NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SYSTEMS IN SAARC · PDF file · 2015-12-22agricultural production and stark reality of food cr ... nd revitalizing national agricultural extension

NATIONAL

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

SYSTEMS IN

SAARC COUNTRIES

AN ANALYSIS OF THE SYSTEM DIVERSITY

SAARC AGRICULTURE CENTRE (SAC)

Forew

The economies of the SAARC countries are depe

remain successful and competitive in agricultural

necessary to build knowledge-based farming co

Asian Region. Building a knowledge-based farm

effective and efficient agricultural extension system

systems and agricultural universities in the region

agricultural technologies over half a century. Th

replicated across boundaries with little effort

management system is in place. SAARC memb

develop efficient extension systems through learnin

Agricultural extension is a process meaning the im

to agricultural practices through extension service

'extension' now encompasses a broader range of

organized for farmers by educators from differ

marketing, health, and business studies etc.

Under the extension reforms in SAARC member

technology delivery system by the involvement of

of farmer interest groups, commodity interest grou

level mainly aims at the decentralization of the ext

the responsibility centres in deciding their technolo

Agricultural extension system as a mechanism

development in South Asia. Agricultural extensio

among the countries but also between the region

agricultural production and stark reality of food cr

the region becomes self-sufficient in agricultura

research and extension systems need to be rev

experiences gained through agricultural extension

carry the process forward.

Considering the importance and urgency, SAAR

existing systems of agricultural extension man

consultative workshop as well a publication cont

and country papers aiming at developing and rev

the region. The publication helps in developing str

system for a country should build on the societal

in South Asia. The beneficiaries will be policy

agriculture and social scientists, extension service

farmers in the South Asia.

I acknowledge the sincere efforts of my colleagu

different SAARC countries for completing this

synthesizing the book and bring it in the present sta

SAC always appreciates receiving feedback, comm

and services to help us enable to do better.

Dr. Abul Kalam Azad Director, SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC)

v

oreword

e dependent on agriculture. To

ltural production and trade, it is

ing communities in the South

farming communities require

systems. Agricultural research

region developed a treasure of

ry. These technologies can be

effort provided an extension

member states can effectively

learning from each other.

implementation of the research output and new ideas

service providers and farmers education. The concept of e of information communication and learning procedures

different disciplines, including agriculture, agricultural

mber countries, emphasis is given for decentralizing the

ent of farmers and farmer organizations. The organization

st groups, farm schools and self help groups at grass root

the extension delivery system through making the users as

chnological options, their dissemination and adoption.

hanism played an important role in the agriculture

ension system and administration is not similar not only

regions within a country. Due to increased demand for

ood crisis and food safety, it is need that every country in

cultural production including food. So that agricultural

e revitalized. Learning from the regional development

nsion management systems over the past years may help

SAARC Agriculture Centre conducted a study of the

management and subsequently organized a regional

containing a set of recommendations, synthesis reports

nd revitalizing national agricultural extension systems in

ing strategies for efficient and well-organized supervision

cietal needs and socio-economic conditions of the people

olicy makers in the Governments of SAARC countries,

ervice providers, NGO, donor agencies and ultimately the

lleagues and the distinguished contributing authors from

this daunting task. My compliments to the members for

ent status.

comments and suggestions from the users of our products

vi

vii

Contents

Page

Foreword v

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations ix

Technical Synthesis on National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries

Chapter-1 : Introduction 1

Chapter-2 : Historical Perspective of National Agricultural Extension

Systems in SAARC Countries

4

Chapter-3 : Organization of National Agricultural Extension Systems in

SAARC Countries

19

Chapter-4 : Governance of Extension Systems in SAARC Countries 39

Chapter-5 : Human Resources Development and Capacity Building of

Extension Systems

63

Chapter-6 : Research-Education-Extension-Farmers Linkages in SAARC

Countries

79

Chapter-7 : Incentive Structure of Extension Systems in SAARC Countries 96

Chapter-8 : Monitoring and Evaluation of Extension Systems 103

Chapter-9 : Strength, Weakness and Way Forward of Extension Systems 119

Chapter-10 : Individual Country Recommendations 124

Chapter-11 : Recommendations of the Consultative Workshop on National

Agricultural Systems in SAARC countries – An analysis of the

system diversity

135

Chapter-12 : Concept Note

Annexure (Country Status Reports)

National Agricultural Extension System in Bangladesh 149

National Agricultural Extension System in Bhutan 209

National Agricultural Extension System in India 233

National Agricultural Extension System in Nepal 291

National Agricultural Extension System in Pakistan 361

National Agricultural Extension System in Sri Lanka 389

Special papers from Bhutan 417

Participants 425

Photo Album 427

viii

ix

Abbreviations and Acronyms

AAO : Additional Agricultural Officer

ABPMDD : Agri-Business Promotion and Marketing Development Directorate

AD : Anno Domini

ADB : Asian Development Bank

ADP : Annual Development Plan

AEC : Agro Enterprises Center

AEO : Agricultural Extension Officer

AEZ : Agricultural Ecological Zone

AICC : Agriculture Information and Communication Centre

AIS : Agricultural Information Service

APP : Agricultural Perspective Plan

APPSP : Agriculture Perspective Plan Support Project

APW : Administration and Personnel Wing

AREP : Agricultural Research and Extension Project

ARI : Agricultural Research Institute

ASCs : Agriculture Service Centers

ASIRP : Agricultural Sector Innovation Reform Project

ASSC : Agriculture Service Sub Center

ASSP : Agricultural Support Service Project

ATC : Agricultural Technical Committee

ATI : Agricultural Training Institutes

ATMA : Agricultural Technology Management Agency

BADC : Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation

BARC : Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council

BARI : Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute

BJRI : Bangladesh Jute Research Institute

BRDB : Bangladesh Rural Development Board

BREAD : Bangladesh Rural Enterprise and Agricultural Development

BRRI : Bangladesh Rice Research Institute

BS : Block Supervisor

BS : Bikram Sambat

BWDB : Bangladesh Water Development Board

CBOs : Community Base Organizations

CCW : Cash Crops Wing

CEAPRED : Center for Environment, Ag. Policy Research, Ext. and Development

CERDI : Central Extension Resources Development Institute

CF : Contract Farmer

CIG : Common Interest Group

CoRRB : Council for RNR Research of Bhutan

DADO : District Agricultural Development Office

DAE : Department of Agricultural Extension

DAM : Department of Agricultural Marketing

DARE : Department of Agricultural Research & Education

DC : Deputy Chief

DCO : District Cooperative Office

DD : Deputy Director

DDC : District Development Committee

x

DDCC : District Development Co-ordination Committee

DEF : District Extension Fund

DEPC : District Extension Planning Committee

DG : Director General

DoA : Department of Agriculture

DoLS : Department of Livestock Services

DTO : District Training Officer

ECC : Extension Coordination Committee

EPADC : East Pakistan Agricultural Development Corporation

EPICC : Extension Policy Implementation Co-ordination Committee

EPS : Extension Planning System

FAO : Food and Agriculture Organization

FCW : Food Crops Wing

FFS : Farmer Field School

FIAC : Farmers Information and Advice Center

FINA : Farmer Information Needs Assessment

FIS : Financial Information System

GDP : Gross Domestic Product

GID : General Information Database

GO : Government Organization

HMG/N : His Majesty’s Government/ Nepal

HRD : Human Resource Development

HYVs : High Yielding Varieties

IAAS : Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science

ICAR : Indian Council of Agricultural Research

ICT : Information and Communication Technology

INGOs : International Non-Governmental Organizations

IPM : Integrated Pest Management

IRDP : Integrated Rural Development Program

JAEO : Junior Agricultural Extension Officer

JD : Joint Director

JT : Junior Technician

JTA : Junior Technical Assistant

KVK : Krishi Vigyan Kendras

LC : Local Currencies

LIF : Local Initiative Fund

LSGA : Local Self Governance Act

MIS : Management Information Systems

MLT : Multi Location Testing

MoA : Ministry of Agriculture

MoAC : Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operative

MoAF : Ministry of Agriculture and Forests

MoFL : Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock

MoLD : Ministry of Local Development

MoU : Memorandum of Understanding

NAEA : Nepal Agriculture Extension Association

NAEP : New Agricultural Extension Policy

NAES : National Agricultural Extension System

NARC : National Agricultural Research Centre

xi

NARC : Nepal Agricultural Research Council

NARDF : National Agricultural Research and Development Fund

NATCC : National Agricultural Technical Co-ordination Committee

NATP : National Agricultural Technology Project

NCAP : National Centre for Ag. Economic and Policy Research

Nepal SIMI : Nepal Smallholder Irrigation Market Initiative

NGO : Non Governmental Organization

NPC : National Planning Commission

OFRD : On-Farm Research Division

OHP : Overhead Projector

PARC : Pakistan Agricultural Research Council

PC : Problem Census

PEW : Planning and Evaluation Wing

PO : Personnel Database

PPW : Plant Protection Wing

PRA : Participatory Rural Appraisal

PTD : Participatory Technology Development

REA : Revised Extension Approach

RICC : Research Institute Co-ordination Committee

Rtd. : Retired

SAAO : Sub Assistant Agricultural Officer

SAARC : South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

SAFTA : South Asian Free Trade Area

SAU : State Agricultural Universities

SCDP : Secondary Crop Development Project

SEMS : Seasonal Extension Monitoring System

SMEs : Small and Medium Enterprises

SMS : Subject Matter Specialist

SO : Statistical Officer

SRDI : Soil Research Development Institute

SRTI : Sugarcane Research Training Institute

SSO : Senior Scientific Officer

SSSP : Seed Sector Support Program

T&V : Training and Visit

TA : Technical Audit

TAECC : Thana Agricultural Extension Co-ordination Committee

TAO : Thana Agricultural Officer

TDCC : Thana Development Co-ordination Committee

TIS : Training Information System

ToT : Training of Trainers

TPW : Thana Planning Workshop

TW : Training Wing

UAECC : Upazila Agricultural Extension Coordination Committee

USAID : United States Agency for International Development

WMAEW : Water Management and Agricultural Engineering Wing

WTO : World Trade Organization

xii

National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries - An Analysis of the System Diversity 1

CHAPTER

Introduction The economy of the SAARC countries depends on agriculture. Agriculture contributes

around 20 per cent to the GDP and 50 to 60 per cent of the peoples are engaged in

agriculture directly or indirectly.1

“Agricultural development in different SAARC countries seems to have followed different

pathways; so did the agricultural extension education systems.2 Over the past half a century,

for example, trajectories followed in the course of agricultural development in Bangladesh,

India and Pakistan were not similar. Largely a food deficit country India became self reliant

in food three decades ago, while Bangladesh is now near to food secured country.

Historically agricultural extension system as a change engine played a significant role in the

development agriculture in these countries. There might be differences in agricultural

extension system and administration not only among the countries but also between the

regions within a country. In view of increased demand for agricultural production and stark

reality of food crisis, it is necessary that each individual country in the region becomes self-

reliant in agricultural production including food. And in doing so, agricultural research and

extension systems need to be revitalized. Learning from the regional development

experiences gained through agricultural extension management systems over the past years

may help carry the process forward.

The present study thus focuses on the extension systems in the countries and attempts to

analyze the diversity that exist with a view to learning lessons from them.

Extension

The definition of extension has evolved over the time3. Agricultural extension is a general

term meaning the application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural

practices through farmer education. The field of 'extension' now encompasses a wider range

of communication and learning activities organized for rural people by educators from

different disciplines, including agriculture, agricultural marketing, health, and business

studies.

Historical perspectives of agriculture extension – a global view

It is not known where or when the first extension activities took place. It is known, however,

that Chinese officials were creating agricultural policies, documenting practical knowledge,

and disseminating advice to farmers at least 2,000 years ago. For example, in approximately

800 BC, the minister responsible for agriculture under one of the Zhou dynasty emperors organized the teaching of crop rotation and drainage to farmers. The minister also leased

equipment to farmers, built grain stores and supplied free food during times of famine4.

1 SAC.2012. SAARC Seed Outlook. SAARC Agriculture Centre, December 2012. 2 The Concept Note on the present study ‘National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries – An Analysis of the

System Diversity’, SAARC Agriculture Centre. 3 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_extension (viewed on 10 June 2013) 4 Ibid.

1

2 Synthesis Report

The birth of the modern extension service has been attributed to events that took place in

Ireland in the middle of the 19th century. Between 1845–51 the Irish potato crop was

destroyed by fungal diseases and a severe famine occurred (see Great Irish Famine). The

British Government arranged for "practical instructors" to travel to rural areas and teach

small farmers how to cultivate alternative crops. This scheme attracted the attention of

government officials in Germany, who organized their own system of traveling instructors.

By the end of the 19th century, the idea had spread to Denmark, Netherlands, Italy, and

France.

The term "university extension" was first used by the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford

in 1867 to describe teaching activities that extended the work of the institution beyond the

campus. Most of these early activities were not, however, related to agriculture. It was not

until the beginning of the 20th century, when colleges in the United States started conducting

demonstrations at agricultural shows and giving lectures to farmer’s clubs, that the term

"extension service" was applied to the type of work that we now recognize by that name.

In the United States, the Hatch Act of 1887 established a system of agricultural experiment

stations in conjunction with each state's land-grant university, and the Smith-Lever Act of

1914 created a system of cooperative extension to be operated by those universities in order

to inform people about current developments in agriculture, home economics, and related

subjects.

Regional perspectives

The development of extension services in modern Asia vis-à-vis in the SAARC region has

differed from country to country. Despite the variations, it is possible to identify a general

sequence of four periods or "generations":

• Colonial agriculture: Experimental stations were established in the countries of the

SAARC region many by the colonial powers. The focus of attention was usually on

export crops such as rubber, tea, cotton and sugar. Technical advice was provided to

plantation managers and large landowners. Assistance to small farmers who grew

subsistence crops was rare, except in times of crisis.

• Diverse top-down extension: After independence, commodity-based extension

services emerged from the remnants of the colonial system, with production targets

established as part of five-year development plans. In addition, various schemes

were initiated to meet the needs of small farmers, with support from foreign donors.

• Unified top-down extension: During the 1970s and 1980's, the Training and Visit

(T&V) system was introduced by the World Bank. Existing organizations were

merged into a single national service. Regular messages were delivered to groups of

farmers, promoting the adoption of "Green Revolution" technologies.

• Diverse bottom-up extension: When World Bank funding came to an end, the T&V

system collapsed in many countries, leaving behind a patchwork of programs and

projects funded from various other sources. The decline of central planning,

combined with a growing concern for sustainability and equity, has resulted in

participatory methods gradually replacing top-down approaches.

The fourth generation is well established in some countries, while it has only just begun in

other places. While it seems likely that participatory approaches will continue to spread in


the next few years, it is impossible to predict the long-term future of extension. Compared to

20 years ago, agricultural extension now receives considerably less support from donor

agencies. Among academics working in this field, some have recently argued that

agricultural extension needs to be reinvented as a professional practice5. Other authors have

abandoned the idea of extension as a distinct concept and prefer to think in terms of

"knowledge systems" in which farmers are seen as experts rather than adopters6.

The above stages of extension as well as diversity of extension systems can be traced from

the following accounts of the extension systems in the SAARC countries, even though many

of them had the same historical background.

The early development of agriculture extension in the SAARC countries

Whatever can be gathered about early agricultural extension in the Indian sub-continent

(Bangladesh, India and Pakistan) are efforts in respect of irrigation and land tenure during

the Moghul period in the 16th Century. Bhutan, being independent and outside the British

colonial empire, has had a somewhat different the historical background. The agricultural

extension activities of the country can be traced back from 1961 with the inception of the 1st

Five Year Plan (1961 – 1965), when the Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry

was established. In Nepal, which was also outside the British colonial rules, systematic

efforts in agricultural extension began with the formulation of the first five-year plan in

1956. In Sri Lanka, though under colonial rules, agricultural extension is reported have

started during the Dutch colonial rule in the 17th Century with Cinnamon crop for export

7

and the British colonial rulers developed the system further during 18th and 19

th century but

the initial emphasis there was on plantations crops.

5 Ibid. 6 Ibid 7 Hathurusinghe, L.K. 2010. Agriculture Extension in Sri Lanka, A paper presented at the Workshop on Rural Development for

High Level Officers of AFACI Member Countries., Suwon, Korea, 7-14 Auguat 2010. http://www.moaf.gov.bt/moaf/?wpfb_dl=455

4 Synthesis Report

CHAPTER

Historical Perspective of National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries

Bangladesh

Details are not known regarding agricultural development activities in the pre-British period

except that some efforts were made during the Mogul period to improve irrigation and the

land tenure system. It was due to disastrous famine which swept over Bengal and Behar that

a famine commission was constituted during the period of Lord Laurence (1864-68). During

1800-1908 thirty two big famines occurred and 10 million people died. As a result a scheme

was prepared during the period of Lord Mayo (1869-72) and the Department of Agriculture

started functioning in 1870 as one of the sections of the Department of Revenue to the

colonial Government of India.

The Department only arranged to supply irrigation water during droughts and distribute food,

seeds and loans to the affected farmers. These were not sufficient to cope with gigantic

agricultural problems. Hence Lord Ripon (1880-84) recognized the importance of the

Agricultural Department and expanded its field of activities. The objective of the Department

was then to push up agricultural production and increase export. Another Famine

Commission was constituted in 1901 during Lord Curzon’s regime (1899-1905). This

Commission recommended the establishment of an agricultural department in each province

for conducting agricultural research and for adoption scientific agricultural innovations in

practical fields. Government of India approved a scheme for establishment of research

laboratories in 1903 and granted a sum of Rs. 2.4 million for agricultural work in 1905. The

well-known Royal Commission on Agriculture worked during the period of Lord Erwine

(1926-31) and made some valuable recommendations for agricultural development.

In the beginning, this Department functioned, as mentioned above, as a part of the Revenue

Department at the centre and as a part of the Revenue and Land Records Department in the

province. In 1906, the Department was granted a separate entity in the province and the first

Director was appointed in the same year. In the year 1914, a nuclear stuff for extension was

added and one Deputy Director of Agriculture, six provincial agricultural officers and one

officer on special duty were appointed. Later, one agricultural officer was appointed for

each district and a few agricultural farms started functioning in district headquarters. Again

the Department was expanded and technician at union level and specialist at thana, district

and headquarters levels were appointed.

The function of this Directorate was broadly divided into four divisions viz: (a) research, (b)

education and training, (c) extension, and (d) supply and services.

Agricultural extension in true sense is a recent introduction in the region. It actually started

functioning after independence and partition of India as India and Pakistan in 1947 and the

region constituting Bangladesh became to be known East Pakistan. Before independence

there were, however, some private extension service organized by some Zemindars and

leaders like Rabidra Nath Tagore, T.M. Nurun Nabi Chowdhury, G.S. Datta, Mohatta

2


Gandhi. After the Government took up the agricultural extension work, several agricultural

demonstration farms were established in district headquarters. The agricultural extension

organization expanded greatly when the staffs of the defunct Jute Regulation Department

were transferred to the agriculture department in 1951. The Department during those days

regularly published reading materials, conducted demonstrations, fairs and exhibitions,

group and mass meetings; organize crop competitions, made farm visits and personal

contacts.

A number of organizations were created during 1951-1980:

• Village Agricultural and Industrial Development Program (V-AID) in 1954

• Directorate of Plant Protection in 1956

• East Pakistan Water Development Authority (EPWAPDA) in 1959

• Pakistan Academy of Rural Development (PARD) in 1959

• The Agricultural Information Service came into being as a separate organization in

1961

• East Pakistan Agricultural Development Corporation (EPADC) in 1962

• Department of Agricultural Extension and Management in 1968

• Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production) in 1974

• Horticulture Development Board in 1974

• Tobacco Development Board also in 1974

• Central Extension Resource Development Institute in 1976

• Sugar and Food Industries Corporation-1976

• Cotton Development Board in 1977

In 1971 Bangladesh became impendent and in 1974 there was a disastrous famine. To

prevent further famine most of the above organizations were created. Up to the early 1980, a

unique feature of agricultural extension in Bangladesh was the existence of many mono-crop

extension organizations. For example, under the Ministry of Agriculture there were six

agencies with extension functions. They were: (i) Directorate of Agriculture (Extension and

Management), (ii) Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production), (iii) Directorate of Plant

Protection, (iv) Horticulture Board, (v) Cotton Development Board, and (vi) Tobacco

Development Board. Outside the Ministry of Agriculture were Water Development Board,

Sugar and Food Industries, Tea Board, and Directorate of Livestock and Fisheries that had

field staff with extension functions.

The establishment of a large number of extension agencies over the years created a number

of problems. These were:

• Inadequate demarcation of function and absence of definite areas of responsibility

leading to duplication and diffusion of efforts at the farm level. The multiple and

sometimes conflicting approaches by different agencies created confusion in the

minds of farmers.

• There were increasing difficulties of integrating the works of so many agencies and

coordinating their programs at the field level, there was also wasteful competition

for the scarce resources and trained manpower.

• It prevented the fostering of a coherent holistic view of the farm as a management

unit.

6 Synthesis Report

• It engendered high overhead and supervision costs, seasonal under employment of

staff and duplication of facilities.

As an important step towards strengthening of agricultural extension work, the government

embarked upon a program of reorganization of extension services. The following six

departments or agencies were merged in September 1982 to from the Department of

Agricultural Extension (DAE):

• Directorate of Agriculture (Extension and Management);

• Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production);

• Directorate of Plant Protection;

• Horticulture Development Board;

• Tobacco Development Board;

• Central Extension Resources Development Institute.

The Water Development Board was also decided to be merged with DAE. The Cotton

Development Board was expected to be merged by 1985. The total staff strength of DAE

was about 23,000 including those involved in services and regulatory functions.

The main features of the organizational model of DAE were:

• Advice on crop production and ultimately all farming operations were to be provided

to farmers of a given area extension worker.

• Management and communication chain between headquarters and the field to be

shortened; accountability clearly assigned and the supervision arrangements

strengthened with establishment of appropriate span of contact.

• Technical competence of DAE to be improved by introducing a cadre of well trained

Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs) and opening career opportunities for them by

establishing a “Technical stream” and

• Strengthening the linkages between Research and Extension and other organizations.

The T&V system of doing extension activities was introduced in 1977 and it operated till

1993. Since 1993, revision of the T&V system started taking place to overcome the

weaknesses identified, such as:

• T&V system was top-down approach.

• It was individual farmers contact approach.

• There were no or little scope to involve farmers and field workers in program

planning execution, monitoring and evaluation.

• It was not responsive to farmers needs.

• Extension-research linkage was found weak.

• Demonstration on proven technologies was not included.

• Finally, extension workers were not appraised on the basis of their performance.

Agricultural extension in Bangladesh has followed an evolutionary process of

experimentation with components of several extension approaches. Until recently the

Training and Visit (T&V) approach which was established during the late seventies formed

the backbone of the DAE’s extension practices. To increase its effectiveness and efficiency,

DAE sought to develop the approach. DAE’s Revised Extension Approach (REA, 1995)


embraced the Department’s mission within the context of New Agricultural Extension Policy

(NAEP). The REA retained many of the primary elements of the T&V approach in

combination with aspects of other recognized extension approaches and features developed

locally with Bangladesh extension partners. The result is an approach to extension, which is

largely demand driven, reliant on client and participation based on working with groups and

integrated among different extension providers.

Bhutan

The Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry was established in 1961 with the

inception of 1st Five Year Plan (FYP). Agricultural extension service evolved in relation to

agricultural research systems under the assumption that research systems would develop

agricultural technologies, and extension systems would disseminate them to farmers who

were viewed as passive beneficiaries rather than clients, stakeholders and active participants.

In the initial plan period (1960-1965), there was no clear statement on extension objectives

pursued by the Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry. A review of plan

documents showed that extension service delivery systems have gone through number of

transformation from centralized to regional, to area based to Dzongkhag (District) and Geog

(Block) extension.

Initially extension services were concentrated in and around the research and demonstration

farms. In the subsequent plan periods, efforts were made to expand the extension services to

cover all the Geogs in the country. By the beginning of 1980s, the whole country was

covered by extension network and extension activities were decentralized to the

Dzongkhags.

Extension activities were mainly aimed at promoting improved varieties of crops and

livestock breed and management practices. Efforts were made to increase the area under

fruits and vegetable, introduction of improved crop varieties, increase animal production and

improve livestock health.

During the 5th FYP (1980-1985), planning and implementation of developmental activities

including Agriculture and Animal Husbandry was decentralized to the Dzongkhag (district)

administration. Development plans were prepared by DYT (Dzongkhag Yarkay

Tshongchung or District Development Committee) and central Departments used to provide

the technical support. It was during this plan period that the deliveries of agricultural inputs

were privatized and distribution of credits taken out from the extension agents’

responsibilities. Decentralization was further taken down to Geog (block) level in early

1990s with the establishment of Geog Yarkay Tshongchung (GYT).

With the decentralization policy, the public participation became more pronounced. People

were actively involved in expressing their development and economic needs through GYT

(Geog Yarkay Tshogchung or Block Development Committee) and DYT. People were also

involved in implementation of development activities such as irrigation channel, construction

of farm road, extension centres, transportation of inputs etc.

India

The National Agricultural System evolved in India with the establishment of agricultural

department at the Imperial and Provincial government levels before independence in 1947.

8 Synthesis Report

Realizing the country’s technological needs, the Pusa Research Institute was established at

Pusa (Bihar) in 1903. The Royal Commission on Agriculture (RCA) was appointed in 1926

to examine and report on the conditions of agricultural and rural economy in India and to

make recommendations for the improvement of agriculture and the promotion of the welfare

and prosperity of rural people. The RCA 1926 made valuable recommendations and these

formed the bases of coordinated research and effective agricultural administration. One of

the important recommendations of the RCA was the creation of Imperial Council of

Agricultural Research (ICAR), which was set up in 1929.

The British Administration formed several committees to understand the features of

livestock farming system and ways for its development. Among the various committees and

their reports, the reports submitted by the Royal Commission on Agriculture (RCA) and W.

A. Burns report on the Technological Possibilities of Agricultural Development in India

(1944) are considered as significant. However, the pre-independence attempts on agricultural

development were limited in scale and geographical coverage. These attempts did not have

any follow-up action and lacked specificity in terms of programme planning and

implementation. The above constraints in the agricultural development have been done away

with through the introduction of planning in the post-independence period which is

emphasized by a systematic and intensive approach.

In India, organized extension came into being in the year 1952 with the launching of

Community Development Programme followed by the establishment of National Extension

Service in 1953. Education and research studies began in 1955 with the initiation of Post

Graduation Programme in Agricultural Extension Education in Agricultural College, Sabour

in Bihar. The early extension efforts had two distinct patterns. First, there were attempts by

some benevolent persons and private agencies to improve rural life. Second, attempts were

made at the Government level to initiate some projects to solve the pressing problems in

agriculture.

The attempts made by the individual persons and private agencies are Gurgaon project in

Haryana by Mr. F.L. Brayne; Sriniketan Experiment in Bengal by Sri Rabindra Nath Tagore;

Servants’ of India Society, Pune, in Tamilnadu, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh; Sir

Daniel Hamilton’s Scheme of Rural Reconstruction at Sundarban in Bengal; Rural

Reconstruction Work by Christian Missions through Allahabad Agricultural Institute; The

Christian College, Nagpur; Marthandam Project by Dr. Spencer Hatch under the auspices of

YMCA; Sevagram Experiment in Wardha by Mahatma Gandhi; Adarsh Seva Sangh, Pohri,

Gwalior, Indian Village Service in Lucknow and Etwah in Uttar Pradesh by Mr. A.T.

Mosher and Sri B.N. Gupta and Sarvoday Programme in Bombay Province.

Among the above attempts, significant extension initiatives during pre-independence were

Gandhian Experiment in Rural Reconstruction (1920), Sri Niketan Project (1921),

Marthandam Project (1921), Gurgaon Project (1927), Rural Reconstruction Movement

(1932), Indian Village Upliftment Scheme (1944), and, Nilokheri Project and Grow More

Food Campaign (1947).

Post-independence initiatives include Etawah Pilot Project and Sarvodya Programme (1948).

However, food crisis experienced in the country in late 1950s refocused the efforts of

extension on food security and increasing food production in the form of Community

Development Programme (1952); National Extension Service (1953) and Intensive

Agricultural Development Programme (1960).


Earlier extension programs in sixties focused on creating conducive environment for

production by arranging inputs and demonstration–input intensive agriculture that too for

major food grain crops in high yield potential areas. The Intensive Agriculture Area

Programme (1964) and National Demonstration Project (NDP) was initiated in 1964-65 to

demonstrate the technology package on major crops; High Yielding Varieties Programme

with the combination of Green Revolution technology in the late 1960s and single line of

command Training & Visit System in the mid 1970s enabled India to achieve food self-

sufficiency.

The post independent extension education and development programmes launched by the

Government of India can be generally grouped into five categories. They are:

1. Community development programmes

2. Programmes for technology development

3. Programmes for development with social justice

4. Frontline extension programmes of ICAR

5. Agricultural research and development programmes by ICAR and Govt. of India.

All these programmes, though not attempted towards development of agricultural extension,

definitely aimed at improving production and productivity which ultimately helped in

obtaining more income and livelihood security. But all the programmes followed extension

approaches to reach its clients and target groups to provide them with education,

information, knowledge, skills, understanding and related matters so as to empower them in

accomplishing their goal of economic uplift.

Nepal

The history of agricultural development in Nepal can be traced since 1950 or even before.

But to have a comprehensive idea it can be divided into two parts, as follows:

Before 1950: This period includes the opening of Nurseries, Veterinary Hospitals, Central

Research Farm, and Technical School etc. Administration was centralized, and there was no

problems regarding linkages and coordination. The level of farmer's awareness and

ambitions were very low and the farming was almost subsistence type.

After 1950: Systematic efforts towards national development began in the fifties with the

formulation and subsequent implementation of the First Five-Year Plan in 1956. All the

plans formulated since then have emphasized generation of appropriate agricultural

technologies and their effective dissemination.

The agriculture extension program was first included as a built in component of the

comprehensive Tribhuwan Village Development Program (TVDP), implemented through

USAID assistance. It was essentially the integrated village development program, where

promotion of agriculture was the core component. Following "Block Development

Approach" TVDP encompassed other social components like education, adult literacy, health

and the general community development activities. However, TVDP could not continue

long.

The subsequent approaches followed in agriculture extension included the establishment of

Zonal Agriculture Development Offices (ZADOs) and District Agriculture Development

Offices (DADOs) and recruitment of field level extension workers - Junior Technicians (JTs)

10 Synthesis Report

and Junior Technical Assistants (JTAs), the JT/JTAs with a modest training in general

agriculture. The training also included agriculture extension as one of the subjects, were

supposed to make the farmers aware and persuade them towards adopting new technologies

considered superior to those already in practice.

Various extension methods such as individual contacts, group contacts and mass contacts

were used for awareness rising among the farming communities. Attempts were made to

convince the farmers about the superiority, usefulness and profitability of the advocated

technologies, applying the most common extension tools, such as method and result

demonstrations, agriculture fairs and farmer's day, farmer's field visit and observation tours,

and use of audio-visual aids. This traditional approach of extension continued for many years

before some of its basic weaknesses were recognized as the limiting factors in motivating

adequately the farming community to adopt the recommended agricultural practices. It was

realized that there were some inherent drawbacks in the system, especially in a way that

majority of the farmers could not be reached. The poor and deprived communities remained,

by and large, out of the reach of the extension services. The main reason attributed to such

situation was the limited number of field level extension workers, as compared to the vast

number of farm households, combined with difficult terrains in the hill and mountain.

The traditional extension approach was based on the "Trickle down" theory of dissemination

of technologies. The underlying assumption of this approach was that if innovation is

introduced to a small number of "progressive farmers" "contact farmers", "leader farmers"

and the likes; the diffusion process will automatically take place; and there will be multiplier

impacts of the interventions. This approach met with limited success, mainly due to the

limited resources in terms of technical advice, production inputs and , and services in remote

areas. Adequate motivation and persuasion were not there for the poor farmers to take the

benefit of technology adoption. To overcome this problem, the need for deliberate attempts

to reach such farmers was realized. To support and provide reinforcement to the field level

extension workers (JT/JTAs), Para extension workers (such as "Agriculture Assistants", and

'Tukis") were employed. However, these grassroots level extension support workers very

soon became non-functional as they were poorly paid and inadequately motivated. And the

JT/JTAs again remained the sole extension agents with a lot of limitations.

Carrying out agriculture extension activities solely by JT/JTAs was not only the numerical

problem of non-availability, but it also suffered conceptually. Under the system, too much

emphasis was laid on technical support, and social mobilization aspect was neglected. It was

deemed necessary that delivering the technical services without social preparedness, at the

receiving end, is not going to achieve the purpose of agricultural development.

Restoration of multiparty democracy in the country in 1990 gave Nepal a new multiparty

democratic constitution in 1991, which appropriately recognized decentralization as a means

to ensure optimum involvement of the people in governance. In this context it was realized

that social mobilization at farmer's community should be undertaken through farmers groups

empowered to effectively participate in development programmess. It was also considered

important that government alone may not be able to cater fully to the needs of providing

necessary production inputs and technical services to all farmers and in all geographical

areas.

Accordingly, the government has adopted the policy of carrying out the extension activities

through the farmers group approach and involving the Community Based Organizations


(CBOs) and Non-Government Organization (NGOs), in the development efforts of the

government, It is assumed that it will be easier for the extension workers to reach the

maximum number of farmers through groups; and the groups, if properly developed, can

efficiently manage its activities through their capacity build up. The approach may be

sustainable even after the phasing out of the external assistance. Despite many perceived

weaknesses in farmers’ group approach, the government is pursuing the approach to serve as

the vehicle for bringing socio-economic changes at the grassroots level. The government is

trying at best to remove the weaknesses identified so far about the groups and redefine the

role of government.

Chronology of events

1942 : Agriculture Office was established as an institutional effort.

1952 : Department of Agriculture was established.

1966 : Restructuring of Department of Agriculture and establishment of five

Departments:

- Department of Agriculture Extension

- Department of Fishery

- Department of Horticulture

- Department of Livestock Health

- Department of Agricultural Education and Research

1972 : Lack of effective coordination among the departments again led to the creation of

the Department of Agriculture.

1972 : The need and sensitivity of agricultural markets gave rise to the establishment of

the Department of Agricultural Market Services.

1979 : In view of effective program implementation of agriculture and livestock sectors

two separate departments; one for agriculture and another for livestock were

established - Department of Agriculture and Department of Livestock Services.

1990 : Establishment of Department of Horticulture.

1992 : Under one umbrella policy all the five Departments - Horticulture; Crop and

Fishery; Food, Agriculture and Market Services; Livestock Health and Food

Research Laboratory were brought into one department called the Department of

Agricultural Development. Under this department one Director General and seven

Directors were posted.

1995 : Under the new restructuring program three departments came into existence; viz -

Department of Agriculture, Department of Livestock Services, and Central Food

Research Laboratory.

2000 : To enhance the effectiveness of services and supports to the Department of

Agriculture, 11 Technical Divisions at the center were reorganized into nine

Program Directorates.

2004 : Program Directorates were reorganized and established 12 Program Directorates

and 14 National Programs under the Department of Agriculture.

12 Synthesis Report

Pakistan

In 1866 the Orissa famine triggered the need to establish a central department of agriculture

by the British rulers. By 1905, on the recommendations of the Famine Commission, the then

government of united India decided to set up department of agriculture to organize

agricultural research and demonstration farms in every province. In 1947, at the time of

partition, Pakistan inherited the provincially organized agricultural infrastructure. Since then,

agriculture in Pakistan has undergone many changes.

Agricultural extension in Pakistan did not have a separate structure till 1962 when an

independent department of agricultural extension was created within the provincial

agricultural set up. During the fifties and early sixties, agricultural extension activities were

carried out as a component of the integrated agricultural development approach whereby the

Professor of Agriculture in Agriculture Colleges, also used to act as Deputy Director

Agriculture and was responsible for agricultural research, teaching and extension. However,

in 1962, the teaching was separated from research and extension with the establishment of

West Pakistan Agricultural University Lyallpur (presently known as University of

Agriculture, Faisalabad). Since then, the agricultural extension work is planned and carried

out following a structure headed by the Provincial Secretary of Agriculture who also heads

the Department of Agricultural Research and several other related departments.

The Director General of Agricultural Extension (DGE) is the overall administrator of the

public sector in the province who is responsible to the Secretary of Agriculture at the centre.

Agricultural extension is one of the means available to help alleviate poverty and improve

food security. It promotes the transfer and exchange of information that can be converted

into functional knowledge, which is instrumental in helping to develop enterprises that

promote productivity and generate income in the present climate of change. In addition to

technology transfer, agricultural extension is a unique service in that it provides access to

small farmers and the rural poor, living far from the urban centers, in acquiring non-

formal education and information services.

Evolution of Agricultural Extension Activities in Pakistan

Pakistan is a federation of four provinces where the provincial governments are primarily

responsible for agricultural research and extension functions. Several extension approaches,

designed primarily to improve the living standard of the rural people through increased

agricultural production and improved farm income, have been tried. During the last five

decades, varying perspectives of agricultural extension have emerged emerged. These

include:

(i) The Village Cooperative Movement

This movement started in the early 50s under the aegis of the Cooperative Department. It

proposes that all farmers in every village be united under the umbrella of the village

cooperative societies, choose their own management committees, and find the means of

their development on a cooperative basis. The primary thrust of this movement is to educate

member farmers about new technologies and to arrange farm-input delivery on soft-term

credit. However, the experience suggests that the cooperative movement has not been

able to achieve a consistent success. Some places where local leadership and cooperative

department staff have been sincere and effective, it has achieved good results. It has proven a


good source of farm input supply and technology transfer to the small farmers at the village

level. .

(ii) The Village Agricultural and Industrial Development Program (Village-AID)

The Village-AID program began in Pakistan in 1952, a little after independence, with

substantial help from USAID and Ford Foundation. This program sought to bring about all-

round development of the villages through organizing village councils, building roads,

digging wells, constructing schools, and disseminating improved agricultural technology.

This program achieved a good deal of success in the beginning but became a victim of

departmental jealousies and political change in the country. With the abolition of the Village-

AID program in 1961, rural development became a part of the Basic Democracies System

(BDS).

(iii) The Basic Democracy System (BDS)

Phased in 1959, this system was designed to bring together both the elements of community

development and political development, especially at the local level. The government

administrative and development tiers were organized into five levels where the union

council, a group of 3-5 villages, was the lowest tier. The councils undertook a variety of

social and economic development work in their respective areas. The problems union

councils tried to solve were in the realm of education, infrastructure, agriculture, and

sanitation. The BDS went a long way in developing awareness and building local leadership

among the rural masses. The BDS also met the same fate as its predecessor program. The

change in the government in 1970 saw the abolition of the BDS and introduction of a new

rural development approach the 'Integrated Rural Development Program' (IRDP).

