming conditions. Scarcities of
financial resources for extension, changing ideology emphasizing efficiency over welfare,
and heightened competitive interests from the private sector has led to acknowledge the
private sector and NGOs as an important partner in the delivery of extension services.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 329
3.2.2. Emerging trends of Partnership and Collaboration: A Journey towards Pluralism
The emergence of new extension arrangements offered by private sector, NGOs, and
voluntary organizations has created a platform where delivery of services is undertaken
independently or through various forms of partnership arrangements. The list of
organizations providing extension services is growing. Various organizations providing
services can be put into the following typology:
• Government organizations: line ministries
• Local government bodies: DDCs, VDCs
• Project organizations- These are created to oversee implementation of project
activities for certain period and are generally publicly funded
• Private for profit organizations- these include private agribusiness, consulting firms,
agri input dealers, traders/processors. It also includes such mechanism as contract
farming with inputs, extension services, and markets are provided by agribusiness
and the provision of embedded services with the sale of inputs or purchase of
outputs.*
• NGOs (non-profit) that may be funded by government, or private sector sources
* An example of embedded service is when an agro input supplier provides detailed
information on the use of agricultural input, for example when seeds are sold the supplier
provides details on planting dates, production techniques, and potential markets. This use of
embedded service increases the demand for the input and effectively provides farmers with
needed information.
• Community-based organizations (CBOs), these are membership organizations based
at village levels. They could be self-initiated, self-evolved, NGO initiated,
government initiated, and project initiated.
• These organizations deliver services in a variety of ways. However, there is
realization that there is a comparative advantage with each organization, and that a
single organization cannot meet the varied needs of the target group. This has
invoked a need for entering into partnership resulting into synergy. Entering into
partnership may entail a renewal of traditional roles for higher efficiency,
effectiveness and sustainability. Partnership can take place at various levels; these
can be classified broadly into three types:
• Informational: In such arrangements organizations with similar interest get together
to share information. Such exchange of information can take place through forums, networks, in specific themes like, food security, organic farming, IPM, or rural roads.
• Institutional: Institutional arrangement to forge partnership among various agencies
is provisioned through legislation, directives or by-laws or understandings.
Development Boards, project steering/coordination committees, are some example
of institutional partnership where representatives of various organizations work
together for common goal.
• This can be termed as representational partnership.
• Programmatic: Partnership is reflected at various stages of program implementation.
• Partnership could be at the planning stage where planning is done jointly and
implementation is done separately. Programmatic partnership can further be
delineated into two sub–types:
− mutual: unifying comparative advantage by cost sharing
− contractual: providing services through competitive bidding
330 Nepal
Partnership arrangements can take the following forms:
• Public- Public
• Public- NGOs
• Public- Private
• Local bodies- NGOs/private
• Projects- public/local bodies/NGOs/private
• Multi-partner (Public—Public-local bodies- NGO- Private)
It is apparent that agriculture extension service providers, government, NGOs, agribusiness,
have perceptual differences in extension issues resulting in differences in their focus.
A study (Ojha, 2000) on partnership in agriculture extension in Chitawan, Nepal has shown
that among partnerships, Public + Private and Public + NGO are more effective than other
forms of partnership. The same study concluded that partnership is and effective strategy but
is specific to circumstances and should not be generalized in all situations.
In this context it is worthwhile to review the strengths and weakness of organizations in
agriculture extension.
NGO strengths include
• The majority of NGOs are capable of responding flexibly and rapidly to client’s
needs and changing circumstances as they are small and horizontally structured with
short lines of communication.
• NGOs’ concern with the rural poor means that they often maintain a field presence
in remote locations, where it is difficult to keep government staff in post. This is
well demonstrated in Nepal due to the conflict situation.
• A main concern of NGOs’ is to identify the needs of the rural poor in sustainable
agricultural development. For this they have therefore pioneered a wide range of
participatory methods for diagnosis and program implementation.
• One of the strengths of NGOs has been their work in group formation and
mobilization.
• As result of working in participatory approaches and close communication with rural
communities NGOs have been effective in lobbying for agricultural reform and
policies to benefit small producers
NGO weaknesses include
• NGOs’ small size means that their projects rarely address structural factors that
underlie rural poverty.
• Some fashionable areas have become densely populated by a diversity of NGOs that
problems have arisen for competition for the same clientele.
• NGOs have limited capabilities for agricultural technology development.
• Some NGOs are accountable to external funding agencies than to clientele they
claim to serve. Donor pressure to achieve short-term impacts, combined with a lack
of cross learning, has led in some cases to the promotion of inappropriate
technology.
Public sector strengths
• Wide network of staff covering all geographical areas.
• Better access to technology and resources.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 331
• Well trained personnel.
• Continuous presence thus ensuring sustainability of services.
• Should be accountable to farmers and political structures.
Public sector weakness
• Supply driven rather than demand driven,
• Commercialization of agriculture gave rise to specialized clients and demand for
location specific extension service which are not catered to by public systems,
• Extension provided are general in nature rather than specific and intensive,
• Insufficient face to face contact between extension agent and farmers possible,
• Inadequate technical qualification of technicians,
• Public extension is target oriented and less participatory,
• Extension treated as policy administration rather than change process,
• Professional and timely monitoring at all levels is lacking,
• Not effectively reaching poor and disadvantaged segments,
Involvement of NGOs and the private sector in agriculture extension has been experimented
in various forms around the world. The following examples illustrate some experiences in
private sector involvement in agriculture extension:
3.2.3. Reflections on Public Private Partnership Experiences in Nepal
In Nepal as else ware extension has long been grounded in the diffusion model of
agricultural development. It is only recently beginning in the 1990s that emphasis and efforts
towards involvement of the private sector in agriculture development have begun. Still
efforts to involve and link to the private sector remain nascent. Donors have begun to
promote programs for more private sector involvement. In Nepal partnership between
government agencies existed since early days of agriculture extension. For instance,
Tribhuwan Village Development Program was an example of partnership between
government agencies (Department of Rural Development and Department of Agriculture).
During 70s and 80s the theme of linkage and coordination received prominence as
coordination among research, extension, input and credit related agencies was considered
important in agriculture development. Through research – extension linkages in practice
have been weak.
An important partnership program with private agencies began with the World Bank funded
Agriculture Research and Extension Project (AERP) during mid 90s when the project
contracted out extension functions to consulting firms and NGOs.
Agricultural policy, 2061 of HMG/N has laid a policy framework to attract private and NGO
sector specifically in the areas of food and nutrition, agriculture production, collection,
grading, storage, processing, packaging etc by providing tax incentives and institutionalizing
competitive biding.
ADB Crop Diversification Project (CDP). The CDP has initiated two modalities of
contracting agriculture extension activities:
• Contracting out extension activities to private extension service providers
(NGOs/CBOs) to mobilize farmers in production pockets;
332 Nepal
• Mobilizing farmers group by the social mobilizers recruited by DADO. In this
strategy, both DADO and social mobilizers work on their strength such as group
formation, mobilization and management to be done by Field Teams (social
mobilizers) and technical backstopping by DADO staff.
CDP has three types of production pocket areas a) production pocket areas completely
contracted to private extension service providers’ b) production pocket areas with field
teams; and, c) regular DADO pocket areas;
A mid term assessment of CDP (CDP 2005) has shown that technical staff have not owned
and internalized the field teams as their supporting partners and that NGO partners are not
providing enough technical backstopping, training and physical support to the field teams.
As FTs have limited technical knowledge, their primary job is to convey the farmers’
problems to their supervisors and consequently to technical staff. But due to the poor
presence and inefficiency of supervisors and technical staff, farmers’ problems are not
properly addressed. The same report indicates that there has been significant increment in the
social mobilization aspects after the involvement of FT.
DFID has given grant assistance for a period of five years effective from March 2003 for the
APPSP. The program is aimed to orient agricultural services to reach target groups including
the disadvantaged, marginal, poor women farmers, dalits, and ethnic minorities.
Establishment and operation of District Agriculture Development Fund
(DADF) forms the basis for the implementation of APPSP in the districts. It attempts to
devolve agriculture extension services as well the promotion of public-private partnership.
APPSP has been implemented in 20 districts. As of July 2005, 217 projects have been
funded through District Extension Sub-fund (DEF). DEF is a competitive fund established
for service providers to strengthen and decentralize extension service. A total of 1, 287
projects are funded through the Local Initiative Sub-fund (LIF). LIF is a competitive fund
established for farmers’ groups. The purpose of LIF is to address the needs and demands of
poor farmers, particularly marginalized, women, disadvantaged groups and those living in
remote area and support their initiatives. There is wide range of projects funded by DEF but
most of the projects fall in the category of goat raising, marketing, vegetable production,
and, seed production. The program has been broadly successful but has been challenged to
receive strong proposals from local potential service providers.
Third Livestock Development Project (TLDP), Paincho (loan –in- kind) program on goat in
TLDP is an excellent example of partnership between government and NGOs. Under this
program, partner NGOs assume responsibility of farmer mobilization, help in establishing
private vet services, and provide micro-credit to farmer group members while government
agencies provides funds, supplies goats, veterinary services and funding for establishing agro
vet shops along with other support services like training to NGOs and monitoring and
evaluation. This program is implemented in 19 districts in partnership with 77 NGO partners
(Sherchan, L)
National Agriculture Research and Development Fund (NARDF) was established in
accordance with the principles of competitive grant system in 2002 under the Working Fund
Act 1986. The fund targets government, non-government, educational, private sector and
civil society organizations involved in agriculture research and development. It aims to
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 333
encourage these organizations to compete in partnership or collaboration for partial or
complete funding. So far 23 projects are under operation.
The Nepal Tea and Coffee Global Development Alliance Experience
Starting from 2002 USAID has supported Winrock International to facilitate two public
private partnership alliance programs, for specialty tea and coffee development for
international export markets. Under the Global Development Alliance approach Winrock
worked to identify stakeholders, including government agencies, private sector industry
associations, farmer/producer organizations, and development partners including NGOs,
INGOs, and donors. Each alliance has a formal written constitution, common objectives, a
workplan, and a monitoring / reporting function. The alliances meet regularly and have
proved highly successful:
• The coffee alliance - has established Nepal as a specialty coffee exporting country
shifting processing from nearly 100% low quality dry processed to over 60%
washed/semi washed for international export markets. And has facilitated a
tremendous increase in economic opportunities for poor smallholders
• The tea alliance – has played a major role in establishing international market
linkages and a branded identity of Nepal tea. In the past Nepal tea was being sold to
India as an unbranded product. The alliance has facilitated Nepal tea entry into the
USA market and branded Nepal tea in the major German market. The alliance has
also facilitated the industry to adopt a code of conduct for social and environmental
responsibility that is a strong marketing tool.
The alliance program is now in its final phase and is working to strengthen the capacity of
the Tea and Coffee Development Board to continue the coordinating role and success of the
alliance approach.
Smallholder Irrigation Market Initiative (SIMI)
The Nepal SIMI project supported by USAID and implemented by Winrock International,
and partners International Development Enterprises, CEAPRED, SAPPROS, and AEC
represents a model program for developing district and local level public private partnership.
SIMI promotes micro irrigation (primarily drip and the treadle pump) for vegetable
production by smallholders. SIMI takes a value chain approach building the linkages and
capacity of agro input manufacturers, input suppliers (agrovets), equipment dealers, micro
irrigation installers, and traders/ processors. The SIMI program has closely facilitated
partnership with government agencies including MoAC, DOA, DOI, MLD, WDD, MOF,
NARC and government projects APPSP, CDP, MGEP, PAF, and others. Government in the
partnership has taken a lead role in developing marketing infrastructure, developing multi
use piped water systems, providing market information through radio broadcast, providing
basic extension services, adaptive research, providing resources to assist the poorest to adopt
micro irrigation, and creating an enabling policy environment. SIMI has facilitated a wide
range of partnership types include GO-NGO partnership, GO-Private Sector, and GO-NGO-
Private Sector. Examples of GO-Private partnership facilitated by SIMI include the provision
of marketing infrastructure that is utilized and managed by the private sector in partnership
with government. Overall SIMI public private partnership activities are facilitated by a
government advisory body and by participating on district and local level agriculture
334 Nepal
development committee meetings and close coordination with government line agencies
Development Boards. Development boards can be conceived as an institutional mechanism
for fostering public private partnership. Composition and autonomy are key factors affecting
the functioning of development boards.
3.3. Accountability Hierarchy
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative (MoAC) is the central apex body of the
Government of Nepal to look after the agriculture and allied fields in the country, and is
responsible for overall development of agriculture (crops, livestock, food and nutrition and
fishery) and co-operative sector. It is headed by the Minister, with complementary support
from the Minister of State for overall policy matters and affairs of the ministry. The secretary
is the administrative head and chief adviser to the Minister on policy, planning and
administration. The ministry consists of five divisions, namely Agri-Business Promotion and
Statistical Division; Planning Division, Monitoring and Evaluation Division, Gender
Equality and Environment; and Administration Division and two centers they are Agriculture
Information and Communication Centre and Seed Quality Control Centre. Besides, there are
two autonomous councils: Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC), and Nepal
Veterinary Council; and three National Boards related to Dairy Development, Co-operative
Development, and Tea and Coffee Development. Similarly, there are four departments
responsible for development of their specific subsectors: Agriculture, Livestock Services;
Food Technology and Quality Control; and Co-operative, There are also three corporations /
company, and five different committees constituted in different areas of operations. The
Agriculture Research and Development Fund (NARDEF) is responsible for research and
development activities.
Under the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operative, the Department of Agriculture is mainly
responsible for development of agricultural crops and fisheries. The Department is headed by
the Director General (DG). Under the DG, there is a provision of three Deputy Director
Generals (DDGs) to provide assistance in three major areas: Planning and Human Resources
Development; Monitoring, Evaluation and Administration; and Technologies Transfer and
Co-ordination. For providing technical support and backstopping to the agricultural
development program, there are 12 program Directorates related to: Fruit Development;
Vegetable Development; Fisheries Development; Crops Development, Agricultural
Training; Agri- Business Promotion and Marketing Development; Agri. Extension; Plant
Protection; Industrial Entomology; Post- Harvest Management; Soil Management; and
Agricultural Engineering. Under each of the Directorates there are, as per relevance,
different sections, resource centers and development programs.
Directly under the DoA, there are five Regional Directorates, one each in the five
Development Regions of the country. The Regional Directorates are headed by the Regional
Directors. The main responsibility of the Regional Directorates is to supervise the
agricultural development programs in their respective regions. To implement the agriculture
development programs at the districts level, there are District Agricultural Development
Offices (DADOs) one each in the 75 districts. Each of the District Agriculture Development
offices is headed by Senior Agriculture Development Officer (Gazetted 2nd class) and
administratively, they are responsible to the respective Regional Directorates. In order to
provide technical backstopping to various aspects of the agriculture development programs
of the districts, there are Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs). Similarly, there are provisions
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 335
of Agricultural Services Centre/ Sub-centers staffed by JT/ JTAs to provide extension
services at the sub-district levels, to the farmers. To assist on various aspects of the
agriculture development programs, there are Laboratories and Training Centers at the
regional level. For the implementation / management of the development projects, there are
provisions of a separate Project Implementation/ Coordination Office for each of the
projects. The Co-coordinator is appointed as the chief of such projects. The project co-
coordinators are directly responsible to the Director General.
The beginning of the institutional development in agriculture is as old as 1978, when for the
first time, the "Krishi Adda" was established. The MoAC, with a vision to improve the
standard of living of people through sustainable agricultural growth by transforming the
subsistence farming system to a competitive and commercialized one, has the following
main defined objectives:
• To reduce poverty through increased agricultural production and productivity;
• To make Nepalese agricultural products competitive in the regional and world
markets by developing the foundation of commercial and competitive agricultural
systems; and
• To conserve the natural resources, environment and ecological diversity and utilize
them for sustainable agricultural development.
In order to realize the above objective the Ministry is mandated with the following main
functions:
• Formulation and implementation of agricultural and cooperative development
policies and plans;
• Implementation of development activities to develop cereal crops, cash crops,
industrial crops, horticultural crops and industrial entomology;
• Livestock development activities, such as farming, breeding, feed as well as pasture
development;
• Operating agriculture farms and centers.
• Agriculture research and survey on cereal crops, horticulture crops, oilseed crops,
industrial crops, livestock, veterinary services, agri-engineering, fishery, food
technology, industrial entomology, cooperatives and dairy development;
• Training to farmers on different agriculture;
• Transfer of modern technologies aspects of related to agriculture, to farmers; and
• Carrying out the activities to develop youth and women farmers.
In order to provide impetus to the development of agriculture sector through conceiving a
development framework in a long term perspective, and identify the key areas of
development priorities and necessary interventions in a cohesive and integrated manner, the
Government adopted the Agriculture Perspective Plan (APP), prepared in the perspective of
20 yrs covering the period from 1995 to 2015. The implementation of APP commenced from
1997. Under the Agriculture Perspective Plan support programmers there are seven projects
being implemented mainly in the fields of Crop Diversification, Community Livestock
Development, Commercial Agriculture, Soil Management and Agriculture Extension and
Training. The APP is one of the documents that have received consensus of the major
political parties and key stakeholders. The document provides long term vision and strategies
for agriculture growth and poverty reduction. The Ninth 5- years Plan well recognized the
central role of agriculture in the overall economic development of the country and adopted,
336 Nepal
by and large, the strategies, and priorities defined by the APP. The Tenth 5-year Plan
recognized as the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), provided continuity to the
efforts and initiatives started under the 9th Plan.
The investments in the development of the agriculture sector have not been adequately
matching with its potentials for actual needs and its contribution to the overall economy.
Furthermore, the results expected even from the present level of investment cannot be said
satisfactory. There are some inherent weaknesses in sound planning and effective
implementation of the programs in agriculture sector, along with the weak monitoring and
evaluation system, resulting into non-realization of the expected level of results. Being
cognizant of this reality, while formulating the 10th Plan some basic elements of Managing
for Development Results (MfDR) was incorporated to improve the quality of planning and
monitoring and evaluation The development of agriculture sector plan, along with those of
other sectors, was based on the Policy and Result Matrices and the focus of the proposed
strategies and working policies, and proposed programs was on the achievement of desired
results. The same approach was followed in formulating the Three-year Interim Plan (TYIP).
However, there appears a strong need to improve further the whole range of planning,
implementation and monitoring and evaluation system through operationalizing the MfDR
approaches at the macro meso and micro levels.
The Asian Development Bank is providing technical assistance to five ministries and some
selected agencies to improve their management efficiency through operationalizing/
internalizing the MfDR approaches, to help realize the desired results in terms of outputs,
outcomes and impacts. The present TA (ADB TA 7158-NEP), among others, covers MoAC
with main focus on the Department of Agriculture under it. Accordingly, MoAC and DoA is
being supported based on the experiences of previous ADB TA projects by undertaking
status assessment regarding their preparedness for operationalizing the MfDR; developing
their results frameworks and results indicators; and preparing business plans to be main
streamed into planning, budgeting and monitoring systems. Based on the preliminary
assessment of the factors responsible for low performance of the agriculture sector, the
following main areas have been identified needing special attention for improvement of the
performance of the agriculture sector:
• Integrating the farmer's crops production calendar with the supply of irrigation water
from the DOI irrigation projects.
• Critical assessment of the supply situation of the key production inputs, such as
fertilizers, foundation and commercial seeds, fruit saplings of known progeny and of
specified standards, and fingerlings, and taking necessary measures to improve the
situation in this regard.
• Generating reliable baseline data on area and production of various agri-
commodities for the assessment of actual realization of the intended results.
• Need for improving the quality of monitoring data.
• Making use of the feed-back information by different levels of the management
hierarchy, for improvement of efficiencies and effectiveness of the programs.
• Introducing motivation and accountability measures along the management chain
• Ensuring an effective mechanism for co-ordination among the various agencies
responsible for supporting various aspects of the on- farm production system, as a
whole.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 337
• Assessing the appropriateness and effectiveness of extension tools applied to
motivate the farmers for adoption of improved practices related to production and
post- harvest operations.
• Improving the situation regarding timely technical back- stopping to the production
programs at the farmer's level.
• Improving further the research and extension linkages.
• Adopting appropriate policy on providing subsidy and protection to the agricultural
products to enhance their competitiveness vis-a- vis the products of the neighboring
countries.
• Raising the level of investments in the agriculture sector in conformity with its
present and the potentials for contribution to the overall economic development of
the country.
The status of MfDR implementation in MoAC is as follows:
• Readiness analysis of MoAC is completed and sectoral performance gap analysis of
the agriculture and food security sector is under progress.
• Further activities including preparation of business plan for MoAC awaits budget
discussion for FY 2010/11.
3.4. Management Information System
Realizing the growing importance of information in agricultural development in Nepal, the
Agriculture Information Section (AIS) became operational in 1965 as a separate unit in the
Department of Agriculture (DOA). This section was renamed as Agriculture Communication
Division (ACD) in 1990. In course of restructuring of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives in 2000, it was given its current name of Agricultural Information and
Communication Center (AICC) and was attached to the Ministry as one of its central units
with greater role and responsibility. AICC is a professional wing of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperatives entrusted to produce agricultural information relevant to
farmers, traders, entrepreneurs and professionals and to communicate the information
through different media. The Center also bears the additional responsibility and challenge of
managing and using digital information generated recently by the growing application of
personal computer, internet and mobile telephone in modernizing agricultural development
in the country.
The vision of the government is building an organization driven by information and
communication technology (ICT) capable of ensuring timely, faster and relevant access to
information to facilitate agricultural stakeholders and practitioners for building knowledge
based farm communities.
3.4.1. Program activities
a. Farm radio program
Radio has been the most effective means of mass communication since its establishment in
1951 in Nepal. Its broadcasts in short wave are received all over the country while 83 per
cent of the population can receive medium wave broadcast. It is estimated that there are more
than 3.0 million radio sets in the country. AICC has been running its farm radio program
since December 10, 1966. It produces seven programs a week each of 15- minutes duration
in its own studio and aired on Radio Nepal at the evening time (6.40 to 6.55) daily.
338 Nepal
Table 1. Radio Program Activity (6.40-6.55 evening)
• Sunday - Agricultural news
• Monday - farmers' questions and expert's answers
• Tuesday - Food and Nutrition, Cooperatives etc.
• Wednesday - Interview with farmer and specialist
• Thursday - Livestock farming radio magazine
• Friday - Dialogue between JTA and old woman
• Saturday - Commercial Agriculture
Regional stations of Radio Nepal are also running agricultural programs produced by
Regional Communication Unit of the government and some private FM radios have also
been broadcasting farm programs produced locally by District Agriculture Development
Offices or by the FM Stations themselves. There are altogether 205 licensed FM radio
stations across the country of which only 69 are in operation. Recently, role of radio has
become important in making farmers aware of the prices of agricultural commodities at
different locations of the country. FM stations are playing effective roles in informing local
market prices of agricultural commodities. Besides this, they are also useful media for the
farmers to get first hand information about agricultural practices and also in knowing
important events in agriculture.
b. Agriculture television program
Nepal Television (NTV), which started its service in 1984, has 3 studios and 15 broadcasting
centers telecasting to about 50 percent of land coverage and 65 percent of population
coverage in Nepal. NTV is using geo-satellite to broadcast its programs and capable of live
cast with its Digital Satellite News Gathering (DSNG) equipment from any part of the
country. Its second channel the metro NTV2 is also running in the recent years while 8 of 14
licensed private television companies are providing services at this time. There have been
482 licensed cable TV operators, of which 365 cable TV companies are operating in
different parts across the country. AICC has been telecasting 15 minutes program since 1996
from NTV daily at the evening time (Table 2). From the mid July 2006, the telecasting
duration has been extended to 20 minutes.
Table 2. Television program activity (6:30-6:50 evening)
• Sunday - Discussion on Agricultural Issues
• Monday - Success Story
• Tuesday - Farmers' Problems and Technicians' Reply
• Wednesday - Agriculture Technology
• Thursday - Agriculture in Foreign Country/farmers' useful technology
• Friday - Agricultural Activities
• Saturday - Agricultural Tele serial
AICC produces a number of documentaries on various aspects of farming and broadcast
through NTV agricultural program. From October 2004, Agricultural News has been
broadcasting on Friday of each week. From last year there is daily agriculture news with
national news at prime time. AICC in collaboration with NTV has recently restructured its
program format to introduce value-added services reflecting the changed needs of the users.