(iv) Agricultural Development Corporation (ADC)

For supply of seed, fertilizer and farm machinery, the ADCs were established in 1960 at the

provincial level in West and East Pakistan (Bangladesh). In 1970, the ADC was renamed as

Pakistan Agricultural Development and Supply Corporation (PAD&SC) which was

primarily responsible to promote cooperatives, disseminate farm information, produce,

procure and distribute improved seed, fertilizer through a well established input supply

network all over the country. Other important functions performed by ADC included

development of new lands, establishing seed farms and rendering farm equipments and

machinery to the growers. Subsequently, the government decided to disengage itself from

farm input supply functions, and the ADC was wound up.

(v) Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP)

In early 1970s, once again due to the change of political scenario and the problems

with the previous development strategies, the government decided to try a new development

approach, the IRDP. Development of agriculture was the central force behind this program.

Moreover, the IRDP was created as a subsidiary of the Agriculture Department, its

leadership was heavily drawn form the agricultural department, and all frontline workers

recruited to run this program were agricultural graduates. On the other hand, Local

Government Department controlled rural development funds. This dichotomy in modus

operandi not only resulted ample tension between the two agencies, but also created

frustration among the workers of this newly launched program. The IRDP staff, using their

14 Synthesis Report

professional skills, started a campaign to enhance agricultural productivity, which had a

tremendous impact on crop yields. Its one of the principal functions was to integrate the

functioning of various line departments and facilitate farm service delivery to the farmers at

one point. This coordinating role could not be accomplished successfully for the hard

departmental boundaries. Subsequently, in 1978, the IDRP was subsumed into the Local

Government Department and turned into a routine bureaucratic agency. (vi)

(vi) Training and Visit (T&V) System Training and Visit (T&V) system of extension was introduced in 1978 in the first phase in

the five districts of Punjab province with the financial and technical support from the Word

Bank. In the second phase, it was extended all over the country in 1986-87. Under the T &V

system of agricultural extension, the functions of transfer of technology were clearly

delineated and separated from supply functions such as provision of farm inputs.

Technology transfer was kept with agriculture extension in public sector and the functions

pertaining to supply of inputs and services were handed over to private sector or commercial

corporations.

This system had three components: adaptive research, training, and an extension wing. The

adaptive research component was responsible for the testing of the findings of applied

research at adaptive research stations established at the regional level. The most promising

innovations selected by the adaptive research scientists for the region were delivered to the

farming community by the personnel of extension wing.

The Subject Matter Specialists (SMS) along with the personnel of the training wing

conducted regular fortnightly training meetings for the extension personnel to strengthen

their professional competencies.

The number of farm families that an extension worker, locally designated as Field Assistant

(FA), could cover varied considerably from place to place depending on population density,

roads, intensity and standard of cropping, and the types and diversity of crops grown.

Generally speaking, the farm families on the jurisdiction of a FA were divided into 80

groups of about equal size. Then about 10 percent of each group was selected as contact

farmers. Usually, on an average, the number of contact farmers in a group varied from eight

to ten. FAs were supposed to visit the contact farmers according to a prefixed schedule

known to the farmers as well as their supervisors. During a fortnight, the allocation of time

of extension worker was eight days to contact farmers, two days each for training and extra

visit/office work. The system did not yield the desired results as it strengthened the existing

hierarchical tendencies with centralized management and top down planning. Several

evaluations of the T&V concluded that it failed to bring about the desired changes in

production practices, input use level and crop yields. Further it tends to marginalize the

benefits of agricultural development of small farm holders, tenant farmers, and women.

The T&V system could not sustain when the World Bank assistance was withdrawn in

1994-95 and provincial governments failed to pitch in promised operational budget.

Thus the intensity of agricultural extension approach established under the T&V system

gradually diluted. The squeeze of financial support reduced the facilities for regular backup

training to the staff and their mobility. Adaptive research farms discontinued and the morale

of extension staff affected. The vacant positions of Agricultural Officers that came to


several hundreds were never filled. Despite all such odds, the extension staff kept on

maintaining limited contacts with farmers, organizing field days and field seminars. In some

areas, train the trainer’s programme and media extension, the private sector support such as

pesticides and fertilizer companies was sought to keep the extension service in operation.

Because of certain compelling forces, at some places particularly for cotton and rice belts of

Punjab province, extension was organized differently. Both the commodities have export-

led potential. The growers became very receptive of the improved production and protection

practices. The traditional role of extension staff from person-to-person contact transformed

to electronic means and print media. The growers were encouraged to visit commodity

research institutes and acquire state-of-the-art knowledge and the best production practices.

The training of extension staff was organized on regular basis employing modern training

techniques. The monitoring and evaluation of the field staff by district and provincial

extension managers was developed on mechanical and quantitative patterns. Use of fax

machine helped sub-district and district extension officers to promptly feed the provincial

government with the latest information about availability of seed, fertilizer, irrigation

water, machinery, and other inputs besides crop stand , prevalence of any insect, pest, or

disease, the anticipated yield production levels and marketing of the farmer produce.

Sri Lanka

History reveals the presence of well managed irrigation schemes and flourishing peasant

agriculture in Sri Lanka during the periods of ancient Kings.8 The King Parackramabahu

around the period of 1150s was the first to emphasize the productivity improvement per unit

of water and land which were the limited resources for agriculture at the time. A very recent

revelation suggests that Great King Mahasen who ruled from 377 to 404 AD contributed

significantly to Sri Lankan agriculture even during the Fourth Century.9

Agricultural extension is reported to have started in Sri Lanka during the colonial regime of

the Dutch in the 17th Century with Cinnamon crop for export.

10 During the 18

th and 19

th

Century, the British colonial rulers developed the system further.

With the breakdown of vibrant agricultural economy, after a series of foreign invasions

starting from 1640 to 1812, the earliest attempt to build up the peasant agriculture

commenced by the British after 1880s.11

Historical records reveal that from about 1880, agricultural instructors with two year training

in agriculture were posted to work on agriculture under government agents. In 1904 the

Ceylon Agricultural Society (CAS) was established by the wealthier planters, land owners

and agriculturists to help native farmers. The extension work was carried out by the CAS in

collaboration with the heads of districts.

The British introduced the Botanical Gardens in Paradeniya and Gampaha with aim of

spreading out Tea, Coffee and Rubber cultivation. This eventually developed into the

8 Hathurusinghe, L.K. 2010. Agriculture Extension in Sri Lanka, A paper presented at the Workshop on Rural Development for

High Level Officers of AFACI Member Countries., Suwon, Korea, 7-14 Auguat 2010.

http://www.moaf.gov.bt/moaf/wpfb_dl=455 9 The Daily Star, May, 2013. 10 Hathurusinghe, L.K. 2010 Loc. cit. 11 Samuel, R. P. Extension Services of the Food Crop Sector. Department of Agricultlure, Sri Lanka; Historical Development, Current Position And Future Directions. http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=69157

16 Synthesis Report

Department of Agriculture (DOA) in 1912, mainly to cater the needs of plantation sector. In

early 1920s the agricultural extension service was developed as a part of the DOA..

In 1921 the staff of Ceylon Agricultural Society (CAS) was absorbed into DOA. In 1922 the

functions of DOA was defined as research, extension and education when the country faced

severe food shortage as an aftermath of the First World War.

Research institutes were developed for Tea, Rubber and Coconut. In order to cater for the

requirements of farmers, extension arms such as Tea Smallholding Authority, Rubber

Controllers Department, Coconut Cultivation Board, Coconut Development Authority were

added.

After the independence in 1948, greater attention was paid by the government on the

production of rice. Divisional Agriculture Officers were involved in planning and execution

of extension activities.

In Sri Lanka four major agricultural extension reforms were undertaken in the peasant

agricultural sector since independence of the country in 1948. In 1957, District Agricultural

Extension Officers and village level extension worker Krusikarma Vyapthi Sevaka (KVSs)

were appointed. This is the first significant attempt taken to widen the accessibility of the

extension services to the peasant farming community.

The second major reform was the introduction of T&V system in 1979. This system became

a failure due to number of reasons such as financial scarcity, lack of research linkage, social

problems and administrative difficulties.

The third reform was absorbing of the village level agricultural extension offices (KVSs)

from agricultural service to administrative service as village offices in 1989. However,

village officers are the grass roots level administrative officers of the state service have

nothing to do with agriculture. This political decision taken to abolish the field level

extension layer has given long-term negative consequences to the development of the

agricultural sector in the country.

The fourth one was the implementation of Integrated Agricultural Extension Service in 1993.

The main objectives of the programme were to strengthen the different agricultural extension

services in the country by integrating their functions. Currently extension service of DOA is

accused for not doing enough. This should be considered seriously by the policy makers

while the majority of the farmers are small holders and economically vulnerable. They are

not economically strong enough to pay for extension yet.

Another important development was the Mahawal Development Authority of Sri Lanka

(MASL) in the 1970s under the Mahawal River Development Scheme. All agricultural

activities, including extension, of the Mahawal Development Area came under the

jurisdiction of MASL.

Establishment of NAES

Conventional extension approach

The DAEO was responsible for administration of district extension staff and,

implementation, supervision and monitoring and evaluation of the extension programs for

both crops and livestock under the conventional agricultural extension approach that existed

till late 1970s.


Although the extension system was progressively strengthened, the conventional extension

system had more weaknesses such as lack of technical guidance, heavy load of non-

extension activities, thin coverage by extension officers, lack of mobility facilities of field

extension staff and poor research-extension linkage.

Chapter Summary

From historical perspective, the SAARC countries under discussion can be considered under

two headings: those that were under colonial rules and those outside colonial regimes.

The British ruled over the Indian sub-continent that included Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and

also Sri Lanka. Outside the colonial empire were Bhutan and Nepal.

Post colonial countries

In Bangladesh, agricultural extension per se started in 1947 after the British left with the

independence India. The government established agricultural demonstration farms in district

headquarters, the Directorate of Agriculture started publishing reading materials, conducting

demonstrations, fairs and exhibitions, group and mass meetings, organizing crop

competitions. A good number of agricultural organizations were established.

Bangladesh was liberated from the Pakistani rulers and organizational reforms took place

while the conventional extension work continued.

In 1977 the T&V system of extension was introduced and it operated till 1993. It was soon

realized that the system, though introduced some regular extension activities, was top down,

expensive and failed to address the problems of small and marginal farmers. The World

Bank funding stopped and the system was abandoned.

The Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) developed its Revised Extension

Approach (REA) within the context of New Agricultural Extension Policy (NAEP) of 1996.

REA emphasized bottom up participatory demand driven extension covering all types of

farmers including women farmers, small and marginal farmers.

India, being under the same British Empire as Bangladesh, had a similar historical

background as that of Bangladesh. Organized extension started in 1952 with the launching of

the Community Development Programme followed by establishment of National Extension

Service in 1953 and the Intensive Agricultural Development Programme in 1960. The single

line command T&V system was adopted which with the introduction of Green Revolution

technologies in late 1960 pushed production and India achieved food self-sufficiency in

towards the end of 1970s.

Pakistan, also having the same historical background as that of Bangladesh and India under

the British Empire, did not have a separate structure for agricultural extension till 1962 when

the Department Agricultural Extension was created in the provinces. Since then agricultural

extension planning is prepared by the Provincial Secretary of Agriculture. It adopted several

extension approaches (Village Cooperative Movement, Village Agricultural Development

Programme, the Basic Democracy System, Agricultural Development Corporation,

Integrated Rural Development Programme, T&V System of Extension, Crop Maximization

Programmes (Rice, Cotton, Potato etc), Barani Agricultural Research and Development

Programme etc.

18 Synthesis Report

In the recent past, extension has partially been decentralized to the district and it is alleged to

have weakened the research extension linkage.

Sri Lanka’s history of agriculture can be traced back to the time of ancient kings. Under the

colonial rules, the Sri Lankan agriculture had emphasis on plantation crops (Coconut, Tea,

Rubber etc). With the independence of the country in 1948, extension service put emphasis

of other food crops like rice and subsidiary food crops. The country went through

conventional research, T&V system and the so-called Second Agricultural Extension (SAEP)

which attempted participatory and integrated approach for food crops with partial success.

It would thus appears that even having the same historical background, the countries

(Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) had different development strategies and they

are at different stages of development.

Outside side the colony

Nepal and Bhutan, being outside the British Empire, had different historical background.

Their historical records of agriculture started in 195Os and 196Os respectively but they

appear to have caught up with modern extension systems where participatory bottom up

extension have already been emphasized.


CHAPTER

Organization of National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries

(i) Agencies Involved in Extension Systems

Bangladesh

Although Bangladesh, India and Pakistan had the same historical background, they have

followed different development pathways in agricultural extension and have different

organizational structures. In Bangladesh agencies are:

• Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE),

• Department of Livestock (DLS),

• Department of Fisheries (DoF) and

• Forest Department (FD), each under a separate ministry.

In addition, extension activities are undertaken under:

• Cotton Development Board (CDB),

• Agricultural Information Services (AIS) and

• Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation (BADC), all under the Ministry

of Agriculture, and also

• Water Development Board under the Ministry of Water Resources,

• Bangladesh Academy of Rural Development (BARD), Comilla and

• Rural Development Academy (RDA), Bogra under the Ministry of Local

Government Rural Development.

• Besides there are hosts of NGOs including BRAC, PROSHIKA, etc.

Bhutan

In Bhutan, the extension agencies have been delineated under:

National Level: (Department of Agriculture, Department of Livestock, Department of

Forest and Park Services, Department of Agricultural Marketing and Cooperatives (DAMC)

under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests; and Dzongkhag level (District) level with

RNR heads for Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry.

In between, there are the Regional Level agencies (Regional RNR Research and

Development Centers (Crops), Regional Livestock Development Centers) but these centres

and farms do not have direct extension mandate but support Dzongkhag (District) extension

system with input supply and technical backstopping). In addition, there are veterinary

hospitals in almost all the Dzongkhag to support animal health.

At the bottom is the Geog (Block) Level extension agency (RNR EA), staffed with an

Extension Agent from Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry (though one RNR EA sometimes

may cover two Geogs).

3

20 Synthesis Report

India

India has a somewhat complex system of extension and they even vary from state to state.

In the public sector, the extension machinery of the state Department of Agriculture (DoA)

reaches down to the block and village level. Agricultural Technology Management Agency

(ATMA) is a district level autonomous agency entrusted with the role of agricultural

technology management in the district. The district collector/deputy commissioner heads the

ATMA Governing Body, with members drawn from the line departments, Krishi Vigyan

Kendra (KVKs), farmers and NGOs.

The number of KVKs (funded by the ICAR) has increased with time, 600 KVKs have so far

been established in the country. The motto is to cover each district with one KVK with a

mandate of technology application through on-farm trials, demonstrations and training. It is

the largest research based extension at the district level. However, the effective reach of

these KVKs is yet marginal mainly due to inadequate linkages with other development

agencies. Moreover, their main focus is on technology testing, assessment and application

under farmers’ conditions.

The number and diversity of private extension service providers has increased during last

two decades. These include NGOs, producer associations, input agencies, media and agri-

business companies, but their effective reach is limited and many of the distant and remote

areas and poor producers are neither served by the public nor the private sector.

The Govt. of India launched Kissan Call Centres to leverage the extensive telecom network

in the country to deliver extension services to the farmers. The purpose of these call centres

is to respond to queries and issues raised by farmers instantly in the local language on a

nationwide toll free number (1800180 1551).

Marketing extension has been a recent addition but is understood and implemented mostly as

provision of output price information in various markets and this is highly inadequate to

address the challenges in marketing.

Other extension support facilities created include: farmer training centres at the district level;

SAMETI (State Agricultural Management Extension and Training Institute) at the state

level, EEI (Extension Education Institute) at the regional level; and MANAGE (National

Institute for Agricultural Extension Management) at the national level.

The major agencies involved in the extension system (GO) are:

• Department of Agriculture, Govt. of India and of different States

• National Agricultural Research and Extension System comprising of ICAR and

SAUs

Major Non Government agencies are:

• Farmers Co-Operatives, FIGs, CIGs, FFS etc, Industrial houses like ITC, Nagarjuna

Fertilizers, Seed companies etc.

Nepal

Public agencies

At the public level, there is the Department of Agriculture (DOA). It has District Agriculture

Development Offices (DADOs) and District Livestock Services Office (DLSOs).


The Agriculture Service Centres (ASCs) are the grassroots institutions to provide the

agriculture extension services to farmers. The number of ASCs per district was reduced not

long ago and this created the pressure in the ASC to cover the larger numbers of clienteles.

As a result, DOA provided flexibility to districts to establish contact centers (Samparka

Kendra) to effectively utilize the existing physical resources such as Agriculture Sub-Service

Centers (ASSC) as well as the Village Development Committees (VDCs).

The concept of Community Agriculture Service Centre (CASC) has been put forward

recently by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MoAC) with the objective of

making the service delivery more inclusive as well as to help commercialization in

agriculture. However, it is yet to be implemented. Similarly, recently farmer's cooperatives

are equally utilized in the delivery of agriculture extension service.

International /National Nongovernmental organizations (I-NGOs)

There are ten thousand non-government organizations involved in community and rural

development sector. I-NGOs have played a very significant role in Nepalese society in a

number of ways including successfully arousing consciousness and making advocacy of/for

a number of developmental issues and other global democratic values.

Community Based Organizations

Indigenous Comminity Based Organizations (CBOs) were well established traditions in

Nepal in the past but has since eroded. These are characterized by social, religious and

developmental practices, quite unique to each ethnic group. Here the rural elites tend to have

overriding decision making powers.

CBOs are, however, recognized as organizations that provide development services to

grassroots communities at the village and the district level through mobilization of paid

members or unpaid volunteers. It is important to differentiate between induced and

indigenous CBOs. Indigenous CBO ranges form of mere farmer groups to well organized

structures such as federations, forums, networks, cooperatives, and so on.

Pakistan

A wide range of agencies including public, private, and civil society organizations have been

engaged, at different level, in the diffusion of information to the farmers of Pakistan. To

reinforce the extension effort, time to time, several commodity-and area-specific initiatives

were also undertaken. These include:

(i) Public Sector Agricultural Extension System

• Barani Area Development Programme

• Crop Maximization Programs: Italian Crop Maximization Program, Cotton

Maximization Program, Rice Maximization Program, Training and Visit System,

Barani Agricultural Research & Development Program (BARD), Pak-Swiss Potato

Program, Agricultural Extension Services (AES) in ICT, and Technology transfer

program of NARC.

(ii) Private Sector Extension • Fertilizer Producing and Marketing Firms.

• Pesticide company, mostly involved in marketing their products.

• Rafhan Maize Product/Sugar Mills.

22 Synthesis Report

(iii) Civil Society/Non-Government Organizations-Driven Extension and

(iv) Universities-Supported Extension

Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka extension service is mainly in the hands of the public sector agencies. These

include:

• Department of Agriculture & Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka

• Tea Research Institute

• Rubber Research Institute

• Coconut Research Institute

• Sri Lanka Cashew Corporation

• Sugarcane Research Institute

• Department of Export Agriculture

• Royal Botanic Garden

• Department of Animal Production and Health

• Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

NGO and the private sector, however, play some role and these include:

• NGOs (Care International, Red Bana, and Sarvodaya)

• Private Sector Extension Service (Hechem, Ceylon Tobacco Company, Baurs Ltd,)

(ii) Extension Planning Processes In SAARC Countries

Bangladesh

The DAE has adopted Work Programming - a system by which SAAOs (former Block

Supervisors) plan and assess the work they do at the block level.

The system provides:

• SAAOs with increased freedom and responsibility for planning and assessing their

own work, and hence raise their motivation.

• The supervising officers with a means of assessing SAAO’s performance against

verifiable indicators.

• A framework for the recognition of good work.

There are five stages in the work programming process:

• Planning at the beginning of each fortnight, by the SAAOs, of tasks to be carried out

during the following two weeks, and agreement of this plan with the supervisor;

• Assessment by the SAAO of their own performance at the end of the fortnight;

• Constructive analysis of performance in a meeting between the SAAO and

supervisor;

• Agreement of a new work plan for the next fortnight, incorporating initiatives to

improve capability, resource availability and motivation where required and learning

from the successes and failures of previous work programs.


These blocks level plans are reviewed at the Thana/Upazila Agricultural Extenssion

Coordination Committee, (T/UAECC), the District Extension Planning Committee (DEPC)

and the Agricultural Technical Committee (ATC) at the regional level, before the plans are

sent to the DAE Field Service Wing at the headquarters.

The Department of Livestock (DLS) and the Department of Fisheries (DoF) do not have

extension workers below the Upazila level but can take advantage of the services of the DAE

field staffs.

Bhutan

The planning of RNR development activities are basically done by the Geog Yarkay

Tshokchung (GYT) or the Block Development Committee and the Dzongkhag Yarkay

Tshokchung (DYT) or the District Development Committee at the district, in concurrence

with RNR sector development policy. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forests and the

Gross National Happiness Committee (GNHC) or the Planning Commission facilitates the

planning process at different stages. At the Dzongkhag level, the Dzongkhag Planning

Officer is entrusted with overall responsibility to coordinate Geog and Dzongkhag plans.

With the empowerment of the local government institutions, GYT and DYT play vital roles

in identifying the RNR sector development needs and priorities. Initial plans are prepared by

GYT by local leaders (Tshogpa) from different communities in the Geog. Considering the

technical feasibility and government policy, the GYT reviews and accepts the proposal for

inclusion in the plan. Once the plans are finalized by GYT, it is presented to DYT which is

chaired by a Chairman (elected from among the village heads (Gups) and attended by Dasho

Dzongdag (District Commissioner) and Dzongkhag sector heads. DYT, after a thorough

review, approves the plans of the GYT considering the budget ceiling provided to

Dzongkhag. After finalizing the Dzogkhag plan, it is sent to GNHC (planning commission).

Besides Geog and Dzongkhags, plans coordinated by GNHC, programmes and projects at

central and regional level under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests also develop

extension activities in consultation with communities and RNR field staffs. The funding of

such projects is outside the budget ceiling allocated to Dzongkhag but the budget comes

from projects and programmes supported by donors and the government( RGOB).

India

At national level, the planning process is undertaken through a well defined rigorous

exercise of formulating a national extension plan once in every five years. This exercise is

carried out by the Planning Commission in collaboration with the Ministry of agriculture,

ICAR, State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), reputed NGOs and farmers.

For every five years, a national level working group is constituted for the purpose under the

Chairmanship of a Secretary level officer with a good experience in the field of agriculture,

planning, evaluation, finance and various aspects of governance.

Under the core group, various sub groups are constituted to review the ongoing programmes,

current status, future needs and challenges. Leading agricultural scientists, extension experts,

administrators, technocrats, representatives of NGOs working in the agricultural

development, farmers’ representatives etc are included as members of the working group and

sub groups.

24 Synthesis Report

After reviewing the development during the current plan period, the sub-group members

work out various programmes and budgetary requirement for the next five years with respect

to various aspects like training, HRD, extension for disadvantaged areas etc. For the

planning process of the current XII plan period, a total number of nine sub groups were

constituted covering various aspects of Extension. Theme areas identified for the formulation

of XII plan were:

• Technology Mapping, Adoption, Impact, Farm Innovations & Agricultural

Education

• Extension Planning and Management in Agriculture and Allied Sectors

• HRD, Training & Accreditation

• Involvement of Panchayati Raj institutions, Literacy Missions, Cooperatives, Urban

local bodies, Schools & Colleges, farmer groups and other organisations for

community Mobilization and Farmers Empowerment

• Extension through Information & Communication Technology, Electronic Media,

Print Media, Documentation and publications

• Public-Private Partnership for agricultural development

• Convergence and programme delivery for agricultural development

• Extension Strategies for difficult areas (J&K, NE & Hill Areas, Sensitive Coastal

areas, Bundelkhand, Naxal affected, Rainfed/ drought prone) disadvantaged farmers

(tribal, small & marginal and tenant) and farm workers

• Empowering Women for Agricultural Development

Similarly, individual state Governments, also constitute expert groups for planning their

agricultural development and extension programmes based on the national priorities and

their current relevance to their states.

Budgeting for the individual theme areas are worked out based on the components

incorporated. A final consolidated report is prepared by the working group by examining the

individual sub group reports and the budget proposed. National level review and discussions

are held to prepare the final plan document of extension programmes (for the plan period)

along with the budgetary requirement. It is submitted to the planning commission. The

planning commission finally examines the document and approves the programmes for

implementation, along with programme-wise financial allocation. The funds are made

available by the Govt. of India under the respective programmes/schemes to the

implementing agencies and the states.

Nepal

Problem Identification Process

Within the DOA and DOLS Participatory Bottom-Up Planning (PBUP) process of

agricultural extension program planning is followed based on national agriculture policy. For

this, Central Program Directorate and Offices of DOA and DOLS prepare technical

guidelines in their respective areas. The departments compile technical guidelines along with

the guidelines provided by the National Planning Commission (NPC) and MOAC. The

prepared guidelines and directives are made available to District Agriculture Development

Officers (DADOs) and District Livestock Officers (DLSOs) through Regional Directors. The

DADO and DLSO Chief inform their Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs) and In-charges of


Agriculture Service Centres and Agriculture Service Sub-Centres (ASC/ASSC) and other

technicians about central guidelines and directives and the guidelines received from the

District Development Committee (DDC). The guidelines and directives should reach ASC/

ASSC before the Participatory Bottom Up Planning (PBUP) at the ASC/ASSC level starts.

Levels of planning

The ASC/ASSC level planning can be divided into planning for pocket area and District

level planning, Regional level planning workshop and Central Level programme

reconciliation and approval of ASC/ASSC level planning (Planning for pocket areas)

Agricultural production pockets are geographical locations that are agro- climatologically

suitable for the production of a particular commodity or for other agricultural productions.

For the intervention of agricultural extension, pockets nearing potentialities of commercial

production and with access of irrigation, road, market, electricity and agro-based industries

are selected. Agricultural production pockets may cover certain areas of a word or it may

spread in more than one VDC and even areas of more than one ASC/ASSC.

Planning in the pocket area is done by using participatory planning tools mainly PC/PS.

PC/PS can be supplemented by one or more PRA tools to get necessary information about

the pocket area.

Outcomes of the PC/PS exercise will be the activities related to one or more elements of

production packages that may include small irrigation, inputs management, agricultural land,

agricultural roads, rural electrification, production technology, agro-processing and market

management etc. These packages are provided in the pocket area to fully exploit the

production potential of the particular commodity; that what is called Pocket Package

Program (PPP). These activities, related to elements of production package, are combined to

give a form of a time-bound project with specific objectives, activities to be carried out,

resources required, roles and responsibilities of major actors. Thus prepared projects, in

crude forms, are later translated by the ASC/ASSC into the standard Project Formulation

Format (PPF) circulated by DOA.

District Level Planning

DADO is the converging point for the adjustment in the district agricultural needs and

priorities and central directives, guidelines and resources (budget ceiling). Programs/ projects

generated in ASC/ASSCs provide the basis for DADO annual program. In addition, it

compiles analyses and updates the data coming from the ASC/ASSCs.

DADO itself also prepares programs that are implemented directly from the DADO

headquarters. These programs are to support the programs/activities, but beyond the capacity

to run by ASC/ASSCs themselves. These programs include district and regional in-service

and farmers training, district level workshop, feasibility study, impact studies, agricultural

business and market promotion, coordination and management of internal and external

resources, monitoring and evaluation etc. All these activities should necessarily be the

activities of different projects. Projects thus formed are discussed in the District Agricultural

Development Committee (DADC).

In line with the concept of promotion of partnership and pluralism in extension, DADO can

offer some of its selected activities to NGOs/CBOs, farmers' groups and private sectors to

26 Synthesis Report

implement in partnership or contract-out on competitive basis according to the guidelines

provided by the MOAC.

Finally DADO will prepare a comprehensive scenario of agricultural development of the

district that also include annual program to be launched in the district, their objectives,

responsibilities of personnel and organizations, resources required, calendar of operations

etc. Programs thus prepared by the DADO are submitted in the District Assembly (DA)

through Agriculture, Forest and Environment Committee and District Level Planning

Coordination Committee of DDC for approval.

Regional level planning workshop

DADO presents program approved by DA in the regional program budget workshop

organized by the concerned RDA. In regional workshop mainly technical aspects of district

programs are discussed and resource matching is done. Besides DADOs, other participants

are central program directorates, regional offices of line agencies, government farms and

resource centers and laboratories. Line agencies are invited into the workshop to ensure

better coordination in program implementation. There may be amendments in the district

programs only from technical point of view.

Central level program reconciliation and approval

DOA reconciles the district programs on the basis of guidelines and directives provided by it,

technical aspects of the program and budget ceiling in the presence of central level program

directors and it forwards the programmes to MOAC. Several rounds of discussions are held

at MOAC, National Planning Commission (NPC) and Ministry of Finance, and programs are

approved with or without trimming them. DOA receives that approved budget and programs

that it sends to each DADO to implement.

Projectization of Agricultural Extension Activities

DOA has started to adopt projectization approach for district extension programs. District

extension activities have now been converted into project format. Any extension activity is

now a component of a defined project with clear title, purpose, objectives, indicators, and

institutional arrangements of managing implementation and monitoring and evaluation.

Projectization Process

1. Farmers' problems are identified and prioritized using PC/PS process in the pocket area

with the involvement stakeholders. PC/PS process clearly identifies project purpose and

logic.

2. Prioritized problems and solutions lead clearly to project components. Project

components are fitted together into a project design format.

A good project design/document, in a simple way, makes clear:

• Why the project is proposed, and exactly what the project sets out to accomplish

• Who will benefit

• Why and how the project is expected to accomplish its purpose and objectives- its

strategy and set of activities


• How those involved will know when they have accomplished what they set out do,

and (v) The timeframe, resources, polices, and implementation arrangements for

doing so.

Projects are then fitted into a prevailing program-budget formulating formats. DADO

forwards the annual programs for the approval of related authorities.

Recent Interventions in Reforming Extension Planning Services

Participatory project planning process is developed, and accordingly, extension activities of

all districts are being projectized from FY 2001/02. The projects are based on local priorities

identified through a participatory bottom -up planning process institutionalized throughout

the organizations in DOA. Projects such as AREP (HMGN/WB), TLDP (HMGN/ADB),

HARP (HMGN/DFID) etc have established participatory planning tools such as PC/PS,

SLA, PRA, VLW etc.

With projectization, it has now become possible to identify components based on local

priorities directly benefiting the users, linking measurable outputs to objectives for a given

timeframe and designing activities/inputs to produce the desired outputs and impacts. The

process could establish a system, within the organization from the national to grassroots

level, of standard project management, staff utilization and monitoring. Project profiles are

documented at each level of the organization (national planning commission, ministry,

department, region and district).

In preparation for implementation of the projectization process, extension staffs in the field

are oriented en mass followed by a refresher training to prepare a cadre of at least one master

trainer in each district, regional and central program units. The projectization process

enhanced the need of linking central program units to districts for technical back up in

project identification, project formulation and monitoring. Visits of senior subject matter

specialists form these units to district project sites become more frequent.

With projects’ initiative, the government introduced policy reform to promote public private

partnership, partnership with beneficiary groups and community organizations.

Agencies within the organization began to be oriented to change the mindset to promote such

collaboration and partnerships. Policy of contracting out extension programs is emphatically

introduced.

The newly introduced reforms in national extension strategy, initiated under the projects,

created heavy need for staff orientation across the organization to reorient the extension

agents associated with GOs and NGOs, PSOs and CBOs and also policy makers affiliated to

local bodies. The key contents of this mass training are the changed role of public sector as a

facilitator rather than a service provider, commercial outlook to service delivery, social

mobilization and participatory development tools.

Sustainability of these initiatives is ensured from the fact that DOA/DOLS reformed national

training strategy commencing implementation from the beginning of the tenth five-year plan

(2002-07). New training modules for areas such as project planning, project monitoring and

evaluation, marketing, commercial farming, mainstreaming gender in agriculture and

agricultural resource management needed to improve human resource capability are

prepared.

28 Synthesis Report

Available socio-economic studies and district database analysis indicates that farm level

productivity and income during various projects’ period has significantly increased.

However, this gain is realized in limited resourceful areas and among resourceful farmers,

making the national benefit at large very nominal and far behind the national requirement.

For feedback to national extension system, the impact studies, case studies and special

technical studies are initiated. These studies validate the impacts of priority national

programs or, in more cases, the impacts of micro-level projects at beneficiary level.

Pakistan

The extension programs are planned by the top management in the light of the priorities

determined by the federal and provincial governments. However, the system has now

slightly been decentralized in the sense that each district is to prepare seasonal (Rabi-Kharif)

plans with given targets which are mostly aimed at increasing crop production.

While preparing these district plans, agricultural extension personnel consult research

scientists and other stakeholders through the established inter-agencies, intra-agency linkages

but with very little input from small farmers. Primarily the identification of emerging

problems and suggesting solution in response to the technological needs of the farmers is the

responsibility of field officials of extension programs. With the implementation of

Devolution Plan, the district is made the focal point for planning and implementation of

extension programs.

There are very active and diverse interest groups and associations of specific commodity

producers such as Cotton Farmers Associations, Mango Farmers Association, Sugarcane

Growers Association and Chambers of Agriculture at various levels. They play important roles

in lobbying for attainment of concessions in the planning process. Likewise, another small

group of resource-rich farmers, who are capable of articulating their concerns at the highest

echelon, have considerable influence in the extension planning process.

The other perspective in the planning process indicates that a majority (84%) of farmers in

Pakistan are small farmers. This group of farmers is resource poor, with minimal access to

inputs, credit and advice, and thus lacks the power and organizational capacity to exert pressure

on research, extension and other public establishments to get their voices heard and provide

feedback in the planning process and to have farmers’ friendly policies with regard to inputs,

services, marketing, and advisory services.

There exist the district-and provincial-level committees and boards of various commodities

where the representatives of agricultural universities, colleges, institutes, some NGOs and

private/corporate sector organizations, and different commodity-specific groups of growers

participate in the planning and implementation of agricultural extension program.

Priority Fixation of Extension Activities

The agricultural extension system had a top-down tendency in its operation, and, therefore, the

decision making and prioritization of extension activities is greatly influenced by the federal and

provincial governments.


Sri Lanka

In the cases of plantation crops, the respective research institutes/boards/corporation are

involved in extension planning and implementation.

The government research and extension agencies are actively involved in farmer problems in

production, processing, marketing and social problems in the dairy/poultry sectors. Three

themes are considered in agriculture extension policy planning in the livestock sector:

• Farming community participation in the planning process, assuring the sustainable

development of the wellbeing of the farmers.

• Contribution and responsiveness of the private sector service institutions for farmer

needs, and relieve the government from financial burden in servicing the farmers.

• The state role as to take the leadership standing as the focal point who would set

policy, public resources allocation, rather than a as a provider of all services.

Thus a bottom up planning is noticeable here.

a. Problem identification process

Farmer need identification is facilitated by self managed livestock farmer societies which

have been established. Strengths of these societies are at different levels. Dairy Villages, All

Island Poultry Association, All Island Pig Association, Milco Farmer Societies and

Mahaweli Farmer societies are some other livestock industrial stakeholder managed

societies. These societies can be identified as sources of current problem identification.

NGOs have a role in assisting them.

Further, industrial developmental issues, animal breeding, diseases prevention and control,

feed resources development, production and processing, marketing, institutional and

manpower development issues are identified at various workshops, seminars and also at state

officials progress review meetings.

b. Priority fixation of action activities

Technology transfer, facilitation for empowerment, and advisory services are prioritized

extension activities.

(iii) Coordination mechanisms in extension systems in SAARC countries

Bangladesh

The DAE Management Committee -- In order to ensure co-ordination between different

Wings of DAE, the Director General of DAE heads the DAE Management. Committee,

Partnership – A number of institutional mechanisms have been established to encourage

partnership between different types of extension agents that enables GOs, NGOs and the

private sector to work together to provide an integrated service to farmers.

DAE is heavily biased towards crop production. Other extension agencies (livestock,

fisheries etc.) may be keen to utilize the services of DAE because it employs the most field

staff in the government agricultural sector and has national coverage.

30 Synthesis Report

Sharing Strengths and Resources - The NAEP aims at developing all types of partnership

between GO, NGO and the private sector extension agencies. Improved co-ordination,

through the various committees established under the NAEP (NATCC at the National Level,

ATC at the Regional Level, DEPC at the District, and agricultural committees at the Upazila

and the Union Level) enable extension providers to share their strengths and resources.

Bhutan

Nationally four technical Departments (Agriculture, Forest and Park Services, Livestock,

Agri.Marketing and Cooperatives) are responsible for coordinating extension plans and

programmes at the Dzongkhag (district) level. There are also regional RNR research and

development centre which partly coordinate research- extension programmes. There are five

such regional centers (RDC) and each center has extension unit to link research extension

activities.

Besides RNR-RDC, there are four Regional Livestock Development Centre (RLDC) which

provides technical backstopping to Dzogkhags (district) and Geogs (blocks). At the

Dzongkhags level, there are three sector heads, responsible for Agriculture, Livestock and

Forestry extension respectively. The major roles of the District Extension System (DES) are:

• Providung guidance for the development of annual RNR extension programme for

the Geog and Dzongkhag.

• Coordinating implementation of Dzongkhag-level activities in the field.

• Organizing meeting with the Geog Extension Centre (GEC) to review and plan the

field activities.

• Facilitating and mobilizing funds for RNR activities within the Dzongkhag.

• Collaborating with RNR related agencies in delivering effective extension services.

• Providing feedback to departments and relevant agencies carrying out monitoring

and evaluation of planned activities.

• Maintaining vertical and horizontal communication linkage.

• Conducting monitoring and reporting of district extension programmes

• Supporting Local Governments in preparing development plans

Extension staffs at the GEC coordinate the planning and implementation of field activities

with the Geog Administration and the concerned sector at the district level. Three sectors at

the Geog level also plan the execution of field activities jointly so that there is minimum

disturbance to the farmers.

Extension Coordination Committee

To better coordinate the implementation of extension programmes, Extension Coordination

Committee (ECC) is constituted at the national level, a cross sectoral committee attended by

the concerned senior officers from each department and agencies under Ministry of

Agriculture. The ECC has overriding mandate to facilitate the coordination and integration

of RNR extension services amongst the various agencies of the MoAF. ECC is structurally

based with the Council for RNR Research of Bhutan (CoRRB) .

India

The extension programmes in the country are implemented through various agencies and at

the district level the programmes are coordinated through the Agricultural Technology


Management Agency (ATMA) which is a society of stake holders in agriculture for

sustainable agricultural development in the district. It is the focal point for integrated

research and extension activities endowed with the responsibility of all technology

dissemination activities at the district level. The budgetary requirement for different

programmes coordinated by ATMA is routed through ATMA for better coordination and

utilisation of the funds.

ICAR has established eight Zonal Project Directorates in the country to coordinate and

monitor the activities of Krishi Vigyan Kendras established in the country. At the ICAR

HQs, the activities are monitored by Division of Ag Extension headed by Deputy Director

General along with a team of two Assistant Director Generals.