Different I (NGOs) and donor agencies involved in agriculture sector also produce project
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 339
related agricultural information material and telecast through public and private television
channels.
c. Publication and print media
AICC has been publishing Krishi, a vernacular bi-monthly agriculture magazine for over 40
years. It has been updated and reformed in its look and style recently. The center’s other
publications are agriculture diary, booklets, leaflets, and calendars. Among these
publications booklet and folder are distributed free of cost to the farmers, agriculture
technicians and other concerned persons.
Bi-monthly magazine and calendar are provided to the central as well district level offices of
the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives on a quota basis. In case of Bimonthly
magazine, there is provision of subscription as annual and life memberships to the persons
and organizations.
Publication and print remains number one media in agricultural technology dissemination.
These media are operational from grass root to national level, from community based
organizations (CBOs) to INGOs and from government level to private level. A national daily
like 'The Kantipur Daily' has its permanent page on agriculture each Sunday. Other dailies
publish agriculture information (news articles, technologies, announcements, interviews etc.)
periodically. Similarly weekly, fortnightly and monthly newspapers and magazines also
publish agricultural articles and information periodically. Among these magazines, the
Himal and The Nepal fortnightly very often publish agriculture related news articles and
technology packages. Agro based industries, private farms, NGOs and INGOs working in the
field of agriculture also publish agricultural information and technologies as per need of the
projects handled by them. Federation of Nepal Chamber of Commerce and Industries
(FNCCI), Agro Enterprise Center (AEC) and Rural Urban Partnership Program (RUPP) are
involved in providing price information of agricultural commodities by publishing price
bulletins. Such institutions also publish technology packages for commercial production of
crops. A very good example of such publications can be cited to an article on Off-season
Vegetables, September 2006 by AEC/ FNCCI. Local news papers also publish relevant
agricultural news and information valued at district level.
Many national and international agencies in Nepal are involved in projects like poverty
reduction, income generation, rural employment generation and the like which are obviously
directed towards agricultural development. These agencies also publish agricultural
information and technical packages for the farmers. The leading agencies in this sector are
USAID, JICA, DIFID, CIDA, Helvitas, IRRI, CYMMIT, SNV, SIMI-Nepal and CEAPRED.
Similarly, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences (IAAS), Himalayan College of
Agricultural Science and Technology (HICAST) Nepal Agricultural Extension Association
(NAEA) also publish agricultural articles in journals and also provide information to other
media. Regular agricultural bulletins are published by regional and district offices of
Department of Agriculture.
d. Computer application and internet use
Computer, email and Internet have become increasingly popular since the introduction of
computers in Nepal by the government in 1971. With access to low cost personal computers
in recent years and the growing involvement of private sector in computer business, the
340 Nepal
availability of internet became possible only towards 1993-94 but in limited scale. The rate
of computerization and automation in public sector remained still low as most computers are
used for word processing purpose. AICC possesses about a dozen of computers with radio
link broad band connectivity installed at the Center. This has given a way to reform
governance making the organization more efficient, transparent and effective in the exchange
of information within and between organizations. To be of use AICC has created its web
portal www.aicc.gov.np in which general agricultural statistics of Nepal and introduction of
organizations, departments, centers, boards and committees under the ministry are placed. As
an electronic journal the bimonthly agriculture-Krishi has also been put in the website as pdf
file which can easily be downloaded and read. The National Agriculture Policy 2004,
Agriculture Business Policy 2004, and a number of booklets on various aspects of
agricultural technologies are also kept in the website. As these materials are in vernacular
Nepali, any citizen and literate farmer can read and get benefited from the information. The
portal is also a gateway to all government ministries and relevant organizations as they are
linked to the website. Some important websites linked to this URL are www.moac.gov.np,
www.nardf.org.np, and www.narc nepal.org
e. Recent initiatives and achievements
• Daily Agricultural News Broadcasting in Radio Nepal and Nepal Television,
• Establishment of Information and Documentation Unit at the center
• Agriculture Television program made more attractive with inclusion of teleserial,
agriculture talks program and lessons from agriculture of foreign countries
• Website Construction and Online Magazine, Statistics, and Booklets hosting,
• Radio Link High Speed Internet Connection at the AICC Premises,
• Improvement in the Structure and Look of the Bimonthly Magazine, Krishi,
• Agriculture Technology Book (Nepali), a hand book made for the lower level
technicians and farmers, Published and Distribution in Progress.
f. ICT guidelines and directives
ICT has been recognized as one of the most important infrastructures for spurring
agricultural development. Many of the existing conventional methods and technologies have
become obsolete or ineffective with the advent of global IT revolution. It is therefore
imperative for us to reap the fruit of IT revolution in bringing farm communities into the
chain of ICT to build a sustainable and knowledge based farming system. The challenge that
lays ahead us is how to utilize ICT effectively for the benefit of the masses of the farmers at
the grass root level. To address such a question and to bring ICT at farmers’ doorsteps in
playing a greater role in farm technology diffusion, rural market integration and to diversify
productive capacity of rural people, the Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives, on the initiation of AICC, has made the following decisions on the application
of ICT in agricultural development in the country.
3.4.2. Central level
• Establishment of Agricultural Information and Documentation Unit (AIDU) at AICC
to collect agricultural information, processing and distribution
• Management and making available of new technologies to technicians, farm
communities and concern agencies through CD-ROM library, CD and emails ,
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 341
• Gradual computer networking of central, regional and district agencies under the
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives to the central agricultural information and
documentation system.
• Agricultural programs on radio and television will be made more informative and
attractive to the audience and collaborative works will be launched with the local
FM radios.
• AICC will focus its attention to publish materials related to common problem of
technology, market development and policy matters on agricultural development.
• Monitoring and coordination of agricultural information and communication
programs implemented by the regional and district offices.
• Formulation of working procedures for the establishment of rural agricultural
information center (RAIC) in the districts.
• To include the above-mentioned agenda, program formulation will be done based on
the priority and within the approved budget ceilings.
3.4.3. Regional level
• To strengthen the regional agriculture communication unit one of the agriculture
extension officers at the Regional Directorate of Agriculture is given responsibility
of the unit. Agriculture communication unit should implement the agriculture
information and communication programs in coordination with the Regional
Directorate of Livestock Services and other allied agencies.
• Carry out the role of coordination and monitoring for the farm radio programs
implemented by the district offices. Coordinate district agencies and private
broadcasters to formulate more effective and region specific regional radio program.
• Formulation of program to establish regional agricultural information and
documentation unit.
• Organize at least one workshop a year for an interaction among local press,
representatives of national media, agricultural technicians, local bodies and NGOs to
make them aware of the regional agricultural information and communication and
other activities.
3.4.4. District level
• Agriculture extension officer (AEO) of DADO is made responsible to formulate and
implement agricultural information and communication program in coordination
with other related agencies at the district.
• Formulate programs to establish agricultural information and documentation unit
(AIDU) at DADO.
• Adopt print and publication program based on the local needs and feasibility.
• In view of the local needs and feasibility initiate the launching of farm radio program
from the local FM station.
• Formulate programs to motivate local cooperatives and/ or farmer’s groups to create
Rural Agricultural Information Center (RAIC) through the identification and with
collaboration of communities, local cooperative societies, VDCs, DDCs and local
NGOs.
• Plan for an E-extension to be implemented as pilot project through RAIC or active
groups of farmers in the district.
342 Nepal
3.4.5. Agricultural information resources
AICC is serving as a full-fledged center founded on ICT culture to motivate communities to
adopt knowledge-based agricultural systems by fostering greater organizational efficiency
and interrelationships among farmers, extension workers, researchers and entrepreneurs. The
primary source of agricultural information for AICC is National Agricultural Research
Center (NARC) from where agricultural technologies are generated. Other sources of
agricultural information are
• Ministry of Agriculture and cooperatives for policy related information
• IAAS and HICAST for technology
• Government farms for technology and practices
• NGOs/INGOs working in agriculture sector (e.g. CEAPRED, Li-bird, Nepal SIMI)
for technology and good practices
• Private farms for good practices
• Progressive farmers for good practices.
• Different websites related to agriculture
Public media and private media also serve as information sources for the farming
communities. They usually transmit/publish/telecast
• success stories,
• government policies,
• price information
• good agricultural practices
• agricultural news etc.
4. Human resource development and capacity building
4.1. Central Agricultural Training Centre
Central Agricultural Training Centre (CATC) has been reorganized and renamed as
Directorate of Agricultural Training (DAT) under the Department of Agriculture (DOA) as
per Government decision of 20 November 2003. The CATC was established on December
10, 1987 along with ten Regional Agriculture Training Centres (RATCs) two each in the five
development regions. The RATC were strategically created in the key locations for hills and
terai in each development regions. Later in 1992 CATC was reorganized and ten RATCs
were reduced and consolidated into five RATCs thus having one RATC in each development
region. Prior to this establishment training programs were handled and managed by the then
Agriculture Extension and Training Division of the Department of Agriculture. Following
the inception of CATC, agricultural training programs scattered across the country were
streamlined and made to link with the prioritized production programs. DAT has been
organizing various types' in-service training courses for the gazetted officers working under
the Department of Agriculture. The directorate, at present administers about a dozens of
training courses annually, in which about 250 DOA officers are trained in various
commodity specific fields, training related skills and in institutional capacity building.
During the Ninth Five Year Plan (1996/97-2001/02) a total of 1027 officers have been
trained through 49 training programs.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 343
Vision
DAT as a government owned comprehensive agricultural training institute, under the DOA,
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, a center for professionalism dedicated to service
and training excellence.
Mission
DAT shall contribute to develop competent human resources in support to the food security
and poverty reduction through agricultural modernization.
Mandate
• Conduct advanced level short training course for the technical officers and
professionals of Nepal Agriculture Service of Government of Nepal.
• Ensure the extension of farm technology to the end users through organizing
multilevel training programs and developing human resources
• Design and implement training related research and study programs
• Support and backstop Regional Agricultural Training Centers and District Training
Units in planning, implementing and quality upgrading of training programs.
The courses offered by DAT are among the high standards in the kingdom as they are
designed by highly qualified resource persons together with the dedicated team of
management. Training courses, thus aim to improve the capability of trainees to activity
lead, participate and collaborate in planning and implementing agricultural extension
activities so as to give impetus to agricultural development endeavors.
DAT training courses are tailored to meet the needs of the professional subject matter
specialist, planners, managers and extension workers who are serving the government at the
center, regional and district level. The minimum duration of training course is one week and
maximum duration is seven weeks.
4.1.1 Publications
DAT in collaboration with Manpower Development Agriculture Project (MDAP/GTZ) has
published 32 different types of training manuals on various technical fields. DAT newsletter,
a four-monthly publication is also a regular publication of this directorate. DAT has started
publishing a Journal of Agriculture Development from fiscal year2003-04. Progress report,
training effectiveness studies, brochure etc are directorate other publications.
4.1.2 DAT Network
DAT has network of five RATCs located in different development regions of the country
and entrusted to run training programs for support staffs and farmers. Recently, RATCs are
reoriented to offer more specialized training courses to the varying needs of farmers and
support staffs tailored according to their background, interest and aptitude. RATCs usually
give training to around 1000 JT/JTAs and over 3000 farmers on wide range of subjects
annually.
344 Nepal
Regional Agricultural Training Centre
Eastern Development Region, Jhumka, Sunsari
Central Development Region, Naktajhij, Dhanusha
Western Development Region, Lumle, Kaski
Mid- western Development Region, Khajura, Banke
Far-western Development Region, Sundarpur, Kailali
4.2. Agricultural University
The Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS) - Nepal, began as a School of
Agriculture under the Ministry of Agriculture in 1957 to train Junior Technical Assistants
(JTAs) in agriculture. In 1968, the school was upgraded to College of Agriculture and a two-
year Intermediate of Agricultural Science (I.Sc.Ag.) program was started. In 1972, the
College of Agriculture was given the status of the Institute of Agriculture and Animal
Science under Tribhuvan University. Until this time, the institute did not have its own
buildings and facilities and was operated at "Jagdamba Bhawan" at Pulchok in Kathmandu.
In 1974, the institute was relocated from Kathmandu to its present site at Rampur in Chitwan
District where 110 hectares of land, buildings and facilities of then Panchayat Training
Center were endowed to the institute. Later in 1978, 125 hectares of livestock farm under
Ministry of Agriculture was handed over to IAAS for teaching. At present the institute has
its central campus at Rampur and two branch campuses. The Lamjung Campus, located at
Sundar Bazar in Lamjung District was established in 1975 and The Paklihawa Campus
located at Bhairahawa in Rupandehi District was established in 1978. Started with a few
permanent faculty positions in 1972, the IAAS now implements teaching, research and
extension programs through a core of over 150 trained and dedicated faculty members at its
central and the branch campuses.
4.2.1. Academic
At present, the institute offers B.Sc. Agriculture (Bachelor of Science in Agriculture),
B.V.Sc. & A.H. (Bachelor of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry), M.Sc.
Agriculture, M.Sc. Animal Science, M.V.Sc., M.Sc. Aquaculture and Doctor of Philosophy
(Ph.D.) programs at Rampur. The two branch campuses at Lamjung and Paklihawa also offer
initial two years of B. Sc. Agriculture course.
4.2.2. Research
Research is an integral part of the IAAS system. Besides the course work, the faculty
members and students are actively engaged in research activities. Although, IAAS do not get
regular budget for research from the university, the institute strongly encourages faculties
and students towards research activity and supports a number of research projects annually
by mobilizing internal resources. The research projects are managed by the Directorate of
Research and Publication wing of the Dean Office. The institute adopts highly flexible and
transparent research project administration policy to facilitate researchers so that the
scientific objectives can be achieved effectively and efficiently. Usually IAAS incurs 10% of
the total project budget as overhead cost to cover the project management expenses.
Within its limited resources, IAAS annually invests over 600,000 (NRs.) to support faculty
and students research projects, mainly postgraduate thesis research work. Depending upon
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 345
the availability of funds, undergraduate student’s research projects are also supported. The
financial support for such projects is awarded on meritorious basis.
IAAS faculties have been highly successful in competitive research grant application.
Currently, over 20 faculty research projects covering a wide rage of topics of crop science,
horticultural science, fishery, animal husbandry and veterinary science are on-going. The
total budget of these projects amounts over 40 million Nepalese Rupees. The major in-
country funding agency is the National Agriculture Research and Development Fund
(NARDF) and among the international agencies DFID, FAO, USAID, UNDP, IFS, Eiselen
Foundation, TUFT, IRRI/IFAD, CIMMYT AquaFish/CRSP, EU and WWF are the major
ones.
4.2.3. Extension
The Directorate of Extension (DOE) was established on January, 2000 (2055-10-7) to
strengthen the extension service delivery system of the IAAS.
The mission is to provide services to farmers by using more innovative, participatory and
methodological approaches in the areas of developing human resource as well as farm
resources on a continuous basis.
The major objectives are:
• Exposure of the faculty and students to of real farm conditions and agricultural
production systems and their integration in the academic programs, research and
innovative extension approaches and
• Establishment of relationship with community and sharpening its image as the active
contributor and partner of the national agricultural development.
Following are the areas where the DOE has the opportunity and conducts its regular
programs:
1. Developing and providing short term trainings based on clients’ needs inclusive of all stakeholders.
2. Provide technical and diagnostic services to farmers as soil testing insect-pest and diseases of plants, and veterinary services on campus and also in the form of mobile
animal health clinic to rural area farmers.
3. Conduct farm and home visits to specialized groups of farmers in specific crops, vegetables and fruits
4. Establish linkage with and co-work with the extension programs of District Agriculture Development Office and District Livestock Service of the home district.
5. Arrange workshop, seminar and interaction meeting for all types and levels of stakeholders of agriculture development and ultimately the farm families.
4.3. Nepal Agriculture Research Council
NARC is an apex body for agricultural research in the country with the ultimate goal of
poverty alleviation with sustainable growth of agriculture production through the
development of appropriate technologies in different aspect of agriculture.
Objectives
• To conduct qualitative studies and researches on different aspects of agriculture
• To identify the existing problems in agriculture and find out the solution.
346 Nepal
• To assist government in formulation of agricultural policies and strategies Functions
and Responsibilities
• Conduct qualitative agricultural research required for national agricultural policies,
• Prioritize studies and researches to be conducted,
• Provide research and consultancy services to the clients,
• Coordinate, monitor and evaluate the agricultural research activities in Nepal,
4.4. Training of extension workers and farmers through public, NGO and private initiatives
There are more than 5000 NGOs and dozens of INGOs and some technical and vocational
institutes working in the country for the development of agriculture sector. These
organizations provide different types of training to the farmers, traders and local leaders. The
trainings includes awareness program to skill development program related with agriculture,
livestock, food security, nutrition and health, cooperatives and other related field of
agriculture.
5. Linkages among Extension, Research, Education, Farmers and Other
Stakeholders
5.1. Linkage
In the beginning, there were no problems of coordination and linkage problems because of
less number of stakeholders, organizations and comparatively low level of transactions of the
farmers. Over the years, the growth occurred in terms of organizations, stakeholders and
transactions of the farmers that created the problems in linkages and coordination. As a
result, special mechanisms were developed gradually.
a) Traditional Linear Linkage
In this traditional system, farmers' problems were collected by extension agents and these
problems were brought to research for solution. The solutions provided by research system
would come to extension and ultimately to farmers through extension. Both research and
extension used to be public base. Extension used to remain in touch with farmers and
therefore considered as a bridge between research and farmers.
b) Farmers at the Center of Knowledge Triangle
The research, extension and education are considered the three pillars of the agricultural
knowledge system (AKS). It is also called the “agricultural knowledge triangle” which
places farmer at the center. The AKS integrates farmers, researchers, extensionists and
agricultural educators, enabling them to harness knowledge and information from various
sources to improve farming and livelihoods.
Research
(Public)
Extension
(Public)
Farmers
(Private)
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 347
c) Multi-sectoral net work of stakeholders
The concerned agencies are functionally connected in many ways. For all the stakeholders
focal point becomes the farmer. They are interlinked in terms of their services to end-users.
Banks
Input
Providers
Commercia l
Farmers
Farmer
Coops
Farmer
G roup
Trade
A ssociatio
Exporter
s
Private
Extension/
Reserach
Agro
Industry
M arkets
T raders
NGO
Public
Research
Public
Extension
M FI
348 Nepal
d) Value-chain approach
As agricultural gets commercialized, it involves the production of crops and commodities for
sale rather than on-farm consumption and the use of sale proceeds to buy family and farm
requirements. To maximize benefits (or value added) from the business activity and be
sustainable, each participant in the delivery chain from producer to consumer must operate
efficiently, profitably and in collaboration with other participants in the chain. To be
efficient each link in the chain should be operating with the most appropriate technology, in
full knowledge of market requirements, and within a business environment where a fair and
transparent tax regime applies, trade impediments are minimized and acceptable quality
controls are in place. This is the concept of the Value Chain. A generic value chain system
for agricultural products is illustrated below.
The primary mechanisms for enhancing value chain performance are by (i) reducing costs at
any point along the value chain, (ii) differentiating products by making them uniquely
attractive to the consumer, and (iii) introducing appropriate technology at any point in the
value chain system (iv) improving the performance and collaboration between stakeholder
organizations involved in the value chain. In doing so, research, extension and other
stakeholders in this chain should have strong linkages and play specific roles.
5.2. Linkage and Coordination Mechanism Between R&D
Agricultural technology plays vital role in increasing agricultural productivity.
Transformation of subsistence agriculture into commercial one depends, to a large extent on
the modern farming technologies are available to the farmers and they adopt them. Research
centers are responsible to generate clientele oriented technology. Extension workers on the
other hands are responsible to disseminate the proven technologies developed by research
Figure 1: Generic Agricultural Value Chain System
Production
Inputs
Technology
Capital
Land
Labour
Materials
Indigenous
knowledge
Production
Agricultural products
Livestock Products
Forestry products
Fisheries products
Other primary products
Collection
Aggregation
Packaging
Transport
Processing
Grading
Processing
Packaging
Transport
Wholesale
Marketing
Storage
Promotion
Distribution
Retail
Marketing
Storage
Consumer sales
Promotion
Production Post Harvest
Collection
Inputs
Infrastructure
markets
roads
Technology
Processing
Inputs
Technology
Capital
Land
Labour
Materials
Wholesale
Inputs
Infrastructure
markets
Technology
Market knowledge - prices, quality standards
Trade environment - international and national santiary and phytosanitary standards, non-tariff trade barriers
Fiscal environment - taxation and levies
Industry management and coordination
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 349
stations to the farming communities and bring back the problems and needs of the farmers to
the research centers.
A close working relationship between research and extension is in vital in maintaining this
ideal linkage between r& e and hence in providing high quality agricultural services to
farmers.
5.3. Key components of the system for R & E Linkages in Nepal
5.3.1. At the Central Level
• Tripartite meeting
• Technical panel meeting
• National Agriculture Technical Working Group (NATWG)
• Seasonal crop and other technical workshops
5.3.2. At the regional level
• Outreach Research Program (ORP)
• Outreach Research Planning and Coordination Meeting (ORPCM)
• Regional Agriculture Technical Working Group (RATWG)
5.3.3. At the district and grass root level
• District Agriculture Development Committee (DADC)
• District Agriculture Development Program Implementation Committee (DADPIC)
• Village Level Planning and Review Workshop
• Farmers Acceptance Test
Third trimester (NARC)
Second
Trimester
(Regional Directorate of
Agriculture)
Third Trimester
(Regional/Agricul
tural Research Station)
Second Trimester
(DADO/DLS)
Regional Workshops (3)
National
Workshop (1)
District Level
Workshop (1 combined)
First Trimester
(Regional
Directorate of Livestock)
350 Nepal
Model of linkage and coordination between R&D in Nepal
Linkage and coordination between R&D institutions in Nepal is tailored in such a way that
there is a frequent interaction between different layers of intuitions to get two way feedbacks
for agriculture research and development. Linkage mechanism is targeted for different
hierarchy comprising from central to district level where frequent interactions among
institution is a mandatory business so that coordination mechanism has been tied up in their
annual targets. NARC is technology generator while DoA and DLS are technology promoter.
This linkage and coordination mechanism has given a sense of responsibility to institutions
assigned to their respective job of technology development and technology dissemination
6. Monitoring and Evaluation
Monitoring and evaluation are essential management functions that are interactive and
mutually supportive. M & E are of critical importance for realizing the objectives of
development programs and project, particularly for agriculture and rural development
projects because of their poverty alleviation and multidimensional nature. M & E must be
continuously strengthened to enable any development agency to respond to demands for:
• Adjustment of ongoing activities,
• Greater accountability in the use of resources,
• A clear basis for transparent decision making and
• More practical lessons from experience to guide future development interventions.
• M & E must be result oriented and provides assessments of the relevance,
performance and success of development interventions.
6.1. Monitoring mechanisms of agricultural extension programs
A variety of means are available for use by extension program and project managers and
other stakeholders in monitoring a program or project.
6.1.1. Work plans
Program or project managers must prepare annual work plans in operational terms. The work
plan should describe in detail the delivery of inputs, the activities to be conducted (which
one and how) and expected results. They should clearly indicate schedules and persons
and/or institution responsible for providing the inputs producing results. The work plan
should be used as the basis for monitoring the progress of program or project
implementation. To keep higher government authorities and even donor informed of the
progress of programs or project, managers should also provides them with work plan which
simply indicate critical milestones in implementation with the corresponding time table
and responsible actors.
6.1.2. Field visit
Program or project managers must make field visit at regular intervals and adequate
budgetary resource should be allocated for this purpose. In addition to inspecting the sites,
physical output and services of the program or project, the visit must focus on interaction
with target groups to obtain their views on how the program or project is affecting them
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 351
(directly or indirectly, positively or negatively) and their proposed solutions to perceived
problems. Person under taking the field visit must prepare their reports either at the site or
immediately after the visit, focusing on relevance and performance, including early signs of
potential problem or success areas.
6.1.3. Stakeholder meetings
The objective of stakeholder meeting is to involve the major stakeholders in addressing
issues that pertain to the programs or project, there by creating a sense of ownership. Besides
the executing and implementing agencies and other development partner, it is essential that
target groups expected to be affected by the programs or projects, be included in the
discussion of issues relevant to them.
6.1.4. Systematic Reporting during Implementation
Program or project management must prepare monitoring reports more frequently (eg
monthly, quarterly and /or semi annually) to serve its internal management requirements and
also to submit to the higher authorities. The executing agency must also submit an annual
report to the reporting agencies on the relevance, performance and likelihood of success of
the program or project.
6.1.5. Terminal reports
Upon completion of a program or project, the executing agency must prepare a terminal
report that focuses on the relevance and performance of the project, the likelihood of its
ultimate success, and the initial lessons learned in term of best and worst practices. The
report should also contain recommendations for follow-up action by appropriate institutions
where necessary.
6.2. Existing M & E Arrangements in the Department of Agriculture and
Livestock
6.2.1. At service center/ sub center level
Field observation
Meeting with farmers group
Progress reporting
Documentation
Reporting formats and time of reporting
Monthly progress report, every month
Quarterly progress report, every four month
Basic statistical form, annually
Bimonthly problem report, every two month
6.2.2. At the district level
Field observation from time to time
Monthly staff meeting
• Review of last months progress
• Decisions on the next month's program
352 Nepal
• Problems encountered and action taken for solution
• Input supply situation
• Standing crop condition
Organizing coordination meeting with line agencies compilation and reporting of progress
report and publication of agriculture information
Media publication
Participation and presentation of progress at regional directorate and district council
Updating district database
Reporting formats and time of reporting
Monthly progress report, every month
Quarterly progress report, every four month
Achievement evaluation form, every quarter
Basic statistical form, annually
Bimonthly problem report, every two month
Project status report, every quarter
Performance evaluation form, every quarter
6.2.3. At the Regional Directorate level
Field observation/supervision from time to time and monitoring of on going programs
Organizing quarterly progress review of program implemented under the region
Compilation and reporting of progress reports
Media publication
Organizing coordination meeting with line agencies
Periodic reviewing of the regional crop/livestock situation
Reporting formats and time of reporting
Monthly progress report, every month
Quarterly progress report, every four month
Achievement evaluation form, every quarter
Basic statistical form, annually
Bimonthly problem report, every two month
Project status report, every quarter
Performance evaluation form, every quarter
6.2.4. At the departmental level
Compilation and reporting of progress reports/publication of progress report
Organizing department level progress review meeting
Coordination among line agencies at the department level
Periodic field observations
Coordinating all program directorates to overcome technical problems faced by the districts
Decision over the solution on problems encountered by the districts
Participation in regional as well as ministry level program review workshop
Reporting formats and time of reporting
Monthly progress report, every month
Quarterly progress report, every four month
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 353
Achievement evaluation form, every quarter
Basic statistical form, annually
Bimonthly problem report, every two month
Project status report, every quarter
Performance evaluation form, every quarter
6.2.5. At the ministry level
Periodic field observations
Organizing ministry level review meeting
Decision to overcome the problems for effective implementation of the programs
Compilation, reporting and publication of progress reports
7. Conclusion and recommendations
7.1. Conclusion
Presently, business environment for agricultural extension is changing fast, particularly due
to increasing globalization of farm sector. This calls for change in the attitude of public
sector organizations and also of other stakeholders and the need to reorient their capacity of
delivering services. Broader extension agenda is emerging. Shift in paradigm of extension is
taking place to cater the emerging needs of the farmer for diversified technologies, marketing
and agribusiness, natural resource management, farm mechanization, etc. Extension service
providers are diversifying. Recently, a large number of outside government organizations,
particularly I/NGOs, CBOs, PSOs etc have emerged in the scene and have become more
competitive and cost effective. Studies have proven this and have proposed alternative
institutional models for delivery of research and extension services. Role of public sector
extension is changing. Public sector has to play the role as “service provisioner” rather than
as “service provider” demanding more sectoral support for quality assurance, monitoring and
regulatory services. Country needs to respond to changes such as decentralization of
extension services, privatization and downsizing and increasing efficiency. This calls for the
need to reorient vision for extension, which should be based on the considerations of
farmers, input suppliers, private and civil society extension service providers, local
governmental bodies, central and regional governmental institutions, and the diversifying
extension agents. With projects’ initiative, the government introduced policy reform to
promote public-private partnership, partnership with beneficiary groups and community
organizations. Agencies within the organization began to be oriented to change the mindset
to promote such collaboration and partnerships. Policy of contracting out extension programs
is emphatically introduced. Implementation of extension programs in line with Local
Governance Act of 1998 has been initiated; implementation strategy is to be
institutionalized.
7.2. Recommendations for improvements
Despite criticisms regarding service delivery in agriculture extension, there is scope for
improvements in the service delivery. Based on above discussions, following
recommendations can be made to improve in future.
354 Nepal
i) Assess the existing extension organization against farmers’ needs and determine
whether to strengthen or restructure it
ii) Decentralize extension but not before capacity-building of the staff and orientation of
relevant elected officials
iii) Broaden the technical mandate of extension to aim at broader development of rural
human resources
iv) Promote pluralism in extension by involving public, private and civil society
institutions
v) Privatize extension partially or fully only where it is socially and economically
feasible
vi) Develop original, location-specific, participatory, gender-sensitive and inexpensive
extension methodologies and materials instead of applying those methodologies
which are promoted as universally suitable
vii) Encourage the extension services to empower farmers through organizing them into
legal associations to constitute a strong lobby for themselves and for extension
viii) Encourage bottom-up, grassroots extension program planning by farmers in order to make extension demand-driven, but also exercise supply-driven, top-down modality
for promoting common public good practices such as conservation of natural resources
and environment protection.
ix) If the extension function is to be performed with relatively small number of extension
staff, follow appropriate strategies for getting maximum output
x) Ensure effective operational linkages between extension and research and other key
relevant institutions
xi) Agriculture extension program should be based on demand of the clients. The program
should be planned and implemented based on demand of the farmers rather than
supply based.
xii) Clear cut job responsibility in a new context is must. The extension staff should not be
utilized for engaging in programs and activities that require specific professional
background. The extension staff should not be utilized in the detail engineering works
in implementation of small irrigation program for which they lack professional
experiences. The job definition of the different extension works at different level needs
defined and implemented accordingly.
xiii) Advertise and advocate the services offered. xiv) Implement programs with the local bodies. Complete devolution with full
responsibility.
xv) There is need of comprehensive policy regarding agriculture extension service delivery
and support system in Nepal that provide the foundation for commercialized agriculture responsive to need of client. The specific areas that need to be defined may be :
a. Agriculture extension b. Agriculture input supply c. Agriculture technical support d. Postproduction management e. Market development and management f. Rural and agricultural credit
g. Law enforcements.
xvi) The physical condition of the ASC should be improved and they should be equipped with minimum equipments supplemented by appropriate teaching materials.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 355
xvii) The command area of the ASC should be well defined based on the availability of
human resources, geographic location and area to be served. The present structure
can not be effective in providing services. The concept of CASC which has been put
forward should be effectively implemented. The concept of CASC can be very
effective in increasing the access of farmers through greater social participation. The
experience of community forestry, community school management should be
internalized in designing the CASC approach. Firstly, the existing ASC should be
given priority to be converted into CASC and this opportunity can be provided to
intended VDCs and farmers of the concerned pocket area. The concern of CASC
should be on utilization of local resource centres and resource persons, greater
access of farmers' organization for extension services and commercialization of
agriculture.
xviii) The institutionalization of the farmer's organizations such as farmers groups,
farmer's cooperatives, Farmers Groups Coordination Committee (FGCC) as in Crop
Diversification Project (CDP), Agriculture Development Comittee (ADC) as in JICA
funded Agriculture Training and Extension Improvement Project (ATEIP), Farmers
Alliances as in Commercial Agriculture Development Project (CADP) should be
well capitalized in the extension service. Empowerment of these farmer based
organization should be the major strategy for greater efficiency in the service
delivery mechanism.
xix) Service delivery effectiveness is largely influenced by both demand and supply side
strategy. So, there is need for improved strategies on both sides. On demand side,
improving farmers' ability to demand better services and on supply side improving
the capacity and efficiency of the delivery institution is a must. Empowering farmers
based organization and political decentralization foster demand side strategy where
as administrative decentralization and public sector reform along with civil service
reform may promote supply side strategy.
xx) The model service centre should be able to demonstrate cost effective and efficient
service
xxi) The motivation package, inclusive of capacity enhancement opportunity as well as
monetary and non-monetary incentives, must be insured for the field level staff.
xxii) The job responsibility and Terms of References (ToR) for different extension
personnel should be redesigned with their shifting roles in the present context. The
need for service of overseer/sub overseer has emerged with inclusion of small
irrigation program in DADOs. Creation of such posts in DADOs is necessary if this
program is to succeed.
xxiii) The technical capability of the extension staff should improve. Moreover, the
extension worker should be well trained regarding good governance and new
emerging issues in agriculture extension.
xxiv) Monitoring and evaluation should be made objective. The monitoring should be
done at micro level and on basis of team approach. Participatory monitoring
evaluation should be internalized in the system.
xxv) The need for different services has been recognized by new agriculture extension
strategy. The strategy has spelt out the need for action plan for implementation of
extension services. Hence, the action plan should be developed regarding the
internalization and application of already developed extension services that provide
356 Nepal
bases for the extension need and services for different categories of clients and
entrepreneurs.
xxvi) The practice of devolution in line with Local Self Governance Act has mixed result.
It has eased in the planning and approval of program, improved accountability
towards local government and greater access of local government bodies over
program. Still, there is ambiguity regarding extension function, role clarity among
DADO/DLSO and DDC, HRD, chain of command, fund contribution to agriculture
extension, technical backstopping and ownership towards program. The devolved
extension should internalize the experiences learned so far and a clear cut working
guidelines needs to develop in line with LSGA for improved service delivery.
xxvii) View extension within a wider rural development agenda: Emerging view of extension is not that of service or system but of a knowledge and information needs
of rural people. The knowledge and information needs of rural people are so diverse
that there is a benefit of having a range of providers to deliver advice, technology,
innovations and services.
xxviii) Define an extension policy for a pluralistic system: Extension strategies need to identify the overall objectives for public sector involvement in extension and define
the roles and responsibilities of other service providers and of public funding.
xxix) Develop a stakeholder coordinating mechanism: Some type of coordinating
mechanism is needed for the various stakeholders in extension in order to provide a
common framework.
xxx) Putting information technology in service of extension: The revolution in
information technology must benefit extension. The benefits could take many forms.
Interactive electronic linkages may be established between extension and relevant
institutions. The efforts to apply information technology should be started at
locations which have necessary infrastructure and pre-requisites. The information
technology should not be considered as a replacement of human effort in extension,
but just as a supporting tool.
xxxi) Build capacity of public sector and service providers: The funding should be
increased for capacity building and institutional strengthening to widen the pool of
qualified service providers.
xxxii) Introduce some cost recovery: Reforms should encourage valuing information and knowledge services. This will encourage a market for knowledge services.
xxxiii) The technical mandate should be broadened to educate farmers in interrelationship between agriculture production, food security, population and environment. It should
engage in developing human capacities in farmers, which go beyond technology.
xxxiv) Recognize rural men, women and youths as extension clientele. xxxv) Empower farmers to organize them in groups, cooperatives and larger organizations.
Ensuring their legal status through formal registration should follow this. The next
action should be to provide them with training needed to make plans and make
decisions.
xxxvi) Farmer to Farmer extension should be encouraged for utilizing indigenous knowledge and skills. For this, Farmers Organizations should be institutionalized,
made active and efficient.
xxxvii) Time has come that there should be gradual initiation of fee charging extension services with the commercial and competitive farmer.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 357
xxxviii) Multi sectoral coordination and linkages in terms of resource sharing and functions should be promoted to meet current complexities in agriculture sector.
xxxix) Contracting–out is conceived as shifting responsibility while responsibility. It is the observation of the authors that many NGO implemented programs on technology
dissemination and poverty alleviation have been highly successful but that efforts by
the government to contract out extension services have had challenges, particularly
efforts to privatize extension for whole districts;
xl) The private sector is able to directly provide extension services mostly for high-
value and export oriented crops. Mechanisms of private extension include:
• Embedded services provided by the sellers of inputs and buyers of outputs
• Contract farming relationships
xli) A key recommendation of this paper is for government to develop, formalize, and
implement mechanism to foster public private partnership and private sector linkage
with provision of extension services. Such mechanisms should include:
• Project Advisory Bodies. To link government services and public goods to the
efforts of donor funded agriculture development programs multi agency project
advisory bodies can play a key role, as exemplified by the SIMI advisory body.
Such projects can also play a key role in fostering local level public private
partnership in activities such as marketing infrastructure.
• Development Alliances. When initiating major sectoral development and when
substantial private sector partners are involved the use of development alliances
that include government agencies, producers’ organizations, processors/trader
organizations, and the development community are highly efficient. The Nepal
Tea and Coffee Development Alliances are successful models of this approach
• Development Boards. As development alliances mature the development and/or
strengthening of development boards is a key tool to bring together national
level stakeholders.
• Embedded Services. The local level private sector agricultural community also
needs to be served and included in training and capacity building programs.
Agro input suppliers and traders have the ability to reach large numbers of
households with new technologies efficiently. But currently the private sector
lacks access to latest technologies and often has limited capacity. Agriculture
education should also be geared to develop technicians build private sector.
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360 Nepal
National Agricultural Extension Systems in
Pakistan
Dr. Waqar Hussain MalikEx-Member (Social Sciences)
Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC)
Islamabad, Pakistan
E-mail: wmalik48@gmail.com
Cell: 0092-300-5055114
362 Pakistan
Executive Summary
The agricultural extension system in Pakistan has a unique charter of serving people in the
countryside to improve the quality of their life. It is an agency for change, a catalyst for
individual and group action with a history of half-a-century of public service. Agricultural
extension system is a vast partnership made up of several disciplines and organizations
involved in promoting farm sector in Pakistan.
Extension’s primary motive is education. The system transmits practical information
produced by research centers and universities to the public. Its aim is to help farm people
identify and solve problems through the use of new technology.
Extension programs are designed to help fulfill local and provincial needs with a flexibility
to encompass national objectives. Extension offices established nationwide at district, sub-
district, and union council levels and the outreach activities of the universities and private
sector and civil society organizations form an information network. Extension mission is
better farming, better farm communities, in the aggregate, a prosperous Pakistan.
Over the past decades, the Extension has been challenged to pay closer attention to the
emerging issues such as increasing pest and virus infestation to important crops like cotton,
rice, and sugarcane and water and soil quality deterioration. Likewise, Extension had to
broaden its focus to work on high value agriculture.
This country study report is orchestrated on the guidelines delineated by SAC. It includes the
brief history with chronological developments in Extension system of Pakistan. The report
also highlights the role of various government, non-government, private sector agencies and
parastatals involved in purveying the research-born information to the farm communities in
tandem with agricultural extension.
The report also covers various home-grown as well as donor-assisted mega interventions
instituted from time to time to support extension effort in the country. While the
organizational structure, planning, monitoring, and coordination mechanism are discussed,
the governance, capacity building, incentive structure and extension’s linkages with research,
education and farmers are part of this report.
Analyzing the manu of options that challenge the country’s agriculture, the study suggests
reform measures and realignment of the existing extension system. There is a need to have
increased focus on small farmers deploying the participatory approach. Likewise, the
extension collaboration with NGOs and private sector needs to be expanded so that the task
of public sector extension is re-enforced. Apart from the food commodities, the extension
personnel have to be prepared for promoting high value agriculture particularly in the
emerging challenges of globalization and market liberalization. A rigorous monitoring and
evaluation system and improved extension-education-research linkages mechanism required
to be in place. Pre-service and in-service training of the extension staff needs substantial up-
gradation. Measures to improve the functioning of training institutes and addition of a
service academy for extension officers have also been proposed.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 363
1. Introduction
While the dissemination of relevant information and advice to farmers has a long history that goes back to 1800 B.C., the first agricultural extension service of a modern kind came into
existence as a result of an outbreak of the potato farming (potato blight) and vine growers devastation caused by aphid infestation in the United Kingdom during 1845. Closer to the
same period, in 1866 Orissa famine in the sub-continent triggered the need to establish a
central department of agriculture by the British rulers. By 1905, on the recommendations of the Famine Commission, the then government of united India decided to set up department of
agriculture to organize agricultural research and demonstration farms in every province. In 1947, at the time of partition, Pakistan inherited the provincially organized similar
agricultural infrastructure. Since then, agriculture in Pakistan has undergone a tremendous change.
Agricultural extension in Pakistan did not have a separate structure till 1962 when an independent department of agricultural extension was created within the provincial
agricultural set up. During the fifties and early sixties, agricultural extension activities were carried out as a component of the integrated agricultural development approach whereby the
Professor of Agriculture in Agriculture Colleges, also used to act as Deputy Director Agriculture and was responsible for agricultural research, teaching and extension. However,
in 1962, the teaching was separated from research and extension with the establishment of West Pakistan Agriculture University Lyallpur (presently known as University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad). Since then, the agricultural extension work is planned and carried out following a structure headed by Provincial Secretary of Agriculture who also heads the
Department of agricultural research and several other related departments.
The Director General of Agricultural Extension (DGE) is the overall administrator of the
public sector organization in the province who is responsible to the Secretary of Agriculture.
Agricultural extension is one of the means available to help alleviate poverty and improve food security. It promotes the transfer and exchange of information that can be converted
into functional knowledge, which is instrumental in helping to develop enterprises that promote productivity and generate income in the present climate of change. In addition to
technology transfer, agricultural extension is a unique service in that it provides access to small farmers and the rural poor living far from the urban centers in acquiring non-
formal education and information services.
Efficient functioning of any organization calls for necessary reforms and
improvements in line with the changes in the working environment within which an organization functions. Without such reforms, the organization will either collapse or will
keep working inefficiently and eventually becomes obsolete. The changes or the forces of change in the working environment vary in nature and scope. They could be political,
technical, economic, or social. They could be location specific, regional, national, or global. The effects of these forces of change may be immediate, medium-or long-term and they may
be direct or indirect. In response, the organization may make adjustments internally, externally, or both. National agricultural extension systems are no exception and they too
are also directly or indirectly affected by such changes and are required to make internal and
external adjustments in order to keep functioning at the same or higher level of efficiency. Before delving into explanation of reforms instituted or required in agricultural extension
system of Pakistan, it will be in order to have an overview of the evolution of agricultural extension in Pakistan.
364 Pakistan
1.1 Evolution of Agricultural Extension Activities in Pakistan
Pakistan is a federation of four provinces where the provincial governments are primarily
responsible for agricultural research and extension functions. Several extension
approaches, designed primarily to improve the living standard of rural people through
increased agricultural production and improved farm income, have been tried. During the
last five decades, varying perspectives of agricultural extension have emerged. They
include:
i. The Village Cooperative Movement
This movement started in the early 50s under the aegis of the Cooperative Department. It
proposes that all farmers in every village be united under the umbrella of the village
cooperative societies, choose their own management committees, and find the means of
their development on a cooperative basis. The primary thrust of this movement is to educate
member farmers about new technologies and to arrange farm-input delivery on soft-term
credit. However, the experience suggests that the cooperative movement has not been
able to achieve a consistent success. Some places where local leadership and cooperative
department staff have been sincere and effective, it has achieved good results. It has proven a
good source of farm input supply and technology transfer to the small farmers at village
level.
ii. The Village Agricultural and Industrial Development Program (Village-AID)
The Village-AID program began in Pakistan in 1952, a little after independence, with
substantial help from USAID and Ford Foundation. This program sought to bring about
all-round development of the villages through organizing village councils, building
roads, digging wells, constructing schools, and disseminating improved agricultural
technology. This program achieved a good deal of success in the beginning but became a
victim of departmental jealousies and political change in the country. With the abolition of the
Village-AID program in 1961, rural development became a part of the Basic Democracies
System (BDS).
iii. The Basic Democracies System (BDS)
Phased in 1959, this system was designed to bring together both the elements of community
development and political development, especially at the local level. The government
administrative and development tiers were organized into five levels where the union
council, a group of 3-5 villages, was the lowest tier. The councils undertook a variety of
social and economic development work in their respective areas. The problems union
councils tried to solve were in the realm of education, infrastructure, agriculture, and
sanitation. The BDS went a long way in developing awareness and building local
leadership among the rural masses. The BDS also met the same fate as its predecessor
program. The change in the government in 1970 saw the abolition of the BDS and
introduction of a new rural development approach the 'Integrated Rural Development
Program' (IRDP).
iv. Agricultural Development Corporation (ADC)
For supply of seed, fertilizer and farm machinery, the ADCs were established in 1960 at the
provincial level in West and East Pakistan (Bangladesh). In 1970, the ADC was renamed as
Pakistan Agricultural Development and Supply Corporation (PAD&SC) which was
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 365
primarily responsible to promote cooperatives, disseminate farm information, produce,
procure and distribute improved seed, fertilizer through a well established input supply
network all over the country. Other important functions performed by ADC included
development of new lands, establishing seed farms and rendering farm equipments and
machinery to the growers. Subsequently, the government decided to disengage itself from
farm input supply functions, and the ADC was wound up.
v. Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP)
In early 1970, once again due to the change of political scenario and the problems
with the previous development strategies, the government decided to try a new development
approach - - the IRDP. Development of agriculture was the central force behind this
program. Moreover, the IRDP was created as a subsidiary of the Agriculture Department, its
leadership was heavily drawn form the agricultural department, and all frontline workers
recruited to run this program were agricultural graduates. On the other hand, Local
Government Department controlled rural development funds. This dichotomy in modus
operandi not only resulted ample tension between the two agencies, but also created
frustration among the workers of this newly launched program. The IRDP staff, using their
professional skills, started a campaign to enhance agricultural productivity, which had a
tremendous impact on crop yields. Its one of the principal functions was to integrate the
functioning of various line departments and facilitate farm service delivery to the farmers at
one point. This coordinating role could not be accomplished successfully for hard
departmental boundaries. Subsequently, in 1978, the IDRP was subsumed into the Local
Government Department and turned into a routine bureaucratic agency.
vi. Training and Visit (T&V) System Training and Visit (T & V) system of extension was introduced in 1978 in the first phase in
the five districts of Punjab province with the financial and technical support from the Word
Bank. In the second phase, it was extended all over the country in 1986-87 (Ahmad and Haq
1994, p.1). Under T &V system of agricultural extension, the functions of transfer
of technology were clearly delineated and separated from supply functions such as
provision of farm inputs. Technology transfer was kept with agriculture extension in
public sector and the functions pertaining to supply of inputs and services were handed
over to private sector or commercial corporations.
This system had three components: adaptive research, training, and an extension wing. The
adaptive research component was responsible for the testing of the findings of applied
research at adaptive research stations established at the regional level. The most promising
innovations selected by the adaptive research scientists for the region were delivered to the
farming community by the personnel of extension wing.
The Subject Matter Specialists (SMS) along with the personnel of the training wing,
conducted regular fortnightly training meetings for the extension personnel to strengthen
their professional competencies.
The main job of the extension wing was the transfer of the messages prepared by the SMSs
and the training wing to the farm community through the contact farmers. The system was
based on two-step flow of information, from the contact farmers to the whole farming
community. The number of farm families that an extension worker (locally designated as
Field Assistant) could cover varied considerably from place to place depending on
366 Pakistan
population density, roads, intensity and standard of cropping, and the types and diversity of
crops grown. There was no fixed ratio of Field Assistants (FA) to farmers (Mullah, 1993,
p.49). Generally speaking, the farm families on the jurisdiction of a FA were divided into 80
groups of about equal size. Then about 10 percent of each group were selected as contact
farmers. Usually, on an average, the number of contact farmers in a group varied from eight
to ten. FAs were supposed to visit the contact farmers according to a prefixed schedule
known to the farmers as well as their supervisors (Ahmad, 1998, p.42-43). During a
fortnight, the allocation of time of extension worker was eight days to contact farmers, two
days each for training and extra visit/office work. The system did not yield the desired
results as it strengthened the existing hierarchical tendencies with centralized management
and top down planning several evaluations of the T&V concluded that it failed to bring about
the desired changes in production practices, input use level and crop yields. Further it tends
to marginalize the benefits of agricultural development to small farm holders, tenant farmers,
and women.
The T & V system could not sustain when the World Bank assistance was withdrawn in
1994-95 and provincial governments failed to pitch in promised operational budget. The
salary and operational budget ratio came down from 57:43 in 1993-94 to 93:7 in 2001-2002,
severely hampering the operational activities of the extension system.