In the SAU system the programmes are monitored by the Director of Extension and his team.

A joint guideline signed by the Secretary, Department of Agricultural Research and

Education (DARE) and Secretary, Agriculture was issued for achieving coordination

between the KVK and ATMA.

Zonal level coordination meetings are organised to review the programme progress and

suggesting further course of action as per the mandated activities. It may be noted that KVKs

have increased with time to cover the districts but some districts are yet to have a KVK, even

now. This points to the gaps in the system.

Nepal

District Coordination Committee is responsible for establishing coordination of regular

program activities of the districts. The project activities are decided jointly by project

personnel and extension workers. The planned activities are coordinated by the Agriculture

section of the project.

Under the decentralization policy of the HMG/N, District Development Committee (DDC) is

responsible to build and approve programs in different fields in consultation with all

concerned agencies (DADO, AIC, LSC, ADB/N, Cooperatives, Research farmers, etc.) and

the representatives from different users groups. It is also a mechanism to establish

coordination of regular program activities of the District.

AIC (Agricultural Information and Communication Centre) with necessary farm inputs

chanalizes its activities through the cooperatives, sales depots, private dealers, etc. in various

parts of the country and works in close contact with extension for what, when and how much

inputs to be supplied. On the other side, Agricultural Development Bank (ADB) makes

available loans/credits either through cooperatives or directly to the needy farmers in

consultation with the District Agricultural Offices. It is, therefore, necessary that for the

success of a program, the function of these agencies must be integrated with one another.

Coordination and Linkage Model of Agro-Technology Technology

A model of agro-technology development and dissemination has been outlined (Paudel and

Thakur, 2008) in Nepal . This model depicts how agro-technology is generated, verified and

disseminated to the end users/clienteles. The model is based on participatory concept

involving public-private-partnership where international, national, regional, and local

stakeholders are linked to agriculture research and development (R&D). The limit of

research is up to outreach research (OR) site where extension agencies are supposed to take

fine tuned technologies for wider dissemination.

32 Synthesis Report

The Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) is responsible for technology

development while Department of Agriculture (DoA), Department of Livestock Services

(DLS) and Community Based Organizations (CBOs) are the partners of technology

dissemination.

International/National Government Organizations (I/NGOs) are involved in research and

development according to their priority and target set, as well. Institutions which have strong

linkage at Out Reach (OR) site and which have poor linkage, serve their function to deliver

technologies to the clienteles with strong commitments and weak commitment respectively.

Extension institutions at the grassroots level are of public (government) organizations,

international or national non-governmental organizations, community based organizations

and private organizations.

Government Organizations

Government organizations at the grassroots level are the Agricultural Service Centers (ASC)

and their sub-centers (ASSC) located at particular locations to serve assigned number of

Village Development Committees (VDCs). Earlier Junior Technicians (JT) and Junior

Technical Assistants (JTAs) were supposed to provide mobile extension services in the

villages. With the growing demand of the farmers and their limited number, JT/JTAs could

not cater their services efficiently. Then the government changed its policy to station these

JT/JTAs in the ASCs and provide extension service to Farmers' Groups (FG) through these

stations. They have to go to the villages and farmers' fields to advise whenever there is a

group meeting or problem en mass.

The number of ASC in each district is 4 for high hills, 6 for mid-hills and 4 for terai. The

number of sub-centers is not fixed and is being assigned as per need by DADO. It mostly

depends upon the availability of field staff and office building to station them. The number

of ASCs and field level staff has been drastically cut off after the organizational restructuring

of Department of Agriculture (DOA) in FY 2060/61 BS. Earlier ASCs were established and

operative in almost all ilakas of the district. The government policy was to establish all

developmental and administrative service centers in each ilaka. The number of ilaka, nine in

each district during Panchayat regime, however, varied district wise. Foreign aided projects

like Integrated Rural Development Projects (IRDP), Agricultural Extension and Research

Project (AERP), Upper Sagarmatha Agricultural Development Project (USADP), Hill Fruit

Development Project (HFDP), Hill Agriculture Development Project (HADP) and others

supported to construct ASCs in different ilakas of the project districts. Now these structures

exceeding the number of ASCs are being used as sub-centers. JT/JTAs stationed in ASCs

provide extension service to the farmers, collect information for management and policy

formulation and also play regulatory role. In the changed context they work as agriculture

development workers rather than agricultural extension workers.

Pakistan

(not stated in country report)

In Pakistan, top public management devise plans in the light of priorities determined by

federal and provincial governments. However, the system has now been slightly

decentralized in the sense that the district is to prepare its seasonal (Rabi-Kharif) plans. It is

alleged that the devolution process has weakened the research-extension coordination.


Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, the research institutions of plantation crops or their boards/corporation are also

responsible for extension in addition to research. In the livestock sector, farming

communities/societies identify and prioritize problems while the state take leadership as the

focal point in setting policy, resource allocation and as facilitator, rather than playing the role

of service provider. Thus the bottom up planning is in existence there and this provides

opportunities for coordination among agencies involved in extension activities.

(iv) Decentralization of extension systems in SAARC countries

Bangladesh

The Upazila level is the basic unit for planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating

local extension program. This system ensures that decisions about the services provided by

the Department of Agricultural Extension are taken at the lowest possible level, but with the

full support of specialist staff at district and regional levels.

Responsibilities of Sub-Assistant Agricultural Officer (former Block Supervisor)

Each Sub-Assistant Agricultural Officer (SAAO) is responsible for the provision of day to

day extension services to farmers in a block. A summary of their responsibilities follows:

Upazila Responsibilities

The role of the Upazila is to ensure that an appropriate extension program is planned and

implemented in the Upazila and that SAAOs responsible have the necessary skills and

resources to implement the programs. Upazila staff also implements some extension

activities such as Upazila fairs and farmer training. Ensuring service quality is very

important at this level.

District Responsibilities

The role of the district is to provide technical and management support to Upazila in

planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating extension services. It is also the highest

level at which detailed extension planning takes place.

Regional Responsibilities

The role of the region is to: provide independent quality assessment of extension services in

the region; provide technical support in collaboration with research institutes; and, to act as a

focal point for the Management Information System. The main technical and administrative

responsibilities of the regional office are outlined below:

Headquarters Responsibilities

DAE has eight wings based at its headquarters in Dhaka. Each wing has specific

responsibilities. Many of the responsibilities traditionally associated with headquarters have

been decentralized to regional, district and Upazila offices. In light of this, the general role of

the headquarters is in providing the necessary management and technical support for

decentralization.

34 Synthesis Report

The decentralized system, though started in the late 1990s, is yet to be introduced throughout

the country.

Bhutan

The beginning of the decentralization process can be traced back to 1981 (start of 5th FYP)

with the establishment of the Yarkey Tshogchung (DYT) as a semi-representative

Dzongkhag Development Committee comprising of Gups (Village headmen) as head of a

Geog (block) and chimis (national assembly representative), and the establishment of GYT

in 1991.

Current decentralization initiatives are parts of a gradually evolving process of empowering

people to participate in planning and decision making in all aspects of local development.

The RNR staff posted in the Dzongkhag and Geogs are administratively under the

Dzongkhag administration.

Agricultural inputs like simple tools, fertilizers and seed/seedlings have been decentralized

and sold through commission agents located at Dzongkhag and Geog levels. However, sale

of agro chemicals and large farm machineries such as power tiller tractors etc. are centrally

operated.

India

Under the extension reforms, emphasis is given for decentralising the technology delivery

system through the involvement of farmers and farmer organisations. The organisations of

farmer interest groups (FIGs), commodity interest groups (CIGs), farm schools (FS) and self

help groups (SHGs) at grassroots level mainly aim at the decentralisation of the extension

delivery system through making users responsibility centres to decide their technological

options, their dissemination and adoption.

ATMA carries out PRA, strategic research and extension planning for the district,

establishment of farmer advisory centres, and coordinates the execution of annual work plan

through participatory line departments such as Zonal Research Stations (ZRSs), KVKs,

NGOs, FIGs,/FOs, and allied institutions. The ATMA also establishes Farmers Advisory

Committee (FAC) to get the feedback.

Panchayat Raj institutions and extension services

After the 73rd Amendment of the Constitution, most states are conducting regular elections

to the Panchayats. Some states have also delegated suitable administrative and financial

powers to the three tier-Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRI). In these states the extension

personnel are placed under the administrative control of Panchayat, whereas for technical

guidance they remain under the control of respective technical line departments. Since the

Panchayat system are evolving in different states and are currently in a state of flux, the

ATMA model at the district, BTCs and FACs at the Block and the FOs at the village level

offer suitable linkages with the Panchayat Raj institutions.

Accountability to farmers

Efforts, to make the extension system farmer driven and farmer accountable, were initiated

in several states. The constitutional amendments that strengthened the Panchayat Raj


Insitutions (PRI) have further accelerated this trend. Many states such as Maharashtra and

Madhya Pradesh have a separate wing for agriculture development at Zilla Parishad and

block levels. Their role is mainly planning and implementation of schemes for agriculture

primarily funded through district government or Zilla Parishad.

Priorities for the development of agriculture in respective villages have to be approved by the

gram sabha (village assembly). Administrative control of DoA staff rests with the gram

panchayat or block panchayats in those states that have implemented democratic

decentralisation more seriously (West Bengal, Madhya Pradhesh, Kerala). In Madhya

Pradesh, there is a permanent agricultural committee at the village level.

In Maharashtra, the Agricultural Development Officer at the Zilla Parishad is the Secretary

to the Agricultural Committee of the district.

Agricultural Development Committees (Karshika Vikasana Samithi, KVS) comprising

farmers eelected representatives of people are constituted at the panchayat and district levels

in Kerala to advise farmers on issues related to agricultural development. In Rajasthan a

Krishi Salahkar Samiti has been constituted at the Asst Agricultural Officer level to guide,

monitor and evaluate the working of Kisan Mandals. It also scrutinizes the various proposals

received from Kisan Mandals for funding by DoA.

In ATMA districts, the Farmer Advisory Committee (FAC), comprising of key stakeholders

and farmer representatives, exert considerable influence in the preparation and scrutiny of

block action plans.

Nepal

The Constitution of the Nepal 2047 BS had made a provision for the decentralization. To

oversee the implementation status of devolution according to Local Self Government Act

(LSGA) and to monitor, Decentralization Implementation and Monitoring Committee

(DIMC) have been formed under the chairpersonship of the Right Honorable Prime Minister

and the working committee under the minister of local development (DIMWC). The Tenth

Plan has also envisaged the decentralized functions based on basic principles of people’s

participation and empowerment.

Under MoAC, District Agricultural Development Offices and Agriculture Service Centers,

District Livestock Service Offices and Service Centers, and Cooperative Division Offices

will fall under the devolved institutions. But closely related research and irrigation

institutions are not covered which may imply some coordination issues during

implementation.

However, as described under ‘Extension Planning Process, it was observed that the process

of decentralization has already taken firm roots in Nepal.

Pakistan

With the devolution of extension services from provincial governments to the district

governments, extension priority fixation has been handed down to the district governments.

Accordingly, the elected representatives of the district councils bring the feedback from their

areas and extension priorities are set by the district agricultural committees which have added

benefit of better understanding of farmers’ problems. Given the great diversity in agro-ecology,

36 Synthesis Report

commodity focus, and different farming systems in the country, the extension priorities are also

set by the extension management at district, region and then provincial and federal level.

However, the basic focus of most efforts is on enhancement of productivity and change in

quality of life of the majority of farmers.

Chapter Summary

Organization of NAES

Although Bangladesh, India and Pakistan had the same historical background, they have

followed different development pathways in agricultural extension and have different

organizational structures and extension agencies. The same are the cases with Sri Lanka,

Bhutan and Nepal.

Extension planning process

Planning processes differ considerably among the countries. While Bangladesh, Bhutan, and

Sri Lanka (livestock sector) have adopted participatory bottom-up planning processes, India

and Pakistan appear to follow central planning processes.

Bangladesh has adopted work programming system of SAAOs (Block Supervisors) which is

reviewed at the Thana/Upazila Agricultural Extension Coordination Committee (T/UAECC),

District Extension Planning Committee (DEPC), Agricultural Technical Committee (ATC)

at the Regional level before it is sent to the headquarters for resource allocation.

In Bhutan, the initial plans, based on village needs and priorities, are prepared by GYT

(Block Development Committee) and once finalized it is presented to the DYT (District

Development Committee) for review and approval. The DYT, after review, send it to the

GNHC (Planning Commission). The RNR sector facilitates the process with policy

guidelines and technological options from the Geog level upward.

In India, however, planning is done centrally once in every fiver years by the Planning

Commission involving various sectoral experts and stakeholder representatives including

farmers’ representatives. The State Governments also follow a similar pattern, though with

some variations. The Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) by ICAR appears to be gaining

popularity with its engagements of different stakeholders but is yet to reach many of the

districts.

The planning process developed by Nepal takes care, not only of participatory bottom-up

planning involving participation of stakeholders at various levels but also the process itself

facilitates an ‘automated’ monitoring and evaluation. Also with the projectization system

Nepal has adopted, it has become possible to identify components based on local priorities

directly benefiting the users, linking measurable outputs to objectives for a given timeframe

and designing activities/inputs to produce the desired outputs and impacts. The process could

establish a system, within the organizations from the national to the grassroots level, of

standard project management, staff utilization and monitoring. Project profiles are

documented at each level of the organization planning

In Pakistan, top public management devise plans in the light of priorities determined by

federal and provincial governments. However, the system has now been slightly

decentralized in the sense that the district is to prepare its seasonal (Rabi-Kharif) plans. It is

alleged that the devolution process has weakened the research-extension linkages.


In Sri Lanka (livestock sector) farming communities/societies identify and prioritize

problems while the state takes leadership in setting policy, resource allocation, rather than

playing the role as a service provider. In the cases of plantation crops, the respective research

institutes/corporation/board does the planning and extension.

Coordination mechanisms

The coordination mechanisms also vary among the countries.

In Bangladesh a number of institutional mechanisms have been established according to the

Revised Extension Approach (REA) to encourage partnership between different types of

extension agents that enables GOs, NGOs and the private sector to work together to provide

an integrated service to farmers. The DAE is heavily crop biased and its coordination with

livestock and fisheries sub-sectors are yet to reach a satisfactory level, especially in view of

the fact that these two sub-sectors do not have field staff below the Upazila level. These sub-

sectors are being encouraged to take advantage of the field staff of the DAE at the block

level. The DAE has begun establishing coordination with the NGO and the private sector

also.

In Bhutan the Extension Coordination Committee (ECC), cross a sectoral committee, is

attended by senior officers from each departments and agencies under the Ministry of

Agriculture. The ECC facilitates the coordination and integration of RNR extension services

and is structurally based with the Council for RNR Research of Bhutan (CoRRB). The

structure makes coordination easy.

In India, it is the Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA), the society of

stakeholders in agriculture for sustainable agricultural development at the district level that

plays a vital role in coordination and utilization of funds. ICAR has eight Zonal

Dorectorates to coordinate and monitor activities of Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs).

In the State Agricultural University System (SAU) system, the programmes are coordinated

and monitored through a joint guidelines developed by the Department of Agriculture and

the Secretary of Agriculture on behalf of KVK and ATMA.

In Nepal, the District Coordination Committee is responsible for establishing coordination

of regular programmes. Under the decentralized policy, the District Development Committee

(DDC) is responsible to build and approve projects of different fields in consultation with all

respective agencies and different user groups. The mechanism also establishes coordination.

The Agro-Technology development and dissemination is based on participatory concept

involving public-private partnership where stakeholders are linked to agriculture R&D. As

mentioned above, starting with the planning process, there is involvement of stakeholders at

every level. Thus there are various coordination mechanisms at work. Resource allocations

and budgeting also has been streamlined by Nepal.

Decentralization

In Bangladesh decisions about the services provided by the Department of Agricultural

Extension are taken at the lowest possible, the Upazila, but with the full support of specialist

staff at district and regional levels. The decentralized system, though started in the late

1990s, is yet to be introduced throughout the country. Currently the system is followed only

in project Upazilas.

38 Synthesis Report

In Bhutan, decentralization started in 1981 with the establishment of Dzongkhag committee

comprising of Gups (Village headmen) as head of a Geog (block) and chimis (national

assembly representative), and the establishment of GYT (Block Development Committee) in

1991. Agricultural inputs like simple tools, fertilizers and seed/seedlings have been

decentralized and are sold through commission agents located at Dzongkhag and Geog

levels. However, sale of agro chemicals and large farm machineries such as power tiller,

tractors etc. are centrally operated.

Under extension reforms in India, emphasis is given for decentralizing the technology

delivery system through the involvement of farmers and farmer organizations. The

organizations of farmer interest groups (FIGs), commodity interest groups (CIGs), farm

schools (FS) and self help groups (SHGs) at the grassroots level mainly aim at the

decentralization of the extension delivery system through making users responsibility centres

to decide their technological options, their dissemination and adoption.

The ATMA carries out PRA, strategic research and extension planning for the district,

establishes farmer advisory centres, and coordinates the execution of annual work plan

through participatory line departments such as Zonal Research Stations (ZRSs), KVKs,

NGOs, FIGs,/FOs, and allied institutions. The ATMA also establishes Farmers Advisory

Committee (FAC) to get the feedback.

Panchayat Raj institutions and extension services in India

After the 73rd Amendment of the Constitution, most states are conducting regular elections

to the Panchayats. Some states have also delegated suitable administrative and financial

powers to the Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRI). In these states the extension personnel are

placed under the administrative control of Panchayat, whereas for technical guidance they

remain under the control of respective technical line departments. Since the Panchayat

system are evolving in different states and are currently in a state of flux, the ATMA model

at the district, BTCs and FACs at the Block and the FOs at the village level offer suitable

linkages with the Panchayat Raj institutions.

Decentralization in Nepal appears to have taken a firm footing with the formation of

Decentralization Implementation and Monitoring Committee (DIMC under the Prime

Minister and the Working Committee under the Minister of Local Development (DIMWC).

The Tenth Plan has also envisaged the decentralized functions based on basic principles of

people’s participation and empowerment.

Under MoAC, District Agricultural Development Offices and Agriculture Service Centers,

District Livestock Service Offices and Service Centers, and Cooperative Division Offices

will fall under the devolved institutions. However, closely related research and irrigation

institutions are not covered which may imply some coordination issues during

implementation.

In Pakistan the decentralization process has started with the devolution of extension

services from the provincial government to the district government.


CHAPTER

Governance of Extension Systems in SAARC Countries

(i) Institutional reforms and efficiency enhancement of extension system

Bangladesh

Institutional experiences in Bangladesh provided lessons for reform and based on the lessons

learnt, programmes have been designed taking into consideration the following critical

issues:

• Amendment of the Acts of ARIs, including those under the Ministry of Fisheries and

Livestock, to improve incentives, productivity, quality and accountability.

• Establishment of an autonomous R&D foundation, the Krishi Gobeshona

Foundation (KGF), to manage the Competitive Grants Programme for financing

agricultural research.

• Decentralization of planning and funding for agricultural extension.

• Institutional development, being a long-term process, requires long-term

programmatic approach for building and strengthening development institutions

dealing with agricultural technology.

• Policy, approach and operational procedures need to ensure adequate budgetary

financing for research and extension.

• Weak financial management and procurement, leading to delays in project

implementation and governance problems, requires improvement and strengthening.

• Focus should be given to monitoring and evaluation of impact, in addition to input

and output monitoring and evaluation.

The National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) has been designed, incorporating

these experiences, and the project is currently under implementation.

Bhutan

Since the start of planned development in 1960s, three technical departments (Agriculture,

Livestock and Forest) were established under the MoAF. In the process of institutional

reforms, the functions of these departments modified. Initially the supply of inputs for

agriculture and livestock was handled by a single department, the Department of Agriculture

and Livestock Services (DALSS) and the same applied to research and development.

However, the mandate of the Department of Forest and Park Services (DFPS) remained

virtually unchanged. The research aspects of the three departments were with the Council of

RNR Research of Bhutan (CoRRB). Currently the three departments take care of their

development and research activities individually. In 2010, a new department, Department of

Agricultural Marketing and Cooperatives (DAMC) has been established to support and

encourage commercialization of the farming sector.

4

40 Synthesis Report

There were changes/ reorganizations within the existing departments too. Divisions and units

were created within departments to facilitate and enhance service delivery through the

extension service. All the 205 Geogs of the country have been strengthened and have fully

functional RNR centres. Old Agriculture and Animal Husbandry extension centres have been

upgraded to RNR extension centres along with inclusion of the forestry sector. One stop

centre for service delivery has started piloting which houses the office of the Geog

administration, the RNR Centre and also sales and services of agricultural inputs and

machineries.

India

The technology generation and its application is focusing upon the themes of optimization by

producers of their valuable resources, sustainability and coping with diversity by adapting

technology more specifically to agro-ecological or social circumstances. The extension

reforms initiated are:

Policy reforms

(i) Farming Systems Approach Multi agency extension service

(a) public extension services

(b) private extension services

(c) mass media and information technology

(ii) Promotion of farmer participatory approach

(iii) Promotion of demand driven and farmer accountable extension

(iv) Public extension to enable farmers for problem solving skills

(v) Encouraging private sector involvement in technology transfer

(vi) Public funds for private extension services

Institutional Restructuring

(i) District level Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) model

(ii) Strategic Research and Extension Plan (SREP) through participatory Rural Appraisal

(PRA)

(iii) Block/Mandal level technology centre for single window extension system.

(iv) Group Approach to Extension

(v) Strengthening Research-Extension-Farmer linkages.

(vi) Promotion of multi-agency extension service for widening the range of extension

delivery agencies

Management Reforms

(i) Central support to state Govt. of extension services on their undertaking of policy and

institutional reforms.

(ii) Routing of Central Govt. funds through ATMA

(iii) Central Assistance to SAUs for expanded role in field extension

(iv) Promotion of community based private extension services

(v) Promotion of NGO based private extension services and contracting out extension

services

(vi) Promotion of para-professional based private extension

(vii) Linkage of performance with funding for public sector


Strengthening Research-Extension Linkages

(i) Promotion of direct interface between farmers and scientist

(ii) Activating existing interface mechanisms

(iii) (iii)Research priority setting based on SREP

Capacity Building of Extension Functionaries

(i) Formulation of HRD policies by states

(ii) Formulation of training plan for extension functionaries

(iii) One time catch-up grant for training infrastructure

(i) Upgrading State level extension Training Institutions

(ii) Strengthening the role of MANAGE

(vii) Developing professionalism in a cost effective manner and networking among extension

institutes

Empowerment of Farmers

(i) Involving farmers in setting extensive agenda

(ii) Implementation of programme through farmers users groups

(iii) Involving rural youth and mainstreaming of women with crop and livestock

(iv) Improving access to extension and training

(v) Expounding the sphere of women extension workers and redesigning of extension

services to reach women farmers.

Use of Information Technology

(i) Wider use of electronic mass media and increasing use of information technology in

extension

(ii) Farmers participation in IT Programme

(iii) State support for information technology and networking

(iv) Promoting private information Kiosks

(v) Capacity Building for use of IT

Financial Sustainability and Resource Mobilisation

(i) Cost cutting mechanisms for extension services and efficient use of available resources

(ii) Privatization of agro services

(iii) Towards a realistic cost recovery of agro-services

(iv) Co-financing of public extension

(v) Initiating new financialsystems and management for avoiding bottlenecks and red-tape-

ism

Nepal

Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives’ (MOAC) Agriculture Perspective Plan Support

Programme (APPSP) was designed to deliver appropriate agricultural support services to the

rural poor through improved policy and institutional arrangements. This project provided

technical advisory support and fund management implementation for the APPSP. The

program was focused on two levels of government:

42 Synthesis Report

At the district level, a fund for agricultural service delivery (District Agriculture

Development Fund - DADF) was established in twenty districts. The DADF was managed

by the District Development Committees. The program built the capacity of these

committees to plan for and manage the DADF, ensuring that the poor and excluded

beneficiary groups were targeted by the fund.

At the central level, the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC) and other

Agriculture Perspective Plan implementers are assisted with organizational and policy

support.

In order to ensure opportunities, lessons learnt from the program are incorporated into future

government initiatives and good practice. Other key lessons that emerged from the APPSP

were captured and disseminated within the MOAC.

Pakistan

In Pakistan, the government made a decision in 2001 to devolve various subjects from the

provincial to the district level under an institutional reform of devolution. The district

governments were empowered with command and control decision. The devolution was

introduced with all the decision making authority to the head/District Council Chairman who is

an elected public representative.

In spite of the recently introduced administrative reforms under which the district has been

made the focal point for program planning and implementation, the devolution plan is still in

its infancy and the people responsible at the district level for implementation are not yet fully

conversant with the philosophy, rational and operational strategies of this system. As a

result, the district, instead of being a fully functional focal point for program planning, has

become an isolated entity with no linkage with other districts and organizations even within

the same province. Moreover, the feedback to research and planning has further weakened

While the district Council Chairman is the elected head, who exercise full authority and control

over the district, the District Coordination Officer (DCO) provides the bureaucratic support to

the District Chairman. The Executive District Officer Agriculture (EDOA) is the head of the

devolved departments which include Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Forestry, Poultry, Water

Management, Soil Conservation etc. All the departments are technical and their functions are of

technical nature. The District Agriculture Officer (DAO) is the front line district officer who is

responsible for agricultural extension work. He is supported by a number of Agricultural

Officers and Field Assistants in the conduct of field operations.

Sri Lanka

(Not available, the following has been added based on understanding the literature)

Conducting of necessary training programs for farmers to update their knowledge and assist

them to acquire required skills have been incorporated in most of the extension programmes.


(ii) Public-Private-NGO Partnership in Extension Systems

Bangladesh

The new Agricultural Extension Policy (NAEP) is committed to developing partnership with

all types of extension providers to share their strengths and resources. Different agencies

working in the same area may have complementary expertise and when these are brought

together, the effectiveness of services can significantly improve. The approach adopted

needs to be locally applicable and the agencies agree to work together in partnership

Partnership with Non-Government-Organizations

Not all Non-Government-Organizations (NGOs) are good at the same thing. DAE should be

aware of the different strengths of NGOs. If DAE wishes to benefit from the capabilities of

the NGO sector, then the ability of NGOs to innovate should be recognized and encouraged.

The NAEP emphasizes the importance of decentralized decision making, which should mean

that locally based government extension staff should be confident to introduce new ideas/

technologies that they have heard about from NGOs.

On the other hand, local NGOs may need technical advice but cannot afford to pay highly

qualified staff. They can be partners where DAE is trying to spread some established

technologies.

While DAE has not proved efficient in group extension, NGOs may be prepared to give

access to their established groups to work with or disseminate a message.

DAE has already started establishing partnership with NGOs and there is a DAE/NGO

Liaison Committee to foster partnerships. DAE needs to continue to promote and monitor its

activities with NGOS, regardless they are formal or informal. DAE’s District Training

Officers (DTOs) and the Regional Additional Directors are responsible for these tasks.

Bhutan

Involvement of the private sector has so far remained low and confined mainly to input

supply. However, with government policy of encouraging Public-Private Partnership (PPP),

private and FDI investments are coming in for commercial ventures in agricultural

production and marketing. Some of the private FDI initiatives are BIO-Bhutan, Coffee and

Hazelnut, Dairy Development etc. Many more proposals are under review with the Ministry.

Involvement of NGOs is at the nascent stage in Bhutan.

India

Widening the range of extension delivery agencies for the resource poor farmers and those

residing in the hilly, tribal and remote areas, the public system will have to remain as the

chief extension mechanism, the NGOs possibly being able to play a significant role.

ICAR has so far established 598 KVKs in the country out of which 99 KVKs have been

established under the NGOs. The participation of NGOs in the implementation of KVK

project by the Govt of India is one of the successful public-private partnerships in the

country. Strength of NGOs lies in their ability to mobilise communities into Farmers

44 Synthesis Report

Organisations (FOs)/Farmers Interest Groups (FIGs)/ Watershed Associations/Market

Associations etc. As such NGOs complement the public extension effort in several centrally

sponsored programmes. Also extension services are contacted out or out-sourced to NGOs at

Block level in some states. In such cases the NGOs substitute the public extension.

Promotion of para –professional based private extension

Para–extension workers organised in the private extension service, in the case of agriculture

extension, include the following:

(i) Input agencies (dealing with seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, equipments).

Major categories of agro-input companies include, those dealing with seeds, fertilisers,

pesticides and agro-machinery.

(ii) Large agri-business firms

Involved in manufacture and sale of inputs and purchase of outputs: Major agri-business

firms like ITC and Pepsico during the last few years have initiated innovative arrangements

to provide farmers with integrated production and marketing support.

Indian Tobacco Company (ITC) is a market leader in tobacco products, hotels, and

packaging, and its International Business Division is one of India’s largest exporter of

agricultural commodities. ITC’s extension effort revolves around e-chaupals, which are

village internet kiosks that enable access to information on weather, market prices and

scientific farm practices.

(iii) Farmer organisations and producer co-operatives

User groups, including farmer interest groups, farmer clubs, commodity groups, women

farmer groups, special interest groups’ etc play a very important role in extension.

(iv) Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)

Estimates of the number of NGOs active in rural development in India range from fewer than

10,000 to several hundred thousand depending on the type of classification used. Some

15,000-20,000 are actively engaged in rural development. India has a number of NGOs with

varying levels of capacity, implementing a wide range of programmes. Bharatiya Agro-

Industries Federation (BAIF), Professional Assistance for Development Action (PRADAN)

and Action for Food Production (AFPRO, Foundation for Ecological Security (FES) are

some of the important NGOs working in several states.

(v) Media (print, radio and television) and web based knowledge providers

The widespread availability and convergence of information and communication

technologies (ICTs) – computers, digital networks, telecommunication, television etc in

India in recent years have led to unprecedented capacity for dissemination of knowledge and

information to the rural population. Mass media and print media have been traditionally

linked with extension programmes in India. The All India Radio and the Doordarshan (state

run radio and television units respectively) transmit programmes on different aspects of

agriculture every day. In the nineties, private TV channels like E-TV started telecasting

daily programmes on agriculture.


The village knowledge centres initiated by the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation

(MSSRF) in Pondichery aims at building a model for the use of ICTs in meeting the

knowledge and information requirements of rural families by taking into account the socio-

economic context and gender dimension. In 2004, MSSRF, IDRC, Microsoft, NASSCOM

Foundation and ISRO initiated steps to extend the Village Knowledge Centres (VKCs) to

different parts of the country by creating multi-stake holder partnership called "Mission

2007: Every Village a Knowledge Centre".

(vi) Financial institutions

Financial institutions lending to agricultural sector provide advice and consultancy to

potential borrowers on financial viability of their proposals. All banks involved in

agricultural lending organise farmer meetings and seminars every year.

(vii) Consultancy

Farmers generally consult other relatively progressive farmers for information and advice

related to production, post harvest management and marketing. Another major source of

advice is the local input dealer. Some input firms such as AGROCEL and Tata Kisan

Kendras provide free consultancy services.

(viii) Pivatisation of Livestock Extension Services

In India, Livestock extension is carried out mostly by the Departments of Animal Husbandry

and to some extent by the Milk Unions, State Veterinary/ Agricultural Universities (SAUs),

Research institutions of ICAR, and NGOs. The animal husbandry information and other

technical inputs and services are being provided to the livestock owners through public

sector organisations.

Based on the study conducted on Privatizing Agricultural Extension in India, Rasheed and

Sadamate (2000) suggested that the public sector should concentrate on organizing

educational programmes for farmers, which are less attractive to the private agencies. The

public sector should also take up the role as facilitator in the formation of farmers' groups,

building linkages with other extension agencies and initiating paid consultancy services by

maintaining a cadre of qualified staff at district and sub district levels and some of these

services can later be entrusted to the farmers' groups.

Private sector extension cannot completely substitute for public agencies in those

circumstances where direct benefits are not assure to the firms involved, target populations

are diffuse or remote, where infrastructure is inadequate and when production consists

mainly of basic food grown by subsistence farmers. Research clearly indicated that

investments in agricultural research and extension yield high returns. Ahuja and others

(2000) concluded based on a study conducted in three states of India that there is a

significant demand for the delivery of veterinary services at home and the cattle owners

including the poor are willing to pay to receive these services.

The public extension service has still an important role to play in increasing the production

of backyard poultry, which even today is the major contributor for egg and chicken

production in the country. The Animal Husbandry Department (AHD) continues to provide

free inputs and technical services such as vaccinations to the backyard poultry.

46 Synthesis Report

Nepal

There has been a realization that farmers are best served by the broadest possible array of

information sources and structures. The complexity of rural development demands a

plurality of technological solutions and service structures. Farmers need access to many

services such as input supply, credit, and even emergency responses to disease/pest

infestations.

The emergence of the value-chain approach to address agricultural development also points

to the comparative advantages of public and private partners in the delivery of extension

services and in creating an enabling environment for agricultural development. The value-

chain approach as applied to agriculture seeks to identify services that are missing or weak

and develop the capacity of private and public service providers to address weaknesses.

There are a variety of cases where market failures occur. Government has a key role in

providing public goods including market and productive infrastructure, research, the

provision of basic knowledge, and the role of setting the policies and rules by which

economic actors interact.

Experience has shown that the private sector is most efficient at providing inputs, embedded

information with the sale of specific inputs, marketing channels, and the promotion of

products/ markets. The NGO sector has shown greater flexibility and efficiencies in

introducing and supporting farmers to adopt new technologies, conducting planning and

analysis activities, working with the business community and civil society to lobby for

reforms, and to act as a facilitator of public-private partnerships.

In the case of many agricultural export markets, important public infrastructure such as

testing facilities and policies must be developed to enable the private sector to take

advantage of market opportunities. Export facilities, laboratories, phyto-sanitary

certifications, tax policies, and sector policies need to be developed in close public-private

partnership to be successful.

Partnership is not a model administered or implemented by the state, rather, it is a process

how government agencies, development oriented NGOs, business and farmer organizations,

private sector firms and others can support development. In the recent past, public extension

has come under scrutiny for its limited accountability, inefficiency, and lack of

responsiveness to changing farming conditions. Scarcities of financial resources for

extension, changing ideology emphasizing efficiency over welfare, and heightened

competitive interests from the private sector has led to acknowledge the private sector and

NGOs as an important partner in the delivery of extension services.

Emerging trends of Partnership and Collaboration: A Journey towards Pluralism

The emergence of new extension arrangements offered by private sector, NGOs, and

voluntary organizations has created a platform where delivery of services is undertaken

independently or through various forms of partnership arrangements. The list of

organizations providing extension services is growing.

In a study on partnership in agriculture in Nepal (Ojha, 2000) has shown that among

partnerships, Public + Private and Public + NGO are more effective than other forms of

partnership. The same study concluded that partnership is an effective strategy but is specific

to circumstances and should not be generalized in all situations.


The Nepal Tea and Coffee Global Development Alliance Experience

Starting from 2002, USAID has supported Winrock International to facilitate two public

private partnership alliance programs, for specialty tea and coffee development for

international export markets.

• The coffee alliance - has established Nepal as a specialty coffee exporting country,

shifting processing from nearly 100% low quality dry processed to over 60%

washed/semi washed for international export markets, and has facilitated a

tremendous increase in economic opportunities for poor smallholders.

• The tea alliance – has played a major role in establishing international market

linkages and a branded identity of Nepal tea. In the past Nepal tea was being sold to

India as an unbranded product. The alliance has facilitated Nepal tea entry into the

USA market and branded Nepal tea in the major German market. The alliance has

also facilitated the industry to adopt a code of conduct for social and environmental

responsibility that is a strong marketing tool. The alliance program is now in its final

phase and is working to strengthen the capacity of the Tea and Coffee Development

Board to continue the coordinating role and success of the alliance approach.

Smallholder Irrigation Market Initiative (SIMI)

The Nepal SIMI project supported by USAID and implemented by Winrock International,

and partners, International Development Enterprises, CEAPRED, SAPPROS, and AEC,

represents a model program for developing district and local level public private partnership.

SIMI promotes micro irrigation (primarily drip and the treadle pump) for vegetable

production by smallholders. SIMI takes a value chain approach building the linkages and

capacity of agro input manufacturers, input suppliers (agrovets), equipment dealers, micro

irrigation installers, and traders/processors. The SIMI program has closely facilitated

partnership with government agencies including MoAC, DOA, DOI, MLD, WDD, MOF,

NARC and government projects APPSP, CDP, MGEP, PAF, and others.

Government in the partnership has taken a lead role in developing marketing infrastructure,

developing multi use piped water systems, providing market information through radio

broadcast, providing basic extension services and adaptive research, providing resources to

assist the poorest to adopt micro irrigation, and creating an enabling policy environment.

SIMI facilitated a wide range of partnership types that include GO-NGO partnership, GO-

Private Sector, and GO-NGO-Private Sector. Examples of GO-Private partnership facilitated

by SIMI include the provision of marketing infrastructure that is utilized and managed by the

private sector in partnership with government. Overall SIMI public private partnership

activities are facilitated by a government advisory body and by participating on district and

local level agriculture development committee meetings and close coordination with

government line agencies, development boards. Development boards can be conceived as an

institutional mechanism for fostering public private partnership. Composition and autonomy

are key factors affecting the functioning of development boards.

Pakistan

To strengthen public-private partnership, government tried to introduce a number of

interventions. One of the successful efforts was the Farm Services Center introduced in the

48 Synthesis Report

year 1995 in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Agricultural Extension System with the objectives to

provide one-window service to the farmers where agricultural machinery, fertilizers, seed,

pesticides and credit are available at one point. These centers have representations of the

private sector, who are involved in the supply of farm inputs, and NGOs that extend credit as

well to farmers groups. This approach showed tremendous performance during the period

2001 to 2003 in many ways.

Farm Service Centres

At present, the “Farm Services Centers” are working at the circle level. In line with the

Agriculture Policy 2005 guidelines, the provincial government suggested to constitute a

cluster of organizations of Farm Services Centers at the district level with the name “Model

Farm services Centers” (MFSC). The Model Farm Services Centers are equipped with the

service delivery of the Agriculture Department including Agriculture Extension,

Cooperatives, Water Management, Soil Conservation, Livestock and Dairy Development.

Agricultural Research would jointly be working under the one roof through their

representatives. The main objectives of the FSC were:

• Empowering the farming community through policy on introduction of participatory

techniques (IPT), participatory technology development (PTD) and Farmers Field

Schools (FFS).

• Capacity building of extension staff in PTD & FFS.

• Integrated effort by different agricultural sector departments.

• The quality inputs such as seed, fertilizers, pesticides credits and fruit plants and

advisory services are made available to farmers closer to their home.

• The farmers are able to plan their activities through yearly action plan to be

integrated with the District Action Plan.

Agriculture Statistics Officer based at Farm Services Centre helps in providing crops data

and other farm statistics and also serves as Agriculture Information Manager and would be

responsible the formulation of various plans rationally. The organizations like Agriculture

University, Nuclear Institute for Food and Agriculture, Agriculture Research System,

different developmental projects like Barani Area Development Project, Community Based

Resource Management (CBRM) project, Malakand Rural Development project, Zarai

Taraqati Bank, Soil Conservation, Water Management, Agriculture Training Institute,

Livestock Training Institute, Livestock and Dairy Development Department are also

represented and provide inputs and technical services to the Farm Services Centre. Several

public-private sector partnership MoUs have been signed for improved functioning of

transmitting information to the farmers.

Sri Lanka

Institutional set up has been established and public-private joint programs have been

organized for training programs (for example in the livestock sector).

Commodity specialized approach is mainly used by private sector institutions for their

forward contract programs, contract growing schemes, buy back operations and purchasing

programs. For example, livestock extension needs of the most of the broiler farmers and

considerable number of the layer farmers in the poultry sub sector are being looked after by


these institutions through their service package consisting of delivering necessary external

inputs, organizing and sometimes providing necessary services including livestock extension

and buying back their productions from farm or field levels at a guaranteed or pre agreed

price. Commodity approach is also in vogue in Tea, Rubber, Coconut and Cashew.

Projects funded by various governmental, non governmental and private sector institutions

are in operation all over the country with varying capacities. Extension is a built-in

component of projects and they are specially tried to achieve pre-identified set of results in a

selected area. The projects try to improve the delivery of necessary technical services, ensure

livelihood opportunities, improve marketing facilities, and promote value addition activities

etc. by utilizing appropriate technologies at field level.

There are, however, areas like training, capacity building etc. where the NGO and the private

sector are not strong or they might not find such activities attractive. The role of the public

sector is essential in such areas. Also, the regulatory functions of the public sector would

always be necessary. In conclusion, the role of the public sector as facilitator would always

be necessary and beneficial to the development of the extension services.

(iii) Accountability hierarchy in extension systems in SAARC countries

Bangladesh

The accountability hierarchy, starting with SAAO at the block level upwards, is summarized

below.

Block level responsibilities

Each SAAO (formerly Block Supervisor) is responsible for providing extension services in

his/her block at the Union level. S/he identifies the problems and provides the solutions;

assists farmers in obtaining information and assistance from other extension providers

(Livestock, Fisheries, Forestry/Agroforestry) including NGOs and the private sector; collects

and records information on block based natural resources, population, areas of crops under

cultivation, input requirements, marketing systems, testing and adopting technologies. S/he

also provides ideas for suitable extension activities for farmers during the Upazila Planning

Workshop. The SAAO is directly accountable to his/her supervisor at the Upazila Office.

Upazila Office Responsibilities

The role of the Upazila Office ensures that appropriate extension programmes are planned

and implemented and that the SAAOs have the necessary skills and resources to implement

the programmes; provides advice to SAAOs on extension methods, input and credit supplies,

technologies for transmission to farmers. The Upazila Office takes active part in extension

activities like fairs and training of farmers and technical staff; assists SAAOs to organize

field events (farmers’ rallies, field days and motivational tours); ensures FINA of the

Upazila; coordinates Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) and KAP Surveys;

organizes Upazila Planning Workshops (UPW); raises farmers’ problems that cannot be

solved at the block level with other extension partners in the Thana Extension Coordination

Committee (TAECC) or with District Specialist; takes part in District Extension Planning

50 Synthesis Report

Committee (DEPC) meeting and liaises with input agencies and marketing agencies. The

Upazila Office is accountable, through the Upazila Agriculture Officer, to the District Office.

District Office Responsibilities

The district office, the highest level extension planning office, draws up the district extension

plan, provides technical and management support to the Upazila office in planning,

implementing, monitoring and evaluation of extension services. It reviews and checks

Upazila plans ensuring that these reflect the Farmers’ Information Need Assessment (FINA).

Its role is also to ensure that Upazila Officers have the technical knowledge on current

extension messages; assesses training needs; draws up training materials and provides

training to all staff within the district; links field officers with DAE Wing Directors and

research institutes; assists Upazilas to adjust messages with local circumstances; supervises

implementation of Upazila plans; organizes meetings with Upazila Offices to discuss

problems, solutions and progress and extension activities; monitors DAE/NGO partnership

within the district; coordinates and consolidates Seasonal Extension Monitoring System

(SEMS); prepares and circulates monthly district bulletin for technical staff of the district

etc. The District Office is accountable to Regional Office.

Regional Office Responsibilities

The role of the Regional office is to provide quality assessment of extension services,

technical support in collaboration with research institutes and act as the focal point for

Management Information System (MIS). The Regional Office consolidates extension plans

and budgets of Districts/Upazila before submitting them to the Field Service Wing of DAE;

monitors implementation of annual extension plans and training in the region; reviews

district level DAE/NGO liaison activities; maintains links with media; prepares budgets for

the region; ensures management of human resources in the region; organizes monthly

meetings with district officers and Agricultural Technical Committee (ATC); and ensures

timely response to problems raised in ATC meetings etc. The Additional Director of the

Regional Office is accountable to the Director of Field Services Wing of the Headquarters.

The Headquarters Responsibilities

The headquarters of the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) reviews, adjusts and

approves Upazila and District extension plans; responds to requests for technical advice from

ATC at the regional level and the District Specialists; liaises with national and international

research institutes through the Research Institutes Coordination Committee (RICC); and the

National Agricultural Coordination Committee (NATCC). The headquarters is responsible

for planning, monitoring and evaluation, media materials and campaigns, representing the

Department at the Extension Policy Implementation Coordination Committee (EPICC);

formulating policy options on tariffs, production, marketing, distribution of agricultural

products; working with the Government and donors; assessing training needs; producing

training policy and master training plans and implementing them, including monitoring and

evaluation of national extension programs; overseeing MIS and capacity building through

human resources development etc.

The DAE is accountable directly to the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA). The hierarchy can

be depicted as follows:


Ministry of Agriculture

DAE Headquarters

Regional Office

District Office

Upazila Office

SAAO (Block Level)

Bhutan

The Geog (Block) is at the bottom of the hierarchy and headed by Gups (Village Headmen).

The Geog Yarkey Tshongchung (GYT) or the Block Development Committee is responsible

for development of Geog extension plan and implementation of approved plan as well as

central RNR sector development activities. The Geog is accountable to Dzongkhag Yarkey

Tshongchung (DYT) or the District Development Committee.

Dzongkhag administration is headed by RNR Sector Heads at the Dzongkhag (District) level

and is responsible for coordinating and supporting Geog activities as well as RNR Sector

development activities in the Dzongkhag. Accountable to the Regional RNR Centre

The Regional RNR Centres (Agriculture Research and Development Centres, Veterinary

Centre, Agricultural Machinery Centre) are responsible for supply and support required

technologies to Dzongkhag as well as providing/allocating financial support for development

projects under the Department and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests (MoAF).

The overall responsibility of RNR sector development and extension lies with the Ministry

(MoAF). The hierarchy may be shown as follows:

MOAF

Regional RNR Sector

DYT

GYT

India

The national agricultural extension system prescribes a well laid inbuilt accountability

system. The top level officers in the system decides about the policy reforms, programmes

budgeting and implementation strategies.

52 Synthesis Report

In the planning commission, activities related to extension programme planning, finalisation,

budget allocation under the plan to respective programmes and the States are carried out

under the direct supervision of Member Agriculture and Advisors.

In the Ministry of Agriculture, the extension system is placed under the administrative

responsibility of a Joint Secretary level officer assisted by an Additional Commissioner and

his team who are mainly responsible for the national level implementation, monitoring and

evaluation of the progress of various extension programmes including Agricultural

Technology Management Agency (ATMA) in the district.

The directorate of extension and training is responsible for the implementation process by

coordinating with various states and agencies.

In ICAR, the responsibility of implementing the front line extension programmes like KVK

project lies with agricultural extension division. Deputy Director General (Ag. Extension) in

ICAR, assisted by two Asst. Director General implement the KVK project through eight

Zonal Project Directorates in the country. The KVKs in each zone are monitored,

coordinated and supervised by the Zonal Project Directors. . KVK programme coordinators

are responsible for the technology application through conducting assessment and

refinement, evaluation, demonstration and capacity building.

The Director of Extension Education in the university are bestowed with the overseeing

responsibilities and providing the technology back stopping from State Agricultural

Universities (SAUs) and ICAR institutes in the zones. Similarly, ATMA Project Directors

are responsible for the coordination of activities related to technology management and

delivery system in the district level.

It is a complex system involving the Directorate of Extension, the Directorate of Extension

Education at the central level, ATMA at the district level, ICAR, SAUs, State Departments

of Agriculture etc.

Nepal

Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative (MoAC) is the central apex body of the

Government of Nepal to look after the agriculture and allied fields in the country, and is

responsible for overall development of agriculture (crops, livestock, food and nutrition and

fishery) and the co-operative sector.

There are four departments responsible for development of their specific sub-sectors:

Agriculture, Livestock Services; Food Technology and Quality Control; and Co-operatives,

Under the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, the Department of Agriculture (DOA)

is mainly responsible for development of agricultural crops and fisheries. The Department is

headed by the Director General (DG).

Directly under the DoA, there are five Regional Directorates, one each in the five

Development Regions of the country. The Regional Directorates are headed by the Regional

Directors.

For providing technical support and backstopping to the agricultural development program,

there are 12 program Directorates related to: Fruit Development; Vegetable Development;

Fisheries Development; Crops Development, Agricultural Training; Agri- Business


Promotion and Marketing Development; Agri. Extension; Plant Protection; Industrial

Entomology; Post- Harvest Management; Soil Management; and Agricultural Engineering.

To implement the agriculture development programs at the districts level, there are District

Agricultural Development Offices (DADOs) one each in the 75 districts. Each of the District

Agriculture Development offices is headed by a Senior Agriculture Development Officer

(Gazetted 2nd class) and administratively, they are responsible to the respective Regional

Directorates.

There are Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs) and there are provisions of Agricultural

Services Centre/ Sub-centers staffed by JT/ JTAs to provide extension services at the sub-

district levels, to the farmers

The hierarchy can be shown as follows:

MOAC

DG

DoA

Regional Directors in Regions

DADO at District (Subject Matter Specialists)

JT/JTAs at Agricultural Service Centres/Sub Centres

Pakistan

The agriculture extension system, like other departments, has also been challenged to pay closer

attention to accountability. To implement this strategy on the pilot basis, the extension system

has developed and implemented an accountability system based on performance measurement.

It developed three issue-oriented goals under accountability aspect: (i) an agricultural

production system i.e. highly competitive in the national economy; (ii) a safe, secure, food and

fiber system; (iii) greater harmony between agriculture extension and other related departments

for enhancing economic opportunity and quality of life.

Accordingly, a strategy was devised to measure the performance-based management using

indicators of inputs, outputs, outcomes, and processes. The indicators in the context of extension

system include work assignment for extension personal (input); an extension programme’s out-

reach to a group of farmers (output); a change in behavior by extension and information

recipients that resulted in an improvement in the their quality of life (outcome); and a measure

of the extent to which the views of the stakeholders were solicited in the planning and

evaluation processes (process).

54 Synthesis Report

In hierarchical accountability, the field assistant is accountable to agriculture officer, agriculture

officer accountable to district agriculture officer, district agriculture officer accountable to

executive agriculture officer, agriculture officer accountable to district coordinating officer at

the district level and director general agricultural extension accountable to secretary of

agriculture and livestock at provincial level.

Secretary, Min. Agric, & Livestock

Director General (Department Headquarters)

District Coordinating Officer (District)

Executive Agricultural Officer (District)

District Agriculture Officer (District)

Agriculture Officer (Sub District)

Field Assistant

Sri Lanka

Accountability hierarchy can be shown as follows:

Director (Agriculture)

Deputy Director (Extension)

District Agricultural Extension Officer (DAEO)

Agricultural Instructor

Krushhi Viapthi Sevaka (KVS)

(iv) Leadership development opportunities in extension systems in

SAARC countries

Only Bhutan and India have provisions and scope for leadership development in their

extension programmes. Other countries follow the regular service rules of the respective

countries which are apparently be purely bureaucratic. In Sri Lanka the leadership is

presumed to be developing through farmers’ organizations.

Bhutan

Empowering local communities is an important development goal of the Government and in

line with the government policy, the RNR sector also gives priority to develop local


leadership. One of the important mandates of the geog RNR extension services is to develop

a capacity of the local people to plan and manage their enterprises. This is done through

promotion of farmers group and cooperatives where the office bearers are trained on group

management and leader ship development.

GNHC (planning commission) also provide regular training to and hold workshops with

local leaders in planning and project management. International development partners like

UNDP, SNV, DANIDA, HELVETAS, FAO etc. also support local leadership development

initiatives of the Bhutanese Government.

India

For the purpose of leadership development for the extension functionaries the Govt. of India

has established institutions like MANAGE, EEI, SAMETI and KVKs. Along with these

institutes National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM) also gives

specialised training programme in the area of research management and leadership

development for the research and extension managers in the country.

Sri Lanka

The necessity of empowering farmers socio-economically, technically and otherwise for

their decision making has been recognized strongly. As a result various kinds of farmer

organizations now play a significant role in production, marketing chain, for example, in the

livestock sector.

The absolute necessity of active farmer involvement in decision making process of the entire

marketing chain covering all aspects involved including policy making, allocating of scarce

resources, planning , implementing, monitoring and evaluation of projects and programs has

been emphasized in many of the programs. As a result various types of farmer organizations

have emerged. For example half of the milk collected in the formal market of Sri Lanka is

being handled by farmer organizations at present. These have created the opportunity for

leadership development at the farmers’ level.

(v) Management information system in agricultural extension of

SAARC countries

Bangladesh

DAE’s Management Information System (MIS) is based on ten components divided into

three classes as shown in below.

Direct Extension Management Information Systems

• Farmer Information Need Assessment (FINA)

• Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS)

• Technical Audit (TA)

• Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) Survey Administration and Finance

• Financial Information System (FIS)

56 Synthesis Report

• Personnel database (PD-base)

• Training Information System (TIS)

Longer Term Policy and Planning

• Crop returns database (Crop D-base)

• General Information Database (Gen D-base)

The overall responsibility of Management Information System (MIS) of the agricultural

extension System lies with the Planning and Evaluation Wing (PEW) of the Department of

Ag Extension (DAE). The MIS Section is headed by a Joint Director supported by MIS

Specialist and Computer staff at the headquarters and the Regional Offices. The Section

assists users in regions and districts where each regional office has a Statistical Officer and

an Assistant Chief (MIS). The main users are officers and staff directly responsible for

planning and implementation of extension activities. There is a Extension Policy

Implementation Co-ordination Committee which maintains the linkages with different

stakeholders of the MIS and SEMS and FIS are used mainly at districts and Thanas/Upazilas.

The headquartes’ officers are responsible for the operation and effectiveness of MIS

components while PEW MIS has the full responsibility for software and programmes.

Responsibilities of FINA, KAP lie with the Deputy Directors in districts while the

Additional Director at the Regional Office has the responsibility of Technical Audit. It may

be noted that Extension Activity Planning, Activity Monitoring are partly computerized.

Bhutan

The Geog Extension Centre (GEC) is the first hand information provider on land use,

production, and extension activities. The RNR sector head at the Dzongkhag maintains the

information of the Dzongkhag.

At the national level, each technical department has Information Management Section (IMS)

which collects, analyzes and maintains information of the respective sector. The system

conducts annual 10% sample survey of the farming population while Policy and Planning

Division of the Ministry conducts RNR Census every five year. Besides, the MoAF and

Narional Statistical Bureau (NSB) collect,, analyze and manage RNR extension related

information.

India

At National Level

Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture (DKMA), Indian Agriculture

Statistical Research Institute and Intellectual Property Right and Technology Management

unit are the important institutional arrangements at national level to deal with the agricultural

knowledge management in the country.

As a commitment to deliver cost-effective and production-oriented technologies for the

welfare of farming community, ICAR adopted ICT based information dissemination system.

Several ICT-driven information delivery mechanisms have been developed for quick,

effectual and cost-effective delivery of messages.


The e-connectivity of ICAR institutes has been strengthened and 192 Krishi Vigyan Kendras

(Farm Research Centres) have been provided e-linkage for establishing an interactive

interface between farmers and scientists.. Use of database, expert system, decision support

system and web based dissemination of knowledge, inter and intranet services, i-telephony

and video conferencing are some of the major initiatives by ICAR for knowledge sharing

and AKS management in the country.

IT Based Interventions for Sharing of Knowledge

The ICAR website (www.icar.org.in): Developed by using an open source content

management system called DRUPAL, the website is a unique platform for sharing and

dissemination of information to a wide range of users and stakeholders in agriculture sector.

The News section is updated daily with inputs from the centres of National Agricultural

Research System across the country.

Interesting Success Stories of Indian farmers are presented weekly on the homepage of

website to inspire and motivate farming community. The Weather Based Agro-Advisory

developed by subject matter experts is also updated weekly for the direct use of farmers. A

useful link connects the visitors to the global agricultural news released from various

international agencies. More than 2.05,436 visits are recorded per month from 157 countries.

Around one lakh farmers/ visitors are making use of updated information on website every

month. The website has proven its potential for sharing and delivering knowledge at national

and global level.

National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) Initiatives

Under NAIP, 10 crop knowledge models have been developed along with Portal based

decision support services. In addition, advanced Q&A forum designed for content

management. About 2.2 million SMS texts transacted with over 26,000 farmers. It was

adjudged as best ICT- enabled agri project in 2010. A rice knowledge management portal

and re-usable learning objects (RLOs) in ODL system were developed under this project.

Nine communication centres set up to enhance public awareness of ICAR.

KVK e-Linkage Project

ICAR as part of its mega ICT driven knowledge management and technology application

strategy has envisioned for providing e-linkage to its networks of KVKs and Zonal Project

Directorates) (ZPDs) during XI five year plan (2007-2012.

Govt of India launched Kissan call centres to leverage the extensive telecom network in the

country to deliver extension services to the farmers. The purpose of these call centres is to

respond to queries and issues raised by farmers instantly in the local language on a

nationwide toll free number 1800180 1551.

Agriculture Knowledge Products from ICAR

ICAR through its sustained efforts involved in the creation of data bases, information and

expert systems for the benefits of various stake holders. The summary is given here under.

58 Synthesis Report

Information System

There are more than 60 information system products developed and some of the most

important products among them are Plant Variety Information System, Plant Variety

Germplasm Registration System, NORV-Notified and Released Varieties of India, INDUS-

Indian Information System as per DUS guidelines, National Information System for Pest

Management (Bt–Cotton), Phenotypic Characterization of Animal Genetic Resources of

India (AGRI-IS), Water bodies information systems for West Bengal, E-Pest: Awareness-

cum-surveillance programme for the management of major pests, Digital Herbarium of

Medicinal & Aromatic plants, Networking of herbal gardens in India, Fodder Resources and

Waste land of Bay Islands, NISM-National Information Sharing

Mechanism for the PGR-GPVR (Germplasm and Plant Varieties Registration), National

Information System on Long Term Fertilizer Experiments, Project Information &

Management System Network for NATP, Personnel Information Management System

Network (PERMIS NET) and National Information System on Agricultural Education

Network in India (NISAGE NET).

Decision Support Systems

There are more than 20 decision support systems available. Most important among them are;

Wheat Crop Management, Marine Fisheries Management, Advisory System for Potato Crop

Scheduling, Nutrient Management in Tuber Crops, GIS Based Decision Support System for

Aquaculture in Cold Water Region, Rice-Crop Doctor, Expert System for SERICULTURE,

Expert System for GROUND NUT CROP, KMART-Decision support system for farmers,

researchers, policy makers and development officials, Poultry Expert System (PES) on

poultry farming etc.

E-Advisory/E-Learning Resources

There are more than 20 e-advisory and e-learning resources available with ICAR. The most

important among them are; Geo spatial Village Knowledge Management System (GVKMS -

Web Based), Knowledge Management for Agricultural Research and Technologies -

KMART (Web Based) and e-GRANTH for strengthening of Digital Library and

Information Management under NARS. In addition, ICAR also created a data warehouse

with more than 59 data bases and a web based integrated National Agricultural Resources

Information System.

Collection, Documentation and Validation of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) and

Farm Innovations: A major initiative was undertaken by ICAR in documenting and

validating the Indigenous Knowledge Systems practiced by the farmers in the country.

Through the country wide initiative a total number of 4880 Indigenous Technical Knowledge

(ITK) in 23 thematic areas were collected, validated and published in seven volumes.

Further, seven ITK e-Books and a resource Book for training on ITK was also published.

Similarly, potential innovative ideas, methods and inventions made by the farmers were also

documented and published for cross country reference by various stake holders.

Agricultural Knowledge System (AKS) National Projects and Products

Some of the most important AKS project under NARS and their output is given hereunder:

• FERTNET: Network for Integrating Nutrient Management


• VISTARNET: Agricultural Extension Information System Network

• PPIN: Plant Protection Informatics Network

• APHNET: Animal Production and Health Informatics Network of 42000 Animal Primary Health Centers

• FISHNET: Fisheries Informatics Network

• AFPINET: Agricultural and Food Processing Industries Informatics Network

• ARINET: Agricultural and Rural Industries Information System Network

• NDMNET: Natural Disaster Management Knowledge Network

• Weather NET: Weather Resource System of India

• AGRISNET: Network of Agricultural Offices for Extension & Agribusiness Activities

Nepal

Agricultural Information and Communication Center (AICC) is attached to the Ministry as

one of its central units with greater role and responsibility.

AICC is a professional wing of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives entrusted to

produce agricultural information relevant to farmers, traders, entrepreneurs and professionals

and to communicate the information through different media. The Center also bears the

additional responsibility and challenge of managing and using digital information generated

recently by the growing application of personal computer, internet and mobile telephone in

modernizing agricultural development in the country.

The vision of the government is building an organization driven by information and

communication technology (ICT) capable of ensuring timely, faster and relevant access to

information to facilitate agricultural stakeholders and practitioners for building knowledge

based farm communities.

Program activities

a. Farm radio program

b. Agriculture television program

c. Publication and print media

d. Computer application and internet use

Computer, email and Internet have become increasingly popular since the introduction of

computers in Nepal by the government in 1971. With access to low cost personal computers

in recent years and the growing involvement of private sector in computer business, the

availability of internet became possible only towards 1993-94 but in limited scale. The rate

of computerization and automation in public sector remained still low. The has given a way

to reform governance making the organization more efficient, transparent and effective in the

exchange of information within and between organizations.

To be of use AICC has created its web portal www.aicc.gov.np in which general agricultural

statistics of Nepal and introduction of organizations, departments, centers, boards and

committees under the ministry are placed. As an electronic journal the bimonthly agriculture-

Krishi has also been put in the website as pdf file which can easily be downloaded and read.

The National Agriculture Policy 2004, Agriculture Business Policy 2004, and a number of

booklets on various aspects of agricultural technologies are also kept in the website. As these

materials are in vernacular Nepali, any citizen and literate farmer can read and get benefited

60 Synthesis Report

from the information. The portal is also a gateway to all government ministries and relevant

organizations as they are linked to the website.

Some important websites linked to this URL are: www.moac.gov.np, www.nardf.org.np, and

www.narc nepal.org

Pakistan

The continuing rapid development of telecommunications and computer-based information

technology (IT) is probably the biggest factor for change in extension, one which will

facilitate and reinforce other changes. IT will bring new information services to rural areas

over which farmers, as users, will have much greater control than over current information

channels.

Although the Agricultural Extension System (AES) is using the MIS, its full potential has

not been adequately realized. The district and below-level extension staff used to gear up to

harness the full potential of this technology and preserving field information and employing

it in diffusing information to farmers. Even if every farmer does not have a computer

terminal, these could become readily available at local information resource centres. The

government has introduced the computer-based interactive extension-community

communications on specific farm issues in some districts at pilot basis. On the basis of this

experience, gradually, this effort will be expanded.

Sri Lanka

The use of electronic media in agricultural extension management has already made progress

in Sri Lanka. The Department of Agriculture in Sri Lanka has started to use an IT application

(CD-ROM) to disseminate agricultural innovations to farmers. A survey12 revealed that

websites were the fifth most used channel, together with written material (booklets, leaflets,

pamphlets, posters), but behind the extension network, bulletins, technical manuals and

software in agricultural innovation dissemination. Ninety-seven per cent of respondent

websites indicated that they maintain an official website but farm businesses were not their

currently main target audience, because the majority of Sri Lankan farmers do not have

access to computers.

Using information technology, such as websites, were effective and efficient means of

diffusion. Sri Lankan survey respondents did not see websites as a low cost method, in terms

of low overhead and establishment, employee training and maintenance. However, the

importance of IT as a dissemination tool will increase with time in Sri Lanka. Except for

farmers in the large plantation sector, the majority of Sri Lankan farmers need assistance

(e.g. extension worker or telecentre worker) to use the IT facilities provided by the central

government and NGOs.

Electronic mediated Animal Disease Information System and a Dairy Reproduction

Information system has been established at the Head quarters of DAPH. A 24 hr serving hot

line enables the clients clarify with professional guidance. The IT Centers have been

established at the Veterinary Research Institute and at the Institute of Continuing Education

(ICEAPH) at Gannoruwa.

12Arumapperuma, S. 2008. The Role of Information Technology In Disseminating Innovations In Agribusiness: A Comparative

Study of Australia And Sri Lanka. http://vuir.vu.edu.au/1416/1/arumapperuma.pdf


Chapter Summary

Institutional reforms

It appears that all the countries have taken initiatives for institutional reforms, some have

made substantial progress while others are have begun.

Bangladesh has identified areas of reforms and has already implemented some

(Establishment of Krishi Gobeshona Foundation, Decentralization of Planning and Funding

for agricultural extension).

Bhutan research on agriculture, as a whole was with the Council of RNR Research of

Bhutan (CoRRB). Now respective Departments (Agriculture, Forest and Livestock) take care

of their development and research activities individually. A new Department, Department

Agricultural Marketing and Cooperatives, has been established to support and encourage

commercialization of the farming sector. RNR extension Centres have been established as

one point service centres.

In India, initiatives have been taken for reforms in policy, institutional restructuring (SREP,

Block level technology centre, group extension etc), management, research-extension

linkage, training, empowering farmers, ICT, resource mobilization etc.

In Nepal, District Development Fund, Ensuring fund for poor and excluded groups,

opportunities for capturing lessons learnt from project have been created.

In Pakistan, the devolution process has started.

In Sri Lanka updating farmers’ knowledge through training has been institutionalized.

Public-private-NGO parenership

In Bangladesh, partnerships of the public sector extension service with NGOs and the

private sector appears to be growing.

In Bhutan the involvement of the private sector is still very low. Same is the case with

NGOs.

In India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, however, there are ample examples of successful

partnership between GO and NGO, and GO and Private sector. The overwhelming

experiences of such partnerships have strengthened the arguments for pluralistic extension

services in agriculture.

There are, however, areas like training, capacity building etc. where the NGO and the private

sector are not strong or they might not find such activities attractive. The role of the public

sector is essential in such areas. Also, the regulatory functions of the public sector would

always be necessary. In conclusion, the role of the public sector as facilitator would always

be necessary and beneficial to the development of the extension services.

Accountability hierarchy

The accountability hierarchy of the public sector agricultural extension from the field level to

the headquarters and the ministry level is straight forward in all the countries except India.

In India, however, the hierarchy is somewhat complex where, on the one side, there is the

‘ATMA hierarchy’, and on the other side the ‘KVK hierarchy’ in which the SAU system in

involved.

62 Synthesis Report

Leadership development

Bhutan, India and Sri Lanka have provisions and scope for leadership development in their

extension systems. Other countries follow the regular (normal) service rules of the respective

countries which are apparently be purely bureaucratic. In Sri Lanka the leadership is presumed to

be developing through farmers’ organizations.

In Bhutan one of the important mandates of the Geog RNR extension services is to develop a

capacity of the local people to plan and manage their enterprises. This is done through promotion

of farmers group and cooperatives where the office bearers are trained on group management and

leader ship development. GNHC (planning commission) also provide regular training to and hold

workshops with local leaders in planning and project management.

In India, extension functionaries like MANAGE, EEI, SAMETI and KVKs have been

established. Along with these institutes National Academy of Agricultural Research Management

(NAARM) gives specialised training programme in the area of research management and

leadership development for the research and extension managers in the country.

In Sri Lanka, various kinds of farmer organizations now play a significant role in production,

marketing chain (for example, in the livestock sector). The absolute necessity of active farmer

involvement in decision making process of the entire marketing chain covering all aspects

involved including policy making, allocating of scarce resources, planning , implementing,

monitoring and evaluation of projects and programs has been emphasized in many of the

programs. As a result various types of farmer organizations have emerged.

Management information system

In Bangladesh, the management information system (MIS) is based on a number of components.

In Bhutan, each technical department has Information Management which collects, analyzes and

maintains information of the respective sectors.

India has made a remarkable progress in adopting computerized information system while other

countries are at different stages of computerized Management Information System (MIS)

development.

In Nepal, Agricultural Information and Communication Center (AICC) is attached to the

Ministry as one of its central units with greater role and responsibility. AICC is a professional

wing of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives entrusted to produce agricultural

information relevant to farmers, traders, entrepreneurs and professionals and to communicate the

information through different media. The Center also bears the additional responsibility and

challenge of managing and using digital information generated recently by the growing

application of personal computer, internet and mobile telephone in modernizing agricultural

development in the country.

In Pakistan, although the Agricultural Extension System (AES) is using the MIS, its full

potential has not been adequately realized.

In Sri Lanka, the Department of Agriculture has started to use an IT application (CD-ROM) to

disseminate agricultural innovations to farmers. Electronic mediated Animal Disease Information

System and a Dairy Reproduction Information system has been established at the headquarters of

Department of Animal Production and Health (DAPH). Electronic mediated Animal Disease

Information System and a Dairy Reproduction Information system has been established at the

headquarters of the DAPH.


CHAPTER

Human Resources Development and Capacity Building of Extension Systems

Bangladesh

It appears that the Bangladesh the Department of Agricltuuural Extension (DAE) develops

the in-service HRD curricula (skill development programmes) by itself, not necessarily

involving academic institutions, although there may be occasional involvement of research

institutions. In pre service training, however, it is the academic institutions and Agricultural

Training Institutes (ATIs) that provide the training. There is also the Central Extension

Resources Development Institute (CERDI) which also plays an important role in providing

training at various levels.

Bhutan

Most of the extension staffs posted in the Geogs are trained in the College of Natural

Resources (CNR) which is under the Royal University of Bhutan (RUB).. CNR so far has

trained 1000 plus extension workers with diploma in Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry

who are now working in Geogs and Dzongkhags.

Curricula for the diploma courses are developed in consultation with the Departments and

Agencies under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests. Researcher and scientist working in

research centers and central programmes are actively involved in teaching diploma students.

Research centres and programmes also guide the diploma students during their field

attachment which is a part of the diploma programme. Recently, CNR has also started degree

programme for in-service diploma holders. Candidate with undergraduate degree in

agriculture, livestock and forestry from foreign countries also join extension system.

India

Government support for HRD in agricultural extension is available through providing

training support to the agricultural extension functionaries for their knowledge and skill up-

gradation. The XI plan had several schemes with built-in HRD and training components for

farmers and extension personnel. Strong institutional base has been created for catering

training and HRD requirements of farmers and extension personnel, and the quality of

training infrastructure, training module design, delivery, trainers etc. have been matters of

concern to improve overall effectiveness of training and HRD.

Approach of training and capacity building components, built-in to most of the centrally

sponsored, central sector and state plan schemes in agriculture and allied sectors, however,

suffers from the following practical problems: (i) Multiplicity of schemes adds a lot of

confusion among the implementing agencies and their personnel as to which scheme to

prioritize and focus for implementation. (ii) Often times, training and HRD end up as a ritual

to either meet the targeted numbers or to spend the allocated budget; and (iii) it also leaves

5

64 Synthesis Report

no clue among stakeholders (farming community) as to which scheme to choose for availing

benefits.

Nepal

Central Agricultural Training Centre

Central Agricultural Training Centre (CATC) has been reorganized and renamed as

Directorate of Agricultural Training (DAT) under the Department of Agriculture (DOA) as

per Government decision of 20 November 2003. The CATC was established on December

10, 1987 along with ten Regional Agriculture Training Centres (RATCs) two each in the five

development regions. The RATC were strategically created in the key locations for hills and

terai in each development regions. Later in 1992 CATC was reorganized and ten RATCs

were reduced and consolidated into five RATCs thus having one RATC in each development

region.

Prior to this establishment, training programs were handled and managed by the then

Agriculture Extension and Training Division of the Department of Agriculture. Following

the inception of CATC, agricultural training programs scattered across the country were

streamlined and made to link with the prioritized production programs. DAT has been

organizing various types' in-service training courses for the gazetted officers working under

the Department of Agriculture. The directorate, at present, administers about a dozens of

training courses annually, in which about 250 DOA officers are trained in various

commodity specific fields, training related skills and in institutional capacity building.

During the Ninth Five Year Plan (1996/97-2001/02) a total of 1027 officers have been

trained through 49 training programs.

The courses offered by DAT are among the high standards in the kingdom as they are

designed by highly qualified resource persons together with the dedicated team of

management. Training courses, thus aim to improve the capability of trainees to activity

lead, participate and collaborate in planning and implementing agricultural extension

activities so as to give impetus to agricultural development endeavors.

DAT training courses are tailored to meet the needs of the professional subject matter

specialist, planners, managers and extension workers who are serving the government at the

center, regional and district level. The minimum duration of training course is one week and

maximum duration is seven weeks.

Publications

DAT in collaboration with Manpower Development Agriculture Project (MDAP/GTZ) has

published 32 different types of training manuals on various technical fields. DAT newsletter,

a four-monthly publication is also a regular publication of this directorate. DAT has started

publishing a Journal of Agriculture Development from fiscal year 2003-04. Progress report,

training effectiveness studies, brochure etc are directorate’s other publications.

DAT Network

DAT has a network of five RATCs located in different development regions of the country

and entrusted to run training programs for support staffs and farmers. Recently, RATCs are


reoriented to offer more specialized training courses to the varying needs of farmers and

support staffs tailored according to their background, interest and aptitude. RATCs usually

give training to around 1000 JT/JTAs and over 3000 farmers on wide range of subjects

annually.

Agricultural University

The Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS) - Nepal, began as a School of

Agriculture under the Ministry of Agriculture in 1957 to train Junior Technical Assistants

(JTAs) in agriculture. In 1968, the school was upgraded to College of Agriculture and a two-

year Intermediate of Agricultural Science (I.Sc.Ag.) program was started. In 1972, the

College of Agriculture was given the status of the Institute of Agriculture and Animal

Science under Tribhuvan University. At present the institute has its central campus at

Rampur and two branch campuses. The Lamjung Campus, located at Sundar Bazar in

Lamjung District was established in 1975 and The Paklihawa Campus located at Bhairahawa

in Rupandehi District was established in 1978. Started with a few permanent faculty

positions in 1972, the IAAS now implements teaching, research and extension programs

through a core of over 150 trained and dedicated faculty members at its central and the

branch campuses.

Academic institutions

At present, the institute offers B.Sc. Agriculture (Bachelor of Science in Agriculture),

B.V.Sc. & A.H. (Bachelor of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry), M.Sc.

Agriculture, M.Sc. Animal Science, M.V.Sc., M.Sc. Aquaculture and Doctor of Philosophy

(Ph.D.) programs at Rampur. The two branch campuses at Lamjung and Paklihawa also offer

initial two years of B. Sc. Agriculture course.

Research

Research is an integral part of the IAAS system. Besides the course work, the faculty

members and students are actively engaged in research activities. Although, IAAS do not get

regular budget for research from the university, the institute strongly encourages faculties

and students towards research activity and supports a number of research projects annually

by mobilizing internal resources. The research projects are managed by the Directorate of

Research and Publication wing of the Dean Office. The institute adopts highly flexible and

transparent research project administration policy to facilitate researchers so that the

scientific objectives can be achieved effectively and efficiently. Usually IAAS incurs 10% of

the total project budget as overhead cost to cover the project management expenses.

Within its limited resources, IAAS annually invests over 600,000 (NRs.) to support faculty

and students research projects, mainly postgraduate thesis research work. Depending upon

the availability of funds, undergraduate student’s research projects are also supported. The

financial support for such projects is awarded on meritorious basis.

IAAS faculties have been highly successful in competitive research grant application.

Currently, over 20 faculty research projects covering a wide rage of topics of crop science,

horticultural science, fishery, animal husbandry and veterinary science are on-going. The

total budget of these projects amounts over 40 million Nepalese Rupees. The major in-

country funding agency is the National Agriculture Research and Development Fund

66 Synthesis Report

(NARDF) and among the international agencies DFID, FAO, USAID, UNDP, IFS, Eiselen

Foundation, TUFT, IRRI/IFAD, CIMMYT AquaFish/CRSP, EU and WWF are the major

ones.

Extension

The Directorate of Extension (DOE) was established on January, 2000 to strengthen the

extension service delivery system of the IAAS. The mission is to provide services to farmers

by using more innovative, participatory and methodological approaches in the areas of

developing human resource as well as farm resources on a continuous basis.

Following are the areas where the institute conducts its regular programs:

• Developing and providing short term trainings based on clients’ needs inclusive of

all stakeholders.

• Provide technical and diagnostic services to farmers as soil testing insect-pest and

diseases of plants, and veterinary services on campus and also in the form of mobile

animal health clinic to rural area farmers.

• Conduct farm and home visits to specialized groups of farmers in specific crops,

vegetables and fruits

• Establish linkage with and co-work with the extension programs of District

Agriculture Development Office and District Livestock Service of the home district.

• Arrange workshop, seminar and interaction meeting for all types and levels of

stakeholders of agriculture development and ultimately the farm families.

Nepal Agriculture Research Council

NARC is an apex body for agricultural research in the country with the ultimate goal of

poverty alleviation with sustainable growth of agriculture production through the

development of appropriate technologies in different aspect of agriculture.

Training courses

• Pre-service training course of 2 years duration each for Field Assistants and for Stock

Assistants.

• In-service short training courses for agricultural officers and field assistants of

agriculture department.

• One-week training courses for farmers.

• Farmers exchange visits to other provinces.

• Special training courses for NGOs and different other organizations.

Pakistan

Occasionally, the extension personnel get an opportunity to go back to the academic

institutions to obtain higher academic degrees and there are several in-service training

institutes where the extension professionals are sent to upgrade their knowledge and skills

with the latest developments in the arena of agricultural extension. This is an ongoing

process of human resource development and capacity building.


Seemingly, the human resource development aspect in extension system is neither regular

nor adequate. The Agricultural Training Institutes (ATIs), in-service training institutes,

established in 1957 need a lot of improvement in teaching contents, methodology,

environment and facilities.

The mandate of the Institute includes the following functions:

• Pre-service training course of 2 years duration each for Field Assistants and for Stock

Assistants.

• In-service short training courses for agricultural officers and field assistants of

agriculture department.

• One-week training courses for farmers.