Thus the intensity of agricultural extension approach established under the T &V system has
gradually diluted. The squeeze of financial support reduced the facilities for regular backup
training to the staff and their mobility. Adaptive research farms discontinued and the morale
of extension staff affected. The vacant positions of Agricultural Officers that come to several
hundreds were never filled. Despite all such odds, the extension staff kept on maintaining
limited contacts with farmers, organizing field days and field seminars. In some areas like
train the trainer’s programme and media extension, the private sector support such as
pesticides and fertilizer companies was sought to keep the extension service in operation.
Because of certain compelling forces, at some places particularly cotton and rice belts of
Punjab province, extension was organized differently. Both the commodities have export-
led potential. The growers became very receptive of the improved production and protection
practices. The traditional role of extension staff from person-to-person contact transformed
to electronic means and print media. The growers were encouraged to visit commodity
research institutes and acquire state-of-the-art knowledge and the best production practices.
The training of extension staff was organized on regular basis employing modern training
techniques. The monitoring and evaluation of the field staff by district and provincial
extension managers was developed on mechanical and quantitative patterns. Use of fax
machine helped sub-district and district extension officers to promptly feed the provincial
government with the latest information about availability of seed, fertilizer, irrigation
water, machinery, and other inputs besides crop stand , prevalence of any insect, pest, or
disease, the anticipated yield production levels and marketing of the farmer produce.
1.2 Establishment of Agricultural Extension Institutions, Reformation and
Development
Since independence, Pakistan inherited Punjab Agricultural College established in 1908 and
agricultural research institute both located at then Lyallpur presently Faisalabad, in the
Punjab province. Subsequently, the Punjab Agricultural College was upgraded to the level of
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 367
an independent agricultural university. Gradually, more agricultural colleges and research
institutes in different parts of the country were established. Presently, there are five
Agricultural and Veterinary Universities, five Agricultural and Veterinary Colleges and eight
Agricultural and Livestock Training Institutes in the country. Several other general
universities have independent faculties of Agriculture and Livestock, besides, there are
fifteen research organizations at the federal level which are involved in conducting research
relating to agriculture. Each province has a multidisciplinary and multi-commodity research
institute with substations located in different ecologies. There are a number of commodity-
specific institutes which operate as part of the main provincial research system. Research on
crops is mainly conducted by the provincial Agriculture Department whereas research on
livestock, poultry and fisheries is done by the Provincial Departments of Livestock and
Dairy Development, Poultry and Fisheries.
The agricultural extension system’s mission, which has been expanded several time since its
founding in 1962, is to deliver information to the farmers through links among the above
listed agricultural research institutes, academic institutions, and farm training organizations.
When agricultural extension system was established, its focus was on food crops which
gradually expanded to incorporate high value agricultural commodities, environment and
food safety. Accordingly, several institutions were established to handle the emerging issues.
2. Organizations of National Agricultural Extension System (NAES)
Pakistan is federation of four provinces of Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan and Khyber
Pukhtunkhwa, and four autonomous administrative units including Islamabad Capital
Territory (ICT), Federally Administrative Tribal Areas (FATA), Gilgit-Baltistan (GB), and
Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK). Accordingly, each province and administrative unit has
developed agricultural extension system in line with the peculiar needs of their farming
systems. Generally, Punjab acts as a role model in introducing innovative models and
methodologies in agricultural research and extension.
2.1 Agencies involved in the extension system (GO and NGO)
A wide range of agencies including public, private, and civil society organizations have
been engaged, at different level, in diffusion of information to the farmers of Pakistan. To
reinforce the extension effort, time to time, several commodity-and area-specific initiatives
were also undertaken. These include the followings:
A. National Agricultural Extension
� Public Sector Agricultural Extension System
• Barani Area Development Programme
• Crop Maximization Programs
• Italian Crop Maximization Program
• Cotton maximization program
• Rice maximization program
• Training and visit system
• Banani Agricultural Research & Development Program (BARD)
• Pak-Swiss Potato Program
368 Pakistan
• Agricultural Extension Services (AES) in ICT
• Technology transfer program of NARC
� Private Sector Extension
• Fertilizer Producing and Marketing Firms.
• Pesticide company, mostly involved in marketing their products.
• Rafhan Maize Product/Sugar Mills.
� Civil Society/Non-Government Organizations-Driven Extension � Universities-Supported Extension
• Public Sector Agricultural Extension System
Prior to the introduction of Training and Visit (T and V) system, traditional
agricultural extension system had been in practice to disseminate the findings of research
among the farming community. The following approaches, initiatives, and programs
were introduced to the public sector extension system. were used under this system.
a) The Service to Farmers Approach: This approach was based on the philosophy of establishing model farms with progressive farmers which would have a trickle down
effect on other farmers and ultimately adoption by the fellow farmers of the area. In
the diffusion process, extension was deploying the traditional means of
communication and emphasis was on personal contacts involving individual and
group meetings, home, and farm visit, etc. The diffusion process was relatively slow
and extension was accessible to large farmers and village elites. This approach
resulted widening the gap between large and small farmers in their access to
information sources. Likewise, the spread of information as well as pace of diffusion
was limited.
b) The Inputs at Farmers’ Door Step Approach: Under this approach, extension personnel were entrusted the responsibility of providing agriculture inputs, such as
improved seed, fertilizers, pesticides, etc; near the door step of the farmers.
Government subsidized these inputs to encourage their use. This approach helped in
substantial increase in agricultural production but it turned the extension worker into
a salesman for agricultural inputs (Government of Punjab N. D. p.6). In addition, not
fully conversant with handling sale proceeds and financial bookkeeping, several
extension workers landed in financial irregularities and faced disciplinary
proceedings. However, both the above approaches were focused on production and
productivity enhancement of food crops. In the meantime, T&V system was in the
offing and in different phases it was introduced in most part of the country.
• Barani Area Development Programme (BADP)
This program was launched in 1978 for the rainfed areas by the Government of Punjab.
Later on Agency for Barani Area Development (ABAD) took over the operational
control of BADP. The programme was confined to the productivity enhancement of
crops and livestock sectors in the rainfed regions of the Punjab province. The
programme has undertaken several specific initiatives to develop farmers’ interest
groups and upgrade their quality of life. The farmers of the programme area had been
given several incentives to upgrade the level of technology use. The prgramme is
currently headed by a Project Director with the requisite infrastructure and professional
staff.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 369
� Crop Maximization Program
• Italian-Funded Crop Maximization Programmes
This programme was sponsored by Italian government primarily in support of Afghan
refugees in early 1980s. PARC spearheaded this effort in providing professional staff
and technological backup. The programme was focused in rainfed areas of Northern
Punjab and KPK (NWFP) provinces which were the pressure areas of Afghan refugees.
The programme covered maize, wheat, and rice crops. The program aimed at
maximizing commodity production through an integrated approach. Under this
programme the extension staff were organized around productivity enhancement of the
specific commodities and farmers of the area were provided with technological package
including the farm inputs. The extension professionals were also sent for overseas
training to build up their technical capacity. It turned out to be successful and productive
intervention which after closure of the Italian funding was internalized by the provincial
governments and technology transfer program of NARC.
• Cotton Maximization Program
The cotton maximization project was implemented by the Punjab Agricultural Extension
Department. The objectives of this project were (a) Intensifying availability of extension
services to the farmers (b) Imparting necessary on-farm training to the growers about the
cotton production technology (c) Arranging major inputs at the door step of the farmer
and (d) Enhancing the availability and use of supervised institutional credit. The project
had a positive impact on the yield of seed cotton.
• Rice Maximization
Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) took an initiative to enhance the rice
production in the rice belts of Punjab, Sindh and Balochistan provinces. The extension
staff in the respective areas took the lead while the PARC research system provided all
the necessary technological and financial backup. The objectives of this program were
(a) Demonstration of proven package of technology (b) Participation and coordination of
all concerned nation building departments for the production of commodity (c) Provision
of feedback to the researchers, etc; about the problems/constraints in the adoption of
improved practices (d) Achievement of higher production within a short period. Besides
the above objectives, PARC had been instrumental in providing planting material
(seedlings), rice planting and harvesting machinery. The rice maximization program had
a very bracing impact on the productivity of the rice growers in the respective zones and
the improved farm practices were internalized by the rice growers.
• Barani Agriculture Research and Development Programme (BARD)
For improving dry land agriculture which represents one of the greatest technical
limitations to accomplishing the production potential of barani rainfed lands, the
(BARD) program with the technical and financial assistance of the Canadian
Government was launched in 1981 under the umbrella of PARC. The objectives of the
program were: (i) To introduce high yielding varieties and their production techniques
suited to the socio-economic conditions and the varied climatic patterns and farming
systems found across the rainfed areas; (ii) To demonstrate the findings of research
programs at NARC through provincial operational research programs and to estimate the
impact of research towards capturing some of the potential for increased food production
in various barani areas; (iii) to disseminate proved packages of agronomic technology to
370 Pakistan
all institutions and agencies responsible for increasing agricultural production in the
Barani areas. The program had been instrumental in introducing Canola crop which
contributed tremendously in promoting use of canola oil in the country. Likewise, the
project introduced improved varieties and production of peanut plantation. Subsequently,
the programs activities were subsumed by PARC through its technology transfer efforts.
• Pak-Swiss Potato Program
The Pakistan-Swiss Potato Development Program started its activities in Kalam valley in
1984 under the agies of Pakistan Agricultural Research Council. The program effort
concentrated mainly on the problems found at farmer level. The program covered
diversified activities such as research and on-farm trials, development of extension
scheme, identification of pest and diseases, management of seed, potato production
through TPS, alternative crops and germplasm screening. Each of the activities have had
a visible impact on improvement and productivity of potato in the valley. Thus special
attention was given to the farmers’ production system. The close relation with the
farmers was very useful to identify limiting factors to potato productivity. The control of
late blight had a visible impact on potato yield.
• Agricultural Extension Services (AES) in ICT
While carving the capital city Islamabad out of the Punjab province and granting it a
status of the federal district with the authority of a provincial government in 1980 a new
autonomous administrative unit was created as Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT). PARC
assisted ICT administration in establishing agricultural extension services in the ICT.
The AES in ICT is composed of five departments- - agricultural extension; livestock and
dairy development; fisheries; soil conservation and cooperatives. The AES is responsible
to provide scientific information and services related to the farm needs of the farmers
living in 145 villages around the capital. The service operates under the Chief
Commissioner who is the administrative hand of the Capital.
• Technology Transfer Program of NARC
In order to extend a full range of research backup to ICT growers through AES, PARC
established the Technology Transfer Unit (TTU) in 1982 at its National Agricultural
Research Centre (NARC) in Islamabad. The TTU subsequently was upgraded to a
Technology Transfer Institute (TTI) and several more TTIs were set-up all over the
country and housed at the heart of each provincial agricultural research institute. They
are mandated to serve as a link between the scientists and farmers for disseminating
modern technology among the farm communities and feed back to researchers the
constraints and limitations of the farmers in application of a specific technology or
scientific recommendation. Each of these institutes have a specific mandate that is
accomplished through in collaboration with the farmers organizations, agricultural
universities, colleges, commercial and public research institutes, NGO’s and extension
organizations located in the same ecological zone by undertaking the following
initiatives: (i) Research in extension methodology; (ii) Training of extension agents; (iii)
Exposure of progressive farmers to sophisticated or special technologies for large scale
dissemination; and (iv) evolution and testing of innovative approaches to extension.
TTI initiative of PARC succeeded in initiating a process of establishing functional
linkages among all stakeholders, undertaking extension methodological research,
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 371
conducting, evaluation/assessment studies, training of extension workers and farmers
covering different areas of interest, establishing audio-visual units and documenting,
printing and disseminating information.
� Private Sector Extension
Pakistan has a vast network of private sector organizations involved in manufacturing,
marketing, and distributing the essential farm inputs and food products. During the sale
promotional efforts of their products, some of them are deeply involved in purveying
scientific information that is specific to their product and has a value-addition impact on the
specific crop. In this process, a great deal of knowledge transfer and information diffusion
take place at the farm level.
• Fertilizer Producing and Marketing Companies
Currently, seed, fertilizer, pesticide and farm machinery are in the private sector.
National Fertilizer Corporation (NFC), Fauji Fertilizer Co. (FFC), Exxon Chemical Ltd.
and Dawood Hercules Ltd. (DHL) to mention a few, are the producers and marketers of
fertilizers in Pakistan. NFC and FFC have the most extensive extension programme.
However, for the sake of developing an understanding the NFC and FFC extension
program are briefly discussed here.
NFC extension aims at reaching all sort of farmers by employing simultaneously three
extension approaches: Extension Agronomy, Zarai (farm) Service and Mass Media.
Extension agronomy entails activities pertaining to advisory service through farmers’
calls, farm visits, group discussion, farmers’ meeting, demonstration and field days,
crop/agriculture seminars, agricultural exhibitions, crop movies, and on-the-site soil
testing.
Zarai service encompasses issuance of quarterly magazine in local language, letter
service for literate farmers, posters containing crop production and protection
recommendations, publication and dispersal of crop and product folders containing wide
range of information on crops and products, mainly fertilizers and pesticides.
Mass Media includes NFC-sponsored radio agricultural programs, news paper and
magazines, roadside hoarding bearing slogans on modern agriculture management
practices and TV brand promotion programs which in part display production
technology.
On the pattern of National Fertilizer Corporation (NFC), the Fauji Fertilizer Corporation
(FFC) has started its extension efforts. However, this organization is also involved in
training of the technical staff of sugar mills and providing training to the dealers. The
dealers are imparted training about soil fertility and plant nutrient, time and methods of
fertilizer application.
FFC also initiated an innovative approach of “Mobile Farm Extension Service” in 1987.
Under this approach, a van fully equipped with soil testing laboratory moves at a pre
planned and well-notified schedule in different villages. The van also has a provision of
living facility for extension staff who camps in the rural areas for providing soil testing
services and extending best site-specific farm services.
372 Pakistan
• Pesticide Companies
In the last decade when the cotton crop had a devastating attack of “cural leave virus” ,
the use of pesticide surged un-proportionately. This gave tremendous boost to the
pesticide business and companies dealing in pesticide emerged in hundreds, mostly
based in the cotton belt. These companies are primarily involved in marketing the
imported products. The pesticide giants in Pakistan are Syngenta, Bayer, Dow
Chemicals, Nichemen, FMC, HELB, Agrevo, Ciba Giegy, Jaffar Brothers, ICI,
Granulars Ltd while hundreds other local pesticide companies are aggressively involved
in this business. Some of the extension functions performed by the pesticides companies
are:
− Introducing new pesticides on to the market for providing efficient plant protection
services to the farmers.
− Providing technical guidance to the progressive farmers at their door steps
concerning the safe use of pesticides.
− Conducting free pesticide trials at the farmers’ fields and to show video programs
and documentaries, and organize field days to showcase the best practices of the
pesticide use.
The prime mover of extension work by the pesticide companies has the inherited
objective of promoting sales through popularizing their products among the farmers and
ultimately earning more profit. The companies have developed their extension network
to liaise with farmers all over the country. The firms also provide advisory and
supervisory services to the dealers. They also organize dealers’ and farmers’ training
programs and to take them to demonstration sites to impart first hand experience of best
practices, besides establishing demonstration farms for farmers, and arranging film
shows, and agricultural exhibitions. Other extension services including pest scouting and
supervised spraying operation of chemicals through the trained and qualified staff are
also undertaken by these companies.
• Rafhan Maize Company Extension
Rafhan is a group of commercial companies involved in processing corn for value
addition. To have adequately raw material available, the company is instrumental in
bringing more acreage under corn cultivation. The company has developed its own
extension network that operates in the corn planting area. For establishing a buy-back
arrangement, the firm enters into forward contracts with the farmers, provides them
inputs such as hybrid seed, fertilizers, insecticides/pesticides, etc; on credit, and offers
technical know how for the corn production and protection technology and purchases
unshelled corn directly from the registered farmers at the guaranteed price at the mill
gate and bears the transportation cost. Rafhan’s closed-focused support to t he corn
growers resulted in about 43 percent higher yield than ordinary growers.
• Sugar Industry Extension
There are 92 sugar mills in Pakistan. All of them have a varying degree of extension
network for increasing the sugarcane plantation in their respective zones. Sugar industry
hiers agricultural graduates to organize interest groups of sugarcane growers and impart
them improved practices through arranging farmers’ field training programs, providing
them written material, visual aids, and taking to the model farms to show best agronomic
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 373
practices. The industry also supplies farm inputs at planting time and undertakes
contracts for buying back the produce at the time of harvest. On the average, each sugar
mill has a group 10-15 professional and para-professional staff on their payroll who
carryout the sugarcane advisory services to growers operating in that particular zone.
• Solvent Industry Extension
There are about 30 solvent plants operating in the private sector and are involved in
manufacturing edible oil in Pakistan. Sunflower, Saflower and Canola are the premier
crops who provide raw material to the solvent industry. In order to keep their operations
at maximum level, each solvent plant plans to get maximum number of oilseed growers
on its contract. Employing the extension wing of their industry, they extend technical
information and occasionally provides farm inputs on credit to the growers for enhancing
the oilseed crop productivity enabling the solvent industry to operate at optimal level.
They organize farmers’ field days and distribute leaflets, handouts and show video
programs for generating interest among farm communities to grow more edible crops.
They also organize oilseed growers’ competition and award prizes in the form of farm
machinery equipments and tractors to the highest yield achievers.
� Non-Government Organizations and Civil Society Extension
A large number of non-government organizations are involved in the rural development
effort where development of agriculture constitutes the core activity. Mega organizations
like the Agha Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP), the National Rural Support
Programme, Punjab Rural Support Programme, the Sarhad Rural Support Corporation, and
Balochistan Rural support Programme and many medium and small range NGO’s are
actively involved in undertaking rural development initiatives using the principles of
participatory development and the methodology demonstrated by AKRSP. They all place
emphasis on the participatory approach designed to build on local leadership skills. Their
extension programs aim at increasing the income of the farmers by: (i) imparting training to
representatives of Village Based Organizations (VBOs) in agriculture and livestock
management (ii) facilitating timely arrangement and supply of agricultural inputs (iii)
introducing technological innovation such as inter-cropping, bee keeping, plantation of off-
season vegetables, fruit processing, etc;. (iv) introducing improved farm machinery, and (v)
demonstrating and experimenting high yielding varieties of crops, etc. Myriads international
NGOs such as Oxfam, Plan, GTZ, etc; are in operation in Pakistan but after the devastating
earthquake in 2005 following severe floods, their actions were intensified and hundred more
NGOs moved their operations in Pakistan. After emergency relief, they all are involved in
development of rural livelihood through promoting agriculture.
� Universities of Agriculture Extension
Agricultural Universities in the country make use of their extension departments to translate
the research findings in simple and locally understandable language. The material published
by the universities is widely distributed in the form of pamphlets, books, and through
university journals. The universities also provide extension services to the farming
community in the form of farm seminars, workshops, agricultural fairs and other continuing
education activities. However, there is wide variation in the extension activities of the
agricultural universities. For example, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam has
established a Farmer Advisory Cell, which is responsible for coordination between farmers
374 Pakistan
who need technical help and the scientists of the university make field visits, meet farmers
and listen to their technical problems for finding appropriate solutions. University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad has established the Institute of Applied Research and Technology
Transfer. This Institute provides extension services to the established community
organizations and to the general farmers at two project sites in Faisalabad and Khushab
districts. Khyber Pukhtunkhwa Agriculture University implemented the USAID-Funded
TIPAN project. While TIPAN has strengthened the university in establishing various
teaching departments and facilities, it had upgraded the research base of the university as
well. Another unique element of this project was its “outreach program”. This programme
has provided the university faculty with the resources to reach out the farming communities
in the rural areas and impart them the best farm practices. This was a very useful and
rewarding experience for university faculty to work with farmers in real-life situation and to
develop an understanding of the problems. On the basis of such experience, the faculty
proposed useful interventions for enhancing the farm productivity in the outreach area of the
university. Major cooperation between the extension and outreach programme of the
Pukhtunkhwa Agriculture University is in the areas of Technology Development, the
Integrated Village Demonstration Programme, Communication, Training and Continuing
Education.
The departments of agricultural extension, extension education, and rural sociology of
different Agricultural and Veterinary Universities have a special focus of their teaching
effort wherein they take students who are in the process of specializing in such disciplines to
the farmers fields where they live with the farm families for some time and share with them
the knowledge and skills they acquire in the academic environment.
The variety of foregone extension activities by the academic institutions help the faculty get
sensitized to the problem of the farm communities and propose the remedial measures in
light of the scientific experience.
2.2 Organogram of Agricultural Extension with Major Activities
Agricultural extension in Pakistan is a hierarchically top-down system of administration
where decisions are taken by the top administration without much involvement of other
stakeholders, and implemented by the field staff which does not fit well into the present day
requirements of more progressive, intensive and integrated agricultural. The Agriculture
Extension Department is headed by a Director General at the provincial level and supported
by Directors, Deputy Directors, Extra Assistant Directors, Agricultural officers and field
assistants at the regional, district, tehsil, sub-tehsil (Markaz) and Union Council (a group of
5-8 villages) levels respectively. The extension officers at all levels are supported by other
professional, technical and non-technical staff keeping in view their expected roles and
responsibilities, and are planned to have horizontal and vertical linkages with other operators
of agricultural education and research programs. However, as per Government’s devolution
plan, program planning and implementation responsibilities with appropriate authority
except recruitment of personnel and allocation of funds have been decentralized to the
district level. In other words, the district has become the focal point for all agricultural
extension activities to be planned and carried out with the support of specialists in public
sector agricultural research and education systems.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 375
After Devolution, the following organogram and administrative set up in agricultural
extension is being followed in all the provinces of Pakistan:
EXTENSION SERVICES BEFORE DEVOLUTIONEXTENSION SERVICES BEFORE DEVOLUTION
EXTENSION & FIELD TRG
A.O. (EXT)
(Markaz: 354)
DIRECTOR GENERAL AGRICULTUREDIRECTOR GENERAL AGRICULTURE
(EXTENSION & AR)(EXTENSION & AR)
DDA (EXT)
(District: 34)
H.O. (5)
EADA (EXT)
(Tehsil: 113)
A.H.O. (8)
F.A.
(UC: 2541)
TRAINING
PRINCIPAL (ATIs)
RYK, Sgd, Rwp
DDA (TRG)
( 9 )
Instructor
Demonstrator
( 24 )
Sr Instructor
( 9 )
ADAPTIVE
RESEARCH
DIRECTOR
SSMS
( 32 )
A.R.O.
( 32 )
R.O.
( 8 )
DDA (TRG)
( 8 )
EADA (TRG)
( 34 )
A.O. (TRG)
( 113 )
DIRECTOR
Lhr., Mlt., Rwp., DGK, Bwp
HEADQUARTER
DIRECTOR
DDA (HQR)
DDA (TRG)
DDA (PP)
A.E.
ADMIN. CONTROL
TECH. CONTROL
30
DGA (EXT & AR)
Extension TrainingAdaptive
Research
Dir/Principal
IATIs (3)
Sr Instructor (9)
SSMS (23)
ORGANOGRAM OF EXT. WING OF AGRICULTURE DEPTT. ORGANOGRAM OF EXT. WING OF AGRICULTURE DEPTT. PRESENTPRESENT
DOA (Ext)
Distt. (35)
AO (Ext)
Markaz (354)
FA (Ext) UC. (2541)
Director
RO (8)
ARO(32)Instructor (21)
Demonstrator (7)
Distt. Nazim
EDO
DCO
DDA (Trg)
IATIs (9)DDOA (Ext)Teh. (114)AHO (8)
DDOA (Farms) 4AD (Farms) 4
Horticulture
AD(T) (6)
DIU (6)
AD(SM) (6)
AO (56)
FA (56)
PMCIPMMn
376 Pakistan
2.3 Extension Planning Process
While the Devolution intervention brought extension decision making closer to the farm
communities, it resulted weakening the extension linkages with research and other
institutions that have not been developed. Likewise, the communication and feedback
mechanism of district extension to the provincial extension agency has become very remote.
2.3.1 Problem Identification Process
The extension programs are planned by the top management in the light of the priorities
determined by the federal and provincial governments. However, the system has now
slightly been decentralized in the sense that each district is to prepare seasonal (Rabi-Kharif)
plans with given targets which are mostly aimed at increasing crop production. While
preparing these district plans, agricultural extension personnel consult research scientists and
other stakeholders through the established inter-agencies, intra-agency linkages but with very
little input from small farmers. Primarily the identification of emerging problems and
suggesting solution in response to the technological needs of the farmers is the responsibility
of field officials of extension programs. With the implementation of Devolution Plan, the
district is made a focal point for planning and implementation of extension programs.