• Farmers exchange visits to other provinces.

• Special training courses for NGO's and different organizations.

There is a need to upgrade the degree-level curricula for extension graduate in the university.

Similarly, the curricula of the ATIs need massive updating to include new teaching areas

enabling the extension trainees to comfortably handle the emerging field issues.

Sri Lanka

There are seven agricultural faculties and ten agricultural schools in the country. Around 500

agricultural graduates and 800 agricultural diploma holders come out from these institutes

annually. This large work force could and should be used to enhance the quality of the

extension service.

After nearly 30 years of the internal conflict in Sri Lanka, the conflict came to an end in May

2009. Growing internal demand as well as the increase in foreign tourists is driving growth,

resulting in a sustained high GDP rate at around eight percent. Sri Lanka aims to double its

income and become an upper-middle income country by 2016, and taking the country's

needs into account, the government is promoting private investment, and actively stimulating

farming and fishing villages.13

Summary Observations

In Bangladesh the in-service HRD curricula (skill development programmes) is developed

apparently by the extension department itself, not necessarily involving academic

institutions, although there may be occasional involvement of research institutions. In pre-

service training, however, it is the academic institutions and Agricultural Training Institutes

(ATIs) that provide the training. It is necessary to develop closer linkages among the

extension service, academic and research institutions in developing both pre-service and in-

service HRD curricula development and implementation.

In Bhutan, curricula for diploma courses are developed in consultation and agencies under

the Ministry Agriculture and Forests. Researchers and scientists are actively involved in

teaching diploma students. Also research centres and programmes guide the diploma

students during their field attachment which is a part of the diploma programme. The

College Natural Resources has started degree programme for in-service diploma holders.

13 (http://www.jica.go.jp/srilanka/english/index.html).

68 Synthesis Report

In India, government support for HRD in agricultural extension is provided to agricultural

extension functionaries knowledge and skill up-gradation. A strong institutional base has

been created for catering HRD requirement for farmers and extension personnel. There are

several institutions available for HRD programmes. However, it is alleged that multiplicity

of HRD schemes, ritual training by institutes to meet targets and absence of clear indications

to stakeholders as to which scheme to choose for availing the needed benefits adds to

confusion.

In Nepal, there is Directorate of Training (DAT) and Central Agricultural Training Centre

(CATC) along with Regional Training Centres (RATCs), one for each development regions.

DAT for officers organizes various in-service training courses for officers (SMSs, planners,

managers, and extension workers).

The institute of Agricultural and Animal Science (IAAS) train Junior Technical Assistants

and also offer higher degree courses. The Nepal Agricultural Research Council provide pre-

service training course f0r Field Assistants, in-service short training course for agricultural

officers, and training courses for NGOs and farmers.

It thus appears that there is an in-built involvement of extension with academic and research

institutes.

In Pakistan, there are several in-service training institutes where the extension professionals

are sent to upgrade their knowledge and skills. This is an ongoing process of human resource

development and capacity building. However, it is alleged that HRD aspect in extension is

neither regular and nor adequate. Also the Agriculture Training Institutes, both for pre-

service and in-service training and established in 1950s, need improvement in curricula,

methodology and facilities.

With the end of the internal conflict in Sri Lanka in 2009, the country is giving renewed

attention to promoting actively stimulating farming and fishing villages, including HRD in

extension.

(i) Areas of perception, skill and capacity building in HRD in

SAARC countries

Bangladesh

All staff members should periodically assess their levels of competency in all general skill

areas· to do this, staff should complete an annual staff competence form. The completed

forms should be analyzed by the District Training Officer /Thana Agriculture Officer and

kept as a record of competence. This is best done as part of the "work programming"

process, particularly for Block Supervisors. Completed annual staff competence forms

should be entered on computer wherever possible to enable quick and ready analysis.

The work programming process, particularly with SAAOs, also identifies small gaps in

knowledge and skills where remedial action should be taken.

The information collected through the Annual Competence Assessment forms a database for

the Upzila and District to use as a basis for extension planning and for assisting in

identifying areas of training need. If it is done by all field staff in a District, extension

managers will be able to see where further actions are required.


DAE has over the years invested huge resources in training and continues to do so. However,

formal organized training classes are often not the most effective or most cost effective way

to increase competence. Everyone is responsible for his or her own learning development

and the practice of learning from experiences should become an integral part of our daily

lives.

DAE does not have the resources to provide formal training to meet all training needs and all

staff and officers are encouraged to develop their own abilities. Officers are responsible to

train and develop their staff and to help people to learn how to be more effective in their

personal and working lives.

The competence assessment form gives an indication of general ability in different

knowledge and skill areas. Where lack of competence is indicated, further analysis is

necessary to identify exactly what knowledge and skill is lacking. This requires breaking

down the knowledge and skill area into its component parts. This is called job analysis

The job analysis process provides a comprehensive understanding of what is required to

adequately perform the various tasks the job requires. Jobs usually include a number of

different activity areas. Each activity area consists of a number of specific tasks which must

be performed. Analysis of a specific task identifies a number of actions required to complete

it. Finally, analysis of a specific action identifies a number of individual steps which are

involved.

Once all of the activity areas are identified, the learner's competence in each can be

measured. What the learner is currently able to do must be compared to what is required to

adequately perform the job tasks. This is called gap analysis. There is a "gap" when the tasks

require more skills and knowledge than the learner currently possesses. It is this "gap" that

must be filled through training. The same competence assessment categories used to indicate

competence in the overall knowledge and skill area are: expert, completely competent, mostly

competent, moderately competent, partially competent, no competence, can also be used to

indicate ability to perform each of the component tasks, actions and steps.

At each stage of the training needs assessment process, it is only necessary to breakdown the

items that competence assessment indicates require improvement. The process is a sequence

of job analysis followed by gap analysis, again followed by job analysis and so on.

The component parts of a "job" can be described in different ways depending on how

broadly the job itself is defined. Sometimes levels of breakdown are skipped. For example

DAE's Job Descriptions go straight to "tasks", skipping the "activity area" level. This is

useful when most of the activity areas within the scope of the job require similar sets of

tasks.

The level of break down necessary will depend on the nature of the activity area and tasks

concerned. Training will be most effective if it focuses on the particular areas where the

learner requires additional knowledge and skills.

Using the process of job and gap analysis helps to focus limited resources on the training

needs which are most critical. After the training needs have been identified it is useful to

determine the frequency, relative importance and learning difficulty for each component.

The responsibility for staff development rests with the District Deputy Director, the District

Training Officer, and at upazila level with the Upazila Agricultural Officer DAE

70 Synthesis Report

Headquarters provides additional assistance and resources but does not have the capacity to

respond to all the extension staff development demands.

Extension plans can only include those activities that staff are already able to do, or can be

adequately trained to do before the activity is implemented

Once it is known what training is required, an assessment can be made of the feasibility of

providing this training in time to implement the planned extension activity.

Bhutan

Programmes and projects under the Ministry provide training opportunities in-country and

abroad. Similarly international and bilateral development partners also offer training support

for the extension workers. Awareness on new and emerging technologies in the RNR sector

are imparted to extension staff through study visit, seminar etc.

India

A long term training plan keeping in view of the requirements of extension system is

developed by the national and regional training centres in the country. The training

programmes are planned based on the needs and skill gap analysis. For this purpose the

training institutions periodically conduct the need analysis through systematic studies.

The identified priority areas of training of farmers and extension professionals focus on:

Climate change implications and coping mechanisms

(i) Scaling up of water productivity in agriculture,

(ii) Scaling up resource use efficiency in agriculture and allied sectors,

(iii) Scaling up energy use efficiency in agriculture.

Selective mechanization in agriculture

(i) Secondary agriculture (post harvest handling, storage and processing),

(ii) Innovative extension models and approaches,

(iii) ICTs for knowledge and enterprise management,

(iv) Group based approaches for production, processing and marketing,

(v) Micro-level implications of IPRs – PPV&FRA, GIs, TK, etc.,

(vi) Bio-diversity conservation and management for sustainable use and benefit

sharing,

(vii) Integrated farming systems,

(viii) Dry land agriculture and horticulture along with Conservation agriculture,

(ix) Organic farming,

(x) High value farming,

(xi) Marketing – domestic and export,

(xii) Agricultural finance and insurance,

(xiii) Planning and management of development plans (SAWP, SAP, CDAP, BAP,

etc.),

(xiv) Project formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation,

(xv) Skill development for entrepreneurship,


(xvi) Negotiation skills for farmers and other primary stakeholders in agriclture

agriculture and allied sectors,

(xvii) Group formation, development of entrepreneurial skills for agri-business,

agribusiness management,

(xviii) WTO and its implications,

(xix) Marketing of agricultural produce,

(xx) PHT management, conflict resolutions and negotiations management of common

property resources

(xxi) Use of different type of media, communication, project preparation etc.

Pakistan

Unless the extension personnel adequately trained in the latest technology transfer

methodologies, the extension system cannot operate on efficient lines. It is a proven fact that

without refurbishing the field functionaries with fresh knowledge and latest developments,

they start getting into a state of inertia.

All extension staffs need to be made aware of participatory extension systems such as the

farmer’s field school approach. They must also be exposed to the successful experience as well

as the limitations of NGO processes. Field Assistant level staffs require training in interpersonal

communication skills, utilization of audio-visual aids for training, methods of audience analysis,

methods of group formation and facilitation of community planning. There close working with

NGOs in development of village-based community organization will expose them to these

skills.

Sound management of environment, including biological resources (trees, crops, livestock, fish,

etc.) and natural resources (soil, water, etc.) ensure sustainable agricultural production systems.

Thus, it is recognized that the potential use and limitations of these resources are intimately

linked to the availability and advancement of knowledge and the growing needs for agricultural

development. This would be attained only through integrating training, learning technology,

knowledge generation, and rural institution development in a holistic approach for available

natural and human resources utilization, and determining training needs, innovative forms of

training programs.

Adequate training of the extension personnel of all categories is essential in farm

management techniques and business analysis for sustainable and profitable development of

agriculture in Pakistan. Pre-service training of Field Assistants is imparted at the agriculture

training institutes. One of the main constraints in improving the standard of teaching of

Agricultural Training Institute is the lack of adequately trained and experienced teaching

staff who can give them exposure to the emerging issues such as international trade, food

safety, environmental degradation etc.

(ii) Training of extension workers and farmers through public, NGO

and private initiatives

Bangladesh

DAE has an elaborate training programme. SAAOs (Block Supervisors) training is an on-

going programme of DAE with regular monthly training. Additional training is provided

72 Synthesis Report

periodically as part of specific projects. Such training is usually prescribed by the specific

project and may involve external trainers and venues.

SAAO training

The Thana/Upazila Agricultural Officer is responsible for the regular monthly training of

SAAOs., assisted by Agricultural Extension Officer, Additional Agricultural Officer, who

serve as principal trainers. Assistant Agricultural Extension Officer (AAEOs) and Junior

Agricultural Extension Officer (JAEO), District Specialists and District Training Officer

may also participate to ensure the quality of training. The SAAOs should record the training

information in their diary.

The purpose of SAAO training:

• to prepare SAAOs to undertake their up-coming extension programme;

• to teach SAAOs agricultural practices which may be suitable for farmers in their

block;

• to provide SAAOs with supporting technical knowledge and skills, which will

improve their ability to analyze farmers’ problems, understand the benefits of

recommended practices and demonstrate these practices;

• to enable SAAOs to develop skills in communication and alternative extension

methods which will improve their ability to interact effectively with farmers.

The Deputy Director of the district, in consultation with the Upazila/Thana Agricultural

Officer determines the day of the week the Upazila/Thana level training should take place.

The SAAO attend technical meetings at the Upazila/Thana two days every month. One is to

be used for formal training session and the other day for other types of interaction and

information exchange.

District Training Management

Technical Meetings: SAAO Formal Training. This training should follow the DAE’s

Training Wing guidelines for other in-service training components, including reporting and

monitoring and standard documentation of planning i.e. definite time frame, formal training

programmen and lesson preparation and evaluation.

SAAOs require practical training to develop sufficient extension and technical skill to give

meaningful assistance to farmers. The training is normally held at the Upazila headquarters

while practical training can be held at research stations, BADC farm, Horticulture Centre or

a farmers’ field.

Technical Meeting: Review of activities and field situation, and informal training. This also

include:

• a review of current situation in the field including discussion of farmers’ problems,

pest and diseases incidence, availability of inputs, etc.

• a summary of extension messages relevant to different categories of farmers and to

the time of the year

• a review of progress in implementation of the extension programme for the current

session;


• a review of SAAO extension visits and diaries;

• a review of programmes at demonstration plots;

• a general technical discussion, in which the SAAOs can seek advice on any subject

not covered in the regular training programmes and the trainers can determine

SAAOs’ level of knowledge on any topic which is proposed for future training

sessions.

This technical meeting provides opportunities for extensive informal training of SAAOs.

Bhutan

Regular training to enhance skill and knowledge of the extension staff are organized.

Programme and projects under the Ministry of Agriculture conduct such training in-country

and abroad. Similarly international and bilateral development partners also offer training

support for the extension. Awareness on new and emerging technologies in the RNR sector

are also provided to extension staff through study visit, seminar etc.

Involvement of NGO and private sector in training extension worker and farmers are

negligible. Recently with the establishment of NGOs, farmers and communities are getting

training and support from them. But in a broader scale, farmers training is an affair of an

extension system which is mainly funded by Government and development partners.

Research centers, central programems, CNR and Rural Development Training Centers

(RDTC) are actively involved in farmers training as resource person.

India

Public training institutes like MANAGE, NIAM EEI, SAMETI, NAARM, KVKs etc

involved in specialised training for the extension professionals and farmers. National

Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM) under ICAR is the apex institute

in the country involved in the training of scientists, and there are programme coordinators of

KVKs in various aspects of project management techniques. NAARM carries out research

on HRD planning, training need analysis, developing various e-learning modules, training

modules, standardisation of training methodology etc.

NAARM also runs a diploma programme agri business management helping the agricultural

extension system in the country with qualified professionals. The SAU system in the country

and National institutes under ICAR like Indian Agricultural research Institute (IARI) , Indian

Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), National Dairy Research Institute(NDRI),Central

Institute of Fisheries Education(CIFE) which are also recognised as deemed universities,

contribute to a great extent carrying out systematic research studies in agricultural extension

to formulate suitable HRD programmes. Apart from this, the NARS is also actively engaged

in training of extension professionals in teaching, training and field extension works.

The training facilities in the public sector at various levels can be summarized as follows:

National level

1. ICAR Institutes – Higher education in commodity areas to students, scientists, faculty,

extension personnel, farmers and others.

74 Synthesis Report

2. Directorate of Extension, DAC - Technology and extension centered training to

scientists, faculty, extension personnel

3. NAARM – Higher education research, education & extension management to students,

scientists, faculty, extension personnel, farmers and others

4. NIRD - Higher education & extension training to students, scientists, faculty, extension

personnel, farmers and others (Rural Development.)

5. NIPHM - Technology centered training to students, scientists, faculty, extension

personnel, farmers and others (Plant health management)

6. NIAM - Higher education & marketing extension training

7. Commodity Boards - Technical, extension, market and export oriented training to

extension personnel, farmers and others

8. IGNOU, YCMOU and other Central Universities - Education, vocational education and

training Education, vocational education and training to Students, Scientists, Faculty,

Extension personnel, Farmers and others

9. APEDA & MPEDA - Technical, extension and export-oriented training to Extension

personnel, farmers and others

10. CICEF, CIFNET, IFP -Technical, extension and export-oriented training to Extension personnel, farmers and others

Regional level

EEIs (4) - Extension training to Scientists, Faculty, Extension personnel, Farmers and others

State level

1. SAUs (51) and affiliated institutions - Higher education Technology and extension

centred training

2. SAMETIs (27) - Extension training to extension personnel

3. SIRDs - Rural development and extension training to extension personnel PRIs

District level

1. KVKs (594) - Technical, extension and vocational training to Farmers, Extension

personnel, rural youth

2. ATMAs (598) - Planning and financing

3. FTECs - Technical, extension and vocational to Farmers, Extension personnel, rural

youth

4. Agricultural Schools/ Polytechnics - Technical and vocational training to School drop-

outs, Farm youth

Others

1. NGOs - Social mobilization, conservation agriculture, allied enterprises to Farmers and

others


2. Private - Higher education, Technical and extension training to Students, Scientists,

Faculty, Extension personnel, Farmers and others.

Nepal

In Nepal, the Directorate of Agricultural Training (DAT) along with its ten Regional

Agricultural Training Centres (RATCs):

• Conduct advanced level short training course for the technical officers and

professionals of Nepal Agriculture Service of Government of Nepal.

• Ensure the extension of farm technology to the end users through organizing

multilevel training programs and developing human resources.

• Design and implement training related research and study programs.

• Support and backstop Regional Agricultural Training Centers and District Training

Units in planning, implementing and quality upgrading of training programs.





There are more than 5000 NGOs and dozens of INGOs and some technical and vocational

institutes working in the country for the development of agriculture sector. These

organizations provide different types of training to the farmers, traders and local leaders. The

trainings include awareness program to skill development program related with agriculture,

livestock, food security, nutrition and health, cooperatives and other related field of

agriculture.

Pakistan

Trained manpower shortage both in quality and quantity is often a critical impediment to the successful programs of agricultural development, including transfer of technology to the

farming community. Limited knowledge of farmers in appropriate utilization of land, soil, water

and technology is a major problem faced in increasing farm productivity and the conservation of

natural resources.

Given that the human resources are the most valuable asset of the agriculture extension, due

considerations is given to the establishment/strengthening of agricultural extension institutes

such as Agriculture Training Institutes to cater for such needs. The ATIs and Agricultural

Research System also provide training to the agricultural extension agents, NGOs and farmers

and also organize special courses for private sector professionals.

Likewise, the joint-short training programs are also organized by the extension system where

representatives drawn from extension, NGOs, private sector, and farming communities are

invited to participate.

Sri Lanka



76 Synthesis Report

Chapter Summary

Academic and research institutes in HRD curriculum development and

implementation

In Bangladesh, the in-service HRD curricula (skill development programmes) is developed

apparently by the extension department itself, not necessarily involving academic

institutions, although there may be occasional involvement of research institutions. In pre-

service training, however, it is the academic institutions and Agricultural Training Institutes

(ATIs) that provide the training. It is necessary to develop closer linkages among the

extension service, academic and research institutions in developing both pre-service and in-

service HRD curricula development and implementation.

In Bhutan, curricula for diploma courses are developed in consultation and agencies under

the Ministry Agriculture and Forests. Researchers and scientists are actively involved in

teaching diploma students. Also research centres and programmes guide the diploma

students during their field attachment which is a part of the diploma programme. The

College Natural Resources has started degree programme for in-service diploma holders.

In India, government support for HRD in agricultural extension is provided to agricultural

extension functionaries knowledge and skill up-gradation. A strong institutional base has

been created for catering HRD requirement for farmers and extension personnel. There are

several institutions available for HRD programmes. However, it is alleged that multiplicity

of HRD schemes, ritual training by institutes to meet targets and absence of clear indications

to stakeholders as to which scheme to choose for availing the needed benefits adds to

confusion.

In Nepal, there is Directorate of Training (DAT) and Central Agricultural Training Centre

(CATC) along with Regional Training Centres (RATCs), one for each development regions.

DAT for officers organizes various in-service training courses for officers (SMSs, planners,

managers, and extension workers).

The institute of Agricultural and Animal Science (IAAS) train Junior Technical Assistants

and also offer higher degree courses. The Nepal Agricultural Research Council provide pre-

service training course f0r Field Assistants, in-service short training course for agricultural

officers, and training courses for NGOs and farmers. It thus appears that there is an in-built

involvement of extension with academic and research institutes.

In Pakistan, there are several in-service training institutes where the extension professionals

are sent to upgrade their knowledge and skills. This is an ongoing process of human resource

development and capacity building. However, it is alleged that HRD aspect in extension is

neither regular and nor adequate. Also the Agriculture Training Institutes, both for pre-

service and in-service training and established in 1950s, need improvement in curricula,

methodology and facilities.

Sri Lanka

Areas of perception, skill and capacity building in HRD

Bangladesh appears to have a clear perception in skill and capacity building in its HRD

development for agricultural extension. It, however, needs to pay attention to

implementation of its perception.


In Bhutan, programmes and projects under the Ministry of Agriculture provide training

opportunities in-country and abroad. Similarly international and bilateral development

partners also offer training support for the extension workers. Awareness on new and

emerging technologies in the RNR sector are imparted to extension staff through study visit,

seminar etc.

India develops training programmes based on needs and skill gap analysis. Institutions

conduct need analysis through systematic periodic studies. The country gives priority to

scaling up resource use efficiency, energy use efficiency, post-harvest handling, storage and

processing, ICTs, group farming and marketing, IPRs and WTO implications, biodiversity

conservation and management, integrated farming, skill development for agri-

entrepreneurship etc.

Nepal

There is awareness in Pakistan about the need for training of extension personnel, especially

in participatory extension programme, interpersonal communication skills, methods of group

formation, facilitation of community planning, management of natural resources, farm

management, and business analysis for sustainable agriculture etc

Sri Lanka

From the accounts available, it appears that the perception on HRD in extension differ

widely among the countries, seemingly based on national needs and priorities.

Training of extension workers and farmers

In Bangladesh an elaborate training programme for SAAOs has been developed, with

additional training periodically as part specific projects. The training programme include

training on up-coming extension programmes, technical skills and knowledge to improve

SAAO’s ability to analyze farmers’ problems, their ability to interact with farmers

effectively etc.

In addition, (i) District Technical Meetings of SAAOs are organized based on DAE’s

Training Wing guidelines including reporting, monitoring, standard documentation of

planning, evaluation; (ii) Review of activities and field situations (current field situation,

summary of extension messages, progress in implementation of extension programmes,

extension visits, demonstration programmes, and subjects are covered in regular training

programmes etc).

In Bhutan, regular training to improve skill and knowledge of extension staff are organized.

Awareness on new and emerging technologies in the RNR sector are also provided through

study visits , seminar etc.

With the establishment of NGOs, farmers and communities are getting training and support

from them. However, in the broader scale farmers’ training is the responsibility of the public

extension system where Research Centres, College of Natural Resources (CNR) and Rural

Development Training Centre are actively involved.

In India, a number of training institutions (MANAGE, NIAM EEI, SAMETI, NAARM,

KVKs) are involved in specialized training for extension professional and farmers. NAARM

carries out research on HRD planning, training need analysis, developing e-learning

78 Synthesis Report

modules, training modules, etc. NAARM also runs a diploma programme agri-business

management helping the extension system with qualified professionals.

State Agricultural Universities and National institutes like Indian Agricultural research

Institute, Indian Veterinary Institute, National Dairy Research Institute, Central Institute of

Fisheries Education contribute to research studies in agricultural extension and HRD

programmes.

Hosts of training facilities are available in the public sector at national, state and district

levels. In addition, private sector educational institutes provide extension training to

students, faculty, extension personnel, and farmers.

In Nepal, the Directorate of Agricultural Training (DAT) along with its ten Regional

Agricultural Training Centres (RATCs):




multilevel training programs and developing human resources.

• Design and implement training related research and study programs.





center, regional and district level.

In Pakistan, due considerations is given to the establishment/strengthening of agricultural

extension institutes such as Agriculture Training Institutes to cater for such needs. The ATIs and

Agricultural Research System also provide training to the agricultural extension agents, NGOs

and farmers and also organize special courses for private sector professionals.

Likewise, the joint-short training programs are also organized by the extension system where

representatives drawn from extension, NGOs, private sector, and farming communities are

invited to participate.

In Sri Lanka also Institutional set up has been established and public-private joint

programmes have also been organized for training (for example in the livestock sector).

It appears that all the countries have extension training infrastructure in place and have

developed their training systems for extension personnel.


CHAPTER

Research-Education-Extension-Farmers Linkages in SAARC Countries

(i) Present linkages

Bangladesh

The formal research-extension-farmers linkage in the crop sector was first built and

institutionalized during the T&V system supported by the World Bank (1977–1991). A

Senior Scientific Officer (SSO) and/or Principal Scientific Officer of Bangladesh

Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) was the Member-Secretary of District Technical

Committee (DTC) and/or Regional Technical Committee (RTC). Linkage activities were

confined to contacting farmers by the Block Supervisor (currently SAAO) with some impact

points developed in the DTC. These impact points were validated and refined in the SMS-

SSO workshop held monthly in the region and approved by RTC. In FSRD activities,

however, linkages were inbuilt as also in research review and planning workshops. Joint visits by research and extension leaders of the region also helped to keep the linkage effective.

Linkage efforts in the research system

In the research systems, scientists identified farmers’ problems through the FSRD and other

adaptive research activities with participatory approaches, especially in on-farm trials. These

activities, supported by Extension and Research Project (ERP), National Coordinated

Cropping System Research Project, Farming System Research Project (FSRP) and

Agricultural Research Management Project (ARMP), helped institutionalize research-

extension-farmers linkage. These efforts, though not above criticism, helped improve the

skill of research and extension officials in assessing field problems and reflecting those in

programme planning.

Under the Agricultural Research Management Project (ARMP), research on integrated

farming was conducted in 17 FSRD sites throughout the country. These activities helped

develop entrepreneurships in small scale poultry farming and marketing. The linkage

activities, however, were not sustainable with the withdrawal of funding support and

discontinuation of support of livestock and fisheries personnel.

The weakness of linkages appeared to be due to (i) inadequate interaction between FSRD

scientists and commodity scientists, (ii) lack of clear-cut understanding among the people

involved, (iii) linkages of research institutes under different ministries were difficult and (iv)

lack of adequate appreciation of the role of FSRD in problem identification, prioritization

and planning.

Linkage efforts in the Extension Systems

In the crop sector, research-extension linkages became weak towards the end of the T&V

system. The Regional Technical Committees were abandoned. The upstream linkage became

6

80 Synthesis Report

irregular. DAE operated some project during 2002-2003 with some linkage arrangement

with farmers but there was no inbuilt arrangement to involve research.

In the fisheries sector, lack of initiative of personnel responsible for coordinating the

research-extension-farmer linkage exerted negative influence. In the livestock sector linkages

were not established on a permanent set-up and were disjointed.

Linkages through FSRD

Impact analysis of the World Bank investment in Farming System Research and

Development demonstrated several cases of successful research leading to adoption. This

was apparently due to good functional linkage at work with farmers. Based on this, it was

recommended that steps should be taken to ensure support for inter institutional FSRD

efforts.

Bhutan

Given the diverse agro-ecological conditions of Bhutan, RNR research recognizes that the

research undertaken must be applied, and adaptive research should be undertaken based on

farmers’ needs. At present there is a number of forums and procedures which help in

strengthening the extension-research linkage.

Extension Coordination Committee (ECC)

At the National level, the Extension Coordination Committee is mandated to review research

and extension policy and make fresh policy decisions. The directors and senior policy level

officers represent their departments in the ECC.

Regional RNR Planning and Coordination Workshop

This is one of the important forums, where research and extension staffs meet once a year,

discuss and exchange emerging and available technologies. Extension agents provide the

information on potential locations and interested farmers for on-farm trials. They also review

and plan through joint problem diagnosis, setting priority and programming. In recent years,

this conference has been renamed as National Level Planning and Coordination Workshops

on Annual Field Crops, Horticulture, Livestock and Forestry.

On-Farm Research Programme

This is yet another means of linking research, extension and farmers. The on-farm research

programme helps to develop innovations consistent with farmer’s circumstances, compatible

with the actual farming system and corresponding to farmer’s goals and preferences. These

are drawn up in consultation among research and extension staff with the participation of

farmers. RNR Sector officers and Dzongkhag specialists participate in planning,

implementation and evaluation of on-farm programmes and work closely with farmers.

Results are discussed at joint meetings with a view to developing future programmes

including its use in extension.


India

There are many organizations (state and central government agencies, agribusiness

companies, agri-preneurs, input dealers, manufacturing firms, NGOs, farmers’ organisations

and progressive farmers) providing different kinds of useful services like information and

service support to farmers. There is nonetheless duplication of efforts with multiplicity of

agents attending extension work. There should be a coordinated attempt to synergize and

converge these efforts at the district level and below.

The critical areas in which convergence efforts made are:

• Farmer empowerment and farmer organisational development

• Technology backstopping and management

• Public private partnerships

• Frontier areas for extension, HRD and skill development

An exercise has been made to indicate the types of convergence in the above critical areas of

extension and presented and the findings were:

Institute Village Linkage Programme (IVLP)

Technology Assessment and Refinement (TAR) Programme implemented by of ICAR under

National Agricultural technology Project (NATP), is one of the institutionalised approach of

linking the farmers with the research, education and extension system in the country. Main

Objectives of TAR – IVLP are:

• To introduce technological interventions with emphasis on stability and

sustainability along with productivity and profitability taking into account

environmental issues in well endowed and small production systems.

• To introduce and integrate appropriate technologies to increase the productivity with

marketed surplus in commercial and off farm production systems.

• To monitor socio-economic impact of technological interventions for different

production systems.

Krishi Vigyan Kendra

Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) or (Farm Science Centres) are the interface mechanism

between the research and extension system in the country. The KVKs undertake technology

refinement with the involvement of farmers and scientists. As the KVKs continued to gain

strength and spread, its mandate also changed. From vocational training the focus shifted to

testing and demonstration of technologies during 1990s; to technology assessment and

refinement in the X Plan (2002-2007) and to 'Knowledge and Resource Centres' in 2009 in

the XI Plan.

The journey of KVKs has been remarkable enabling its existence in 600 districts till date and

by the end of XI plan, establishment of 667 KVKs is envisaged.

The Council has established 44 Agricultural Technology Information Centres (ATIC) in 16

ICAR Institutes and 28 State Agricultural Universities to work as ‘Single Window’ support

system, for linking the various units of research institution with intermediary users and

farmers in decision making and problem solving exercise though supply of technology

82 Synthesis Report

inputs, products, information and advisory services under Innovations the Technology

Dissemination (ITD) component of National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP),

funded by the World Bank.

At present, National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP), launched during 2006-07, is

being implemented by the Council in ‘Consortium’ mode through four major components:

(i) ICAR as catalyzing agent for management of change of National Agricultural Research

System (NARS); (ii) Production to Consumption Research; (iii) Sustainable Rural

Livelihood Security (SRLS); and (iv) Basic and Strategic Research in frontier areas of

agricultural sciences.

Nepal

In the beginning, there were no problems of coordination and linkage problems because of

less number of stakeholders, organizations and comparatively low level of transactions of the

farmers. Over the years, the growth occurred in terms of organizations, stakeholders and

transactions of the farmers that created the problems in linkages and coordination. As a

result, special mechanisms were developed gradually.

In this traditional system, farmers' problems were collected by extension agents and these

problems were brought to research for solution. The solutions provided by research system

would come to extension and ultimately to farmers through extension. Both research and

extension used to be public based. Extension used to remain in touch with farmers and,

therefore, considered as a bridge between research and farmers.

Farmers at the Center of Knowledge Triangle

The research, extension and education are considered the three pillars of the agricultural

knowledge system (AKS). It is also called the “agricultural knowledge triangle” which

places farmer at the center. The AKS integrates farmers, researchers, extensionists and

agricultural educators, enabling them to harness knowledge and information from various

sources to improve farming and livelihoods.

The concerned agencies are functionally connected in many ways. For all the stakeholders

focal point becomes the farmer. They are interlinked in terms of their services to end-users.

Value-chain approach.

As agricultural gets commercialized, it involves the production of crops and commodities for

sale rather than on-farm consumption and the use of sale proceeds to buy family and farm

requirements. To maximize benefits (or value added) from the business activity and be

sustainable, each participant in the delivery chain from producer to consumer must operate

efficiently, profitably and in collaboration with other participants in the chain. To be

efficient each link in the chain should be operating with the most appropriate technology, in

full knowledge of market requirements, and within a business environment where a fair and

transparent tax regime applies, trade impediments are minimized and acceptable quality

controls are in place. This is the concept of the Value Chain. A generic value chain system

for agricultural products is illustrated below.


Agricultural technology plays vital role in increasing agricultural productivity.

Transformation of subsistence agriculture into commercial one depends, to a large extent on

the modern farming technologies are available to the farmers and they adopt them. Research

centers are responsible to generate clientele oriented technology. Extension workers on the

other hands are responsible to disseminate the proven technologies developed by research

stations to the farming communities and bring back the problems and needs of the farmers to

the research centers.

A close working relationship between research and extension is vital in maintaining this

ideal linkage between r& e and hence in providing high quality agricultural services to

farmers.

Key components of the system for R & E Linkages in Nepal

At the Central Level

• Tripartite meeting

• Technical panel meeting

• National Agriculture Technical Working Group (NATWG)

• Seasonal crop and other technical workshops

At the regional level

• Outreach Research Program (ORP)

• Outreach Research Planning and Coordination Meeting (ORPCM)

• Regional Agriculture Technical Working Group (RATWG)

At the district and grassroots level

• District Agriculture Development Committee (DADC)

• District Agriculture Development Program Implementation Committee (DADPIC)

• Village Level Planning and Review Workshop

• Farmers Acceptance Test

Linkage and coordination between R&D institutions in Nepal is tailored in such a way that

there is a frequent interaction between different layers of institutions to get two-way

feedbacks for agriculture research and development. Linkage mechanism is targeted for

different hierarchy from central to district level where frequent interactions among institution

is a mandatory business so that coordination mechanism has been tied up in their annual

targets. NARC is technology generator while DoA and DLS are technology promoter. This

linkage and coordination mechanism has given a sense of responsibility to institutions

assigned to their respective job of technology development and technology dissemination.

Pakistan

In Pakistan linkages between research, extension and education are quite loose. The

university faculty and researchers in the research system are prone to writing of scientific

papers or articles without considering the relevance or applicability of their research

findings in the field. The researchers operate mostly in isolation and, therefore, their contact

with other organizations is quite limited. They seldom take part or encourage in extending

84 Synthesis Report

their research findings in farmers’ fields. They seldom get opportunities to formally meet

the extension workers particularly below the district level. Same is true for linkages between

the extension and academic institutions.

Agricultural universities at present are also performing only the teaching role whereas the

other two roles, namely research and extension, have suffered a severe setback because of

lack of funds and inappropriate linkages with research stations/centers and agriculture

extension programs under the administrative control of agriculture departments and the

corporate sector.

Even the communication or interface within and among the research organizations is

tenuous, resulting in duplication of research efforts and uncoordinated research programs

which are not aligned with the national needs and priorities. Such an environment points

towards the poor communications between the farm research, extension, education and

farmers. The linkage problem has further been exacerbated with the introduction of

extension devolution plan in Pakistan as the district governments have emphasis on physical

infrastructure and are least concerned with agricultural developments. Thus, the extension

staffs are not encouraged for out-of-district communications.

Sri Lanka

One of the constraints at present in farmer- research-extension linkage is ’One Grower –

Many Advisory Services’ while there is the need for more ground level extension workers as

well as stronger research-extension linkages.14

• Present linkages15

The importance of strengthening the linkage between research and extension has been

well recognized in the country. As a result several formal measures have been

introduced.

• Provincial Technical Working Group (PTWG)

Originally introduced to support the T&V system in early 1980s, the forum paves the

way for officers engaged in different disciplines to interact with each other and come to

an agreement with regard to sharing responsibilities for production programmes to be

implemented during the coming season. The provincial Director of Agriculture

Extension and Deputy Director (Research) of the Regional Research Institute act as “Co-

Chair” and the head of the Regional In-service Training Institute performs as the

Secretary. The PTWGs meet before the commencement of each cultivation season and

priorities for the on-coming seasons are agreed upon.

• Research-extension-training dialogues

The forums are organized during the season to analyze and discuss important fied

problems and to observe to what extent certain technologies can be adopted under

14 Samuel, R.R. 2011.Country Profile: Sri Lanka National Agricultural Extension System. Presentation ‘ Country Profile: Sri

Lanka National Agricultural Extension System. Workshop on’ National Agricultural Research System – An Analysis of the

System Diversity’ organized by SAC, November 23-24, 2011, Thimpu, Bhutan. 15 Mankotte, K.N. 2006. Agricuktural extenson in Sri Lana and different mechanisms available to strengthen research-extension

linkages. Proc. Regional Workshop on Research-Extension Linkages for Effective Delivery of Agricultural Technologies in

SAARC Countries.SAIC, 20-22 November 2006 held at NAARM, Hyderabad, India. SAIC,BARC Complex, Farmgate, Dhaka


different situations. The sessions are normally organized as a scheduled field tours

followed by technical discussion based on field observations. This strategy was also

introduced by the T&V system to strengthen linkages between research and extension.

• Crop clinics

During the cropping season when farmers face multitude of problems related to dffeent

disciplines, relevant researchers are to a pre-arranged location in the field by the

extension autrhorities in the area to interact with farmersFarmers are expected to carry

fresh specimens to enable researchers to make appropriate recommendations. Such

sessions help to solve a large number of problems and exrend the benefit of research-

extension linkage to the farmer level. In order to provide better service during these

clinics, arrangements are made to sell seeds, planting materials, technical publications

and also video programmes are also shown to the public.

• Field days

Although field days are organized as a normal extension function, researchers are invited

to some filed days, when some noteworthy event occurs in the field. This gives them an

opportunity to interact with farmers and understand different farming environments and

share experiences with farmers and extensionists. Also field days organized by Research

Institute to show new technologies. This provides an opportunity to develop dialogue

between researchers and extensionists.

• Mass media activities

In order to strengthen programme of DOA the Audio Visual Centre of the the DOA has

been equipped with resources to produce several technical television programmes per

week for the National Television Service “Rupavahini”. Also several radio programmes

are broadcast eekly by Farm Broadcast Service in Colombo and its regional units. The

printing press fulfills the need of producing technical print media materials for farmers.

Opportunities are given to relevant researchers and extensionists to serve as resource

persons in the production of both electronic and print media materials.

• Annual symposium of DOA

All senior technical officers of DOA are invited to the symposium and are given

opportunities to present their findings of research outcomes,experiences gained in

extension activities and socio-economic studies. The event has helped develop a better

understanding among officers of different disciplines throughout the country.

• Toll free extension service

This is a recently introduced innovative ICT to reach the farmer. In order to support the

present agricultural extension system which suffers from lack of sufficient extension

officers in the field and the delay in getting messages to farmers, the Ministry of

Agricultural Development has taken the initiative to provide a toll free extension service

to the DOA. Anyone can call the agricultural knowledge repository “call centre” through

a telephone where agriculturists of DOA as well as anyone from other departments are

assigned to answer the calls. In cases where an extension officer is unable to provide a

satisfactory answer, the caller is directed to relevant officers, including research officers.