There are very active and diverse interest groups and associations of specific commodity
producers such as Cotton Farmers Associations, Mango Farmers Association, Sugarcane
Growers Association and Chambers of Agriculture at various level who leave no stone unturned
in articulating the impediments in production, processing, marketing and export of their
commodities. These farmers associations are also represented at various policy and planning
forums operating under the aegis of agriculture extension system. They play important role in
lobbying for attainment of concessions in the planning process. Likewise, another small group
of resource-rich farmers who are capable of articulating their concerns at the highest echelon
have considerable influence in the extension planning process.
The other perspective in the planning process indicates that a majority (84%) of farmers in
Pakistan are small farmers. This group of farmers is resource poor, with minimal access to
inputs, credit and advice, thus lacks the power and organizational capacity to exert pressure on
the research, extension and other public establishments to get their voices heard and provide
feedback in the planning process and to have farmers’ friendly policies with regard to inputs,
services, marketing, and advisory services.
There exist the district-and provincial-level committees and boards of various commodities
where the representatives of agricultural universities, colleges, institutes, some NGOs and
private/corporate sector organizations, and different commodity-specific group of growers
participate in the planning and implementation of agricultural extension program activities.
2.3.2 Priority Fixation of Extension Activities
The agricultural extension system had a top-down tendancy in its operation, therefore the
decision making and prioritization of extension activities is greatly influenced by the federal and
provincial governments. With the devolution of extension services from provincial governments
to the district governments, extension priority fixation has been handed down to the district
governments. Accordingly, the elected representatives of the district councils bring the feedback
from their areas and extension priorities are set by the district agricultural committees which
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 377
have added benefit of better understanding of farmers problems. Given the great diversity in
agro-ecology, commodity focus, and different farming systems in the country, the extension
priorities are also set by the extension management at district, region and then provincial and
federal level. However, the basic focus of most efforts is on enhancement of productivity and
change in quality of life of the majority of farmers.
3. Governance
The terms governance refers to the functioning of the various branches of the government
including executive, judiciary, bureaucracy and agencies involved in revenue collection.
Therefore, the efficient performance of the government depends on the efficient performance of
these state organs.
3.1 Institutional Reforms and Efficiency Enhancement
Extension operates in a dynamic environment where it is influenced by several other state
systems. The shifting emphasis of Pakistan’s agriculture towards diversification,
commercialization, sustainability and efficiency has made it necessary for the extension system
to critically examine the approaches and institute reforms for efficient performance of the
system.
In order to bring efficiency and decentralize the decision making process, the Pakistan
government made a decision in 2001 to devolve various subjects from the provincial to the
district level under an institutional reform of devolution. The district governments were
empowered with command and control decision making authority transferred from the province.
All the decision making authority is with the hand head/Chairman District Council who is the
elected public representative. To enhance efficiency in the public sector, Devolution was
introduced with the following objectives;
� To decentralize powers and bring government system close to the people. � To improve efficiency of the government so as to facilitate quick disposal of its
business for convenience of the people.
� To have close monitoring of the system and improve accountability.
In spite of the recently introduced administrative reforms under the devolution plan under
which the district has been made a focal point for program planning and implementation, the
devolution plan is still in its infancy and the people responsible at the district level for
implementation of this plan are not yet fully conversant with the philosophy, rational and
operational strategies of this system. As a result, the district instead of being a fully
functional focal point for program planning, has become an isolated entity with no linkage
with other districts and organizations even within the same province. Moreover, the feedback
to research and planning has further reduced.
While the district council Chairman is the elected head who exercise full authority and control
over the district, the District Coordination Officer (DCO) provides the bureaucratic support to
the District Chairman. As is evident, from the organogram, the Executive District Officer
Agriculture (EDOA) is the head of the devolved departments which include Agriculture,
Animal Husbandry, Forestry, poultry, water management soil conservation, etc. All the
departments are technical and their functions are of technical nature. The DOA is the front line
378 Pakistan
district officer who is responsible for Agricultural Extension work. He is supported by a number
of Agricultural Officers and Field Assistants in the conduct of field operations.
3.2 Public-Private-NGO Partnership
To strengthen public-private partnership, government tried to introduce number of
interventions. One of the successful efforts was the Farm Services Center introduced in the
year 1995 in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Agricultural Extension System with the objectives to
provide one-window service to the farmers where agricultural machinery, fertilizers, seed,
pesticides and credit are available at one point. These centers have representation of private
sector who are involved in supply of farm inputs and NGOs that extend credit as well form
farmers groups for providing technical information. This approach showed tremendous
performance during the period 2001 to 2003 in many ways. At present, the “Farm Services
Centers” are working at circle level. Inline with the Agriculture Policy, 2005 guidelines, the
provincial government suggested to constitute a cluster of organizations of Farm Services
Centers at district level with the name as, “Model Farm services Centers” (MFSC). The
Model Farm Services Centers are equipped with the service delivery of the Agriculture
Department including Agriculture Extension, Cooperatives, Water Management, Soil
Conservation, Livestock and Dairy Development and Agricultural Research that would
jointly be working under the one roof through their representatives. The main objectives of
the FSC were as under.
1. Empowering of farming community through policy on introduction of participatory techniques (IPT) participatory technology development (PTD) and Farmers Field
Schools (FFS).
2. Capacity building of extension staff in PTD & FFS. 3. Integrate effort by different agricultural sector departments. 4. The quality inputs such as seed, fertilizers, pesticides credits and fruit plants and
advisory services are made available to farmers closer to their home.
5. The farmers are able to plan their activities through yearly action plan to be integrated with the District Action Plan.
6. Agriculture Statistics Officer based at Farm Services Centre helps in providing crops data and other farm statistics and also serve as Agriculture Information Manager for
the Development of Statistics will be used for the formulation of various plans
rationally.
7. The organizations like Agriculture University, Nuclear Institute for Food and Agriculture, Agriculture Research System, different developmental projects like
Barani Area Development Project, Community Based Resource Management project
(CBRM), Malakand Rural Development project, Zarai Taraqati Bank, Soil
Conservation, Water Management, Agriculture Training Institute, Livestock
Training Institute, Livestock and Dairy Development Department are also
represented and provide inputs and technical services to the Farm Services Centre.
Several public-private sector partnership MoUs have been signed for improved
functioning of transmitting information to the farmers.
3.3 Accountability Hierarchy
Recently, the government has introduced a system of accountability in the public sector
organizations. Like other departments in the public sector, the agriculture extension system has
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 379
also been challenged to pay closer attention to accountability. To implement this strategy on the
pilot basis the extension system has developed and implemented an accountability system based
on performance measurement. It developed three issue-oriented goals under accountability
aspect: (i) an agricultural production system i.e. highly competitive in the national economy;
(ii) a safe, secure, food and fiber system; (iii) greater harmony between agriculture extension
and other related departments for enhancing economic opportunity and quality of life.
Accordingly, a strategy was devised to measure the performance-based management using
indicators of inputs, outputs, outcomes, and processes. The indicators in context of extension
system include work assignment for extension personal (input); an extension program
programme’s out-reach to a group of farmers (output); a change in behavior by extension and
information receipants that resulted in an improvement in the their quality of life (outcome); and
measure of the extent to which the views of the stakeholders were solicited in the planning and
evaluation processes (process). In hierarchical accountability the field assistant is accountable to
agriculture officer, agriculture officer accountable to district agriculture officer, district
agriculture officer accountable to executive agriculture officer, executive agriculture officer
accountable to district coordinating officer at the district level and director general agricultural
extension accountable to secretary agriculture and livestock at provincial level.
3.4 Management Information System
The continuing rapid development of telecommunications and computer-based information
technology (IT) is probably the biggest factor for change in extension, one which will
facilitate and reinforce other changes. There are many possibilities for the potential
applications of the technology in agricultural extension (FAO, 1993; Zijp, 1994). IT will
bring new information services to rural areas over which farmers, as users, will have much
greater control than over current information channels. Although the Agricultural Extension
System (AES) is using the MIS, its fall potential has not been adequately realized. The
district and below-level extension staff used to gear up to harness the full potential of this
technology and preserving field information and employing it in diffusing information to
farmers. Even if every farmer does not have a computer terminal, these could become readily
available at local information resource centres. In some districts at pilot basis government
has introduced the computer-based interactive extension-community communications on
specific farm issues. On the basis of this experience, gradually, this effort will be expanded.
4. Human Resource Development and Capacity Building
The human resource development is an important component for an efficient extension
system. Unless the extension personnel adequately trained in the latest technology transfer
methodologies, the extension system cannot operate on efficient lines. Occasionally, the
extension personnel get an opportunity to go back to the academic institutions to obtain
higher academic degrees and there are several in-service training institutes where the
extension professionals are sent to upgrade their knowledge and skills with the latest
developments in the arena of agricultural extension. This is an ongoing process of human
resource development and capacity building. It is a proven fact that without refurbishing the
field functionaries with fresh knowledge and latest developments, they start getting into a
state of inertia.
380 Pakistan
Seemingly, the human resource development aspect in extension system is neither regular
not adequate. The Agricultural Training Institutes (ATIs) established in 1957, in-service
training institutes need lot of improvement in teaching contents, methodology, environment
and facilities.
The objectives of establishing the training institute was to get trained Field Assistants for
Agriculture Department to serve as front-line workers in the rural areas as well as at the research
stations. The ATI is headed by Principal who is the overall in-charge of the institute but his
budget is controlled by D.G. extension. He is assisted by instructors. The mandate of the
Institute includes the following functions:
� Pre-service training course of 2 years duration each for Field Assistants and for Stock Assistants.
� In-service short training courses for agricultural officers and field assistants of agriculture department.
� One-week training courses for farmers. � Farmers exchange visits to other provinces. � Special training courses for NGO's and different organizations.
There is a need to upgrade the degree-level curricular for extension graduate in the university.
Similarly, the curricular of the ATIs need massive updating to include the new teaching areas
enabling the extension trainees to comfortably handle the emerging field issues.
4.1. Involvement of Academic and Research Institution for HRD through
Curriculum Development and Implementation Support
In order to keep abreast their professionals and field functionaries with latest developments
in the field of agriculture, each provincial extension system organizes various short-term and
long-term training programs in collaboration with academic and research institutions. The
curricula for pre- and in-service education and training being used by different agricultural
universities and training institutes are theoretical in nature with very marginal practical
exposure. As a result, the graduates from these educational institutes lack skills required for
a good extension worker who can interact with the farmers who in general are well
experienced and aware of their needs and problems. Besides several other functions, the
Higher Education Commission of Pakistan after every 5 years undertakes curricular revision
exercise such as effort is useful in light of Curricular Revision Committee’s (CRS)
recommendations, the university-level curricula kept on updated. The CRC represents all
stakeholders - - researchers, extensionists, and academia involved in extension and adaptive
research.
4.1.1 Areas of Skill and Capacity Development
All extension staff needs to be made aware of participatory extension systems such as the
farmer’s field school approach. They must also be exposed to the successful experience as well
as the limitations of NGO processes. Field Assistant level staff require training in interpersonal
communication skills, utilization of audio-visual aids for training, methods of audience analysis,
methods of group formation and facilitation of community planning. There close working with
NGOs in development of village-based community organization will expose them to these
skills.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 381
Sound management of environment, including biological resources (trees, crops, livestock, fish,
etc.) and natural resources (soil, water, etc.) ensure sustainable agricultural production systems.
Thus, it is recognized that the potential use and limitations of these resources are intimately
linked to the availability and advancement of knowledge and the growing needs for agricultural
development. This would be attained only through integrating training-learning technology and
knowledge generation, and rural institutions’ formation in an holistic approach to available
natural and human resources utilization and new methods for determining training needs,
innovative forms of training programs including agricultural extension.
Adequate training of the extension personnel of all categories is essential in farm
management techniques and business analysis for the sustainable and profitable development
of agriculture in Pakistan. Pre-service training of field assistants is imparted at the
agriculture training institutes. One of the main constraints in improving the standard of
teaching of Agricultural Training Institute is the lack of adequately trained and experienced
teaching staff who can give them exposure to the emerging issues such as international trade,
food safety environmental degradation, etc.
4.2 Training of Extension workers and Farmers through Public, NGO and
Private Initiatives
Trained manpower shortage both in quality and quantity is often a critical impediment to the
successful programs of agricultural development, including transfer of technology to the
farming community. Limited knowledge of farmers on appropriate utilization of land, soil,
water and technology is a major problem faced in increasing farm productivity and the
conservation of natural resources.
Sustainable agricultural and rural development requires the training and retraining of vast
numbers of trainers, including professionals, field workers and farmers. The more extension
workers and farmers are education and trained the more development becomes dynamic and
evolutionary.
Given that the human resources are the most valuable asset of the agriculture extension, due
considerations is given to the establishment/strengthening of agricultural extension institutes
such as Agriculture Training Institutes to cater for such needs. The ATIs and Agricultural
Research System also provide training to the agricultural extension agents, NGOs and farmers
and also organize special courses for private sector professionals.
Likewise, the joint-short-training program are also organized by the extension system where
representatives drawn from extension, NGOs, private sector, and farm communities are invited
to participate.
5 Research-Education-Farmers present emerging trend linkages
Extension workers need new technological innovations to help the farming community to inject
the innovations into the crop production skills of farmers their for enhanced productivity and
improved quality products. Therefore, the institutional links between research and extension are
critically vital. Such links between research and both sets of clients, extension and farmers are
also complementary. One cannot substitute for the other. If these links between either of the
partner are weak or missing the entire process get effected.
382 Pakistan
In Pakistan linkages between research, extension and education are quite loose. The
university faculty and researchers in the research system are prone to writing of scientific
papers or articles without considering the relevance or applicability of their research
findings in the field. The researchers operate mostly isolation and therefore, their contact
with other organizations is quite limited. They seldom take part or encouraged in extending
their research findings in the farmers field. They seldom get opportunities to formally meet
the extension workers particularly at below district level. Same is true for linkages between
the extension and academic institutions.
Agricultural universities at present are also performing only a teaching role whereas the
other two roles, namely research and extension have suffered a severe setback because of
lack of funds and inappropriate linkages with research stations/centers and agriculture
extension programs under the administrative control of agriculture departments and
corporate sector.
Even the communication or interface within and among the research organizations is tenuous
resulting in duplication of research efforts and uncoordinated research programs which are
not aligned with the national needs and priorities. Such an environment points toward the
poor communications between the farm research, extension, education and farmers. The
linkage mechanism has further been exacerbated with the introduction of extension
devolution plan in Pakistan as the district governments have emphasis on physical
infrastructure and are least concerned with agricultural developments. Thus, the extension
staff are not encouraged for out-of-district communications.
While effective linkage mechanism is vital for successful technology development and its
efficient delivery. It allows two-way flow of information and keeps the technology
generation organization’s focus aligned to the needs of end –users there is no single formula
for instituting effective links between all the entities involved in the process of agricultural
knowledge generation, diffusion, and utilization. To establish effective and sustainable
linkages among them, there is a need for a careful analysis of the constraints and
opportunities present in their particular situation and providing ample funds required in
institution-effective linkages and promoting technical meetings and reciprocal visits by all
stakeholders to each others’ institutions and field sites.
6. Incentive Structure
Rewards and reprimands act as motivational force in human behavior. If a person in a system
gets a reasonable compensation package, his urge for better performance keeps on increasing
and becomes an asset for the organization.
6.1 Incentive Structure: Present and Future Outlook
Generally, there exists no system of incentives and career advancement for good extension
workers. The field assistant, who is the front line worker, is recruited at a low level of pay scale
with two-year practical training course at an Agricultural Training Institute, after high school
certificate and generally retires in the same grade. Similarly, the chances of promotion for
agricultural officers who posses Masters’ Degree in Agriculture are also limited. They generally
get promotion one step above the initial scale of recruitment.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 383
6.2 Career Advancement Scheme
While looking at the entire spectrum of problems faced by the agriculture extension system
which adversely affects its performance, inadequate financial support and low morale of the
functionaries figure significantly which are attributable to:
� Inadequate opportunities for skills and qualification up-gradation through in-service training in country and abroad.
� Insufficient chances and lack of criteria for regular promotion based on merit and output.
� Poor working conditions which includes lack of residences, office accommodation, transport and health insurance.
� Seriously low funding level for extension field operations.
6.3 Performance Based Promotion System (PBPS)
The existing service structure is based on seniority system and is vacancy oriented. The staff
often wait for their turn of promotion till their retirement. There are many cases where a staff
member retired in the same grade in which he was recruited. This has resulted in frustration, low
morale and ultimately, brain drain from the system. A proposal is under consideration to
introduce performance-based promotion for extension professionals on the pattern of PARC.
An incentive system needs to be worked out where those who performed better than the
majority of extension staff, may be granted extra incentives.
7. Monitoring and Evaluation
While there exist weak linkages mechanism in agricultural extension in Pakistan, rigorous,
robust, and scientifically conceived monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment
mechanism also needs to be in place.
7.1 Monitoring and Evaluation Committees
According to section 37 of devolution plan, the monitoring committees are elected by the
District Council. The composition of District Council includes Chairman, Deputy Chairman
district council peasant and women representatives and representatives of minority. Most of the
members of such dispositions are neither qualified nor competent enough to undertake such a
technical task. Therefore, it becomes very difficult for the members of the district councils to
monitor and evaluate the performance the technical staff. Therefore, the evaluation by such
committees mostly does not occur and in some cases it turns out to be unfair and biased. Such
evaluation also has a political bend.
Under section 138, there is a special mention of a few committees which have been empowered
to conduct monitoring of functionaries of the whole range of district government including
agricultural extension. This again will involve staff performance. The committees are supposed
to prepare evaluation report of the staff of each office on a prescribed proforma in relation to the
following;
� Achievements of its target. � Responsiveness to citizen difficulties.
384 Pakistan
� Efficiency in the delivery services and � Transparent function.
While evaluation is a constant and ongoing specialized activity which is difficult to be
undertaken by inexperienced and non-technical peoples. Although the province of Punjab is still
struggling to establish the standards of evaluation of all the line-departments of district
governments, the district governments in Kyber Pakhtunkhwa province have not started any
activity in this regard.
Before devolution the district extension organizations were fully accountable to the DG,
Extension and the directorate of Monitoring and Evaluation was responsible to conduct this
activity on regular basis. Monitoring and evaluation committees composed of staff from the
research organizations and planning and development departments were conducting evaluation
of extension personnel at end of each crop season and their recommendations would become
part of next crop cycles guidelines.
8. Conclusion and Recommendations
The reform measures described in this country report are based on a menu of options that
challenge the country's agriculture.
Present agricultural extension service is placing emphasis on the major crops grown in the
various farming systems. These include wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, maize, gram, and
oilseeds. Very little emphasis is placed on fruits, vegetables and fodders. Extension staff
needs to be apprized of the value addition aspects of farm products. They also need to be
made aware of the impact of globalization and market liberalization on national agriculture.
It is widely acknowledged that the government extension system is limited by lack of
technical competence and should be strengthened. It is also acknowledged that where private
sector organizations or NGOs are willing to extend their services to farmers, those non-
governmental initiatives should be encouraged and public sector extension system should
extend full cooperation. Rather extension staff be trained through NGOs in participatory
methods and village organization building skills
Monitoring and evaluation is very important to keep aptly aligned the focus of extension
efforts. It is noticed that this aspect is weak. Besides, having a rigorous monitoring system,
there is also a deficiency in capacity to evaluate, it is therefore recommended to phase in a
strong monitoring and evaluation component manned by the professional evaluators each
district government.
Farmer organizations are critical to coordinating the complex elements of farming systems at
the farm level. Such organizations are essential for credit delivery, diagnosing and meeting
specific needs of the production system, meeting increasingly high quantity and quality
requirements, and many other rapidly changing needs. Thus, community organization is a
major component that serves as an extension arm of extension system. It is proposed to build
upon the sizeable institutional capacity already in place.
The private sector is central to effective extension system and is instrumental in provision of
the key public goods to farmers. Public sector extension needs to capitalize on this
opportunity and vigorously pursue public-private-sector partnerships in dissemination of
scientific knowledge in a coordinated and re-enforcing mode.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 385
Extension also needs to put in place an incentive structure that would encourage the private
sector to enter into contractual arrangements with farmer organizations and link delivery of
public services to marketing and agribusiness development. This initiative will facilitate and
speed up transfer of farm information and level of adoption.
Farmers are the dominant private sector operatives in agriculture, but they are served by
myriad private sector institutions ranging from an ordinary middleman who sells the farm
inputs on credit and buy-back their produce to a large-scale mega integrated commodity
processing plants/industry. Therefore, the improvement of services to small-scale entities is
recommended so they can expand their operations and increase their productivity. The large-
scale private sector institutions will have an important role in developing new approaches in
support of small farm operators.
In order to coordinate the wide range of activities at the village level, it is recommended to
strengthen the capacity of civil society institutions particularly the NRSP and the PRSP - -
two institutions with a long history and successful record in organizing the farm groups and
mobilizing rural resources for productivity enhancement and improved quality of life.
Because of the location specificity of farm practices, strengthening of national extension
system is necessary to raise capacity to handle such situations. The emphasis needs to be
placed on strengthening the linkages mechanism between research, education, extension, and
farmers to fasten up the application of research knowledge at the farm level. The extension
systems’ focus needs to be shifted from traditional means of communication and from
traditional crops to the modern means of communication and on high value crops and
commodities.
References
Abbas, M., Muhammad, S., Nabi, I. and Kashif, M. 2003. Farmers’ information sources,
their awareness and adoption of recommended sugarcane production technologies in
Central Punjab. Pak. J. Agri. Sci. 40(3-4), 202-206.
Axinn, G.H. 1988. Guide on Alternative Extension Approaches. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Baier, E.G. 1994. Gender, Environment, Population Education, and Sustainable
Development Themes in Agricultural Education. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Davidson, A. P. 2003. Privatization and the crisis of Agri. Extension in Pakistan: Caveut
Emptor. Agriculture and Rural Development, School of Sociology. University of
New South Wales, Sydney, NFW 2052, Australia.
Downswell, C.R. Cleaver, K.M. and Russell, N.C (ed.). 1993. Making agricultural extension
work in Africa. Policy Options for Agricultural Development in Sub-Saharan Africa.
FAO. 1990. Report on Global Consultation in Agricultural Extension. Rome, Italy.
Govt. of the Punjab, 1999. Farmer training programme for enhancement of wheat
production. Notified No. 187-D/Ps. Ext. Agri./99, Agriculture Department, Lahore,
Pakistan.
Hayward, J. 1989. International seminar on rural extension policies, 26-30 June, Agricultural
Extension Policy Proposal. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.
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Israel, G.D. and Hague, G.W. 2002. A recruiting challenge for extension education: a
comparison of non-participants and participants in homeowner landscaping
programmes. J. Agri. Edu. 43(4). pp. 76-87
Khan, M.J. Sharif, M. and Sarwar, M. 1984. Monitoring and evaluation of T and V system of
agricultural extension in the Punjab, Pakistan. Punjab Economic Research Institute,
Lahore.
Khan, C.M.A. 1990. Forward, farming systems research in Pakistan. Mart Project. Pakistan
Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad.
King, R.N. and Rollins, T.J. 1999. An Evaluation of an Agricultural Innovation: justification
for participatory assistance. J. Ex.37(4). [Online]
Lodhi, T.E. 2003. Need for paradigm shift from top-down to participatory extension in the
Punjab, Pakistan. Perceptions of farmers, change agents and their supervisory staff.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Dept. of Agri., Ext., Univ., of Agri., Faisalabad,
Pakistan.
Manning, N., Porter, D. Charlton, J. Cyan, M. and Hussain, Z. 2003. Devolution in Pakistan-
preparing for service delivery improvement: A working paper prepared for the
Forum on Intergovernmental Relations and Service Delivery in Pakistan 27 –29
June.
Maunder, A.H. 1973. Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual. FAO, Rome.
Muhammad, S. 2001. Agricultural Extension: Strategies and Skills. Unitech.
Communications, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
Nagel, U.J. 1997. Alternative Approaches to Organizing Extension: A reference manual In:
Burtin, E and Swanson, P. (eds.) FAO, Rome Italy,
Pickering, D.C. 1989. Farmer-extension-research: a two way continuum for agricultural and
rural development. J. Ext. Sys. 5(1): [Online]
Qamar, K.M. 2003. Agricultural Extension in Asia and the Pacific: Time to Revisit and
Reform. Resource paper presented at the International Seminar on Enhancement of
Extension System in Agriculture. Organized by the APO, Tokyo, in Faisalabad,
Pakistan 15-20 December, 2003.
Rivera, W. M. 1990. Future of extension worldwide. J. Ext. 28(3). [Online]
Robert, N. 1989. Agricultural Extension in Africa. Washington, DC, World Bank.
Rogers, E. M. 1983. Diffusion of innovations (3rd ed.). New York: Free Press.
Rohs, F. R. 1988.Our task is clear. J. Ext. 26(3). [Online]
Simpson, G. 1998. Extension is not just service, but service learning is important to
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Stevenson G. W. and Klemme, R.M. 1992. Advisory/oversight councils: an alternative
approach to farmer/citizen participation in agenda setting at land-grant universities.
Amer. J. Alternative Agri. 7(3), 111-117.
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Sulaiman, R.V. 2003. Innovations in agricultural extension in India. National Center for
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Research, India. [Online].
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In: Swanson, B.E. (ed.). Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual. FAO, Rome.
Thompson, O.E and Gwynn, D. 1989. Thompson improving extension: views from
agricultural deans. J. Ext. 27(1). [Online]
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388 Pakistan
National Agricultural Extension Systems in
Sri Lanka
Mrs. Rose RupasingheEx-Deputy Director (Extension)
Department of Agriculture, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
E-mail: doaexthq@gmail.com
Cell: 0094-0812387405
390 Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is a small island in the Indian Ocean, situated to the south-east of India. It has total
land area of sixty four thousand square kilometers and a population of 19.5 million people
(Annual report of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2010)
Sri Lanka has traditionally been an agricultural country, as such its economic situation
depends heavily on the trends and the growth in the agriculture sector. Of the total cultivable
land ( 2.9 mn ha), 65%(1.9 mn ha )is cultivated with agricultural crops. Paddy the staple,
occupies 40%, coconut 20%, tea 12%, rubber 7% and the remainder 21% is accounted for all
other crops (other field crops, horticultural crops and other export crops).
Table 01: Gross National Product by Origin at constant (2002) Prices of Major
Economic Activities 2005-2010
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009a 2010b
Tea Rubber Coconut
Minor export crops Paddy Livestock
Other Agriculture Crops Plantation Development
Source: Report of Central Bank of Sri Lanka ( 2010 )
Agriculture continues to be an important sector of the Sri Lankan economy in terms of
contribution to GDP, employment and income. Presently agriculture contributes 12 % to the
country’s GDP. 33% of the work force is employed in agriculture sector. In the Sri Lankan
rural sector 60% of its population depends on agriculture for their livelihood. The production
of food crops like paddy the staple diet, the other field crops has been extremely important in
terms of both employment and income of the rural population. The export oriented plantation
crops tea , coconut and rubber are the other important crops in the country’s economy.
Spices, sugarcane, cashew and floriculture at present play a significant role and have been
recognized as crops of great future potential. Animal husbandry and livestock production and
inland fisheries are two important sectors in agriculture of Sri Lanka. Mahaweli river
development programme commenced in 1976 contributed to the expansion of cultivated land
extent.( Annual report of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2010, Sri Lanka State of the
Economy 2011, Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka, September 2011)
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 391
Organizational Structure
The extension activities of each unit is presented in detail in the annexure. Although
extension units are established in different ministries, there is uniformity in the
organizational structure of the units. Each structure is headed by a Director General. There
are directors within the structure (technical and non technical). Each director is supported by
deputy directors and assistant directors handling different technical subject matter. Based on
the requirement of the profession some managerial level personnel are stationed in different
geographical locations. They monitor the extension activities of each location and
responsible for the mother organization. There exist one or more layers of officials at ground
level under one command of guidance. In all the extension units ground level technical staff
is directly linked with the farming communities in implementing extension activities. They
also bridge the farming community with the mother organization. Each mother organization
maintains formal and informal linkages and networks with relevant stakeholders to
strengthen their services to the targeted audience. It is an area to be further strengthened to
expand sustainable partnerships locally and globally.
Each structure has its own monitoring and evaluation mechanism in its unique way based on
the expected output of the organization. Monitoring and evaluation mechanisms are another
area to be well defined and focused for each stratum. Establishment of a transparent,
systematic, proportionate, rewarding system for each stratum of the organizational structure
specially for those who work at grass root level was a vision of many as an annual evaluation
mechanism.
Method of recruitment of the staff and the educational qualifications required for recruitment
are inline with the national policies. Direct recruitment for managerial level positions
command a recognized university degree and the middle level technical officers require a
two year diploma in the identified fields by the mother organization. Applicants who fulfill
the basic educational qualifications are to sit for a written examination conducted by an
independent body, the department of examination of Sri Lanka. The successful candidates
are to face an interview. Within each mother organization promotion schemes are been
regularised with timely adjustments approved by the government of Sri Lanka.
Common features of Extension Approaches
Sri Lanka’s current development efforts initiated by the state towards agriculture sector to
solve the food security problem is a positive sign. All the stakeholders who contribute to
production of food is proposed to work as a team to this newly introduced national
programme of making the homestead an economic unit. The present drive to improve rural
road network although not a direct input to agriculture, national level home garden
programme, promotion of animal husbandary at cottage level and assistance to commence
home based enterprises hold a significant potential to promote rural agricultural growth.
Agricultural research and extension which were ignored for sometime have to be revived
with the dual objectives of enhancing domestic food production ( to substitute food imports
and attain self sufficiency ) and developing an export-oriented agriculture sector. ( Sri Lanka,
The emerging wonder of Asia, Ministry of Finance and Planning, 2011, Institute of Policy
Studies, September, 2011)
392 Sri Lanka
Farmer group approach is widely used as the most effective tool of extension at present.
Mother organizations develop constitutions to register farmer groups who fulfill the
constitutional requirements within their organizations. In this approach many strategies are
adopted to obtain expected results by each extension unit. The fertilizers are given at a
subsidized rate for all the crops. The highest subsidy rate is given, for paddy the staple. The
plantation crop ( tea, coconut and rubber ) sector, cashew and spices implement subsidy
schemes to expand the production and improve productivity. These subsidy schemes are
revised and readjusted by the relevant mother organisations (Please see the annexed reports )
Conclusion
The agricultural extensionists are not merely transferring technology to the farming
community but on behalf of their clientele they coordinate with multiple, diversed groups of
stakeholders who have their own agendas but are involved in agricultural development.
In Sri Lankan context the agricultural extension worker is challenged by the increasing
population ( 1.1% annual growth ) who demands for food and nutrition security, the state
policies on food imports and exports and frequently changing agricultural technologies and
markets. Therefore the vision of the extensionist has to be in line with the global scenario in
agriculture to meet the present and the future challenges successfully.
The following are recognized as prime constraints in Sri Lankan extension.
1. The absence of a national policy on agricultural extension is a constraint to make
this service duly recognized.
2. The extensionists have to communicate effectively and efficiently with a wide
spectrum of audience in his/her carrier. Therefore a school to train agricultural
extensionists ( induction and in-service ) seems to be a prime necessity.
3. This school also should be used to conduct research on agricultural extension
continuously for the sustainability of this service.
4. At present in Sri Lanka all the prime state development programmes are focused on
the family unit or homestead to make it an economic unit. Therefore it is a worthy
cause to annalyse to obtain true hard data to be convinced whether building of one
extension department excluding the plantation and sugar cane sectors is the most
beneficial to the farming community of Sri Lanka, assuming that linking with one
extension worker at grass root level for multitude of crops and services could be
easier and simple for the farmer
References
All the annexed reports of agricultural extension units of Sri Lanka, 2011
Ag-stat (2010), Scio-economic and Planning Centre, Department of Agriculture, Peradeniya,
Sri Lanka
Annual Report ( 2010 ), Central Bank of Sri Lanka.
Sri Lanka, State of the Economy 2011 (2011), Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka: pp 84-96
Sri Lanka, The Emerging Wonder of Asia (2011), The Development Policy Framework,
Government of Sri Lanka, Department of National planning, Ministry of Finance
and Planning.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 393
1. Introduction
(i) Historical background with chronological development of agricultural
extension activities in the country
History reveals the presence of well managed irrigation schemes and flourishing peasant
agriculture in Sri Lanka during the periods of ancient Kings. 8 The King Parackramabahu
around the period of 1150s was the first to emphasize the productivity improvement per unit
of water and land which were the limited resources for agriculture at that time. A vey recent
revelation suggests that King Mahasen contributed significantly to Sri Lankan agriculture
even during the third century.9
Agricultural extension is reported to have started in Sri Lanka during the colonial regime of
the Dutch in the 17th Century. Extension started with Cinnamon crop for export.
10 During the
18th and 19
th Century, the British colonial rulers developed the system further.
With the breakdown of vibrant agricultural economy, after series of foreign invasions
starting from 1640 to 1812, the earliest attempt to build up the peasant agriculture
commenced after 1880s by the British.11
Historical records reveal that from about 1880, agricultural instructors with two year training
in agriculture were posted to work on agriculture under the government agents who were
responsible for agricultural extension. In 1904 the Ceylon Agricultural Society (CAS) was
established by the wealthier planters, land owners and agriculturists with the objective of
helping the native farmers. It was a private organization. The extension work was carried out
by the CAS in collaboration with the heads of districts.
The British introduced the Botanical Gardens in Paradeniya and Gampaha with aim of
spreading out Tea, Coffee and Rubber cultivation. This eventually developed into the
Department of Agriculture (DOA) in 1912, mainly to cater the plantation sector. In early
1920s the agricultural extension service was developed as a part of the DOA.12
In 1919, based on the 9 provinces of the country, 9 agricultural divisions were formed and
agricultural officers were appointed to each province. In 1921 the staff of Ceylon
Agricultural Society (CAS) was absorbed into DOA. In 1922 the functions of DOA was
defined as research, extension and education when the country faced severe food shortage as
an aftermath of the First World War.
During this period the agriculture officers were in charge of divisions while Agriculture
Instructors (AIs) were in charge of ranges delivering the services of research,
8 Hathurusinghe, L.K. 2010. Agriculture Extension in Sri Lanka, A paper presented at the Workshop on Rural Development
for High Level Officers of AFACI Member Countries., Suwon, Korea, 7-14 Auguat 2010. http://www.moaf.gov.bt/moaf/?wpfb_dl=455
9 The Daily Star, May, 2013. 10 Hathurusinghe, L.K. 2010 Loc. cit. 11 Samuel, R. P. Extension Services of the Food Crop Sector. Department of Agricultlure, Sri Lanka; Historical Development,
Current Position And Future Directions. http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=69157 12 Mahaliyanaarachchi, R.P.2002. Agriculture Extension Service in Sri Lanka. BeraterInnen.News 2/2002.
http://www.agridea-international.ch/fileadmin/10_International/PDF/RDN/RDN_2002/Agricultural_extension_service_in_
Sri_Lanka.pdf
394 Sri Lanka
experimentation, management of agricultural farms, animal husbandry development and
veterinary services, and also advisory services to the planters and farmers.
In 1932 the Director of Agriculture stated in the administration report that the main task of
his extension staff was to have full contact with the village farmers, to link research to draw
and deliver new information and technology, and to supply seeds and planting materials to
the farming community. Also in 1932 a propaganda unit was established in DOA with
cinema vans. In 1939, there were 09 agricultural divisions headed by agricultural officers
(DAO) and 37 agricultural instructors (AI), as mentioned above, served as the field level
extension workers who came in direct contact with farmers.
Research institutes were developed for Tea, Rubber and Coconut. The research institutes
conducted research and impart the research findings to the planters or plantation companies.
At a later stage, Sugarcane and Cashew were included in the programmes. In order to cater
for the requirements of farmers, extension arms such as Tea Smallholding Authority, Rubber
Controllers Department, Coconut Cultivation Board, Coconut Development Authority were
added.
Post Independence Period (After 1948 )
After the independence in 1948, greater attention was paid by the government on the
production of rice13. More and more irrigation schemes were renovated, peasant farmers
were settled in colonization schemes and more pressure were exerted to the DOA for
technology improvement and transferring to farmers. Apart from the small increase in the
number of AIs, 70 field demonstrators were appointed in mid 1950s to assist AIs in
organizing field days, cinema shows but they were not utilized for advisory work with
farmers. In 1952 a few female demonstrators were appointed to work with farm women on
food preparation, food preservation, needle work and handicrafts. The farm women
extension work terminated in 1964 and re-established in 1970 with the assistance of Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO). In 1952 Department of Food Production (DFP) was
created in the Ministry of Agriculture as food production was considered a high priority. The
DFP was responsible for coordinating the activities of all departments connected with
production of food thereby weakening the extension and advisory efforts of DOA in
increasing food production.
The AI continued to have direct contact with farmers for extension activities. Divisional
Agriculture Officers were involved in planning and execution of extension activities such as
popularization of pure line seed paddy, introduction of practices like row seeding and row
planting, and sporadic drive to expand the cultivation of subsidiary crops like chilies and
onions. Extension system was still weak and characterized by lack of national level planning
and coordination, a small number of AIs and weak contact with farmers, weak research-
extension linkages, lack of training to extension workers and heavy load of non-extension
activities.
The Department of Food Production was dissolved in 1957 and about 500 food production
overseers came to the DOA. They were later changed to Krusikarma Vyapthi Sevaka
(Grassroots level agricultural extension worker). Subsequently more KVSs were recruited
13 Mahaliyanaarachchi, R.P.2002. Agriculture Extension Service in Sri Lanka. BeraterInnen.News 2/2002. http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=69157
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 395
from those with one year training in practical farm schools. With these KVSs, a new cadre
below the AI was created for extension activities.
In 1951 Young Farmers Club (concept of 4H clubs in America) was brought to the country
and one club was started in a school and in 1958 it was extended to villages as voluntary
organizations. In 1955 a few changes occurred in the field of extension such as introduction
of more objectively designed results and method demonstrations and farmer group
discussions, building up research–extension linkages and conducting experiments in the
farmer’s fields. In 1957 a new approach to rice production was established with the
introduction of yaya (tract) scheme for seed paddy production which was earlier
implemented in scattered farmer’s fields.
In 1957 the Divisional Agricultural officer cadre was abolished and their functions were
taken over by newly appointed 22 District Agriculture Extension Officers (DAEO). They
continued to manage smaller farms, tractor units and farm schools in addition to extension
programmes until 1963. The Plant Protection Service was also formed in 1957 to combat the
epidemic outbreaks of pests and diseases.
Establishment of Technical Divisions
Only in 1963 the post of separate Deputy Directors were created to coordinate the extension
work in rice and subsidiary food crops and horticulture. In 1969 the concept of testing
varieties (varietal adoptability trials – VAT) and other technologies (field extension trials –
FET) in farmer’s fields were implemented by the extension staff. In late ‘60s the Agriculture
Extension Centers were established with the objective of providing latest information and
publications, and inputs required for cultivations such as seeds, fertilizer and agrochemicals.
In 1970 these centers were further strengthened by establishing the Agrarian Service Centers
(ASC) and housing all related agencies under one roof. There are about 550 such centers
established in all agro-ecological regions of the country. The first In-Service Training
Institute was established in 1967 to train extension officers of the DOA and other
departments on crops and related disciplines. In 1965, annual national planning of the
agricultural extension and production program was initiated. The administrative head of each
district was appointed to coordinate the district agricultural committees with the preparation
of district agricultural extension programmes which formed the basis for annual national
agricultural implementation programme.
Because of the importance of conservation of forests, the Department of Forest and Wildlife
was established during the British era. The department was later bifurcated into Department
of Forest and Department of Wildlife Protection.
The Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources holds the responsibility of extension
activities in the fisheries sector. National Aquatic Research Authority (NARA) and National
Aquatic Development Authority (NADA) also support research and extension in the fisheries
sector.
Another important development was the Mahawal Development Authority of Sri Lanka
(MASL) in the 1970s under the Mahawal River Development Scheme. All agricultural
activities, including extension, of the Mahawal Development Area came under the
jurisdiction of MASL.
396 Sri Lanka
In the early parts of the 20th Century the Department of Agriculture (DOA) was responsible
for research and extension in both the crops and the livestock sector. Later a separate
department, Animal Production and Health, was established as also the Department of
Export Agriculture, for crops including spices and beverage crops. The DOA currently deals
with rice, pulses, grains, yams, fruits and vegetables.
(ii) Establishment of Extension Institutes14
In addition to the Department of Agriculture (DOA), the Department of Forest and Wildlife
(DOFW), the Department of Animal Production and Health, the Royal Botanical Gardens
were established by the British rulers, the last especially for floriculture. Presently these
Departments continue research and extension for crops and livestock. In addition, the
extension institutes of plantation crops (Tea, Coconut, Rubber, Cashew and also sugarcane),
each of which occupies a special place in Sri Lankan Agriculture, were established:
Tea Research and Extension
Tea Research Institute (TRI) founded in 1925 as a private outfit to cater to the demand
created by the tea industry, became a government institution in 1957 and faced many
changes over the years. It is mandated to research into tea production and manufacture and to
disseminate information. Advisory and Extension Division of the TRI is responsible for the
dissemination of current scientific ideas, findings and innovations to tea plantations managed
by Regional Plantation Companies (RPCs), state owned tea estates and privately owned
estates. Such information is provided to tea smallholders through the Tea Small Holding
Development Authority (TSHDA).
The Advisory and Extension Division, housed at the TRI Talawakelle was established in
1959 and other six Regional Centers at Passara (1963), Rathnapura (1964), Hantana (1966),
Kottawa (1980) Deniyaya (1984) and Kalutara (2010), to handle growers’ requests for
advisory matters. The extension activities of the TRI could be broadly categorized into
individual extension, problem solving, information dissemination, education and training,
public and mass media extension, extension and social research, production and distribution
of teaching materials and coordinating the supply of planting materials.
The extension approach of the institute mainly remains as the commodity-based extension
approach. The advisory and extension works were mainly confined to on–call problems
solving estate visits with the involvement of scientists as subject-matter specialists, when
required. The Para Extension Approach (PEA) was introduced recently to bridge the
knowledge gap in the supervisory and worker level employees of corporate sector tea estates
Institute has a strong feedback mechanism which helps for decision making on research and
extension activities.
Coconut Research and Extension
Coconut cultivation in this country as a plantation crop commenced in the middle of the 19th
century. The Coconut Research Institute (CRI) established in 1929 was responsible for the
14 Hathurusinghe, L.K. 2010. Agriculture Extension in Sri Lanka, A paper presented at the Workshop on Rural Development for
High Level Officers of AFACI Member Countries., Suwon, Korea, 7-14 Auguat 2010. http://www.moaf.gov.bt/moaf/?wpfb_dl=455
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 397
development of the coconut sector. The development of technologies through research in
various disciplines and extension activities in the sector were the major activities of the
Institute. With the establishment of a new organization, the Coconut Cultivation Board
(CCB) in 1971 to implement the subsidy program introduced by the government to
rehabilitate the coconut sector, research and extension activities came under two separate
organizations. The sequential processes of research and extension interface in sustainable
technology development and transfer should be realized by both organizations. Due to a lack
of coordination and cooperation among the activities of these organizations, it has become
difficult to achieve the major roles in the generation, development and transfer of sustainable
technologies in the sector. The CRI is responsible to provide a two way channel to
disseminate coconut cultivation and processing technologies and information, to extension
personnel and stakeholders and acquire information about technology needs and production
problems. The CRI is also responsible to evaluate the relevance, effectiveness, impact and
affordability of technologies disseminated. Strengthening of functional linkages among the
institutions and sub sectors are vital for enhancing the overall improvement of the sector.
Rubber Research and Extension
The rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) provides nature rubber (NR), an essential commodity in
the international market. The NR sector is important in the Sri Lankan economy in terms of
export earnings and employment generation. The NR plantation sector comprises of public
and private sectors. Nearly 57% is occupied by the private sector comprises of small and
medium estates, while the rest is owned by the private sector large estates, The Rubber
Research Institute of Sri Lanka (RRISL) is the nodal agency in Sri Lanka for research and
development on all aspects of rubber cultivation and processing for the benefit of rubber
industry. The institute is committed toward technology transfer activities and training of
extension offices and stakeholders. Increasing the productivity and income levels of rubber
growers through transfer of technologies by extension and advisory services were undertaken
at national and regional level to achieve the objectives of the ASD. Four major activities, i.e.
exhibitions, farmer training programmes, seminars on current challenges and skill
development training classes were conducted at several locations under the theme of
“Isurubara Hetak Sandaha Asrimath Gsak Samaga” (For a Prosperous Future from a
Prosperous Tree) to mark the centennial calibrations of Rubber Research institute. Advisory
and extension support services were provided to rehabilitate 426 substandard rubber holding.
Forty awareness programmes were conducted successfully to educate nearly two thousand
rubber small holders on recommended agronomic and recommended agronomic and
processing practices.
Cashew
Sri Lanka Cashew Corporation (SLCC) was established in 1973 under the State Agricultural
Corporation Act No 11 of 1972. Since the establishment, the corporation is functioning as a
Public Enterprise, mainly providing services to the industry while implementing commercial
activities at a profitable level.
The activities of SLCC are to implement a well planned programme of actions to achieve
it’s objectives to enhance the income of growers and processors, to expand the cashew
growing area using superior quality new varieties, to enhance the efficiency and increase the
profitability of commercial activities, while preventing environmental degradations.
398 Sri Lanka
Cashew is cultivated in almost all districts in Sri Lanka the extents are substantial in the high
potential dry zone districts specially in Puttalam, Kurunagala. Monaragala,
Anuradhapura,Polonnaruwa,Mathale,Hambantota,Ampara,Batticaloa,Vauniya,Kilinochchi,a
nd Trincomalee. Statistics show a slow and steady increase in production over the last few
years.
The extension arm plays a vital role in achieving the objectives of SLCC. The extension
activities are coordinated by 09 regional offices of Sri Lanka. The cashew development
officers (CDO) who are two year agriculture diploma holders, attached to the regional
offices, conduct the extension activities with the guidance and supervision of the respective
regional managers.
Individual visits, training workshop sand printed matter are employed in extension activities
to impart the knowledge and skill to cashew growers. The training (technical know how) is
given by the CDO based on the needs of their clients. Farmer societies are established by the
CDO. The cashew farmer societies are registered with the SLCC based on a constitution
developed by the SLCC. At present there are seventy four (74) cashew farmer societies in the
country.
Sugarcane
The extension service of the sugar sector was initiated with the establishment of the Sri
Lanka Sugar Corporation (SLSC) under the State Corporation Act No 37 of 1957. Later
SLSC developed its organized extension service using an approach similar to the commodity
development.
The research needs are met by the Sugarcane Research Institute (SRI) while the extension
activities and input service provision are carried out by the extension staffs of sugar
industries. After privatization of sugar industries in 1990s, extension staffs were gradually
confined to activities such as monitoring farmer performance, managing input service and
purchasing cane. This narrow extension perspective within the industry weakened
relationship between extension officers and the farming community. This demands focus on
skills development and incentives schemes for extension staffs using a joint private- public
sector approach. Currently farmers and the industries operate with marginal profitability.
There is the need to find solutions to pressing economical and technical problems affecting
the industry and the sugarcane farmers. It is important to empower the farmer with
entrepreneurial assistance.
(iii) Reforms and Development8
In Sri Lanka four major agricultural extension reforms were undertaken in the peasant
agricultural sector since independence of the country in 1948. In 1957, District Agricultural
Extension Officers and village level extension offices (KVSs) were appointed. This is the
first significant attempt taken to widen the accessibility of the extension services to the
peasant farming community.
The second major reform was the introduction of T&V system in 1979. This system became
a failure due to number of reasons such as financial scarcity, lack of research linkage, social
problems and administrative difficulties.
8 Mahaliyanaarachchi, R.P.2002. Agriculture Extension Service in Sri Lanka. BeraterInnen.News 2/2002.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 399
The third reform was absorbing of the village level agricultural extension offices (KVSs)
from agricultural service to administrative service as village offices in 1989. However,
village officers are the grass roots level administrative officers of the state service have
nothing to do with agriculture. This political decision taken to abolish the field level
extension layer has given long-term negative consequences to the development of the
agricultural sector in the country.