86 Synthesis Report

• Agricultural technology parks

This concept of quick information dissemination mechanism was introduced recently

and two such parks have been established in an aesthetically pleasant environment. This

is a place to see live demonstration of some of the latest technical recommendations of

food crops with self explanatory digital posters. For visitors who need further

clarifications, agricultural instructors are assigned to each section of the park to assist

them. Researchers assist in establishing demonstrations and in deciding the technical

content of the posters. The technology serves as a “live agricultural university” for those

interested. It also serves as a place for discovery learning for students and demonstration

site for traditional agriculture in Sri Lanka. The Technology Park has become popular as

a place for agro tourism. Its long term sustainability requires close working relationship


• Cyber agriculture extension

As an ICT initiative, Cyber agricultural extension has been implemented in Sri Lanka

since 2004. This is an information exchange mechanism over cyber spaces. It utilizes the

power of on-line networks computer communications and interactive multimedia to

facilitate effective information exchange.

In view of the limitations of the original on-line cyber extension, digital extension

mechanism (wireless cyber extension) was introduced in a pilot project. Up until

December 2006, 45 cyber units were established as Agrarian Service Centre. The use of

interactive CD ROMS is the key feature of the digital extension mechanism. Technical

contents of these CD-ROMS are obtained from research institutes who extend their

support during the production process as well. After continuous monitoring and

evaluation over two years necessary steps have been taken to implement the on-line

cyber extension since 2006.Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) facility and internal

connection were provided by the cyber units.

The mechanism has improved the generation and collaborative use of agricultural

knowledge. Two-way communications through e-mail and internet between Agrarian

Service Centres, Research Stations, wextension agents and other private sector

organization have been implemented. Researchers in national research stations and

extension workers in rural villages can communicate with colleagues and experts with a

click of the mouse. Farmers with the assistance from the agricultural instructor can

communicate with agriculturists through e-mail. If farmers need to send visuals of their

field problems, either they can use scanned image or digital still photograph. By using

the web-camera and microphone, teleconference is also possible. Researchers and

farmers will now be able to agricultural problems face –to face in the cyber space

through internet. Similarly researchers can also discuss problems with other colleagues

and also extensionists via e-mail to find out more information about a problem.

• Researchers as trainers

It is common practice to get the assistance of researchers as resource persons in training

programmes. This creates an opportunity for the extension officers to discuss their field

experiences and give a feedback on the technical recommendation given by the

researchers, enabling them to understand each other better.


• Adaptive research programme

Research officers often conduct adaptive trials in farmers’ fields. Extension workers are

expected to assist in site selection, establishing and maintaining such trials. Success of

such a programme always depends on mutual understanding respect for each other.

• Disciplinary working group meetings

Research officers of a specific discipline of the country get together before the

commencement of each season. They discuss problems and set priorities. Scientists from

both Central and Provincial research institutes are invited to give them an opportunity to

contribute towards deciding research priorities. Representatives from the extension

service are also invited. This is also an opportunity to bring research and extension

together.

• Crop zoning programme

In order to develop backward villages, the DOA has launched crop zoning programme

Although the programme was initiated by the Research Division, officers involved in

extension, seed and planting material production also support the programme peforming

their respective roles.

Sri Lanka seems to have gathered the courage to challenge the weak linkage between

research and extension, although further strengthening are possible. The level of success

with rice production is taken as an example which would not have been possible without

a strong linkage between research and extension. Similar examples can be cited for

banana and pawpaw where research and extension have worked in “perfect harmony”16

(ii) Emerging trends of linkages

Bangladesh

Weak linkages of crop extension with non-crop sectors were identified as one of the main

constraints. It has been suggested that NATCC and ATCs would need to be revitalized and

strengthened in the crop sector, and the non-crop sectors participation would need to be

ensured as enunciated in the New Agricultural Extension Policy (NAEP).

Bhutan

Collaborative professional activities

Both research and extension can strengthen the linkages when they are involved in:

• Formal collaboration for on-farm trials, surveys and dissemination activities,

• Regular Joint visit,

• Informal sharing of tasks and responsibilities,

• Informal consultations,

• Periodic meetings,

16 Mankotte, K.N. 2006. Agricultural extension in Sri Lanka and different mechanisms available to strengthen research-

extension linkages. Proc. Regional Workshop on Research-Extension Lib\nkages for Effective Delivery of Agricultural

Technologies in SAARC Countries. SAARC Agricultural Incformation Centre, Dhaka and National Academy Agricultural Research Management, Hyderabad.

88 Synthesis Report

Communication approach

• Both researchers and extension can share their publications, audio materials, reports,

success stories. Experts from RNR-RDC many times are invited to be resource

persons in the training organized by extension agents. Some trainings and seminars

are organized and participated jointly.

Resource sharing for joint activities

• Some resource for strengthening linkage can be placed at e.g. Dzongkhags for on

farm trials but funds could only be used jointly with research.

• Assigning coordinating responsibilities

• Formal assignment for specific focused programme or activities can be given to a

certain individual, groups, programme in the research or extension.

India

The Department of Agriculture & Cooperation with the assistance of World Bank designed

and piloted a decentralized extension approach in the form of Agriculture Technology

Management Agency (ATMA) under NATP, which focused on agriculture diversification

and thereby made it more demand and market driven. ATMA is functioning towards

increasing farm income by organizing the farmers and farm women and making the system

viable through ‘decentralized, participatory and market driven’ approach. Participatory

knowledge generation, dissemination and sharing are integral part of ATMA. The storage

and retrieval issues at higher magnitude could be addressed with technology mediated

knowledge management (KM) strategies.

Moreover, the Department has initiated a number of programs under the XI Five Year Plan

(2007-2012) to help and guide the State Governments to take up scientific and technological

interventions for higher agriculture growth. Programs like Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana

(RKVY-National Agriculture Development Scheme), National Food Security Mission

(NFSM), National Horticultural Mission (NHM) & Technology Mission on horticulture,

Macro Management of Agriculture (MMA) scheme, Micro Irrigation and Watershed

Management, Integrated Scheme of Oil Seeds, Pulses and Maize (ISOPAM), Promotion of

Maize for food, nutrition and livelihood security, enhancing sustainability in dryland and

rainfed farming, Technology Mission on Cotton (TMC), National Bamboo Mission have

been launched. The Ministry started Special Initiatives for Pulses and Oilseeds in Dryland

Areas under RKVY by organising demonstrations in 60,000 pulses and oilseed villages.

Further, Terminal Market Complex Scheme has also been initiated in few states for

providing state-of-art facilities for electronic auction, storage, handling, and strengthening

offline backward and forward linkages to agricultural produces.

The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) in collaboration with NARS have been

rendering Agro-meteorological Advisory Services (AAS) about crop and livestock

management to farmers, extension personnel and other stakeholders in 127 agro climatic

zones of the country, which contributed to contingency planning, biotic and abiotic stress

management, managing enterprises of agriculture, livestock and fishery sector in changing

climatic situation and helping macro and micro-level planning. These services are delivered

through All India Radio, Television, Print media, Webinars, Emails, Mobile and other Multi-

media tools.


Nepal

As stated earlier, linkage and coordination between R&D institutions in Nepal is tailored in

such a way that there is a frequent interaction between different layers of institutions to get

two way feedbacks for agriculture research and development. Linkage mechanism is targeted

for different hierarchy comprising from central to district level where frequent interactions

among institutions is a mandatory business so that coordination mechanism has been tied up

in their annual targets. NARC is technology generator while DoA and DLS are technology

promoter. This linkage and coordination mechanism has given a sense of responsibility to

institutions assigned to their respective job of technology development and technology

dissemination.

Agriculture Service Centre at the grassroots level involve village Development Committee to

develop Pocket Package Programmes through undertaking PC/PS and PRA. Thus prepared

projects, in crude forms, are later translated by the ASC/ASSC in to the standard Project

Formulation Format (PPF) and eventually submitted to district planning Committee. Joint

research-extension-farmer–nongovernmental planning, implementing and monitoring

systems established help ensure the linkages at the grassroots level.

Pakistan

To establish effective and sustainable research-extension linkages, there is a need for a

careful analysis of the constraints and opportunities present in their particular situation and

providing ample funds required in institution-effective linkages and promoting technical

meetings and reciprocal visits by all stakeholders to each others’ institutions and field sites.

Sri Lanka

The importance of strengthening the linkage between research and extension has been well

recognized in the country. As a result several formal measures have been introduced. These

include:



• Crop clinics

• Field days









Sri Lanka appears to have gathered the courage to challenge the weak linkage between

research and extension, although further strengthening are possible.17

17 Mankotte, K.N. 2006. Agricultural extension in Sri Lanka and different mechanisms available to strengthen research-extension linkages. Proc. Regional Workshop on Research-Extension Linkages for Effective Delivery of Agricultural

90 Synthesis Report

(iii) Proposed interaction mechanism for research-education-

extension-farmers linkages

Bangladesh

Proposed integration mechanism and institutional reforms for strengthening

linkages

The suggestions are:

• Commitment on the parts of heads of mainstream line departments

• Ownership of the linkage forums to be worked out

• A secretariat for the NATCC, with specific functions, would have to be created.

• The Technology Transfer Monitoring Unit of BARC to be strengthened to act as a

conduit of research-extension linkage

In addition, it is to be noted that the Technology Transfer Monitoring Unit (TTMU) of

BARC was created with a view to improving research-extension linkages. TTMU is

expected to identify the technologies generated in ARIs and oversee the transfer of

technologies to extension agencies and farmers. However, there is a lack of accountability on

the part of ARIs on the one hand and the DAE on the other, to TTMU with regard to transfer

of technologies. The authority and function of TTMU have so far not been spelt out in this

regard.

It may, therefore, be recommended that:

• Each ARI should conduct workshops with participants from DAE, BARC and other

concerned organizations for developing effective programmes for extension of

improved technologies

• This action should be followed by and monitored by TTMU. Both the ARI and DAE

should be accountable to TTMU for transfer concerned technologies.

• The BARC Act should empower TTMU with required authority and responsibility.

In this context, the TTMU of BARC should be raised to the status of a Division of

BARC to be headed by Member Director and strengthened with required manpower

to handle the responsibilities.

• The TTMU will be well be better poised to serve as the Secretariat of NATCC.

Bhutan

Proposed integration mechanisms are:

• Collaborative professional activities


− Formal collaboration for on-farm trials, surveys and dissemination activities,

− Regular Joint visit,

− Informal sharing of tasks and responsibilities,

− Informal consultations,

− Periodic meetings

Technologies in SAARC Countries. SAARC Agricultural Incformation Centre, Dhaka and National Academy Agricultural Research Management, Hyderabad.


• Communication approach

Both researchers and extension can share their publications, audio materials, reports,

success stories. Experts from RNR-RDC many times are invited to be resource persons

in the training organized by extension agents. Some trainings and seminars are organized

and participated jointly.

• Resource sharing for joint activities

Some resource for strengthening linkage can be placed at one e.g. at Dzongkhags for on

farm trials but funds could only be used jointly with research.

• Assigning coordinating responsibilities:

Formal assignment for specific focused programme or activities can be given to a certain

individual, groups, programme in the research or extension.

India

The technical convergence of ATM and KVK at the grassroots level during the XII plan

period is one of the important aspects in strengthening the linkages between institutions and

farmers. In the similar way linking the farmers institutions like dairy cooperatives, farmer

interest groups (FIGs), Self help Groups (SHGs) etc with research and extension system

through creating a national level coordinating agency during the XII plan is planned.

Nepal

Nepal appears to have developed a good level of linkages at various levels.

Pakistan

Pakistan is in the process of decentralization and recognizes the need for integration.

Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka appears to have achieved a good level on integration in research extension linkage.

(iv) Institutional reforms for strengthening linkages in extension

Bangladesh

The proposed integration under 6(iv) above for Bangladesh is expected to strengthen

linkages.

Bhutan

Recently, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests undertook restructuring whereby research

implementation mandate of the Council for RNR Research of Bhutan (CoRRB) has been

transferred to respective technical departments. CoRRB is mandated to develop research

policy. This reform was primarily put in place to strengthen research–extension linkages and

92 Synthesis Report

collaboration. After restructuring, research centers have been renamed as Research and

Development Centers (RDC) and given the mandate of development.

India

In the larger districts, two KVKs have been established by the ICAR. Through National

Agricultural Development Programme, the state governments are provided with adequate

financial assistance for strengthening their research-education-extension infrastructure. In

addition, ICAR has taken initiatives to strengthen the SAUs with experiential learning units,

state of art facilities for creating e-learning facilities. Through the establishment of e-

connectivity facilities, ICAR has facilitated the interaction of scientists from ICAR research

institutes with the subject matter specialists of KVKs, farmers, and extension specialists in

the country.

Nepal

In the larger districts, two KVKs have been established by the ICAR. Through National

Agricultural Development Programme, the state governments are provided with adequate

financial assistance for strengthening their research-education-extension infrastructure. In

addition, ICAR has taken initiatives to strengthen the SAUs with experiential learning units,

state of art facilities for creating e-learning facilities. Through the establishment of e-

connectivity facilities, ICAR has facilitated the interaction of scientists from ICAR research

institutes with the subject matter specialists of KVKs, farmers, and extension specialists in

the country.

Pakistan

Since Pakistan is moving towards decentralization, it would need to give attention to

integration of its extension delivery system.

Sri Lanka

Various mechanisms adopted in Sri Lanka appear to have contributed to integration of the

extension stakeholders and the country report reveals its success in integration (see 6(i) and

6(ii) under Sri Lanka above).

Chapter Summary

Present linkages

In Bangladesh the research-extension linkages developed during the T&V system have

become weak with the withdrawal of the system. The country needs to make renewed efforts

to improve the linkages. Weak linkages of crop extension with non-crop sectors were

identified as one of the main constraints. It has been suggested that NATCC and ATCs

would need to be revitalized and strengthened in the crop sector, and the non-crop sectors

participation would need to be ensured as enunciated in the New Agricultural Extension

Policy (NAEP).


In the case of Bhutan, the extension coordination Committee (ECC), the Regional RNR

Planning and Coordination Workshop help maintain not only research-extension linkages but

also across the various sectors of rural development. In addition On-Farm Research

Programmes help to develop innovations consistent with farmer’s circumstances drawn up

in consultation among research and extension staff with participation of farmers. RNR sector

officers and Dzongkhag (district) specialists participate in planning, implementation and

evaluation of on-farm programmes and work closely with farmers.

In India, multiplicity of too many extension providers results in duplication of efforts and

there is the need for coordinated attempt to synergize and converge these efforts. An exercise

undertaken in this respect suggests to:

• Institute Village Level Linkage Programme (IVLP)

• Establish ‘Single Widow Service’ under the Innovations and Technology

Dissemination (ITD) component of National Agricultural Technology Project

(NATP).

In Nepal, the AKS (Agriculture Knowledge System) integrates farmers, researchers and

extensionists and agricultural educators and enable them to harness knowledge and

information from various sources. The concerned agencies are functionally connected.

The key components of the research and extension linkages involve meetings of the

stakeholders at the central, regional, district and grassroots level so that frequent interaction

between different layers of institutions to get two-way feedbacks are ensured. The

coordination mechanism has given a sense of responsibility to institutions assigned to their

respective job of technology development and technology dissemination.

In Pakistan, however, the linkages between research, extension and education are deemed

quite loose. The researchers are alleged to operate in isolation, they seldom get opportunities

to formally meet the extension workers particularly below the district level. The seems to be

case with extension and academic institutions. The linkage problem has further exacerbated

with the devolution plan as the district government which now is the focal point for

developments are least concerned with agricultural development. Thus extension staffs are

not encouraged for out-of- district communications.

In Sri Lanka, ‘One Grower – Many Advisory Services’ is a constraint in farmer-research-

extension linkage while there is the need for more ground level extension worker. The

linkage problem has been well recognized and as a result several measures have been

introduced:

• Provincial Technology Working Group

• Research extension training dialogues

• Crop clinics

• Field days






• Researcher as trainer


94 Synthesis Report



In conclusion the linkage position may be stated as follows:

Bangladesh needs to develop linkage with educational and research institutes in developing

both pre-service and in-service HRD development curricula, It would appear that Nepal and

Bhutan developed linkage mechanisms which involve all stakeholders with their active

participation. In India a strong institutional base has been created but multiplicity of HRD

schemes can create confusion. In Pakistan HRD aspect is extension is neither regular nor

adequate. Both pre-service and in-service training need improvement. Sri Lanka is giving

priority to the farming sector after the end of internal conflict in 2009.

Emerging trends in linkages

In Bangladesh NATCC and ATCs would need to be revitalized and strengthened in the crop

sector, and the non-crop sectors participation would need to be ensured as enunciated in the

New Agricultural Extension Policy (NAEP).

Bhutanese experiences suggest that linkages can be improved through collaborative

activities, community approach, resource sharing and assigning coordination responsibilities

to a certain individual, groups or committee.

In India, the Participatory knowledge generation, dissemination and sharing are integral

part of ATM and many programmes. These are expected to improve research-education-

extension-farmer.

In Nepal, linkage and coordination between R&D institutions allows interaction between

different layers of institutions from central to district. This linkage and coordination

mechanism has given a sense of responsibility to institutions assigned to their respective job

of technology development and technology dissemination.

In Pakistan there is the need for careful analysis of constraints and opportunities and

making resources available effective linkages.

In Sri Lanka various measures undertaken are expected to improve linkages.

Proposed interaction mechanism for linkages

Bangladesh has identified the mechanisms for better research-extension interaction. They

propose to strengthen the TTMU of BARC to enable it play an effective role between

research and extension. These need attention of policymakers for implementation.

Bhutan proposes (i) collaborative professional activities, (ii) community approach,

(iii) resource sharing and (iv) assigning coordinating responsibilities to certain groups or

committees.

In India, the technical convergence of ATM and KVK at the grassroots level has helped

strengthening linkages between institutions and farmers. They further suggest that linking

farmers institutions (dairy cooperatives, Farmer interest groups, self help groups with

research and extension through a national level coordinating agency.


Nepal appears to have developed a good level of linkages at various levels. Pakistan is in the

process of decentralization while Sri Lanka appears to have achieved a good level of

integration in research-extension linkages.

Institutional reforms for strengthening linkages

Bangladesh emphasizes the strengthening of TTMU of BARC of as stated above.

Bhutan has recently transferred research responsibility in agriculture, livestock and forest to

respective technical departments from CoRRB while CoRRB is now expected to develop

research policy and collaboration. The reform is expected to strengthen research-extension

linkages.

In India, state governments are encouraged to strengthen their research-education-extension-

farmers linkages through national Agricultural Development Programme. ICAR has taken

initiatives to strengthen SAUs with experimental learning creating e-learning and

connectivity through establishment interaction of scientists with extension specialists and

farmers.

Nepal has already developed a system where integration of stakeholders is ensured at each

level. Pakistan is moving towards decentralization but needs to give attention to linkages of

stakeholders.

Various mechanisms adopted in Sri Lanka appear to have contributed to integration of the

extension stakeholders and the country report reveals its success in integration (see 5(i) and

5(ii) above).

96 Synthesis Report

CHAPTER

Incentive Structure of Extension Systems in SAARC Countries

Bangladesh

The present incentive structure in Bangladesh extension is outlined below:

Step 1: Selection of Upazila SAAO of the Year

• Each officer of the Upazila (UAO, AEO, AAEO & JAEO) individually selects three

highest performing SAAOs that they work with based on an Evaluation Sheet

• All SAAOs fill in a self evaluation sheet

• The supervisory officers in the Upazila meet to consider all selections and

recommend three highest performing SAAOs (Block Supervisors) to the Deputy

Director of the district.

• The Deputy Director audits the performance of the selected SAAOs through

assessment of performance and speaking to farmers in the concerned block before

making a final decision of the “Upazila SAAO of the Year”.

Step 2: Selection of SAAO of the Year

• The Deputy Director of the district and the Upazila Agriculture Officers pay

attention to the following sources of information

− Direct feedback from farmers

− The SAAO Dairy

− The SAAO Demonstration Register

− Seasonal Extension Monitoring Systems (SEMS) Form

− Fortnightly Work Programme

− Farmer Information Needs Assessment (FINA) Report

The SAAO, scoring the highest, is declared as “The SAAO of the Year”

Bhutan

Incentives are given in the form of cash awards, out of term promotions, certificate of

recognition, certificate of recognition and training opportunities. Continuous under

performance could mean delayed promotion, limited training opportunities. This could lead

to disciplinary actions. The concerned Dzongkhags and the Departments monitor the

performance of the extension staff. Cash reward and recognition at present in done at the

national level and only the best few are recognized.

Recognition of extension staff need to be decentralized and could be done at Dzongkhag

level. More incentive structure could be put in place so that more and more extension staff

could be accommodated to recognize there input.

7


India

The pay and allowances of the extension professionals in the country are governed by the

provisions of sixth pay commission pay structure. The pay scale varies according to the level

and cadre of the employee. Some of the State Governments adopts their own pay scale

instead of central Government prescribed pay scale. Beyond salary, there does not seem to be

any additional incentives. However, there are prizes and rewards (described below)

Nepal

It appears that Nepal is yet to introduce incentives in agricultural extension work.

Pakistan

Generally, there exists no system of incentives and career advancement for good extension

workers. The field assistant, who is the front line worker, is recruited at a low level of pay scale

with two-year practical training course at an Agricultural Training Institute, after high school

certificate and generally retires in the same grade. Similarly, the chances of promotion for

Agricultural Officers who posses Masters’ Degree in Agriculture are also limited. They

generally get promotion one step above the initial scale of recruitment.


Bangladesh has introduced incentive structure through “SAAO of the Year” award. In

Bhutan incentive is given in the form of cash awards, out of term promotion, certificate of

recognition, and training opportunities. India does not have a separate incentive scheme

except the normal service rules. Nepal is yet to introduce incengtives for agricultural

extension work. The same appears to be the case with Pakistan while Sri Lanka’s incentive

structure was not available.

Career advancement schemes in extension systems of SAARC

countries

Bangladesh

Bangladesh does not seem to have any special career advancement scheme for extension

workers beyond the prescribed government service rules based on seniority in jobs. The

country, however, has introduced an award system described below [{see 6(iii)].

Bhutan

In line with the Position Classification System (PCS), extension staff is provided with

opportunities to improve his/her their professional qualification in order to enhance their

career opportunities. Priority is given to those who have the potential and proven outstanding

performance and contribution. To this effect, the departments initiate proper training

identification and training needs assessment to ensure proper and required impact (HR

committee). Based on the identification, appropriate in-service training is made available.

98 Synthesis Report

The ex-country training is also decided on the training needs identified and the selection is

based on performance.

Human Resources Management (HRM) Division coordinates with the line departments and

agencies and based on the database select candidates to ensure transparency, fairness and

relevance. Development of the Subject Matter Specialist (SMS) is pursued to strengthen the

capacity of the extension system. In-country B.Sc in Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry has

been initiated since 2010. First batch of student with in-country B.Sc degree will come out in

December 2011.

Geog extension staffs with diploma, who enter the civil service in S-2 level, can rise up to P-

5 in the position classification system. Those with undergraduate degree can go up to P-2

level. In the PCS, educational degree is one of the main factors for upward movement. PCS

also allows horizontal movement of staff at all level. Extension staff with Master’s degree

and above can vertically move up to EX/ES –I which is equivalent to the Secretary level.

India

There is a well laid promotion policy adopted in the NARS wherein the ARS scientists

working with ICAR are covered under the revised career advancement system implemented

by ICAR according to the sixth pay commission pay scales. The entry level scientists are

assessed to the next grade pay after four years in well defined assessment criteria. In a

similar way the subsequent promotions are granted after subjecting the scientists, in a

periodical manner, according to their job structure and responsibilities.

However, The Subject Matter Specialists working in the KVKs are governed by the technical

service rules of ICAR for those KVKs under ICAR and the SAU system follows the UGC

pay scales and the CAS.

Nepal

Like Bangladesh, Nepal also does not seem to have any special career advancement scheme

beyond the general government service rules.

Pakistan

While looking at the entire spectrum of problems faced by the agriculture extension system

which adversely affects its performance, inadequate financial support and low morale of the

functionaries figure significantly which are attributable to:

• Inadequate opportunities for skills and qualification up-gradation through in-service

training in country and abroad.

• Insufficient chances and lack of criteria for regular promotion based on merit and

output.

• Poor working conditions which include lack of residences, office accommodation,

transport and health insurance.

• Seriously low funding level for extension field operations.


Performance Based Promotion System (PBPS)

The existing service structure is based on seniority system and is vacancy oriented. A staff often

waits for his/her turn of promotion till their retirement. There are many cases where a staff

member retired in the same grade in which he was recruited. This has resulted in frustration, low

morale and ultimately brain drain from the system. A proposal is under consideration to

introduce performance-based promotion for extension professionals on the pattern of PARC.

An incentive system needs to be worked out where those who perform better than the majority

of extension staff may be granted extra incentives.


Bangladesh extension system does not seem to have any special career advancement scheme

for extension personnel beyond the prescribed government service rules. In Bhutan

opportunities to improve professional career of potential extension of workers are provided

through in-service as well as ex-country training including opportunities for higher

educational degree. In India, SMSs working under ICAR are governed by technical service

rules. The SAU system in states follows the University Grants Commission (UGC) for career

advancement. Like Bangladesh, Nepal does not appear to have any special career scheme

beyond the general government service rules. In Pakistan, the career advancement

opportunities is very limited. However, a proposal is under consideration to introduce

Performance based promotion. The incentive opportunities was not available.

Prize and reward system in agricultural extension of SAARC

countries

Only Bangladesh, Bhutan and India have introduced reward systems in their agricultural

extension systems. Other countries are yet to introduce such prize and reward system as an

incentive to good work.


recognition, and training opportunities,

In India, a good number of awards and reward system has been established to encourage the

employees, farmers, rural youths. ICAR has instituted nineteen national level awards in

various fields of agriculture. Among them, for KVKs there is one national level best KVK

award and eight zonal level best KVK awards instituted for encouraging the good work by

KVKs across the country.

Individual awards like best extension worker/scientist award, awards for press coverage on

agricultural news items, best teacher awards, young scientists awards, rural youth awards,

society awards by different extension societies, annual awards by department of agriculture

at central and state level are existing to encourage the extension professionals, famers and

extension activities in the country.

100 Synthesis Report

HR management in extension systems of SAARC countries

HR management was covered only by country papers of Bhutan and India.

Bhutan

The Ministry of Agriculture and Forests at present have more than 3000 staffs (RNR 10th

Plan, 2009). These human resources are posted at different departments, divisions and

centers. Almost half of these staffs are working at Dzongkhags level. In the 10th FYP, the

MoAF has proposed to increase its staff strength by 50 percent but at the same time around

300 existing staff will retire from their service.

Most Geogs are staffed with an extension staff, each from Agriculture and Livestock.

Recently, forestry extension staff’s are also being posted in the Geog centres. Most of the

extension staff at the Geog level have diploma from the College of Natural Resources

(CNR). Sector head at the Dzongkhag level mostly have undergraduate degree.

Recruitment, posting and transfer of extension staff are done by the Ministry but once they

are posted in Dzongkhags and Geogs, they are administratively under the Dzongkhag

administration. Although extension staffs are technically responsible to the Ministry of

Agriculture and Forests, their direct line of authority is through the Dasho Dzongdag

(District Commissioner) who is an official within the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs.

The day-to-day engagement and incentives of extension staff are looked after by Dzongkhag

Administration. Dzongdags (District Commissioner) have the authority to control the

availability of extension staff for training and in some cases allocates them to other duties.

At times, in the interest of the public and the programme of the local government,

Dzongdags recommend the Ministry to retain or cancel the transfer of extension staff.

Promotion of extension staff posted at Geogs and Dzongkhag is handled by Dzongkhag

authority up to the P-1 level.

India

The human resource management in the extension is governed by the well structured

provisions of in service trainings, short, medium and long duration trainings. The number of

vacant posts are about 32 percent and efforts are being made to fill up these posts during the

XII plan period.

Chapter Summary

Incentive structure: Present status and future outlook

Bangladesh has introduced incentive structure through “SAAO of the Year” award. In


recognition, and training opportunities. India does not have a separate incentive scheme

except the normal service rules. Nepal is yet to introduce incengtives for agricultural

extension work. The same appears to be the case with Pakistan while Sri Lanka’s incentive

structure was not available.


Career advancement scheme

Bangladesh extension system does not seem to have any special career advancement scheme

for extension personnel beyond the prescribed government service rules. In Bhutan

opportunities to improve professional career of potential extension of workers are provided

through in-service as well as ex-country training including opportunities for higher

educational degree. In India, SMSs working under ICAR are governed by technical service

rules. The SAU system in states follows the University Grants Commission (UGC) for career

advancement. Like Bangladesh, Nepal does not appear to have any special career scheme

beyond the general government service rules. In Pakistan, the career advancement

opportunities is very limited. However, a proposal is under consideration to introduce

Performance Based Promotion. The incentive opportunities was not available. for Sri

Lanka.

Prize and reward systems

Bangladesh has introduced, as mentioned above, “SAAO of the Year” award. In Bhutan

incentive is given in the form of cash awards, out of term promotion, certificate of

recognition, and training opportunities.

Similarly, in Bhutan incentive is given in the form of cash awards, out of term promotion,

certificate of recognition, and training opportunities, as also mentioned above.

In India, a good number of awards and reward system has been established to encourage the




KVKs across the country.




at central and state level are existing to encourage the extension professionals, farmers and


Other countries do not appear to have prize and reward systems. Pakistan while Sri

Lanka’s do not appear to have incentive structure is not available.

HR management

Except Bhutan and India, other countries have not covered HR management in their

country papers. The cases of Bhutan and India are discussed below.

Bhutan


Plan, 2009). These human resources are posted at different departments, divisions and

centers. Almost half of these staffs are working at Dzongkhags level. In the 10th FYP, the

MoAF has proposed to increase its staff strength by 50 percent but at the same time around

300 existing staff will retire from their service.


Most Geogs are staffed with an extension staff, each from Agriculture and Livestock.

Recently, forestry extension staff’s are also being posted in the Geog centres. Most of the

extension staff at the Geog level have diploma from the College of Natural Resources

(CNR). Sector head at the Dzongkhag level mostly have undergraduate degree.


are posted in Dzongkhags and Geogs, they are administratively under the Dzongkhag

administration. Although extension staffs are technically responsible to the Ministry of

Agriculture and Forests, their direct line of authority is through the Dasho Dzongdag

(District Commissioner) who is an official within the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs.

The day-to-day engagement and incentives of extension staff are looked after by Dzongkhag

Administration. Dzongdags (District Commissioner) have the authority to control the

availability of extension staff for training and in some cases allocates them to other duties.

At times, in the interest of the public and the programme of the local government,

Dzongdags recommend the Ministry to retain or cancel the transfer of extension staff.

Promotion of extension staff posted at Geogs and Dzongkhag is handled by Dzongkhag

authority up to the P-1 level.

India



vacant posts is about 32 percent and efforts are being made to fill up these posts during the

XII plan period.


CHAPTER

Monitoring and Evaluation of Extension Systems

(i) Institutional review and programme review

Only Bhutan and India country papers covered institutional review/programme review in

connection with monitoring and evaluation in their country papers. Other countries are yet to

take up the matter.

Bhutan

The need to streamline and institute an effective system for monitoring and evaluation of

development plans has been recognized for a long time in the country. In response to this

need, Gross National Happiness Commission (GNHC) has developed the National

Monitoring and Evaluation System (NMES) as a standard system for monitoring and

evaluating the development plans by line Ministries, Agencies, Dzongkhags and Geogs.

Gross National Happiness Commission (GNHC), as the central coordinating agency for

development planning, monitoring and evaluation, has developed a standardized monitoring

and evaluation system for efficient and effective undertaking of monitoring and evaluation of

development policies, programmes and projects. The system has been developed in

conformity with the Good Governance Plus Report 2005 of Bhutan.

At the Ministry level RNR –GNH Committee is the highest body to monitor the progress of

the plan, programme and project. It is chaired by Secretary and represented by head of the

departments and agencies.

India

In India, the inbuilt component of ATMA is concurrent monitoring and evaluation of the

programmes undertaken at the district level. The governing body and AMC of ATMA

monitor and evaluate the work during its monthly meeting.

(ii) Monitoring of extension programmes

Bangladesh

Monitoring and evaluation is accomplished through the review of SAAOs’ Diaries, the

Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) and the Knowledge, Attitude, Practice

(KAP) Survey system.

This assessment process is accomplished through the conduct of Technical Audits and the

Work Programming System.

SAAO’ Diary

The SAAOs diary is one of the most important tools used in operating DAE's extension

approach, and can be used to support monitoring and evaluation. During the day-today

8


work of the SAAOs, the diary acts as a recording tool and should show what is done, with

whom, and what the response was. Farmer problems are recorded, farmers names listed, and

farmers reactions to participating in events are noted - especially in the case of individual

farm visits. The diary is an important source of detailed block level information about what

is working well, and why, and what is not working well and why.

The Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS)

The Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) is designed to help extension staff

record indicators of the performance of extension programs, and to summarize and interpret

this information in order to help make future planning decisions

Indicators Used in SEMS

Contact: How many farmers (male and female, large and small) attended extension events,

and what was the cost per farmer.

Understanding: How many farmers who attended understood the ideas (technologies)

contained in the extension event, and what was the cost per farmer who understood.

Testing: How many of the farmers who attended think that they would try the ideas

(technologies) contained in the extension event and what was the cost per farmer who

intended to test?.

These are the primary indicators of the performance of extension programs. They should

occur in sequence based on the assumption that contact leads to understanding, which leads

to testing.

Bhutan

The first level of extension programme monitoring is done by District RNR sector and the

Geog administration based on the Geog plans and the progress report submitted by the Geog

staff. They participate in random sample survey for result monitoring.

Field activities are also monitored through regular visit by the Dzongkhag sector heads and

the officials from the Department and Ministry. There is a quarterly reporting system

whereby Geog staff submit report on the progress made in a prescribed format to the

Dzongkhag RNR sector head. At the Dzongkhag level, report from the geogs are compiled

and submitted to planning officer who finally uploads the report online using National

Monitoring and Evaluation system.

Besides, Dzongkhag administrations and Departments, Extension Coordination committee

(ECC) also monitor extension activities from time to time.

India

Monitoring and evaluation including follow-up

Monitoring and evaluation cells were established in 32 institutes to strengthen priority

setting, monitoring, and impact assessment work within and outside the NATP Project.

Similarly, NAIP also has got a well laid monitoring and evaluation system inbuilt in the


project component. The periodical review through quarterly, half yearly and annual reports

project progress review workshop are some of the monitoring and evaluation mechanism in

operation.

KVKs are monitored through the Zonal Projectors situated in eight zones. In addition, the

Director of Extension of SAUs are given the overseeing responsibilities. Scientific Advisory

Committee of the KVKs reviews the progress of the KVK work in the district.

Zonal workshops, regional committee and interface meetings are other inbuilt provisions in

the KVK system for continuous monitoring of the project. The KVK activities are evaluated

by a group of experts during the annual zonal workshop and annual action plan meetings.

Periodical third party evaluation also conducted by high power committee through travel

workshops and quinquennial review team. The strong evaluation of the activities helps to

revisit the mandate, activities and continuous improvements in the programme. National

level rabi and kharif conferences help to evaluate the programmes progress with respect to

demonstrations, yield improvement achieved in the farmers field etc.

Nepal

A variety of means are available for use by extension program and project managers and

other stakeholders in monitoring a program or project.

Work plans

Program or project managers must prepare annual work plans. The work plan should

describe in detail the delivery of inputs, the activities to be conducted (which one and how)

and expected results. They should clearly indicate schedules and persons and/or institution

responsible for providing the inputs producing results. The work plan should be used as the

basis for monitoring the progress of program or project implementation. To keep higher

government authorities and even donor informed of the progress of programs or project,

managers should also provides them with work plan which simply indicate critical

milestones in implementation with the corresponding time table and responsible actors.

Field visit

Program or project managers must make field visit at regular intervals and adequate

budgetary resource should be allocated for this purpose. In addition to inspecting the sites,

physical output and services of the program or project, the visit must focus on interaction

with target groups to obtain their views on how the program or project is affecting them

(directly or indirectly, positively or negatively) and their proposed solutions to perceived

problems. Person under taking the field visit must prepare their reports either at the site or

immediately after the visit, focusing on relevance and performance, including early signs of

potential problem or success areas.

Stakeholders Meetings

The objective of stakeholder meeting is to involve the major stakeholders in addressing

issues that pertain to the programs or project, thereby creating a sense of ownership. Besides

the executing and implementing agencies and other development partner, it is essential that


target groups expected to be affected by the programs or projects, be included in the

discussion of issues relevant to them.

Systematic Reporting during Implementation

Program or project management must prepare monitoring reports more frequently (eg

monthly, quarterly and /or semi annually) to serve its internal management requirements and

also to submit to the higher authorities. The executing agency must also submit an annual

report to the reporting agencies on the relevance, performance and likelihood of success of

the program or project.

Terminal reports

Upon completion of a program or project, the executing agency must prepare a terminal

report that focuses on the relevance and performance of the project, the likelihood of its

ultimate success, and the initial lessons learned in term of best and worst practices. The

report should also contain recommendations for follow-up action by appropriate institutions

where necessary.

Existing M & E Arrangements in the Department of Agriculture and Livestock

(i) At service center/ sub center level

Field observation

Meeting with farmers group

Progress reporting

Documentation

Reporting formats and time of reporting

Monthly progress report, every month

Quarterly progress report, every four month

Basic statistical form, annually

Bimonthly problem report, every two month

(ii) At the district level

Field observation from time to time

Monthly staff meeting

Review of last months progress

Decisions on the next month's program

Problems encountered and action taken for solution

Input supply situation

Standing crop condition

Organizing coordination meeting with line agencies compilation and reporting of progress

report and publication of agriculture information

Media publication

Participation and presentation of progress at regional directorate and district council

Updating district database





Achievement evaluation form, every quarter



Project status report, every quarter

Performance evaluation form, every quarter

(iii) At the Regional Directorate level

Field observation/supervision from time to time and monitoring of on going programs

Organizing quarterly progress review of program implemented under the region

Compilation and reporting of progress reports

Media publication

Organizing coordination meeting with line agencies

Periodic reviewing of the regional crop/livestock situation









(iv) At the departmental level

Compilation and reporting of progress reports/publication of progress report

Organizing department level progress review meeting

Coordination among line agencies at the department level

Periodic field observations

Coordinating all program directorates to overcome technical problems faced by the districts

Decision over the solution on problems encountered by the districts

Participation in regional as well as ministry level program review workshop









(v) At the ministry level


Organizing ministry level review meeting


Decision to overcome the problems for effective implementation of the programs

Compilation, reporting and publication of progress reports

Pakistan

According to section 37 of devolution plan, the monitoring committees are elected by the

District Council. The composition of District Council includes Chairman, Deputy Chairman

district council peasant and women representatives and representatives of minority. Most of the

members of such dispositions are neither qualified nor competent enough to undertake such a

technical task. Therefore, it becomes very difficult for the members of the district councils to

monitor and evaluate the performance the technical staff. Therefore, the evaluation by such

committees mostly does not occur and in some cases it turns out to be unfair and biased. Such

evaluation also has a political bend.