The forth one was the implementation of Integrated Agricultural Extension Service in 1993.
The main objectives of the programme were to strengthen the different agricultural extension
services in the country by integrating their functions. Currently extension service of DOA is
accused for not doing enough. This should be considered seriously by the policy makers
while the majority of the farmers are small holders and economically vulnerable. They are
not economically strong enough to pay for extension yet.
As mentioned earlier, there are several commodity specialized extension services provided in
tea, rubber, coconut and cashew sectors.
The public sector (Government and semi government) extension services are mainly targeted
on small and resource less farmers. These services are free of charge.
There are few NGOs and private sector companies who provide agricultural extension
services to the limited number of farmers. Public sector dominates extension services still.
But due to different factors such as a failure to adopt a demand driven approach, a lack of
appropriate technology, increasing cost of production, decreasing soil fertility, the
uneconomic size of small holdings due to the continued fragmentation of the land, and
financial and marketing constraints, they are unable to improve the productivity and
profitability of farming since 20 years.
Presently, extension approaches being followed are top-down and commodity driven with
little involvement of farmers in program planning. The number of farmers to be covered by
each Agriculture Instructor varies from 1,000 to 7,000 depending on the geographical
location. With hardly any physical facilities and low salaries, the extension staff finds it
more tempting to serve the government-subsidized estate crops growers rather than the
majority of small farmers, livestock owners and in-land fishermen.
Following the tsunami disaster and after the end of a lengthy civil war in the country, many
bi-lateral and multi-lateral (World Bank, Asian Development Bank, IFAD, UNDP, Japan,
Russia, AusAid, CIDA, China, Iran and The Netherlands have been active in providing
various types of support15.
(iv) Establishment of NAES
Conventional extension approach
The DAEO was responsible for administration of district extension staff and,
implementation, supervision and monitoring and evaluation of the extension programs for
both crops and livestock under the conventional agricultural extension approach prevailed till
late 1970s.
15 http://www.g-fras.org/en/knowledge/world-wide-extension-study/92-world-wide-extension-study/asia/southern-asia/319-sri-lanka (viewed on 11 June 2013).
400 Sri Lanka
Each DAEO had 6-17 AIs, 20 to 138 KVSs depending on the size and agricultural
importance of the district. There were 22 districts and 202 AI ranges in the country. In each
AI range, there were about 3000 ha of paddy lands and 3000 to 6000 farm families. Each AI
range was subdivided to 4-12 KVS ranges thus KVS had about 1000-1500—farm families to
serve and there were a total of 1090 KVSs in the field.
Although the extension system was progressively strengthened, the conventional extension
system had more weaknesses such as lack of technical guidance, heavy load of non-
extension activities, thin coverage by extension officers, lack of mobility facilities of field
extension staff and poor research-extension linkage.
The DAEO was responsible for administration of district extension staff and,
implementation, supervision and monitoring and evaluation of the extension programs for
both crops and livestock under the conventional agricultural extension approach prevailed till
late 1970s.
Although the extension system was progressively strengthened, the conventional extension
system had more weaknesses such as lack of technical guidance, heavy load of non-
extension activities, thin coverage by extension officers, lack of mobility facilities of field
extension staff and poor research-extension linkage.
Training and visit system of extension
As a remedy for these weaknesses, new and systematic extension approach, Training and
Visit (T&V) system of agricultural extension, was introduced with the assistance from the
World Bank and implemented form 1979 to 1987. This extension system created a unified
extension system covering all food crops with a single line of command from the national to
field level. It provided regular and fortnightly training to extension staff, scheduled visit to
farmers with relevant information important to that fortnight and conducting Regional
Technical Working Group meeting for preparation of regional extension and research plan
and for bridging the research-extension linkage. Non-extension activities that had been
carried out by the extension workers such as sale of inputs, production of seeds were relived
from extension officers. Eight regional research stations were established in different agro-
climatic zones of the country. Four special research stations and 18 sub (adaptive) research
stations were functional during this period. Eight In-Service Training Institutes were also
established and became operational by 1983 to provide the required training for extension
staff.
The extension division of the DOA employed extension officers at district, segments, ranges
and field levels. By that time there were 24 administrative districts and the designation of
DAEO was changed to Assistant Director of Agriculture. A new post of segment agriculture
officer was created and posted to guide and supervise 20-30 field extension personnel. Farm
families and ranges served by KVS (750 on an average) were divided into six clusters and 6
contact farmers were identified in each cluster. Each contact farmer was visited regularly
fortnightly and it was expected that contact farmer delivered the messages to the other
farmers. This system of extension could not be continued due to drastic administrative
changes and removal of KVSs from agriculture extension in 1987.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 401
Second Agricultural Extension Project (SAEP)
As an alternative strategy to fulfill the vacuum created due to elimination of T &V system,
the Second Agricultural Extension Project (SAEP) was implemented in 1993 with the
financial assistance from the World Bank. This project made some attempt to establish
farmer participatory and integrated extension approach for food crops, minor export crops,
livestock and coconut sectors in Sri Lanka and the project came to an end in 1998, with little
results. However, lack of successful integration among line agencies and lack of effective
coordination between the project and provincial councils in particular were major hindrance
to achieve expected results. Project evaluation report revealed that, due to weaknesses
observed in implementation of Integrated Agricultural Extension System, the achievement of
objectives of increasing farm incomes and agricultural production was partial and not very
satisfactory.
Problems experienced
There was a drastic administrative structural change in 1987 with the devolution of powers
to the provincial councils. The unified extension system was dismantled and extension staff
was assigned to eight provincial councils creating 8 independent extension agencies. The
field level extension services (KVSs) were removed from the DOA and were attached as
village level administrative officers (GSN). Six inter-provincial areas under the central
government control were established in accordance with the section II and 9th paragraph of
the 8th schedule of the 13
th amendment to the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Sri
Lanka. The linkage with the national extension and research system was left only to informal
avenues, destroying all formal linkages. During the period starting from 1983, especially the
north and eastern provinces and adjoining areas were severely affected with the civil war and
agricultural extension activities in those areas were disrupted and limited only to a few safe
areas.
After 1988 there were 10 agencies managing extension of food crops in the state sector,
namely 8 provincial councils, central government extension in 6 inter-provincial areas, and
extension systems in irrigations and colonization schemes in Mahaweli Authority of Sri
Lanka. Up to 1993 the DOA was headed by Director of Agriculture and had 7 divisions
namely, Research, Education and Training, Seeds and Farms, Socio-Economic and
Planning, Botanic Gardens, Engineering, Finance, and Administration and each division was
headed by a Deputy Director.
In 1993 the Department underwent an organizational restructuring process and Director
General Post was created for the Head and 11 Director Posts were created. Three crop
research and development Institutes were formed for rice system created a unified extension
system covering all food crops with a single line of command from the national to field level.
It provided regular and fortnightly training to extension staff, scheduled visit to farmers with
relevant information important to that fortnight and conducting Regional Technical Working
Group Meeting for preparation of regional extension and research plan and for bridging the
research-extension linkage.
This system of extension could not be continued due to drastic administrative changes and
removal of KVSs from agriculture extension.
402 Sri Lanka
2. Organization of National Agricultural Extension Systems (NAES)16
In Sri Lanka agricultural extension services are provided mainly by the government sector
organizations. The major state sector institutions involved in agricultural extension are
Department of Agriculture, Department of Animal Production and Health, Department of
Export Agriculture, Coconut Cultivation Board, Tea Smallholdings Development Authority,
Rubber Development Department, Tea Research Institute, Rubber Research Institute,
Coconut Research Institute and Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka. Cashew Corporation, Silk
and Allied Authority, Sugar Research Institute, Forest Department, Livestock Development
Board and Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources also have their own extension
services. There are a few Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and private sector input
supplying companies who deliver extension services to the selected farming communities.
(i) Agencies involved in the extension system (GO17 and NGO)
Department of Agriculture (DOA)18
The Department of Agriculture was established in 1912. It is the prime organization
responsible for agricultural research and extension. The mandated crops of the DOA are
paddy, other field crops such as pulses, oilseeds, condiments, roots and tubers, vegetables
and fruits. The extension service of the DOA comes under two administrations: central
government and provincial councils. There is a Director (Extension) in the central
government authority. The provincial Deputy Directors (Extension) are responsible to the
respective provincial authorities. Because of this dual structure, there are conflicts between
extension service of the central government and provincial councils. There is no clear line of
command. The designation of the Director (Extension) was changed at several occasions in
Director (Technology Transfer) and Director (Communication).
The DOA has both staff grade extension officers and field level extension officers. Directors,
Deputy Directors and Assistant Directors are considered as staff grade extension officers.
Agricultural Officers (AOs) and Agricultural Instructors (AIs) are the field level extension
fficers. Before 1990, there was 2400 grassroots level extension workers named as “Krushi
Viapthi Sevaka”. But due to political reasons they were transferred to the Ministry of Public
Administration as village officers (Grama Niladhari). So currently there is no grassroots
level extension staff in DOA. The responsible authorities such as Ministry of Agriculture did
not take any effective measure to fill this vacuum and the extension service of the DOA is
not efficient as in early days.
Department of Animal Production and Health (DAPH)
The DAPH was a part of the DOA until 1972. In 1972 livestock production division
including animal health was organized as the Department of Animal Production and Health.
Unfortunately since 1977 up to 2002 DOA and DAPH were under different ministries. So
there was no sufficient coordination between crop and livestock sectors, which is essential
16 Ibid. 17 Samuel, R. P. http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=69157 18 BeraterInnen News 2/2002 http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=69157
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 403
for the development of the agriculture of the country. The field level extension officers of the
livestock sector are Livestock Development Instructors (LDI).
Department of Export Agriculture ( DEA)
The DEA was established in 1972. The crops mandated to this department are coffee, cocoa,
cardamom, cinnamon, cloves, betel, areca nut, oil palm, vanilla, and lemon grass. All these
crops are mainly export oriented ones. The DEA has its own extension service and the field
level extension officer is called Extension Officer (EO). They are two years agricultural
diploma holders.
Coconut Cultivation Board (CCB)
The CCB is a semi government institution, which involves in extension services to coconut
small holders in the country. Coconut Development Officers (CDOs) are the field level
extension officers in this institution.
Integrated Agricultural Extension Service (IAES)
The IAES is being implemented from 1993 with participation of the above described four
institutions namely, DAO, DAPH, DEA and CCB. The major reasons to introduce this
approach were cost effectiveness, disruption in the technical line of command, insufficiency
of grassroots level extension workers and the need to practice farming system approach
(Sivayoganathan, 1999).
The IAES is an integration of the extension efforts of four institutions. The extension
programs for the area is planned and implemented at the field level by Field Extension Team
(FET) comprising of the field extension officers of the four institutions. These officers are
Agricultural Instructors (AIs) of the DOA, Livestock Development Instructors (LDIs) of the
DAPH, Extension Officers (EOs) of the DEA, and Coconut Development Officers (CDOs)
of the CCB. These officers serve as general practitioners in addressing farm problems, which
are more general, and leaving community specialized ones to the respective line institutions.
The FET members are guided and logistically assisted and supported by the Guide Extension
Team (GET) at the District level and at the Provincial Extension Team (PET) at the
provincial level (Sivayoganathan, 1999; Sivayoganathan and Kotagama, 1999).
Tea Small Holdings Development Authority (TSHDA)
The TSHDA is the organization responsible for providing extension services to the tea
smallholdings sector. The field level extension officers of the TSHDA are Tea Inspector/
Extension Officers (TI/ EOs). They are involved in providing extension service to the tea
smallholders as well as in the supply of other agricultural support services. The extension
service of the TSHDA is under the supervision of the Deputy General Manager (Extension)
who is operating from Colombo.
Tea small holders are taxed indirectly for the extension services provided to them through
the Tea Small Holdings Development Authority. Sixty percent of the island’s tea production
comes from the smallholder sector. Government takes 1.50 Sri Lanka Rupees from each and
every exporting tea kilogram as an exporting tax. But this money is reinvested in the tea
sector. All the tea sector institutions such as Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka Tea Board,
404 Sri Lanka
and Tea Small Development Authority are funded by this money, not by the treasury funds
(Mahaliyanaarachchi, 1996).
The Tea Small Holdings Development Authority is totally responsible for the extension
delivery to the tea small holders in the country that is approximately two hundred and thirty
thousand farmers. There is nearly 200 field level extension workers, and around 30
supervisory level extension officers. All these officers are paid by the tax money collected at
the exporting end.
Here farmers pay indirectly for the extension services, which they obtain though they have
no idea about it.
Rubber Development Department ( RDD)
The RDD was established in 1994 by the amalgamation of the Rubber Control Department
(which was totally responsible for disbursement of subsidies) and the Advisory Services
Department (which was totally responsible for the extension service). Currently the RDD is
responsible for providing extension service to the rubber small holders and disbursement of
subsidies and other input facilities such as fertilizer, planting material, etc. The field level
extension officers are designated as Rubber Development Officers (RDO). The extension
activities in the RDD are decentralized, covering 12 districts of rubber growing areas under
the supervision of the Assistant Directors.
Private Sector Extension Service
There is no highly specialized private sector extension service in Sri Lanka yet. There are
some NGOs namely Care International, Red Bana, and Sarvodaya involved in agricultural
extension work mostly as part of their overall community development programs. Also
private sector input supplying companies such as Hechem, Ceylon Tobacco Company, Baurs
Ltd, provide limited advisory services to their clients. These private sector companies
recover their costs through the margin on the product they are either selling or buying. They
do not make any direct charge to the extension services provided. It was found that there is a
potential to privatize extension services especially in the horticultural sector, export
agricultural crops, and livestock enterprises (Malkanthi and Mahaliyanaarachchi, 2001;
Sivayoganathan, 1999).
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 405
(ii) Organogram of NAES with major roles of each position of the organogram
Agriculture Of
Sri Lanka
Crops Livestock
Food Crops Plantation
Crops
Ministry of
Livestock and
community
Development
Ministry of
Fisheries
Ministry of
Agriculture &
Ministry of
Irrigation & Water
resource
Mgt
Department of
Agriculture
&
Mahaweli
Authority of
Sri Lanka
Tea
Rubber
Coconut
Ministry of
Plantation
Industry
Tea Research
Institute
Ministry of
Plantation
Industry
Rubber
Research
Institute
Ministry of
Coconut
development
and Janatha
Estate
Development
Coconut
Research
Institute
Export Crops
Cashew
Spices
Floriculture
Sugar
Ministry of
Export Crop
Promotion
Sri lanka
Cashew
Corporation
Ministry of
Export Crop
Promotion
Department of Export
Agriculture
Ministry of
Economic
Development
Royal
Botanical
Garden
Ministry of
Export Crop
Promotion
Sugar cane Research
Institute
Fisheries and
Aquatic
research
Department of
Animal
Production and
Heath
405
406 Sri Lanka
(iii) Extension planning process
For plantation crops there are respective research institutes/boards which are also carry out
technology transfer activities. Apparently there is not much problems in planning and
coordination.
However, in livestock sector, the government research and extension agencies are actively
involved in farmer problems in production, processing, marketing and social problems.
Therefore, three themes were considered in agriculture extension policy planning:
a. Farming community participation in the planning process, assuring the sustainable
development of the wellbeing of the farmers.
b. Contribution and responsiveness of the private sector service institutions for farmer
needs, and relieve the government from financial burden in servicing the farmers.
c. The state role as to take the leadership standing as a focal point who would set
policy, public resources allocation, rather than a as a provider of all services.
(Based mostly on livestock extension)
a. Problem identification process
Farmer need identification, for example in the livestock sector, is facilitated by self managed
farmer societies which have been established. Strengths of these societies are at different
levels. Dairy Villages, All Island Poultry Association, All Island Pig Association, Milco
Farmer Societies and Mahaweli Farmer societies are some other livestock industrial
stakeholder managed societies. These societies can be identified as sources of current
problem identification. NGOs have a role in assisting them. Further, industrial
developmental issues, animal breeding straggles, diseases prevention and control, feed
resources development, production and processing, marketing, institutional and man power
development issues are identified at various workshops, seminars and also at state officials
progress review meetings.
b. Priority fixation of action activities
Technology transfer, facilitation for empowerment, and advisory are prioritized extension
activities.
It would thus appear that some kind of bottom-up planning is already is at work in Sri lanka.
3. Governance
(i) Institutional reforms
Conducting of necessary training programs for farmers to update their knowledge and assist
them to acquire required skills have been incorporated in most of the extension programmes.
(ii) Public-private-NGO partnership
Institutional set up has been established and public-private joint programs have been
organized for training programs (for example in the livestock sector).
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 407
Commodity specialized approach is mainly used by private sector institutions for their
forward contract programs, contract growing schemes, buy back operations and purchasing
programs. For example, livestock extension needs of the most of the broiler farmers and
considerable number of the layer farmers in the poultry sub sector are being looked after by
these institutions through their service package consisting of delivering necessary external
inputs, organizing and some times providing necessary services including livestock
extension and buying back their productions from farm or field levels at a guaranteed or pre
agreed price. Commodity approach is also in vogue in Tea, Rubber, Coconut and Cashew.
Projects funded by various governmental, non governmental and private sector institutions
are in operation all over the country with varying capacities. Extension is a built in
component of projects and they are specially tried to achieve pre-identified set of results in a
selected area. The projects try to improve the delivery of necessary technical services, ensure
livelihood opportunities, improve marketing facilities, and promote value addition activities
etc by utilizing appropriate technologies at field level.
(iii) Accountability hierarchy
Director (Agriculture) Deputy Director (Extension) District Agricultural Extension
Officer (DAEO) Agriculture Instructod (AI) Krushhi Viapthi Sevaka (KVS).
(iv) Leadership development
The necessity of empowering farmers socio-economically, technically and otherwise for
their decision making has been recognized strongly. As a result various kinds of farmer
organizations now play a significant role in production, marketing chain, for example, in the
livestock sector.
The absolute necessity of active farmer involvement in decision making process of the entire
marketing chain covering all aspects involved including policy making, allocating of scarce
resources, planning , implementing, monitoring and evaluation of projects and programs has
been emphasized in many of the programs. As a result various types of farmer organizations
have emerged. For example half of the milk collected in the formal market of Sri Lanka is
being handled by farmer organizations at present.
(v) Management information system
The use of electronic media in agricultural extension management has already made progress
in Sri Lanka. The Department of Agriculture in Sri Lanka has started to use an IT application
(CD-ROM) to disseminate agricultural innovations to farmers. A survey12 revealed that
websites were the fifth most used channel, together with written material (booklets, leaflets,
pamphlets, posters), but behind the extension network, bulletins, technical manuals and
software in agricultural innovation dissemination. Ninety-seven per cent of respondent
websites indicated that they maintain an official website but farm businesses were not their
12Arumapperuma, S. 2008. The Role of Information Technology In Disseminating Innovations In Agribusiness: A Comparative
Study of Australia And Sri Lanka. http://vuir.vu.edu.au/1416/1/arumapperuma.pdf
408 Sri Lanka
currently main target audience, because the majority of Sri Lankan farmers do not have
access to computers.
Using information technology, such as websites, were effective and efficient means of
diffusion. Sri Lankan survey respondents did not see websites as a low cost method, in terms
of low overhead and establishment, employee training and maintenance. However, the
importance of IT as a dissemination tool will increase with time in Sri Lanka. Except for
farmers in the large plantation sector, the majority of Sri Lankan farmers need assistance
(e.g. extension worker or telecentre worker) to use the IT facilities provided by the central
government and NGOs.
Electronic mediated Animal Disease Information System and a Dairy Reproduction
Information system has been established at the Head quarters of DAPH. A 24 hr serving hot
line enables the clients clarify with professional guidance. The IT Centers have been
established at the Veterinary Research Institute and at the Institute of Continuing Education
(ICEAPH) at Gannoruwa.
4. Human Resources Development and Capacity Building
There are seven agricultural faculties and ten agricultural schools in the country. So around
500 agricultural graduates and 800 agricultural diploma holders come out from these
institutes annually. This large work force could and should be used to enhance the quality of
the extension service.
After nearly 30 years of the internal conflict in Sri Lanka, it came to an end in May 2009.
Growing internal demand as well as the increase in foreign tourists is driving growth,
resulting in a sustained high GDP rate at around eight percent. Sri Lanka aims to double its
income and become an upper-middle income country by 2016, and taking the country's
needs into account, the government is promoting private investment, and actively stimulating
farming and fishing villages. (http://www.jica.go.jp/srilanka/english/index.html).
(i) Involvement of academic and research institutes for HRD through
curriculum de development and implementation support
(ii) Training extension workers and farmers through public. GO and private
initiatives
As stated earlier, Institutional set up has been established and public-private joint programs
have been organized for training programs (for example in the livestock sector).
5. Research-Education-Extension-Farmer Linkages
One of the constraints at present in farmer- research-extension linkage is ’One Grower –
Many Advisory Services’ while there is the need for more ground level extension workers as
well as stronger research-extension linkages.13
13 Samuel, R.R. 2011.Country Profile: Sri Lanka National Agricultural Extension System. Presentation ‘ Country Profile: Sri
Lanka National Agricultural Extension System. Workshop on’ National Agricultural Research System – An Analysis of the System Diversity’ organized by SAC, November 23-24, 2011, Thimpu, Bhutan.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 409
(i) Present linkages14
The importance of strengthening the linkage between research and extension has been well
recognized in the country. As a result several formal measures have been introduced.
• Provincial Technical Working Group (PTWG)
Originally introduced to support the T&V system in early 1980s, the forum paves the way
for officers engaged in different disciplines to interact with each other and come to an
agreement with regard to sharing responsibilities for production programmes to be
implemented during the coming season. The provincial Director of Agriculture Extension
and Deputy Director (Research) of the Regional Research Institute act as “Co-Chair” and the
head of the Regional In-service Training Institute performs as the Secretary. The PTWGs
meet before the commencement of each cultivation season and priorities for the on-coming
seasons are agreed upon.
• Research-extension-training dialogues
The forums are organized during the season to analyze and discuss important fied problems
and to observe to what extent certain technologies can be adopted under different situations.
The sessions are normally organized as a scheduled field tours followed by technical
discussion based on field observations. This strategy was also introduced by the T&V system
to strengthen linkages between research and extension.
• Crop clinics
During the cropping season when farmers face multitude of problems related to dffeent
disciplines, relevant researchers are to a pre-arranged location in the field by the extension
autrhorities in the area to interact with farmersFarmers are expected to carry fresh specimens
to enable researchers to make appropriate recommendations. Such sessions help to solve a
large number of problems and extend the benefit of research-extension linkage to the farmer
level. In order to [rovide better service during these clinics, arrangements are made to sell
seeds, planting materials, technical publications and also video programmes are also shown
to the public.
• Field days
Although field days are organized as a normal extension function, researchers are invited to
some filed days, when some noteworthy event occurs in the field. This gives them an
opportunity to interact with farmers and understand different farming environments and
share experiences with farmers and extensionists. Also field days organized by Research
Institute to show new technologies. This provides an opportunity to develop dialogue
between researchers and extensionists.
• Mass media activities
In order to strengthen programme of DOA the Audio Visual Centre of the the DOA has been
equipped with resources to produce several technical television programmes per week for the
14 Mankotte, K.N. 2006. Agricuktural extenson in Sri Lana and different mechanisms available to strengthen research-extension
linkages. Proc. Regional Workshop on Research-Extension Linkages for Effective Delivery of Agricultural Technologies in
SAARC Countries.SAIC, 20-22 November 2006 held at NAARM, Hyderabad, India. SAIC,BARC Complex, Farmgate, Dhaka
410 Sri Lanka
National Television Service “Rupavahini”. Also several radio programmes are broadcast
weekly by Farm Broadcast Service in Colombo and its regional units. The printing press
fulfills the need of producing technical print media materials for farmers. Opportunities are
given to relevant researchers and extensionists to serve as resource persons in the production
of both electronic and print media materials.
• Annual symposium of DOA
All senior technical officers of DOA are invited to the symposium and are given
opportunities to present their findings of research outcomes, experiences gained in extension
activities and socio-economic studies. The event has helped develop a better understanding
among officers of different disciplines throughout the country.
• Toll free extension service
This is a recently introduced innovative ICT to reach the farmer. In order to support the
present agricultural extension system which suffers from lack of sufficient extension officers
in the field and the delay in getting messages to farmers, the Ministry of Agricultural
Development has taken the initiative to provide a toll free extension service to the DOA.
Any one can call the agricultural knowledge repository “call centre” through a telephone
where agriculturists of DOA as well as any one from other departments are assigned to
answer the calls. In cases where an extension officer is unable to provide a satisfactory
answer, the caller is directed to relevant officers, including research officers.
• Agricultural technology parks
This concept of quick information dissemination mechanism was introduced recently and
two such parks have been established in an aesthetically pleasant environment. This is a
place to see live demonstration of some of the latest technical recommendations of food
crops with self explanatory digital posters. For visitors who need further clarifications,
agricultural instructors are assigned to each section of the park to assist them. Researchers
assist in establishing demonstrations and in deciding the technical content of the posters. The
technology serves as a “live agricultural university” for those interested. It also serves as a
place for discovery learning for students and demonstration site for traditional agriculture in
Sri Lanka. The Technology Park has become popular as a place for agro tourism. Its long
term sustainability requires close working relationship between researchers and
extensionists.
• Cyber agriculture extension
As an ICT initiative, Cyber agricultural extension has been implemented in Sri Lanka since
2004. This is an information exchange mechanism over cyber spaces. It utilizes the power of
on-line networks computer communications and interactive multimedia to facilitate effective
information exchange.
In view of the limitations of the original on-line cyber extension, digital extension
mechanism (wireless cyber extension) was introduced in a pilot project. Up until December
2006, 45 cyber units were established as Agrarian Service Centre. The use of interactive CD
ROMS is the key feature of the digital extension mechanism. Technical contents of these
CD-ROMS are obtained from research institutes who extend their support during the
production process as well. After continuous monitoring and evaluation over two years
necessary steps have been taken to implement the on-line cyber extension since 2006.Code
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 411
Division Multiple Access (CDMA) facility and internal connection were provided by the
cyber units.
The mechanism has improved the generation and collaborative use of agricultural
knowledge. Two-way communications through e-mail and internet between Agrarian Service
Centres, Research Stations, wextension agents and other private sector organization have
been implemented. Researchers in national research stations and extension workers in rural
villages can communicate with colleagues and experts with a click of the mouse. Farmers
with the assistance from the agricultural instructor can communicate with agriculturists
through e-mail. If farmers need to send visuals of their field problems, either they can use
scanned image or digital still photograph. By using the web-camera and microphone,
teleconference is also possible. Researchers and farmers will now be able to agricultural
problems face –to face in the cyber space through internet. Similarly researchers can also
discuss problems with other colleagues and also extensionists via e-mail to find out more
information about a problem.
• Researchers as trainers
It is common practice to get the assistance of researchers as resource persons in training
programmes. This creates an opportunity for the extension officers to discuss their field
experiences and give a feedback on the technical recommendation given by the researchers,
enabling them to understand each other better.
• Adaptive research programme
Research officers often conduct adaptive trials in farmers’ fields. Extension workers are
expected to assist in site selection, establishing and maintaining such trials. Success of such a
programme always depends on mutual understanding respect for each other.
• Disciplinary working group meetings
Research officers of a specific discipline of the country get together before the
commencement of each season. They discuss problems and set priorities. Scientists from
both Central and Provincial research institutes are invited to give them an opportunity to
contribute towards deciding research priorities. Representatives from the extension service
are also invited. This is also an opportunity to bring research and extension together.
• Crop zoning programme
In order to develop backward villages, the DOA has launched crop zoning programme
Although the programme was initiated by the Research Division, officers involved in
extension, seed and planting material production also support the programme peforming
their respective roles.
Sri Lanks seem to have gathered the courage to challenge the weak linkage between research
and extension, although further strengthening are possible. The level of success with rice
production is taken as an example which would not have been possible without a strong
linkage between research and extension. Similar examples can be cited for banana and
pawpaw where research and extension have worked in “perfect harmony”15
15 Mankotte, K.N. 2006. Agricultural extension in Sri Lanka and different mechanisms available to strengthen
research-extension linkages. Proc. Regional Workshop on Research-Extension Lib\nkages for Effective
412 Sri Lanka
• Institutional reforms for strengthening linkages
The importance of strengthening the linkage between research and extension has been well
recognized in the country. As a result several formal measures have been introduced. These
include:
• Provincial Technical Working Group (PTWG)
• Research-extension-training dialogues
• Crop clinics
• Field days
• Mass media activities
• Annual symposium of DOA
• Agricultural technology parks
• Cyber agriculture extension
• Researchers as trainers
• Adaptive research programme
• Disciplinary working group meetings
• Crop zoning programme
Sri Lanka appears to have gathered the courage to challenge the weak linkage between
research and extension, although further strengthening are possible.16
6. Incentive structure
(i) Incentive structure: Present status and future outlook
(ii) Career advancement scheme
(iii) Prize and reward system
(iv) HR management
7. Monitoring and evaluation
(i) Institutional review and programme review
(ii) Monitoring of extension programme
An effective monitoring and evaluation was identified with Participatory Technology
Development Program in Sri Lanka.17
Step 1: First seasonal meeting of village interest group on upland farming: Village
members and agricultural field staff analyze the situation in upland farming and discuss
Delivery of Agricultural Technologies in SAARC Countries. SAARC Agricultural Incformation Centre, Dhaka and National
Academy Agricultural Research Management, Hyderabad. 16 Mankotte, K.N. 2006. Agricultural extension in Sri Lanka and different mechanisms available to strengthen research-
extension linkages. Proc. Regional Workshop on Research-Extension Lib\nkages for Effective Delivery of Agricultural
Technologies in SAARC Countries. SAARC Agricultural Incformation Centre, Dhaka and National Academy Agricultural
Research Management, Hyderabad. 17 Wadduwage, P.2006. Enhancement of Extension Systems in Agriculture. Sri Lanka.
Report of the APO Seminar on Enhancement of Extension Systems in Agriculture
held in Pakistan, 15-20 December 2003 Edited by Dr. V.P. Sharma, Published by the Asian Productivity Organization 1-2-10
Hirakawacho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0093, Japan. http://www.apo-tokyo.org/publications/files/agr-16-ees.pdf
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 413
possible solutions. The members decide which innovation to test and establish a seasonal
work plan for the activities agreed upon.
Step 2: Inter-village Visit: Interest group members conduct a trip to another village, where
similar problems have been identified and where farmers have started the testing of
promising solutions.
Step 3: Second Meeting Of Village Interest Group: The tests agreed upon in the first
meeting are discussed in detail and a work plan for each test will be prepared.
Step 4: Monitoring Visits: The interest group and the agricultural field officers meet
regularly throughout the cultivation season; walking field to field they observe and discuss
the tests implemented.
Step 5: Evaluation Meeting: After the harvest, the interest group meets to analyze and
evaluate the results of the season and to draw conclusions for the continuation of activities in
the next meeting.
As an effective approach application of PTD in 500 project villages has shown very positive
results. By conducting extension programs along in the field, it provided an opportunity for
extension workers to concentrate their efforts towards a more sustainable rural development
program. The project training component was very effective and training programs were
conducted to improve extension workers’ knowledge and skills on application of PRA tools
in the field. It has further improved their skills on group facilitation, communication,
planning, monitoring and evaluation of extension programs.
414 Sri Lanka
Special Papers from Bhutan
on
Agricultural Extension System
Agricultural Extension Services in BhutanPresent Status and Suggested Reforms
Dr. Toyanath AcharyaHead, Technology Screening & Monitoring Division
Council for RNR Research of Bhutan
416 Special Paper
Introduction
Owing to its location in the eastern Himalaya, and land elevation ranging from 100 masl in
the south to over 7,500 masl in the north, Bhutan’s physical features are characterized by
high mountains, steep slopes, narrow plateau & valleys, crisscrossed by fast flowing rivers.
The terrain is therefore difficult for farming as well as for the development of associated
infrastructure.
With a geographic area of 38,394 km2 the country is almost entirely mountainous. The flatty
spaces are therefore limited to valleys alongside rivers and basins. It is sparsely populated
and more than 70% live in rural areas. A substantial population is still lives below poverty
line, which is a rural phenomenon in Bhutan.
Agriculture (referred as Renewable Natural Resources [RNR], encompasses agriculture,
livestock and forestry sectors) is the mainstay of the rural populace and therefore of the
country’s economy, with GDP contribution of more than 18%. The farm sizes are very small
often making it difficult for any meaningful commercial operation. The farming system is
therefore mixed with small scale operation of cereal, horticulture, livestock and agro forestry
at every household.
The extension services and skills required are therefore complex and resource demanding.
Formal introduction of extension system
Although extension service in Bhutan started with implementation of the very first
development plan in 1961, organized service provision seems to have started from the 5th
plan [1981-87]. The concept and development of service provision have grown in tandem
with technology generation from research systems, govt farms and associated central
programs. However, the present day extension has evolved after going through the rigour of
transition from centrally directed system to the current decentralized Dzongkhag (District)
and Geog (block) operated one.
Policy & Organizational structure of extension system
The agriculture extension system has been totally decentralized, with technical departments
[Departments of agriculture, forest & park services, livestock and agricultural marketing &
cooperatives] under the Ministry of agriculture having only technical control. The central
programs under the departments provide inputs and required technical guidance to the
extension officials in the districts.
There are over 500 extension staffs engaged in livestock, agriculture, forestry and marketing
related extension work in the 20 dzongkhags and 205 geogs. Typically each RNR extension
centre [EC] is manned by a livestock, agriculture and forestry extension staff. Each sector
has a district officer, to supervise them from the district. The livestock sector has additional
staff manning veterinary hospital, artificial insemination and fishery activities as the case
may be.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 417
Figure 1: Organization structure of extension service
Field observation:
• So much material or knowledge is available with the MoAF, research stations or at
central program. Somehow there is no percolation effect. Things are not getting to
the ground.
• Our extension system is manned by lowly qualified staff. It began by recruiting class
VIII or X passed candidates trained them for 6 months in Bhur Farm, Vet
laboratories /livestock farms and Bhutan Forest Institute. Later, extension staff were
trained at Royal Vet Institute (RVI), National Agriculture Training Institute (NATI),
Ugyen Wangchuk Institute of Conservation & Environment (UWICE) and National
Resources Training Institute (NRTI). Now the CNR [the erstwhile NRTI] has started
degree level courses and the extension staffs in the field are going to be a mix of
diploma and degree.
• The Ministry of Agriculture [ and its technical departments ] do not have direct
control over the extension staff. Often the technical advice or the directive has to
travel a long route to reach to them. The extension services are fully decentralized,
with all key decision-making including financial aspects carried out at district or
geog level.
• No specialized agency for extension - so many organizations controlling. So many
bosses: The district administrator and Directors of the ministry. Departments do not
have direct authority. So many miscellaneous works.
• There is an inter-disciplinary committee, the Extension Coordination Committee
[ECC] at the national level, which is responsible for overall coordination, policy
advice, and monitoring and evaluation of extension activities. However decisions are
often diluted or changed before reaching the field. Often the mechanism to deliver
the decision is not working.
Technical
departments &
central
programs
providing
advisory,
technical
backstopping
Dzongkhags [ in-charge of
administration ] - 20
- Sector heads [district
officers
- Plan, implement or
supervise extension
activities
- Provide guidance to
GYT /DYT in drawing
up RNR plan
- Implement promotional
activities
- Coordinate demos &
trials
- Conduct farmers
training, data collection
- Monitor & report the
progress
- Conduct field
assessment / feasibility
Geogs [ in-charge of geog
administration ] - 205
- Gups [Geog head]
Extension staff of 3 sectors –
over 500
418 Special Paper
• The country does have a guideline or handbook on extension. However there are
many adhoc activities, mostly coming from central departments, which hinder the
implementation of regular activities. The copies have not reached the remote geog.
• Basics of extension is basically imparting education [ or continuing education] to
farmers, with or without formal education, but with years of practical experience in
decision-making in their daily life. Most of our extension centres do not have
adequate extension equipment / material [audio visuals / brochures] which are the
ingredients or pre-requisites to impart training. However, because of low or no
adoption of technology, poor farmers are wrongly blamed as change-resistant. We
have the overarching policy of MAP [marketing, accessibility & production].
However there is no extension staff assigned for market related works. It is expected
of the extension staff in the field to do this work as well. However, extension cannot
be effectively productive if it works alone, in isolation from the farm-to-market-
chain-links (FMCL) actors and institutions.
• Because of the very complex physiographic condition and diverse faming system,
Bhutan’s extension system has to evolve suitable organizational structures, human
expertise, strategies, approaches and methodologies; which should be location
specific.
• Extension service seem to benefit influential / big farmers
• Formal Job descriptions vs actual field situation / function
• Terrain & coverage area: Because of the vey sparse population it is very difficult for
one extension staff to cover the entire geog.
• HRD: districts hardly have any comprehensive HRD plan for extension staff. The
support is therefore at the mercy and behest of the centrally operated projects to
them.
• Very minimal Financial support
Likely reform in extension services
• There should be a reformation of the policy, which should encourage non-public
institutions, NGOs, the private sector and farmers’ organizations to become involved
in the delivery of extension services, in addition to those delivered by the
government department of extension.
• The earlier reward system should be revived, based on the performance of extension
staff.
• The extension professional staff must enjoy the same level of benefits, career
development [ in-country / overseas studies and training] like that of staff placed in
central or headquarters There should be adequate provision of operational budget
and physical facilities such as proper housing, availability of transport, etc. as
enjoyed by the professional staff of other disciplines, notably of researchers.
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 419
• The pre-service academic programmes in agricultural extension should be reviewed
timely, in order to incorporate latest trends like poverty, food security, climate
change.
• Monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment of extension programmes should be
carried out on a regular basis.
• Training & Visit system or Farmer Field School may be introduced suiting different
micro-climate zones of the country
• The extension services must apply modern information technology
• Globalization and market liberalization
The communities, must be educated and prepared to modify their agricultural
operations within the context of globalization, a responsibility which, by and large,
the national agricultural extension systems will have to bear, and they must prepare
themselves in time to meet the challenge.
• Privatization
Many services that were managed in the past by governments are now being
managed and delivered by the private sector, especially in developed countries.
Many developing countries are following the suit. The underlying reason is
dwindling budgets of public institutions, which makes them relatively inefficient and
less productive, causing not only financial loss to the government but also creating
discontent among people. The private sector, on the other hand, has generally more
resources, innovative ideas, and a motive for profit and is thus keen to offer efficient
and better services to its clientele.
• Pluralism
The modality of using more than one organization, whether public or non-public, for
delivering extension services to farming communities, is gaining popularity. The
obvious rationale is the pooling of all available resources in order to alleviate
pressure from low budgets and staff in the ministries of agriculture, as well as to let
the farmers benefit from a variety of sources
420 Special Paper
The OGTP Model-An Approach to Agriculture Growth in Bhutan
Badrinath (BN) Bhattarai1
Summary
A suitable extension methodology is a code to the increased awareness on sustainable
farming practices leading to improved rural livelihoods. The transformation of extension
methodology is to the change desired by the communities and policy decision. The changing
needs and aspirations of rural masses call for revisit and adjust working modalities in much
needed extension service delivery.
The One Gewog Three Products (OGTP) model therefore was conceptualized and pioneered
by Dr. Pema Gyamtsho, Honorable Minister for Agriculture & Forests, Bhutan, during
Bhutan’s 10th FYP. The objective of the OGTP was to make best use of available resources
and existing expertise for development of potential commodities and products in accordance
to agro-ecological domain and priorities of the farmers. This very model was planned and
implemented in almost 205 Gewogs (Local administrative unit) in 20 Dzongkhags (Districts)
to transform potency of extension service through appropriate technical interventions with
focus to market oriented productions and value additions. The OGTP based approach
strengthened the common platform for extensionists, farmers and researchers to provide a
holistic support for products development and production increase leading to marketable
surpluses and commercialization of selected agriculture produce in Bhutan. The
implementation of OGTP at real field situation therefore was necessary to match with
emerging rural development needs within the socio-economic paradigm and resources
endowment.
The OGTP extension approach is a simple but holistic tool for dynamic pro-farming
extension service. The approach directs more towards technical aspects on the commodity
per se on priority basis in collaboration with, and participation of all relevant stakeholders
and institutions within technical and materials resources base.The initial major challenge of
the OGTP has been lack of strategy for implementation and prerequisite technical data for
interventions of prioritized crops/products development besides technical know-how and
additional requirement of resources. This emerging OGTP approach centred to market
oriented production and products development in accordance to technical and agro-
ecological potentials against various other implementation constraints of numerous
commodities and products in cultivation or development under difficult terrains
encompassed with varied agro-ecologies and remoteness, being mandated to one extension
officer who generally looks after 150-450 h/holds.
The OGTP based Extension has now been becoming a model for Bhutanese agricultural
development despite of the challenges being faced for implementation. The adoption of
OGTP as a model is to harness location specific potentials and address productions
constraints to augment households’ income and food security through effective extension
methodology and services delivery. Invariably, periodical review of development
approaches, policies and strategies are indispensable in keeping with shifting agro-ecological
stadium and social wants for increased crops productions and product diversifications within
1 Principal Extension Officer/Head Extension & Information Management (EIM), Department of Agriculture, MOAF, Thimphu
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 421
sustainable development framework. This presentation will concisely discuss on OGTP
approach and its relevance in Bhutanese extension system for agriculture development.
The OGTP model-an approach for agriculture growth in Bhutan
The Commodity based development was advocated in the Bhutanese extension system to
excel production of crops during Bhutan’s 9th FYP (2002-2007). The key to the progression
of the commodity based development was required to understand agro-ecology, potentials
and constraints of the commodities planned for development. The most suitable agro-
ecological production pockets in this context were being identified and technically mapped
for planning and implementation. The technical interventions within the extension quorum
however have been focused for production of crops with limited emphasis on post harvest
and product development. Further, the commodity priority for development were numerous
with extension interventions by and large continued unbothered despite of strategic change
in the plan development and expected outputs. The prescribed geographical boundary and
the households within it included the activity areas and the extension approach linked to
coverage and physical target achievement.
The OGTP extension was therefore an attempt to improve delivery of need based extension
services and brings-in differences of better livelihoods of the farmers. The OGTP has been
conceptualized during the 10th FYP by Dr. Pema Gyamtsho, Honourable Minister of the
MoAF, Bhutan, that the commodity per se must be assessed and analyse for its potentials at
each locations. The commodity having no technical potentials must not be wasted with
efforts and resources but at the same time it should not be ignored or discouraged for
development. The OGTP has been holistic in approach for driving extension services more
professionally having a definite goal with focus on the activities that are technically potential
for upward movement. It is to address agriculture development issues at the grassroots
focused principally on potential crops and products for development.
This paper is expected to serve as an OGTP framework to support subsistence farming and to
promote commercial agriculture. The theme of OGTP extension is achieved through
assessment of field data on production potentials & constraints: soil fertility, aspects,
sunshine slopes, crop variety, inputs, agronomy, farmers’ preference and marketing
opportunities. The OGTP is a situation-based farming right of way targeted to cater to derive
economic benefits and happiness to both producers and consumers through investment into
the most potential commodities and product development in all potential production aspects
for increased production and access to markets.
The role of the extension personnel is to plan appropriate activities in collaboration with
relevant partners that have direct bearing of socio-economic benefits to the farmers that leads
to sustainable production system. The extension personnel facilitate and coordinate with all
relevant stakeholders to address issues in the course of planning & implementation. The
implementation of OGTP activities require combination of information devising production
potentials and applying selective technical intervention based on priority in respect to use of
judicious resources resulting maximization of food production and products for home
consumption and sale.
422 Special Paper
OGTP-development objectives
1. Income enhanced through surplus production and product development
2. Safeguard national & h/holds food security
3. Improve nutritional standards
4. Generate on-farm employment
5. Promote labor saving technologies
6. Support sustainable land use system
Outputs
1. Increased surplus production & products
2. Increased yield per unit area
3. Increased area under cultivation
4. Enhanced farmers professional capacities (farmers as resource persons for farmers)
5. Farmers organized for improved farming practices
6. Addressed farm labor shortage
Strategies-approaches
Potential products/commodities align with agro-ecologies and local priorities are the guiding
principle in the design and applications of OGTP approach. The key to the approach is to
emphasize packaging of modern ideas with the indigenous knowledge and inculcating
voluntary participation of stakeholders. Thus the important considerations are:
1. Identification/mapping of potential production pockets based on commodity priority
2. Assess & analyze potentials & constraints
3. Resources, inputs availability/affordability
4. Plan development for intervention strategies
5. Assess & develop capacity of the extension personnel
6. Expansion of production areas (potential fallow lands under cultivation)
7. Explore crop diversification based on agro-ecological potentials
8. Development of ownership, partnership & voluntary participation of stakeholders
Recommendations
1. Lead Agency (Geogs and Dzongkhags) should initiate OGTP planning and management
in collaboration with the local communities & relevant experts
2. Develop and maintain location specific data-base on production areas, crops and
products
3. Extension personnel’s understanding on OGTP should be built-in
4. Required resources should be supported with subsidy on essential inputs & equipments
5. Extension interventions must be directed to address potentials and constraints
6. Formation of farmers groups on OGTP should be encouraged
7. All non-OGTP farming activities & communities should be supported at promotional
and advisory level
423
Participants in the Consultative Workshop
on
National Agricultural Extension Systems An Analysis of the System Diversity
Thimphu, Bhutan
23-24 November 2011
Sl.
No.
Name & Address E-mail
1. Dr. Tashi Samdup
CORRB
tashi_samdup2001@yahoo.com
2. Prof. Dr. Ramesh Chand
National Centre for Ag. Economic and Policy
Research (NCAP), ICAR, India
rc@ncap.res.in
3. Ms. Nasrin Akter
SAC, Dhaka, Bangladesh
nakter67@yahoo.com
4. Md. Md. Matiar Rahman
Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE)
Bangladesh
matiarkrishibidseed@gmail.com
5. Dr. Nil Kanta Sharma
Nepal Economic Agriculture and Trade
Activities, Kathmandu, Nepal
nksharma200@hotmail.com
6. Dr. Manzoor Hussain Dar
IRRI (STRASA) New Delhi, India
m.dar@irri.org
7. Ms. Rose Rupasinghe
Extension Division, Department of Agriculture
Sri Lanka
doaexthq@gmail.com
8. Dr. Waqar Hussain Malik
Ex-Member, Social Science Division
PARC, Pakistan
wmalik48@gmail.com
9. Dr. Mohammad Nurul Alam
SAC, Dhaka, Bangladesh
drmnalam@hotmail.com
10. Mr. Bindu M Tamang
PPD, MOAF, Thimphu, Bhutan
binduppd@moaf.gov.bt
11. Mr. Rinzin Tshomo
BAFRA, MOAF, Thimphu, Bhutan
tshomorinzin@yahoo.com
424 Participants in the Consultative Workshop
Sl.
No.
Name & Address E-mail
12. Gem Tshering
DOFPS, Bhutan
gem.40@hotmail.com
13. Mr. Tashi Wangchu
DOFPS, Bhutan
chentop73@yahoo.com
14. Bhakta Shangshon
CNR , Lobeysa, Bhutan
shangshon@yahoo.com
15. Dr. Samdrup Rigyal
CNR, Lobeysa, Bhutan
r_samdrup@hotmail.com
16. Chencho Norbu
DoA, MoAF, Thimphu, Bhutan
nc123007@gmail.com
17. Leki Tenzin
DAMC, Thimphu, Bhutan
lekitenzin31@hotmail.com
18. Naiten Wangchuk
DoL, Bhutan
naitenw@yahoo.com
19. Singye Wangmo
ICS, Bhutan
s_wangmo@moaf.gov.bt
20. Kunzang Choden
CORRB, Bhutan
kthogmaith@hotmail.com
21. Ugyen Tshering
ICS, Bhutan
ugeent@moaf.gov.bt
22. Badrinath Bhattarai
DoA, Bhutan
bnbhattarai@moaf.gov.bt
23. Dr. Toyanath Acharya
CORRB, Bhutan
tn_acharya@druknet.bt
24. Wang Tshering
NBC, Bhutan
tsheringwang@yahoo.com
25. Dr. Kailash Pradhan
CoRRB, MoAF
pradhankailash@gmail.com
Photo Album
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 425
426 Photo Album
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 427
428 Photo Album
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 429
430 Photo Album
National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 431
432 Photo Album
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