Under section 138, there is a special mention of a few committees which have been empowered

to conduct monitoring of functionaries of the whole range of district government including

agricultural extension. This again will involve staff performance. The committees are supposed

to prepare evaluation report of the staff of each office on a prescribed proforma in relation to the

following;

• Achievements of its target.

• Responsiveness to citizen difficulties.

• Efficiency in the delivery services, and

• Transparent function.

Smmary Observations on monitoring of extension programs

In Bangladesh monitoring is accomplished through the review of SAAOs’ Diaries, the

Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) and evaluation through the Knowledge,

Attitude, Practice (KAP) Survey system.

In Bhutan, the first level of extension programme monitoring is done by the District RNR

sector and the Geog administration, based on the Geog plans. The Geog staffs participate in

random sample survey for result monitoring.



whereby Geog staff submit report in a prescribed format on the progress made to the

Dzongkhag RNR sector head. At the Dzongkhag level, report from the Geogs are compiled

and submitted to planning officer who finally uploads the report online using the National

Monitoring and Evaluation system. Besides, Dzongkhag administrations and Departments,

Extension Coordination committee (ECC) also monitor extension activities from time to

time.

In India, Monitoring and evaluation cells were established in 32 institutes to strengthen

priority setting, monitoring, and impact assessment work within and outside the NATP

Project. Similarly, and as stated above, NAIP also has got a well laid monitoring and

evaluation system inbuilt in the project component. The periodical review through quarterly,

half yearly and annual reports and project progress review workshop are some of the

monitoring and evaluation mechanism in operation.


KVKs are monitored through the Zonal Projects. In addition, the Directors of Extension of

SAUs are given the overseeing responsibilities. Scientific Advisory Committee of the KVK

reviews the progress of the KVK work in the district.


the KVK system for continuous monitoring of projects. The KVK activities are evaluated by

a group of experts during the annual zonal workshop and annual action plan meetings.


workshops and the quinquennial review team. The strong evaluation of the activities helps to


level rabi and kharif conferences help to evaluate programmes progress with respect to


Nepal has developed a detail monitoring and evaluation system where programmes are

projectized and annual work plans prepared describing delivery of project inputs, activities

and expected results. Monitoring and evaluation is done based on the work plans covering

regular field visits, stakeholder meetings, target groups meetings followed by systematic

reporting monthly, quarterly and/or semi annually indicating performance and likelihood of

success.

On completion of a programme, the executing agency prepares the terminal report focusing

on relevance, performance, likely hood of ultimately success and lessons learnt. The report

also contains recommendations for follow up action.

The M&E arrangements at service centre/sub-centre, district, regions, and the department

levels and their reporting formats and time of delivery are clearly laid out.

In Pakistan, the monitoring committees are elected by the District Council. Most of the

members are neither qualified nor competent enough to undertake such a technical task. It

becomes very difficult for the members of the district councils to monitor and evaluate the

performance the technical staff. Therefore, the evaluation by such committees mostly does not

occur and in some cases it turns out to be unfair and biased. Such evaluation also has a political

bend.

(iii) Follow up of monitoring of extension activities

Bangladesh

Decisions made using SEMS indicators

Monitoring and evaluation helps to make management decisions which can be made with the

help of SEMS are:

Technology Selection: What agricultural innovations should be included in extension

programs?

Method Selection: Which extension methods should be included in extension programs?

Area Selection: Which areas (specific upzila, districts or regions) should be supported or

supervised more closely.

SEMS should show which technologies are most or least successful, which extension

methods are the most or least successful, and which areas are running the most or least


successful extension programs. On the basis of the information, many decisions can be made

and actions taken to continually improve the extension service offered to farmers.

Listed below are some of the actions that can be taken to improve low performing

technologies, extension methods or areas.

Poor Technologies

• adjust the technology, with help from research staff and the farmers who have tested;

• change the extension method - for example, use group training rather than result

demonstrations;

• improve the extension events - use better publicity, hold events at more suitable

times, use more appropriate venues; reduce the budget and resources for the

technology in the next extension program.

Poor Methods

• adjust the extension 'method;

• train staff to implement the method more effectively;

• reduce the number of events of this type in the next extension program;

• use the extension method in combination with other extension methods - for

example, add more field days to result demonstrations;

• delete the poor extension method from future extension programs.

Poor Area

• organize extra training for the staff in this area;

• increase the frequency of supervision visits to this area, including the use of

Technical Audits;

• provide more advice on the selection of technologies and extension methods for

inclusion in programs;

• reduce the budget for this area, reducing the size of the program until performance

improves.

• SEMS information about contact, understanding and testing also help improve the

quality of extension programs. Where contact, understanding or testing is low, the

following actions can be taken:

Low Contact

• offer more interesting technologies;

• improve publicity to attract more farmers to events;

• hold events at appropriate times;

• review the selection of groups used for this activity;

• hold events in appropriate places.

Low Understanding

• improve the way in which new ideas are presented - for example, use simple

language, visual aids, live specimens;

• train staff in implementing extension events;


• train staff in facilitation skills;

• use alternative extension events - for example, rather than Upzila Training Days, use

more village level group meetings.

Low Testing

• improve the quality of extension events at which the particular technology is

discussed;

• adjust the technology, with the help of research staff and feedback from farmers, to

make it more appropriate to farmers needs and conditions.

The decisions that are taken will depend on the type of farmers involved. For example, when

changing the timing or location of extension· events, consideration should be given to

whether the target group are male or female, as they may have different preferences for

timing and venue. Decisions about corrective action can be made with the help of additional

items of information which are collected in SEMS - secondary indicators. A selection

includes:

Extension Methods

• publicity effectiveness;

• timeliness of event;

• accessibility.

Technology

• profitability, or cost-benefit analysis;

• risk;

• initial capital requirement;

• labour requirement.

Bhutan

Observation made during the monitoring and the follow-up activities are presented to GTY

and DYT which normally meets twice a year. Follow-up are also done during the quarterly

RNR meet at the Dzogkhag level and the field visit by sector heads and MoAF staff from

region and central agencies.

India

Covered under 6(ii): Monitoring of extension activities above.

Nepal

Covered under 6(ii): Monitoring of extension activities above

Pakistan

Monitoring appears to need further development. This part not covered in the country paper.



Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) followed in Bangladesh leads to decision as

to which technologies are most successful or least successful, which extension methods are

most or least successful, which area (upazila, district or region) are running the most or least

successful extension programmes. The criteria for selection are clearly laid out which help

the decision making.

SEMS information about contact (how many farmers participated in an extension event),

understanding (how many farmers understood the extension idea) and testing (how many

farmers are interested to test/try the ideas) helps to improve the quality of extension service.

In the case of Bhutan, Observation made during the monitoring and the follow-up activities

are presented to GTY and DYT which normally meets twice a year. Follow-up are also done

during the quarterly RNR meet at the Dzogkhag level and the field visit by sector heads and

MoAF staff from region and central agencies.

For India and Nepal, the follow up was covered under 6(ii) ‘Monitoring of extension

program’.

Pakistan needs to further improve the monitoring and evaluation system.

The monitoring and system of Sri Lanka was not available.

(iv) Evaluation and follow up of extension programmes

(Not covered in the country paper but the following is extracted from Extension

Manual)

Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) Survey is an evaluation technique which shows the

actual reaction of farmers to exposure to new ideas. While Seasonal Extension Monitoring

System shows what happens at extension events, KAP shows what happens after the event.

KAP is used by District and Thana offices to improve the effectiveness of extension work.

KAP surveys are implemented to show if farmers:

− have retained KNOWLEDGE of the technology

− have a positive ATTITUDE towards the technology

− actually practice the technology.

KAP is carried out normally at District or Thana level because most planning decisions are

taken at these levels. There are six steps of evaluation:

− Selecting the technology

− Collecting participation records of farmers

− Designing and pre-testing the survey form

− Conducting interviews

− Summarizing and analyzing results

− Reporting the findings.

There should be random selection of farmers who participated in the extension event.

There is no standard layout for a KAP questionnaire form. The details depend on the features

of the technology. However, there are three parts of a KAP questionnaire:


PART A: Contains the identification details such as the technology, season, the name and

location of farmer, the gender of farmer, and the farm size of the farmer interviewed.

PART B: Contains the contact details and verifies that the farmer actually attended the

extension event.

PART C: Contains the actual KAP assessment, and assesses the knowledge of the

technology, farmer’s attitude towards the technology and the farmer’s actual practice.

• The analysis must clearly identify the causes of problems and successes and draw

conclusion for required action.

• Reporting the findings should be short and simple (in not more than ten pages. The

contents of the KAP report should include:

− Summary

− Introduction

− Results

− Analysis of results

− Conclusion with action required.

Bhutan

At the government level or Ministry level, programmes are reviewed or evaluated twice:

once in the middle of the plan period and the other at the end of the plan period.

Evaluation of the extension activities carried out by the central and regional

programme/projects are evaluated by the Departments and RNR –GNHC. However, during

the government’s mid-term and terminal evaluation, the Ministry has to present all the

achievement along with the field programme/activities implemented by the central

programmes at Dzongkhag and geog levels.

India

(Deduced from the write up of the country paper) Most of the evaluation study conducted in

extension was of mostly comparison of production/ yield before and after the

implementation of the programme. However, it must be understood that evaluation is not

simply a measurement of achievements, which is usually done after a programme is

executed.

A complete evaluation for extension is one which aims at the full length enumeration of both

tangible and intangible costs and benefits involved. Both tangible costs and benefits are easy

to identify but it is not so for intangible ones. The application of such knowledge by farmers

is generally termed as adoption and is usually measured by adoption rates, that is, the

proportion of farmers applying knowledge of a particular technology that they have acquired

from extension agents. Economic evaluation is a part and parcel of all phases in an extension

programme right from its initial planning to implementation and completion.

The economic concept of extension is applied at all the three stages of the project that is i) at

project selection, ii) during implementation and iii) after completion of the project. An

evaluation that takes into account only the cash inputs (such as gross margin analysis) may

be appropriate for certain type of technologies only (Amir and Knipscheer, 1989). The net


cost and benefit in any extension programme includes both tangible and intangible costs. The

social cost is anything the society pays/sacrifices save monetary contributions for the

execution of an extension programme.

Likewise the social benefits are those benefits other than its monetary benefits derived from

the outcome of the project on its execution. Mostly, the social cost and benefits are indirect

in nature. The social cost which the society incurs on the execution of the programme cannot

be ignored. Even though it is intangible, it is considered for the cost estimation because of

the social value attached to it. The difficulties involved in measuring the social cost benefit

are in the realm of anybody’s imagination. Yet without the inclusion of these intangible costs

the efforts to evaluate the extension largely remains non-functional.

The animal health services rendered by the State Departments of Animal Husbandry involve

social costs in providing the subsidized services to the livestock owners. However, these

services like vaccinations, diagnosis and treatment of animals, prevention and control of

zoonotic diseases have far reaching social benefits in terms of getting quality livestock

products and in the control of spread of diseases. Since economic cost-benefit analysis is one

aspect of the whole which we have to measure for determining worth of an extension project,

it is the responsibility of the extension professionals to undertake a complete evaluation in a

holistic manner to do justice in this job. This helps to obtain a complete picture on project

cost, output, outcome and impact created across the system.

Pakistan

Evaluation is a constant and ongoing specialized activity which is difficult to be undertaken by

inexperienced and non-technical peoples. Although the province of Punjab is still struggling to

establish the standards of evaluation of all the line-departments of district governments, the

district governments in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province have not started any activity in this

regard.

Before devolution the district extension organizations were fully accountable to the DG,

Extension and the directorate of Monitoring and Evaluation was responsible to conduct this

activity on regular basis. Monitoring and evaluation committees composed of staff from the

research organizations and planning and development departments were conducting evaluation

of extension personnel at end of each crop season and their recommendations would become

part of next crop cycles guidelines.

Evaluation is a constant and ongoing specialized activity which is difficult to be undertaken by

inexperienced and non-technical peoples. Although the province of Punjab is still struggling to

establish the standards of evaluation of all the line-departments of district governments, the

district governments in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province have not started any activity in this

regard.








Summary Observations on evaluation an follow up of extension

programmes

Bangladesh has adopted the Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) Survey for evaluation

of the extension activities by District and Thana offices to improve the effectiveness of

extension work. KAP surveys are implemented to show if farmers:

− have retained KNOWLEDGE of the technology

− have a positive ATTITUDE towards the technology

− actually PRACTICE the technology.

For the survey, random selection of farmers who participated in an extension event is done.

Through the survey the causes problems and successes are identified and conclusions for

required action are drawn. The findings are reported in a prescribed format,

In Bhutan, programmes are reviewed / evaluated once in the middle of the plan period, and

the other at the end. During the government’s mid-term and terminal evaluation, the Ministry

prepare the achievement along with the field programme/activities implemented by the

central programmes, Dzongkahg and Geogs.

In India country report does not cover this. However, most of the evaluation study has been

on comparison production/yield before and after implementation of programmes. It has been

suggested that both tangible and intangible benefits should be considered in evaluating an

extension programme.

In Nepal, the monitoring and evaluation system in intertwined when the report is prepared.

In Pakistan is trying to develop an evaluation system in some provinces (Punjab) while some

others (e.g. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) are yet to start activities in this regards.

The Sri Lankan position was not available.

Chapter Summary

Monitoring and Evaluation: Institutional review and programme review

Only Bhutan and India covered institutional review and programme review in connection

with monitoring and evaluation in their country papers.

In Bhutan, the need to streamline and institute an effective system for monitoring and

evaluation of development plans has been well recognized. The Gross National Happiness

Commission (GNHC) has developed a standardized National Monitoring and Evaluation

System (NMES) for Ministries, Agencies, Dzongkhags and Geogs. At the Ministry level

RNR –GNH Committee is the highest body to monitor the progress of the plan, programme

and project. It is chaired by the concerned Secretary and represented by head of the


In India, the inbuilt component of ATMA is concurrent monitoring and evaluation of the


monitor and evaluate the work during its monthly meeting.


Monitoring of extension programme

In Bangladesh monitoring is accomplished through the review of SAAOs’ Diaries, the

Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) and evaluation through the Knowledge,

Attitude, Practice (KAP) Survey system.

In Bhutan, the first level of extension programme monitoring is done by the District RNR

sector and the Geog administration, based on the Geog plans. The Geog staffs participate in

random sample survey for result monitoring.



whereby Geog staff submit report in a prescribed format on the progress made to the

Dzongkhag RNR sector head. At the Dzongkhag level, report from the Geogs are compiled

and submitted to planning officer who finally uploads the report online using the National

Monitoring and Evaluation system. Besides, Dzongkhag administrations and Departments,

Extension Coordination committee (ECC) also monitor extension activities from time to

time.

In India, Monitoring and evaluation cells were established in 32 institutes to strengthen

priority setting, monitoring, and impact assessment work within and outside the NATP

Project. Similarly, and as stated above, NAIP also has got a well laid monitoring and

evaluation system inbuilt in the project component. The periodical review through quarterly,

half yearly and annual reports and project progress review workshop are some of the

monitoring and evaluation mechanism in operation.

KVKs are monitored through the Zonal Projects. In addition, the Directors of Extension of

SAUs are given the overseeing responsibilities. Scientific Advisory Committee of the KVK

reviews the progress of the KVK work in the district.


the KVK system for continuous monitoring of projects. The KVK activities are evaluated by

a group of experts during the annual zonal workshop and annual action plan meetings.


workshops and the quinquennial review team. The strong evaluation of the activities helps to


level rabi and kharif conferences help to evaluate programmes progress with respect to


Nepal has developed a detail monitoring and evaluation system where programmes are

projectized and annual work plans prepared describing delivery of project inputs, activities

and expected results. Monitoring and evaluation is done based on the work plans covering

regular field visits, stakeholder meetings, target groups meetings followed by systematic

reporting monthly, quarterly and/or semi annually indicating performance and likelihood of

success.

On completion of a programme, the executing agency prepare the terminal report focusing

on relevance, performance, likely hood of ultimately success and lessons learnt. The report

also contains recommendations for follow up action.

The M&E arrangements at service centre/sub-centre, district, regions, and the department

levels and their reporting formats and time of delivery are clearly laid out.


In Pakistan, the monitoring committees are elected by the District Council. Most of the

members are neither qualified nor competent enough to undertake such a technical task. It

becomes very difficult for the members of the district councils to monitor and evaluate the

performance the technical staff. Therefore, the evaluation by such committees mostly does not

occur and in some cases it turns out to be unfair and biased. Such evaluation also has a political

bend.

Follow up of monitoring

In Bangladesh, the Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) followed leads to

decision as to which technologies are most successful or least successful, which extension

methods are most or least successful, which area (upazila, district or region) are running the

most or least successful extension programmes. The criteria for selection are clearly laid out

which help the decision making.

SEMS information about contact (how many farmers participated in an extension event),

understanding (how many farmers understood the extension idea) and testing (how many

farmers are interested to test/try the ideas) helps to improve the quality of extension service.

In the case of Bhutan, Observation made during the monitoring and the follow-up activities

are presented to GTY and DYT which normally meets twice a year. Follow-up are also done

during the quarterly RNR meet at the Dzogkhag level and the field visit by sector heads and

MoAF staff from region and central agencies.

For India and Nepal, the follow up was covered under 6(ii) ‘Monitoring of extension

program’.

Pakistan needs to further improve the monitoring and evaluation system.

The monitoring and system of Sri Lanka was not available.

Evaluation and Follow up

Bangladesh has adopted the Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) Survey for evaluation

of the extension activities by District and Thana offices to improve the effectiveness of

extension work. KAP surveys are implemented to show if farmers:

• have retained KNOWLEDGE of the technology

• have a positive ATTITUDE towards the technology

• actually PRACTICE the technology.

For the survey, random selection of farmers who participated in an extension event is done.

Through the survey the causes problems and successes are identified and conclusions for

required action are drawn. The findings are reported in a prescribed format,

In Bhutan, programmes are reviewed / evaluated once in the middle of the plan period, and

the other at the end. During the government’s mid-term and terminal evaluation, the Ministry

prepare the achievement along with the field programme/activities implemented by the

central programmes, dzongkahg and geogs.


In India country report does not cover this. However, most of the evaluation study has been

on comparison production/yield before and after implementation of programmes. It has been

suggested that both tangible and intangible benefits should be considered in evaluating an

extension programme.

In Nepal, the monitoring and evaluation system in intertwined when the report is prepared.

In Pakistan is trying to develop an evaluation system in some provinces (Punjab) while some

other (e.g. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) are yet to start activities in this regards.


CHAPTER

Strength, Weakness and Way Forward of Extension Systems

Strength

1. Each of the countries discussed here has an extension system in place.

2. In each country, the public sector plays the leading role in extension delivery, with

varying degrees of extension activities by the NGO sector and the private sector

(producer associations, input agencies, media and agri-business companies) but their

effective reach is limited. In Bhutan, however, the NGO sector has not yet developed and

the private sector plays some role in input supply only.

3. Each of the countries has developed extension planning processes. Some of the countries

have central planning system (India and Pakistan), while others have adopted bottom up

planning processes (Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal).

4. Institutional reforms, and in some cases policy reforms are taking place in virtually all

the countries in view of felt needs.

5. In the countries, human resources development for extension is getting attention. Some

of the countries have introduced career development scheme (Bhutan, India, Nepal), and

prize and reward systems (Bangladesh, Bhutan. India) as incentives for extension

personnel.

6. The countries appear conscious about improving research-extension-farmers linkages;

some (Nepal and Bhutan) have established good linkage systems of concerned

stakeholders at different levels starting from extension planning, to implementation to

monitoring and evaluation of extension activities.

7. Monitoring and evaluation systems have been streamlined in most of the countries

(Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal).

Weakness

1. The extension systems of the countries differ widely and are at different stages of

development. Some follow top-down central systems (India, Pakistan) while others have

adopted bottom up participatory systems (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and the livestock

sector of Sri Lanka).

2. The weaknesses have been highlighted by the Consultative Workshop held in Bhutan 23-

24 November 2011. These can be summarized as follows:

(a) Historical Perspective

• Extension personnel are engaged in non-extension activities deviating focus from

extension service delivery.

9


• Extension service delivery is often weak.

• Inadequate financial support for extension activities.

(b) Methods, Approaches, Models of Extension

• A large variety of models are in practice in different countries.

• Inadequate facilities limit the extension potential for dissemination of technologies

to farmers.

• Limited technology options for farmers to choose from.

• Farmers’ groups and co-operatives can play significant role in the diffusion of

information. But such groups/cooperatives are often absent.

• Participatory on farm trials on new technologies to be adopted.

• Inadequate use of ICT tools for technology transfer.

(c) Research-Education-Extension-Farmer Linkages

• There is a growing trend of pluralism in delivering agricultural extension services.

The countries need to recognize the trend and be pro-active.

• There is often a wide gap in crop yields between research stations and farmers’

fields.

• There is often poor response from farmers on the use of technologies. The extension

systems should try to find out the reasons for poor responses.

• The extension systems/personnel are often too far from farmers.

• Research-education-extension-farmers linkages are often tenuous and scarce.

• Currently there is hardly any opportunity to learn from experiences of member

countries.

(d) Agricultural Extension Delivery Systems

• Different sub-sectors (crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry) are engaged in the

delivery of services to the same clients which could be brought under one line of

control with improved coordination with relevant stakeholders. There are often too

many advisers to the same farmer creating confusion as well as unnecessary

duplication of extension efforts.

• Inadequate technical qualifications of grassroots level extension workers.

(f) Feedback Systems

• Lack of common forum to address feedback from extension personnel from different

sub-sectors.

(g) Socio-economic Issues

• Gender inequity – limited or no female extension workers at the grassroots level.

• There are often poor input supply systems.

• Absence of agricultural insurance.

• Poor/defective agricultural marketing system.

• Poor or lack of repository of knowledge management at national/regional levels.


(h) Extension Policy Issues

• Inappropriate/lack of institutional reforms and weak coordination and support of

stakeholders

• Poor or lack of policy in public private partnership

• Accountability vested more to the donors rather than to farmers resulting in less

attention dedicated to the farmers.

• Extension personnel lack knowledge and broader understanding on emerging global/

regional issues.

(i) Human Resources Development

• Inadequate number of extension personnel.

• Inadequate training of extension personnel including on emerging issues (IT, group

extension, participatory extension, climate change etc.)

(j) Monitoring and Evaluation

• Lack of appropriate monitoring and evaluation system

• Lack of timely recording and reporting of monitoring and evaluation information

Way Forward

Organization

1. Assess the existing extension organizations against farmers’ needs and determine

whether to strengthen or restructure the extension organizational set up.

2. Encourage the extension services to empower farmers through organizing them into legal

associations to constitute a strong lobby for themselves and for extension.

3. Encourage bottom-up, grassroots extension programme planning involving farmers in

order to make extension not only demand-driven, but also to exercise supply-driven, top-

down modality for promoting common public good practices such as conservation of

natural resources and environment protection.

4. If the extension function is to be performed with relatively small number of extension

staff, follow appropriate strategies for getting maximum output (e.g. participatory

extension involving relevant stakeholders).

5. A unified extension service with improved coordination among relevant sub-sectors

(crops, livestock, fisheries, forestry/agroforestry) and stakeholders instead of multi-

sector separate extension channels.

6. A common forum to address feedback from extension personnel from different sub-

sectors (crops, livestock, fisheries, forestry/agroforestry).

7. An extension forum may be instituted under the aegis of SAARC in order to enhance

understanding and exchange of ideas and information and connectivity in the region as

well as a regional knowledge management system for continuous technology and

methodology backstopping.


Human Resources Development

1. Job descriptions of extension personnel should be rationalized so that they (extension

personnel) are well aware of their responsibilities.

2. Adequate training of extension personnel should be ensured so that they have the

capacity to deliver services according to beneficiary groups’ needs and expectations,

including new/emerging issues.

3. Career advancement schemes should be developed for extension personnel, and

incentives, awards, prizes etc. should be instituted (where these are absent) in order to

recognize good work.

4. Engagement of extension personnel in non-extension activities should be discouraged.

Approaches, Methods and Models

1. Countries may adopt a blend of approaches/models, based on experiences of member

countries.

2. Extension personnel should be trained in/made aware of technology options for farmers.

3. Extension system may incorporate the good practices of NGOs and private sector and

encourage working with NGOs and civil society organizations.

4. The role of extension systems may be expanded to include dissemination of commercial

farming. (The emulation of One-Geog-Three-Product (OGTP) approach being practiced

in Bhutan can be a good model for replication).

5. Use of participatory approaches, an alternative to limited number of extension

agents/personnel and also with a view to reducing yield gaps between experimental

stations and farmers’ fields, should be promoted

6. Investment in ICT and human resource development enhanced.

7. A common forum to address feedback from extension personnel from different sub-

sectors (crops, livestock, fisheries, forestry/agroforestry) should be developed

Linkages

1. Review the impacts of pluralism in delivering agricultural extension services undertaken.

2. The extension system must institutionalize research-education-extension-farmers

linkages.

3. Multi sectoral coordination (among crops, livestock, fisheries, forestry/ agroforestry) and

linkages in terms of resource sharing and functions should be promoted to meet

complexities in the agriculture sector.

4. Develop, formalize, and implement mechanism to foster public private partnership and

private sector linkage with provision of extension services. Such mechanisms may

include:

• Project Advisory Bodies. To link government services and public goods to the

efforts of donor funded agriculture development programs multi agency project

advisory bodies can play a key role, as exemplified by the Smallholder Irrigation

Market Initiative (SIMI) advisory body of Nepal . Such projects can also play a key


role in fostering local level public private partnership in activities such as marketing

infrastructure.

• Development Alliances. When initiating major sectoral development and when

substantial private sector partners are involved, the use of development alliances that

include government agencies, producers’ organizations, processors/trader

organizations and the development community, the alliance becomes highly

efficient. (The Nepal Tea and Coffee Development Alliances are successful models

of this approach).

• Development Boards. As development alliances mature, the development and/or

strengthening of development boards is a key tool to bring together national level

stakeholders.

• Embedded Services. The local level private sector agricultural community also

needs to be served and included in training and capacity building programs. Agro

input suppliers and traders have the ability to reach large numbers of households

with new technologies efficiently. But the private sector lacks access to latest

technologies and often has limited capacity. Agriculture education should be geared

to build the capacity of the private sector.

Monitoring and Evaluation

Monitoring and evaluation should be inbuilt in extension programmes (as exemplified in the

cases of KVK in India or the inbuilt monitoring of the Nepal extension system).


CHAPTER

Individual Country Recommendations

Bangladesh

1. In improving farming practices the basic task of extension is to provide facilities to help

farmers choose and try certain useful farming practices. Hence, the technologies have to

be put through field trials. The trail phase is needed because extension staff has to gain

experience and confidence and farmers also have to be made aware of the technologies.

2. Soil, water and biodiversity make up the natural resources base. In the past adequate

attention has not been given to their proper development, utilization and conservation as

part of a good farming practice. Now extension has a critical role to play in management

and conservation of natural farm resource.

3. Farming as a business is not known to most of the farmers. They need to learn quickly to

handle the investment and returns in farming more efficiently. They also need to be

made aware of marketing their produces.

4. Farming as a business is going to replace the family farming. Farming today is mostly

different from what it was about fifty years ago. So, farmers require better managerial

capabilities at present days in terms of farm resources, production planning, credit

requirement, input procurement, product handling and market operation.

5. A key element of the decentralized and demand led extension system would be the

mobilization, organization and capacity building of small and marginal producers into

Common Interest Groups (CIGS). Participating farmers would be facilitated to from

groups based on agricultural livelihood or some other common interest, eg, water use,

credit, marketing etc.

6. At the present days more farmers expects an extension out-reach to come to them. But,

the extension agencies have not proportionately grown. In the meanwhile, farming, being

highly dependent on externalities, needs a variety of inputs, services and support

facilities to make tenable. So, multi-agency extension coordinated work is necessary.

7. In response many more development players started working in the field. Hence,

agriculture-base development has become a shared responsibility among the public

agencies, including extension, local bodies, input and credit agencies, seed companies,

NGOs and other organizations. Of course, so far as agricultural development is

concerned, the extension agency will have to play a lead role.

8. Farmers need to be facilitated to have direct access to the institutional resources

available in terms of technologies, advice, inputs etc. for reducing technologies

dissemination losses and a mechanism in place for feedback and follow.

9. Research – Extension- Farmers Linkage: Linkage among research – extension and

farmers are generally weak and neither research nor extension was sufficiently conscious

of the need to understand the constrained and potentials of the different farming systems

as a basis for determining relevant technology and technology development requirement.

10


10. The revolution in information technology must benefit extension. The benefits could be derived in many ways. Interactive electronic linkages may be established between

extension and relevant research or other institutes. The effort to apply information

technology should be started at locations where facilities are available. But the

information technology should not be considered as a replacement of human effort in

extension rather just as a supporting tool.

Bhutan

Supporting decentralization of RNR extension to produce results

As per Local Government Act, 2007 the Dzongkhag and Geog level RNR extension service

is decentralized and it is under Local government administration. There will be increasing

trend to strengthen the power of elected officials. This is global trend and there are lot of

evidences that this move will make the extension participatory and demand driven.

Unless these important groups (LG officials) are oriented to RNR extension, the threat is

RNR development programme may be marginalized. Thus, the following measures may be

suggested:

Provide training on decentralization approach, participatory extension, demand driven

approach, community based organization development, farmers group and cooperatives

development, bottom up planning, etc to the RNR extension staffs. This will change the

mindset of the EAs and will be easier to work under the changed context of decentralization.

Build the management capacity of the RNR extension staff in the new areas e.g. like road

and irrigation, community development, local governance, etc

Include a module on RNR extension in the training programme for the local government

officials or organize special orientation session on RNR extension. This will help LG

officials to see RNR extension not merely as “technology transformer” (Technical wing) but

an active player and contributor in local development.

Creating conducive environment for RNR service providers (public, private and

civil society Institutions) in delivering extension service widely

In the past there were only government institutions providing extension service. But now,

several NGOs and civil societies are involved in providing the extension services. As such

MoAF need to develop policy guidance and coordination mechanism to encourage and

support private, NGOs and civil societies involve in extension service delivery. This will

save time and resource of the public agencies. A well structured pluralistic extension

planning and delivery mechanism will be in the interest of farmers, traders, NGOs and

government.

Enhancing accessibility of farm inputs and information including credits:

Accessibility and availability of improved farm inputs have always been a concern for

farmers and the Ministry. In absence of required inputs and information, farmers are forced

to continue with the traditional practices. Extension staff in the geog is the main source of

information, but given the scattered and isolated distribution of farming communities getting

timely information is impossible.


As such, it is high time that we utilize the ever influential ICT for information sharing

between farmers and extension service provider. National and Local print and broadcast

media should be encouraged to carry news and information of farming. Decentralization and

privatization of sales and service of farm inputs such as fertilizer, tools and machineries,

planting material need to be promoted with more favorable policies and resource support.

Another important input for farming is credit. Presently, there is only one bank which has the

mandate to support rural development. Availing credit on time has always been difficult and

fulfilling long formalities have further discouraged farmers from availing it. Many times, the

credit needs of the subsistence farmers are small and immediate, which are often met by

borrowing from local money lender at high interest rate. Therefore, MoAF and Government

should promote affordable and farmers’ friendly credit systems so that it facilitates adoption

of improved farming practices promoted through extension systems.

Budget for extension staff:

In the present system, front line extension staff’s work as per the plans/programme given to

them by the local government. Their main aim is to fulfill the physical target rather than

creating impact. The present system does not provide any room or opportunity to be

innovative as they have no resources at their disposal. Moreover, their performance is judged

on the achievement of physical target than on innovative performance or impact. As such,

government should consider providing financial resources to extension staff posted in the

geogs so that they can be innovative and initiate activities suitable to their local working

environment. At the same time system should reward or recognize their innovation by means

of fast track promotion, training etc.

Enhancing moral and capacity Building of RNR Extension staff

The professionalization of the agricultural extension service and incentives for front-line

staff to live in remote areas will be a key to promote better services to the farmers. More

frequent trainings, especially on extension methodology and approaches should be given to

front line extension staff. At the same time, exposure to new and emerging technologies in

the RNR field should be made available to these staff.

India

The country faces great challenges in further increasing the productivity of all the sectors to

match the population demand including the crop sector. The livestock and fisheries sector

play an important role in generating income and employment for marginal farmers and

landless labourers in meeting nutritional and livelihood security.

Addressing the emerging challenges would require new approaches which must be supported

by extension research and education system. The extension research and education system

should focus on the application of cutting edge technologies, thrust on technology

integration, use of information communication technology, quality aspects in addition to

increase in quantity, thrust on post harvest, food processing and value addition, resource

management etc.

Right technology and Right methodology are the two key elements required to be focused by

the extension research and education systems. The inventory of right technology and


methodology need to be made available by the system. Extension Research and education

system must reform itself in terms of content and adequate focus has to be given on effective

technology selection, optimization, application, sustainability and management.

The frame work of strengthening the extension, research, education and delivery system

includes:

• Assessment of existing extension education system, approaches and organizations

against the back drop of changing scenario to come out with practical solutions for

strengthening/ restructuring the system.

• Broadening the scope of technical mandate keeping in view the current demand

scenario.

• Development of location specific, participatory gender sensitive and customized

extension materials and methodologies.

• Emphasis on FSR/E and farmer participatory approach.

• Strengthening the operational linkages and partnership between research, extension,

farmer, market and other key stake holders.

• Empowering farmers and organising them into commodity groups/associations and

federating them.

• Integrating ICT in the extension research, education and technology development

system.

• Focus on issues like IPR, Farmers Rights and DUS guidelines.

The technology delivery system needs to gear up their capacity in terms of manpower,

expertise, finance, structure, institutional linkages and the kinds of methods, approaches and

delivery system they employ. The issues to be taken up for strengthening the delivery system

are;

(i) Farmers empowerment and farmer organizations development

(ii) Institutional linkages, convergence and Partnership issues

(iii) Technology backstopping, application, integration, ICT use and management (iv) Frontier areas of extension, HRD and skill development (v) Policy issues

Lack of quality manpower dedicated to the cause of agricultural development is a serious

constraint and challenge encountered by the system. Agricultural extension should be on

agri-business extension mode and this is possible only if the system recruits personnel who

can bring in different kinds of expertise. For instance expertise related to cutting edge

technologies, organizational development, market development, legal issues related to farmer

rights, IPR etc are crucial for extension. This would also involve some de-learning of its

conventional technology dissemination approach and learning new ways of doing things.

Extension is weak in animal husbandry and fisheries sectors and this would need

considerable strengthening. Strengthening of national and regional level training facilities for

continuous skill up gradation of extension professionals is to be taken up immediately.

Assessment of the quality of extension personnel is a must and a national level mission mode

approach is needed in this regard.

Strengthening the expertise of extension organization includes:

• frontier areas of technology

• resource conservation and management


• market development, linking with markets and export development

• quality and standards

• organic agriculture nterprise/entrepreneurship development,

• skill development in horticulture, seed and plant material production

• research and extension in response to adaptation to climate change and risk

management

• financing and insurance

• extension for resource conservation and management

• extension management techniques (programme/project management- PERT, CPM,

log frame, 5-S etc)

• legal and regulatory issues (farmer rights, IPR)

• promotion of public-private partnership

• application of ICTs, content development and updating

• skills related to farmer organizational development and farmer empowerment

• strengthening extension in animal husbandry and fisheries sector

• initiating manpower planning in extension organizations, create new positions and

fill existing vacancies based on manpower planning

Address HRD and skill development in extension organizations through the following

strategies:

- new recruitments,

- contract arrangements,

- consultancies,

- staff trainings

- partnering with organizations having expertise

Policy Issues

Several organisations implement extension programmes with very little co-ordination. Co-

ordination is lacking even among public sector organisations. Establishment of a national

extension authority (similar to the National Rainfed Area Authority), can potentially bring

about the much needed integration for effective planning and delivery of extension

programmes. Integration of extension activities at the district level also needs policy support.

Several initiatives that were successful at the pilot stage had failed when external support

was withdrawn. Another major constraint is the declining financial support for extension.

Enhanced funding is crucial for improving the ability of extension to deal with the complex

challenges of the second green revolution. Extension also needs crucial research backup on

new approaches, methodologies and management techniques relevant for different situations.

Policy issues need to be addressed through:

- Enhanced funding

- Strengthening research in extension

- Establishing a national extension agency/board

- Developing strategies to improve sustainability of pilot initiatives

- Strengthening mechanisms for district level planning

- National Centre for Agricultural Knowledge management


Way Forward

Several organization implement extension programmes with very little coordination. Co-

ordination lacking even among public sector organizations. Establishment of national

extension agency/board (NEA) can potentially bring about much needed integration for

objective planning and delivery of programmes. Integration of extension activities at the

district level also needs policy support. Several initiatives that were successful at the pilot

stage had failed when external support was withdrawn. Another major constraint is the

declining financial support for extension. Enhanced funding is crucial for improving the

ability of extension to deal with the complex challenges faced by it. It also needs crucial

research back up on new approaches, methodologies and management tools and techniques

relevant for different situations.

To summarize, among other things, (i) enhanced funding, (ii) strengthening extension

research and education, (iii) creation of a national extension authority, (iv) developing

technology inventory and methodology modules, (v) developing strategies to improve

sustainability of pilot initiatives, (vi) Farming System Approach in Extension along with

district resource mapping and planning, (vii) networking and partnership approach, (viii)

inclusion of newer concept and methodologies, (ix) Creation of national and regional level

knowledge management system for continuous technology and methodology backstopping

and (x) Resource and market led approaches for sustainability are the most important areas to

be focused upon for developing a frame work for technology development and delivery

system.

Nepal

Despite criticisms regarding service delivery in agriculture extension, there is scope for

improvements in the service delivery. Based on above discussions, following

recommendations can be made to improve in future.

• Assess the existing extension organization against farmers’ needs and determine

whether to strengthen or restructure it

• Decentralize extension but not before capacity-building of the staff and orientation

of relevant elected officials

• Broaden the technical mandate of extension to aim at broader development of rural

human resources

• Promote pluralism in extension by involving public, private and civil society

institutions

• Privatize extension partially or fully only where it is socially and economically

feasible

• Develop original, location-specific, participatory, gender-sensitive and inexpensive

extension methodologies and materials instead of applying those methodologies

which are promoted as universally suitable

• Encourage the extension services to empower farmers through organizing them into

legal associations to constitute a strong lobby for themselves and for extension

• Encourage bottom-up, grassroots extension program planning by farmers in order to

make extension demand-driven, but also exercise supply-driven, top-down modality

for promoting common public good practices such as conservation of natural

resources and environment protection.


• If the extension function is to be performed with relatively small number of

extension staff, follow appropriate strategies for getting maximum output

• Ensure effective operational linkages between extension and research and other key

relevant institutions

• Agriculture extension program should be based on demand of the clients. The

program should be planned and implemented based on demand of the farmers rather

than supply based.

• Clear cut job responsibility in a new context is must. The extension staff should not

be utilized for engaging in programs and activities that require specific professional

background. The extension staff should not be utilized in the detail engineering

works in implementation of small irrigation program for which they lack

professional experiences. The job definition of the different extension works at

different level needs to be defined and implemented accordingly.

• Advertise and advocate the services offered..Implement programs with the local

bodies. Complete devolution with full responsibility.

• There is need of comprehensive policy regarding agriculture extension service

delivery and support system in Nepal that provide the foundation for commercialized

agriculture responsive to need of client. The specific areas that need o be defined

may be :

- Agriculture extension,

- Agriculture input supply

- Agriculture technical support\

- Postproduction management

- Market development and management

- Rurral and agricultural credit

- Law enforcements.

• The physical condition of the ASC should be improved and they should be equipped

with minimum equipments supplemented by appropriate teaching materials.

• The command area of the ASC should be well defined based on the availability of

human resources, geographic location and area to be served. The present structure

can not be effective in providing services. The concept of CASC which has been put

forward should be effectively implemented. The concept of CASC can be very

effective in increasing the access of farmers through greater social participation. The

experience of community forestry, community school management should be

internalized in designing the CASC approach. Firstly, the existing ASC should be

given priority to be converted into CASC and this opportunity can be provided to

intended VDCs and farmers of the concerned pocket area. The concern of CASC

should be on utilization of local resource centres and resource persons, greater

access of farmers' organization for extension services and commercialization of

agriculture.

• The institutionalization of the farmer's organizations such as farmers groups,

farmer's cooperatives, Farmers Groups Coordination Committee (FGCC) as in Crop

Diversification Project (CDP), Agriculture Development Committee (ADC) as in

JICA funded Agriculture Training and Extension Improvement Project (ATEIP),

Farmers Alliances as in Commercial Agriculture Development Project (CADP)

should be well capitalized in the extension service. Empowerment of these farmer


based organization should be the major strategy for greater efficiency in the service

delivery mechanism.

• Service delivery effectiveness is largely influenced by both demand and supply side

strategy. So, there is need for improved strategies on both sides. On demand side,

improving farmers' ability to demand better services and on supply side improving

the capacity and efficiency of the delivery institution is a must. Empowering farmers

based organization and political decentralization foster demand side strategy where

as administrative decentralization and public sector reform along with civil service

reform may promote supply side strategy.

• The model service centre should be able to demonstrate cost effective and efficient

service

• The motivation package, inclusive of capacity enhancement opportunity as well as

monetary and non-monetary incentives, must be insured for the field level staff.

• The job responsibility and Terms of References (ToR) for different extension

personnel should be redesigned with their shifting roles in the present context. The

need for service of overseer/sub overseer has emerged with inclusion of small

irrigation program in DADOs. Creation of such posts in DADOs is necessary if this

program is to succeed.

• The technical capability of the extension staff should improve. Moreover, the

extension worker should be well trained regarding good governance and new

emerging issues in agriculture extension.

• Monitoring and evaluation should be made objective. The monitoring should be

done at micro level and on basis of team approach. Participatory monitoring

evaluation should be internalized in the system.

• The need for different services has been recognized by new agriculture extension

strategy. The strategy has spelt out the need for action plan for implementation of

extension services. Hence, the action plan should be developed regarding the

internalization and application of already developed extension services that provide

bases for the extension need and services for different categories of clients and

entrepreneurs.

• The practice of devolution in line with Local Self Governance Act has mixed results.

It has eased in the planning and approval of program, improved accountability

towards local government and greater access of local government bodies over

program. Still, there is ambiguity regarding extension function, role clarity among

DADO/DLSO and DDC, HRD, chain of command, fund contribution to agriculture

extension, technical backstopping and ownership towards program. The devolved

extension should internalize the experiences learned so far and a clear cut working

guidelines needs to develop in line with LSGA for improved service delivery.

• View extension within a wider rural development agenda: Emerging view of

extension is not that of service or system but of a knowledge and information needs

of rural people. The knowledge and information needs of rural people are so diverse

that there is a benefit of having a range of providers to deliver advice, technology,

innovations and services.

• Define an extension policy for a pluralistic system: Extension strategies need to

identify the overall objectives for public sector involvement in extension and define

the roles and responsibilities of other service providers and of public funding.


• Develop a stakeholder coordinating mechanism: Some type of coordinating

mechanism is needed for the various stakeholders in extension in order to provide a

common framework.

• Putting information technology in service of extension: The revolution in

information technology must benefit extension. The benefits could take many forms.

Interactive electronic linkages may be established between extension and relevant

institutions. The efforts to apply information technology should be started at

locations which have necessary infrastructure and pre-requisites. The information

technology should not be considered as a replacement of human effort in extension,

but just as a supporting tool.

• Build capacity of public sector and service providers: The funding should be

increased for capacity building and institutional strengthening to widen the pool of

qualified service providers.

• Introduce some cost recovery: Reforms should encourage valuing information and

knowledge services. This will encourage a market for knowledge services.

• The technical mandate should be broadened to educate farmers in interrelationship

between agriculture production, food security, population and environment. It should

engage in developing human capacities in farmers, which go beyond technology.

• Recognize rural men, women and youths as extension clientele,empower farmers to

organize them in groups, cooperatives and larger organizations. Ensuring their legal

status through formal registration should follow this. The next action should be to

provide them with training needed to make plans and make decisions.

• Farmer to Farmer extension should be encouraged for utilizing indigenous

knowledge and skills. For this, Farmers Organizations should be institutionalized,

made active and efficient.

• Time has come that there should be gradual initiation of fee charging extension

services with the commercial and competitive farmer.

• Multi sectoral coordination and linkages in terms of resource sharing and functions

should be promoted to meet current complexities in agriculture sector.

Contracting–out is conceived as shifting responsibility. It is the observation of the (country

paper) authors that many NGO-implemented programs on technology dissemination and

poverty alleviation have been highly successful but that efforts by the government to contract

out extension services have had challenges, particularly efforts to privatize extension for

whole districts. The private sector is able to directly provide extension services mostly for

high-value and export oriented crops. Mechanisms of private extension include:

- Embedded services provided by the sellers of inputs and buyers of outputs

- Contract farming relationships

• A key recommendation of this paper is for government to develop, formalize, and

implement mechanism to foster public private partnership and private sector linkage

with provision of extension services. Such mechanisms should include:

(i) Project Advisory Bodies. To link government services and public goods to the


advisory bodies can play a key role, as exemplified by the SIMI advisory body.


Such projects can also play a key role in fostering local level public private

partnership in activities such as marketing infrastructure.

(ii) Development Alliances. When initiating major sectoral development and when

substantial private sector partners are involved the use of development alliances

that include government agencies, producers’ organizations, processors/trader

organizations, and the development community are highly efficient. The Nepal

Tea and Coffee Development Alliances are successful models of this approach.

(iii) Development Boards. As development alliances mature the development

and/or strengthening of development boards is a key tool to bring together

national level stakeholders.

(iv) Embedded Services. The local level private sector agricultural community also

needs to be served and included in training and capacity building programs.

Agro input suppliers and traders have the ability to reach large numbers of

households with new technologies efficiently. But currently the private sector

lacks access to latest technologies and often has limited capacity. Agriculture

education should also be geared to develop technicians build private sector.

Pakistan

Present agricultural extension service is placing emphasis on the major crops grown in the

various farming systems. These include wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, maize, gram, and

oilseeds. Very little emphasis is placed on fruits, vegetables and fodders. Extension staff

needs to be apprized of the value addition aspects of farm products. They also need to be

made aware of the impact of globalization and market liberalization on national agriculture.

It is widely acknowledged that the government extension system is limited by lack of

technical competence and should be strengthened. It is also acknowledged that where private

sector organizations or NGOs are willing to extend their services to farmers, those non-

governmental initiatives should be encouraged and public sector extension system should

extend full cooperation. Rather extension staff be trained through NGOs in participatory

methods and village organization building skills

Monitoring and evaluation is very important to keep aptly aligned the focus of extension

efforts. It is noticed that this aspect is weak. Besides, having a rigorous monitoring system,

there is also a deficiency in capacity to evaluate, it is therefore recommended to phase in a

strong monitoring and evaluation component manned by the professional evaluators each

district government.

Farmer organizations are critical to coordinating the complex elements of farming systems at

the farm level. Such organizations are essential for credit delivery, diagnosing and meeting

specific needs of the production system, meeting increasingly high quantity and quality

requirements, and many other rapidly changing needs. Thus, community organization is a

major component that serves as an extension arm of extension system. It is proposed to build

upon the sizeable institutional capacity already in place.

The private sector is central to effective extension system and is instrumental in provision of

the key public goods to farmers. Public sector extension needs to capitalize on this

opportunity and vigorously pursue public-private-sector partnerships in dissemination of

scientific knowledge in a coordinated and re-enforcing mode.


Extension also needs to put in place an incentive structure that would encourage the private

sector to enter into contractual arrangements with farmer organizations and link delivery of

public services to marketing and agribusiness development. This initiative will facilitate and

speed up transfer of farm information and level of adoption.

Farmers are the dominant private sector operatives in agriculture, but they are served by

myriad private sector institutions ranging from an ordinary middleman who sells the farm

inputs on credit and buy-back their produce to a large-scale mega integrated commodity

processing plants/industry. Therefore, the improvement of services to small-scale entities is

recommended so they can expand their operations and increase their productivity. The large-

scale private sector institutions will have an important role in developing new approaches in

support of small farm operators.

In order to coordinate the wide range of activities at the village level, it is recommended to

strengthen the capacity of civil society institutions particularly the NRSP and the PRSP - -

two institutions with a long history and successful record in organizing the farm groups and

mobilizing rural resources for productivity enhancement and improved quality of life.

Because of the location specificity of farm practices, strengthening of national extension

system is necessary to raise capacity to handle such situations. The emphasis needs to be

placed on strengthening the linkages mechanism between research, education, extension, and

farmers to fasten up the application of research knowledge at the farm level. The extension

systems’ focus needs to be shifted from traditional means of communication and from

traditional crops to the modern means of communication and on high value crops and

commodities.


CHAPTER

Recommendations of the Consultative Workshop on National Agricultural Systems in SAARC countries – An analysis of the system diversity

Historically agricultural extension system as a change engine played a significant role in the

development agriculture in these countries. There might be differences in agricultural

extension system and administration not only among the countries but also between the

regions within a country. In view of increased demand for agricultural production and stark

reality of food crisis, it is necessary that each individual country in the region becomes self-

reliant in agricultural production including food. And in doing so, agricultural research and

extension systems need to be revitalized. Learning from the regional development

experiences gained through agricultural extension management systems over the past years

may help carry the process forward.

Building a knowledge-based farming communities require effective and efficient extension

system. Agricultural research systems and agricultural universities in the region developed a

treasure of agricultural technologies over half a century. These technologies can be

replicated across boundaries with little effort provided an extension management system is in

place. SAARC nations can effectively develop efficient extension systems learning from

each other. However, effective and efficient management system for a country should build

on the societal needs and socio-economic conditions of the people.

For the improvement of the Agricultural extension sector in SAARC countries, a Regional

Consultative Workshop on “National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC

countries – An Analysis of the System Diversity” was organized with the following

objectives

• To study the existing national agricultural extension system

• To document the methods, approaches and models of extension work

• To study the research – Education –extension -farmers linkage

• To compare the NAES diversity among the number countries

• To identify the strength and weakness of the NAES

• To examine the most effective extension approach within the region

• To study the possibility of modifying the existing extension system

• To develop extension system in individual member countries based on shared

experiences

• To document a chronological of the development of agriculture extension system

SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC) organized this Consultative “Workshop on National

Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries – An Analysis of the System

Diversity” in collaboration with the Information & Communication Services and the Council

of RNR Research of Bhutan, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan held during 23-24

November 2011 in Thimphu, Bhutan. Lyonpo Dr. Pema Gyamtsho, Honourable Minister of

11


Agriculture and Forests, Government of Bhutan, Dr. Ugyen Chewang, Hon’ble Secretary,

National Environment Commission, Bhutan, Government of Bhutan; Ms. Singye Wangmo,

Honourable Member, SAC Governing Board and Program Director, Information &

Communication Services (ICS), Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan; ; Dr. Abul

Kalam Azad, Director, SAARC Agriculture Centre; Professor Dr. Ramesh Chand,

Honourable Member, SAC Governing Board and Director, National Centre for Agricultural

Economics and Policy Research (NCAP), India;

Keynote Speaker Mr. Chencho Norbu, Director, Department of Agriculture, Bhutan;;

Distinguished Resource Persons from six focal point scientists from Bangladesh, India,

Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka and Dr. Manzoor Hussain Dar, Senior Associate

Scientist

Seed Up-scaling and Coordination (STRASA), International Rice Research Institute;

distinguished participants from Bhutan, Officials from the Ministry of Agriculture and

Forests and Head of the Institutions, Scientists from Bhutan and SAC personnel were

present in the inaugural and concluding session of the consultative workshop.

Chief Guest Dr. Ugyen Chewang, Hon’ble Secretary, National Environment

Commission, Bhutan, Government of Bhutan in his inaugural address

emphasized the following points:

• Farming has been increasingly changing from traditional-subsistence to commercial

oriented system

• Adaptive measures and solutions – improved production technologies and strategies

should be made available at par with increasing challenges

• The extension system has helped farmers adapt to the relevant technologies to

enhance the quality of rural livelihood

• Farmers still need improved service delivery and better access to technologies

• Extension policies and strategies require as per the needs and changing times

• Research-extension-communities using ICT need to be strengthened

• Regional workshop of this kind provide a useful platform

Keynote speaker Mr. Chencho Norbu, Director, Department of Agriculture,

Bhutan focused on the following points:

• Focus “in the spirit of friendship, trust and understanding”

• Diversified role of extension services in the region comprising of various models

• Local knowledge system and cultural values

• Technology evaluation and assessment

• Simple institutional arrangements

• Formation of farmers’ group

• Access to location specific farming technologies Extension agents should be

equipped with IT facilities

• They should possess planning and statistical knowledge

• They should possess knowledge in social sciences

• They should be able to explore in managing “agriculture is the solution to global

warming”


Ms. Singye Wangmo, Honourable Member, SAC Governing Board and Program Director,

Information & Communication Services (ICS), Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan

presented background information on the workshop

Dr. Md. Nurul Alam, SAC in his welcome Address on behalf of Director, SAC emphasized

that to remain successful and competitive in agricultural production and trade, it is necessary

to build knowledge-based farming communities in the region. Building a knowledge-based

farming communities require effective and efficient extension system. Agricultural research

systems and agricultural universities in the region developed a treasure of agricultural

technologies over half a century. These technologies can be replicated across boundaries

with little effort provided an extension management system is in place. SAARC nations can

effectively develop efficient extension systems learning from each other. However, effective

and efficient management system for a country should build on the societal needs and socio-

economic conditions of the people. SAARC Agriculture Center intends to conduct a study

of the existing systems of agricultural extension management system and subsequently to

holding a regional consultative workshop to prepare a set of recommendations aiming at

developing and revitalizing national agricultural extension systems in the region.

SAC intends to hold the regional workshop where the participants including resource

speakers will present their case studies, discuss and exchange their views and ideas and will

come up with recommendations highlighting regional and national policies, programs, and

activities. The representatives will present their constraints, issues and policy agenda of their

respective countries for adoption and further actions

The regional experts participating in this workshop could come up with a number of good

recommendations at the end after the presentation of each country paper and thread bear

discussion. Actionable policies and programs of activities to strengthen National

Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC countries would be developed from the

workshop findings

On behalf of SAARC Agriculture Centre, he extended hearty welcome to all the participants

and distinguished guests, dignitaries, scientists and experts from various agricultural

institutions and research centre from Bhutan to this workshop for kindly attending this

morning’s function.

The regional consultation workshop was completed with two technical sessions and thematic

group works. Total nine papers were presented in the technical sessions including keynote

paper on the first day. Bangladesh paper on “National Agricultural Extension System in

SAARC Countries – An Analysis of the System Diversity in Bangladesh was presented by

Dr. Md. Matia Rahman, Former Deputy Director (Training Wing), Department of

Agricultural Extension, Dhaka; Indian country status report on “National Agricultural

Extension System in India” was presented by Dr. Ramesh Chand, Director, NCAP, New,

Delhi, India; Bhutan country report on National Agricultural Extension System in Bhutan

presented by Kailash Pradhan Thimphu, Bhutan; Nepal country status report on “National

Agricultural Extension Systems in Nepal-An Analysis of the System Diversity ” was

presented by Nil Kantha Sharma, Agriculture Extension and Communication Officer,

Agriculture Information and Communication Center, Ministry of Agriculture and

Cooperatives, Government of Nepal; Pakistan Country Study Report on “National

Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries-An Analysis of the Systems Diversity,

A Case of Pakistan,” was presented by Dr. Waqar Malik, PARC, Islamabad, Pakistan and Sri


Lankan paper on “National Agricultural Extension Systems of Sri Lanka ” was presented by

Rose Rupasinghe Samuel, Deputy Director Extension HQ Department of Agriculture, Sri

Lanka. The two special papers were presented on “Agriculture Extension Services in Bhutan

by Mr. T.N Acharya and the OGTP model-an approach to agriculture growth in Bhutan

presented by Badrinath (BN) Bhattarai, DoA, MoAF, Bhutan.

Participants from Information & Communication Services and the Council of RNR Research

of Bhutan, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan were present in the workshop for two

days.

On the second day, all resource speakers from SAARC countries and all participants

discussed on the four thematic areas: a) Research- Education -Extension farmers linkages; b)

Agricultural Extension System diversity in SAARC countries c) Policies; d) Most effective

extension approaches in SAARC countries. After a whole day brain storming sessions, the

participants came up with a number of excellent recommendations by the total resource

speakers from SAARC member countries and participants. Field Visit to RNR Extension

Centre, Semtokha and Field visit to RDC, Yusipang was made on Second day of the

workshop.

Con Dr. Pema Gyamtsho, Minister of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan in his

concluding remark mentioned following points:

• Today the most important issue at global level is the climate change which besides

has direct affect to crop diversity and diminishing yield due to unforeseen weather

pattern particularly recurrent natural disasters, outbreak of pests & diseases, irregular

rainfall, flash floods and landslides. The already small land holdings are further

fragmented due to ever increasing population besides loss of potential arable land

under urbanization.

• The extension service being only the way forward to reach closely to the rural

families to cater to their daily needs and to prepare themselves for future. The most

needed support to the farming communities through extension service is delivering

them with right farming technologies and programs through right approach and

methodologies at correct time.

• I am particularly overwhelmed to note that the objectives of the workshop have been

addressed categorically with successful accomplishment.

• Distinguish Guests, Ladies & Gentlemen, The demand for agriculture products

worldwide have surpassed production and the challenge for agriculture is to feed 7

billion population and about half of it live in the SAARC countries.

• It is evident that production must be increased from within the resource base as

there is limited scope for expansion of potential production areas. The answer to the

problem is knowledge base extension service and sustainable production system that

supports increased yield per unit area of land.

• The effectiveness of extension service and research system lie how best they work

hand in hand and share information for improved farming system. Therefore drawing

experiences from each others at the national and regional levels will not only save


our resources but also make a great deal of differences in changing the life of our

rural people.

• The agriculture production environment is changing rapidly as a result of

globalization and climate change that farming has been increasingly transforming

towards commercialization, the challenge is for our small farmers to adapt to it and

the adaptive measures and strategies should be put in place by promoting farmers’

friendly technologies and innovations.

• We live in the diverse agro-ecologies and micro-climatic situations; it is becoming

paramount that the extension and research system directs its efforts based on specific

needs and production potentials. For Bhutan, we have been trying to adopt our

extension approach that addresses specific micro-level production system through

technical interventions focused to production and products development potentials in

line to the consumers’ demands and also towards poverty reduction.

• I am convinced to the fact that SAC leading towards improved extension network

through sharing information, ICT and technologies to address issues in the SAARC

region. Food production and natural resource degradation are the great challenges in

today’s World. The most affected and vulnerable group is the rural population of our

developing countries and more than 80% live in rural areas.

• The extension system should be pro-poor in its approach and technologies farmers

friendly. Therefore, there is a need to establish a strong coordinated extension

system that demands for minimal external resources and that direct effective and

efficient extension delivery system.

• The recommendations of the last 2 days workshop here in Thimphu have addressed

various relevant issues affecting efficient service delivery, to mention few: extension

coordination-linkages, policies, human resources, and technologies, funds… have

been worth mentioning and deeply rooted to the concern and the wisdom of all the

participants here. I am happy to note that such a regional level workshop will go

long way and always be a platform to share knowledge, experiences, issues,

opportunities and the recommendations for improvement of extension service

delivery to the rural masses.

• I am impressed with the idea of the SAARC Agriculture Centre conducting such

study on the existing agricultural extension management system and organizing

regional consultative workshop regularly to revitalize agriculture extension systems

in the SAARC region.

On behalf of SAC in concluding session, Professor Dr. Ramesh Chand gave concluding

remarks on the workshop specially mentioned common problems and challenges of the

SAARC member countries for hunger and food security in South Asia

The resource speakers of the SAARC member countries and all participants

from Bhutan, SAC and IRRI discussed the themes as follows in the group

discussion:

• Chronological development of agriculture extension system

• Existing national agricultural extension system


• Methods, approaches and models of extension

• Research – Education –extension -farmers linkage

• Comparison of the NAES diversity

• The strength and weakness of the NAES

• Effectiveness of extension approach within the region

• Human resource development

History of the chronological development of agriculture extension

• Preference for one line of control of extension service

• System vs services

Methods, approaches and models of extension work practiced

• Different models and approaches and the need to blend the models and to also take

into considerations the social aspects

• the need to develop social skills to respond to the situations

• Farmers should be encouraged to adopt the technologies by providing the required

facilities

• Options should be made available for farmers to choose a technology Priority in the

establishment of group and cooperative societies

• Use of participatory approaches an alternative to limited no. of extension agents

• OGTP approach

The research-Education-extension-farmers linkage or promoting incomes and

management of scarce resources

• Growing trends of pluralism in delivering agric extension services

Comparison of the NAES diversity

• All the extension experiences of the countries are revolving around the same

practices

The strength and weakness of the NAES

• High cost low impact extension program

• Inadequate technical qualifications of grassroots level extension workers

• Limited emphasis on the woman-extension agents (vulnerable)

Effective extension approach within the region

• suggestion to blend the public and NGO sectors

• Common forum to address feedback from the front line extension personnel

• Effective monitoring and evaluation system on the performances of field workers

Human resource development

• IT is not the replacement of the human resources (extension personnel)

• Establishment of extension training centres

• Potential-based placement of extension personnel


The Major Recommendations Emerging out of the Workshop

Sl.

No

Issues of National Agriculture

Extension System

Recommendations

1. Evolution / Development of Agriculture Extension System

1.1 Increasing engagement of Extension

personnel in non-extension ad hoc

activities

Devolution of extension system to

local government

One line control of extension service with

improved coordination with relevant

stakeholders

1.2 Systems vs. Services: extension

system with weak delivery

mechanism

Improve the extension services delivery

methodology in the local context

1.3 Inadequate financial support for

agricultural extension activities

Prioritize investment in extension activities,

methodologies and approaches

1.4 Involvement of extension personnel

in input supply deviating focus on

extension service delivery

Extension needs to be knowledge-based

2. Methods, Approaches and Models of Extension

2.1 Large variety of models are in

practice in different SAARC

member countries

Member countries need to adopt a blend of

approaches / models in vogue in

neighbouring countries

2.2 Inadequate facilities limit the

extension potential for dissemination

of technologies to the farmers

Farmers should be encouraged to adopt

technologies by providing the required

services and facilities

2.3

Limited technology options for

farmers to choose

Technology options should be made

available for farmers to choose and use as

per their preferences

2.4 Farmers’ group and co-operative

societies are playing significant role

in the diffusion of information

Extension system may incorporate the good

practices of NGOs and private sector in

applying participatory approach and

encourage working with NGOs and civil

society organizations

2.5 Limited extension workers against

wide-range of extension mandate

and coverage

Use of participatory approaches an

alternative to limited number of extension

agents

2.6 Extension system lacks expertise in

commercial farming

The role of extension systems may be

expanded to include dissemination of

commercial farming. The emulation of One-

Geog-Three-Product (OGTP) approach

being practiced in Bhutan can be a good

model to be replicated

2.7 Inadequate use of ICT tools for

technology transfer

Investment in ICT and human resource

development enhanced


3. Research-education-extension-farmer Linkages

3.1 Growing trends of pluralism in

delivering agricultural extension

services

Review of impact of pluralism in delivering

agricultural extension services

3.2 Wide yield gap between research

and farmers’ fields

Participatory on farm trials on new

technologies to be adopted

3.3 Poor responses from farmers on the

use of technologies

Promote generation of location-specific and

need-based technologies through

participation of relevant stakeholders

3.4 Scattered settlements and long

distance from extension centres

Additional deployment of extension

personnel and increase number of service

centres / improved access

3.6 Confusion and duplication in the

areas of activities, linkages and

coordination – different agencies

adopting different practices

Integration and realignment of services

sectors and promote one line of control

3.7 Research-education-extension-

farmers linkages are tenuous and

scarce

Extension system must institutionalize these

linkages

3.8 Regional forum greatly enhance

understanding and exchange of ideas

and information and connectivity

An extension forum maybe instituted under

the aegis of SAARC

4. National Agricultural Extension System Diversity

4.1 Crops, livestock, poultry, fisheries

and forestry sub-sectors engaged in

delivering similar services to the

same clients

All these Departments may be placed under

one Ministry

4.2 Inadequate technology testing and

dissemination mechanism

Model like Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK),

India, maybe replicated in member countries

5. Weaknesses of the National Agricultural Extension System

5.1 Inadequate technical qualifications

of grassroots level extension workers

Increase frequency of in-service training

and up-grade qualification from diploma to

degree level

5.2 Gender inequity–limited woman

EAs considering them as vulnerable

group

Encourage greater participation of qualified

woman EAs

5.3 Poor input supply system and lack of

agricultural insurance scheme

Adopt best mechanism and practices

functional in the SAARC member countries

5.4 Poor agriculture market system Proper networking of marketing agricultural

products in the SAARC / SAFTA

5.5 Inadequate central repository for

knowledge management at the

national and regional level

Strengthen networking and central

repository for information sharing for

scientific, local knowledge and socio-

cultural exchange


6. Effectiveness of Extension Approaches

6.1 Lack of common forum to address

feedback from the front line

extension personnel

Develop and strengthen common forum /

toll free communication system among the

front line extension personnel

6.2 Current phenomena of commodity

and supply driven approach lacks

assessment of technical potential of

the extension programme

Shift from commodity and supply driven to

demand and market driven extension

7. Extension Policy Issues

7.1 Inappropriate / lack of institutional

reforms and weak coordination and

support

Align functional-based institutional reforms

and strengthen coordination and support

services

7.2 Lack of Policy in public private

partnership

Re-visit / frame national extension policy

and incorporate coordination mechanism

keeping in view the important roles of the

private sector in extension services delivery

7.4 Accountability vested more to the

donors rather than to farmers

resulting in less attention dedicated

to the farmers

Shift from donor accountability to farmer-

centered accountability

7.5 Extension personnel lack knowledge

and broader understanding on

emerging global / regional issues

Create awareness and understanding on

emerging issues so that extension personnel

are able to address the global / regional

issues locally (climate change, global

warming, WTO, organic farming, etc.)

8. Human Resource Development

8.1 Fallacy of IT as the replacement of

the human resources (extension

personnel)

IT is a support tool for extension and should

be used to enhance delivery of services

8.2 Limited number of (in-service)

extension training centres

Outsource the in-service extension training

to private sectors

8.3 Mismatch on the placement of

extension personnel in accordance

with production potential (one EA

one block)

Commodity-based and knowledge-based

placement of extension personnel

9. Monitoring and Evaluation System

9.1 Absence of appropriate monitoring

and evaluation system de-motivates

the field workers

Effective monitoring and evaluation system

to monitor the job-performances of field

workers and also to assess the field impact

9.2 Lack of timely reporting / recording

of field activities and unrealistic

field data

• Put in place standard reporting and

recording mechanism supported by

mobile M&E team

• EAs should be properly trained on data

collection and simple data statistics


CHAPTER

Concept Note

National Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries – An Analysis of the System Diversity

Background

The history of agricultural extension was not properly recorded. But the process of

development activities and agricultural extension was in vogue since time immemorial as a

social innovation, which over time became a force and change in practices of agriculture

around the world. The present form of agricultural extension education is a recent

development, which has been revised, modified and adapted over decades based on the

changing situations of the respective countries. Its evolution extends over nearly four

thousands years, although its modern forms are nearly an outcome of the past two centuries.

Prior to the emergence of the modern form of agricultural extension in the 19th century, the

dissemination of agricultural information and advice to the farming community has a long

history.

Agricultural development in different SAARC countries seems to have followed different

pathways; so did the agricultural extension education systems. Over the past half a century,

for example, trajectories followed in the course of agricultural development in Bangladesh,

India and Pakistan were not similar Largely a food deficit country India became self reliant

in food three decades ago, while Bangladesh is still striving for it. Historically agricultural

extension system as a change engine played a significant role in the development agriculture

in these countries. There might be differences in agricultural extension system and

administration not only among the countries but also between the regions within a country.

In view of increased demand for agricultural production and stark reality of food crisis, it is

necessary that each individual country in the region becomes self-reliant in agricultural

production including food. And in doing so, agricultural research and extension systems

need to be revitalized. Learning from the regional development experiences gained through

agricultural extension management systems over the past years may help carry the process

forward.

No matter whether it is the harsh environment of Afghanistan or Indian Rajasthan, or

bountiful tropical environment of Bangladesh or Nepal’s tarai region, successful agricultural

production requires the use of modern tools and techniques. To remain successful and

competitive in agricultural production and trade, it is necessary to build knowledge-based

farming communities in the region.

Building a knowledge-based farming communities require effective and efficient extension

system. Agricultural research systems and agricultural universities in the region developed a

treasure of agricultural technologies over half a century. These technologies can be

replicated across boundaries with little effort provided an extension management system is in

place. SAARC nations can effectively develop efficient extension systems learning from

each other. However, effective and efficient management system for a country should build

on the societal needs and socio-economic conditions of the people. SAARC Agriculture

12


Center intends to conduct a study of the existing systems of agricultural extension

management system and subsequently to hold a regional workshop to prepare a set of

recommendations aiming at developing and revitalizing national agricultural extension

systems in the region.

Objectives:

1. To study the existing national agricultural extension system in SAARC member

countries.

2. To document the methods, approaches and models of extension work practiced in

SAARC countries.

3. To study the research – Education –extension -farmers linkage in SAARC country.

4. To compare the NAES diversity among the number countries.

5. To identify the strength and weakness of the NAES in SAARC countries.

6. To examine the most effective extension approach with in the rerion.

7. To study the possibility of modifying the existing extension system in SAARC countries

in the light of the most effective approach identified in the region.

8. To develop extension system in individual member countries based on the experience of

other countries .

9. To document a brief history of chronological development history of agriculture

extension in SAARC countries.

A more effective role for extension is possible:

(1) If we study, assess, learn from the prevailing pattern of extension, it offers extension opportunities to widen our horizon, deepen our insights and reshape or develop

extension strategies.

(2) It is believed that all the useful knowledge generated by the research system is not being availed fully by the extension system and this is weakness in the prevailing

research-extension linkages.

(3) In the past the extension system was regarded essentially as a means of communication, linking the source of research knowledge with the end users. Their

approach was in use for a couple of decades from 1960s, with the advent of new

agricultural technologies built on high-yielding verities, more responsive to

fertilizer, irrigation and pesticide.

This situation did not last beyond 1990s when the food production situation improved. The

enthusiastic acceptance of new technology by the farming communities started decelerating,

under such situation it is seen that whenever the extension staff performs the communication

role in an informal education mode , the adoption rate is not only high and is also more

efficient


Prospective issue to be dealt with

(1) Farming is what farmer do, what farmers depend upon , what they know , what they believe and what they are able to manage on their own. So, durable changes in

farming practices are possible only if the farmers’ perception, knowledge, attitudes

and skills are changed. At this point the educational role of extension will become an

invaluable factor.

(2) Farming is practiced only by the farmers, not by extension staff, research people, policy makers and other development agents. Farmers are the end users of the

research technologies, production resources such as soil , water , and for farmers to

play their due role . Here, again we need to remind our selves that the fundamental

objective of extension is human resource development . Agricultural development

today is the responsibility of the farmers and government. This is in fact becomes a

shared responsibility between the farmers and the government, farmers as the

producers and government as the enabler. From the foregoing discussion the

following future issues need to be dealt with:

(a) Management of natural resources such as soil, water, biodiversity etc.

(b) Farming as business –farmers need to earn cash income to meet both their family

commitments and farms.

(c) Building farmer’s capacity as efficient manager to enable them to cope with the

new responsibilities of commercial mode of farming.

(d) Multi- agency extension work- agricultural development has slowly become

multi-dimensional approach. Many extension experts believe that days of

nonlinear relationship of research – extension – education –farmer have come to

an end, yielding multi-agency development approach. Of course, so far as

agricultural development is concerned, the extension agency will have to play a

lead role.

Outline of country study

An analysis of system diversity of the NAES in SAARC countries may help extension

leaders and policy makers to obtain best option to develop the extension system. In order to

obtain complete information on extension system in the member counties, the experts are

expected to compile country studies in terms of the following guidelines:

Contents

Executive Summary

1. Introduction

i) Historical background with chronological development of agricultural extension

activities in the country

ii) Establishment of extension institutions

iii) Reformation and development

iv) Establishment of NAES

2. Organizations of National Agricultural Extension System (NAES)

i) Agencies involved in the extension system (GO and NGO).


ii) Organogram of NAES with major roles of each position of the organogram iii) Extension planning process


b. Priority fixation of extension activities

c. Resource allocation and budgeting

iv) Coordination mechanism v) Decentralization of extension delivery system

3. Governance

i) Institutional reforms and efficiency enhancement

ii) Public-private-NGO partnership iii) Accountability hierarchy iv) Leadership development v) Management information system

4. Human resource development and capacity building

i) Involvement of academic and research institutions for HRD through curriculum

development and implementation support.

a. Areas of perception, skill and capacity building.

ii) Training of extension workers and farmers through public, NGO and private initiatives.

5. Research- Education- Extension – Farmers Linkages

i) Present linkage

ii) Emerging trends of linkages iii) Proposed integration mechanism iv) Institutional reforms for strengthening linkages

6. Incentive Structure

i) Incentive structure: Present status and future outlook

ii) Career advancement scheme iii) Prize and reward system iv) HR management

7. Monitoring and Evaluation

i) Institutional review and program review

ii) Monitoring of extension program

iii) Follow up of monitoring iv) Evaluation and follow up

8. Conclusion and recommendations

Regional Workshop

SAC intends to hold a regional workshop where the participants drawing from public, non-

government and private sector representatives will have participation. Participants will be the

focal points and their associates, resource persons, policy level experts from public sectors,

representatives of agricultural extension agencies, and other non-government agencies and

stakeholders. Participants including focal points will present their case studies, discuss and

exchange their views and ideas and will come up with recommendations highlighting

regional and national policies, programs, and activities. The representatives will present their


constraints, issues and policy agenda of their respective countries for adoption and further

actions.

Publication

The center will compile the country studies and recommendations, edit, and print as a

publication (printing and CD preparation).

Output

a. Publication on Agricultural Extension Systems in SAARC Countries

Actionable policies and programs of activities to strengthen National Agricultural Extension

Systems in SAARC countries.

National Agricultural Extension Systems in

Bangladesh

Dr. Md. Matiar RahmanFormer Deputy Director (Training Wing)

Department of Agricultural Extension

Khamarbari, Farmgate, Dhaka

E-mail: [email protected]

Cell: 00880-1712953347

150 Bangladesh

Executive Summary

(1) Details are not known regarding agricultural development activities in the pre-British

regime. During 1800-1908 thirty two big famines occurred and 10 million people died,

as a result Department of Agriculture started functioning in 1870 in India as one of the

section of the Department of Revenue, to the Government of India. The well-known

Royal commission on Agriculture, worked during the period of Lord Erwine (1926-31)

which made some valuable recommendations for agricultural development. .As a result

the Department of Agriculture started functioning in1906. The function of this

Directorate may broadly be divided into four divisions viz: (a) research, (b) education

and training, (c) extension, and (d) supply and services.

(2) Agricultural extension in true sense is a recent introduction in the region. Agricultural

Extension actually started functioning after independence (1947). After Govt. took up

the agricultural extension work, several agricultural demonstration farms were

established in district headquarters. The agricultural extension organization expanded

greatly when the staffs of the defunct Jute Regulation Department were transferred to

the agriculture Department in 1951. The Department during those days regularly

published reading materials, conducted demonstrations, fairs and exhibitions, group and

mass meetings; organize crop competitions, made farm visits and personal contacts.

(3) A number of organizations were created during 1951-1980. The agricultural

Information Service came into being as a separate organization in 1961, EPADC-1962,

EPWAPDA-1959, PARD-1959, Village Agricultural and Industrial Development

Program (V-AID)-1954, Department of Agricultural Extension and Management-1968,

Directorate of plant Protection-1956, Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production)-1974,

Horticulture Department Board-1974, Tobacco Development Board-1974, Central

Extension Resource Development Institute-1976, Cotton Development Board-1977,

Sugar and Food Industries Corporation-1976.

(4) As an important step towards strengthening the agricultural extension work, the govt.

embarked upon program of reorganization of extension service. The following six

departments or agencies were merged in Sept. 1982 to from the Department of

Agricultural Extension (DAE): Directorate of Agriculture (Extension and

Management); Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production); Directorate of Plant

Protection; Horticulture Development Board; Tobacco Development Board; Central

Extension Resources Development Institute.

(5) The T&V system of doing extension activities was introduced in 1977 and operated till

1993. Since 1993 revision of T&V system started taken place to overcome the

weaknesses so far identified, such as: T&V system was top-down approach; It was

individual farmers contact approach; There were no or little scope to involve farmers

and field workers in program planning execution, monitoring and evaluation; It was not

responsive to farmers needs; Extension-research linkage was found weak;

Demonstration on proven technologies was not included; and Finally, extension

workers were not appraised on the basis of their performance.

(6) Agricultural extension in Bangladesh has followed an evolutionary process of



Training and Visit (T&V) approach which was established during the late seventies

formed the backbone of the DAE’s extension practices. To increase its effectiveness

and efficiency DAE has sought to develop the approach. DAE’s Revised Extension

Approach (REA) specially embraces the Department’s mission with context of NAEP.

The REA has retained many of the primary elements of the T&V approach in

combination with relevant aspects of other recognized extension approaches and

features developed locally with Bangladesh extension partners. The result is an

approach to extension, which is largely demand driven, reliant on client. Participation

based on working with groups and integrated among different extension providers.

(7) DAE already recognized the following weaknesses in the current status of REA

implementation: Farmers information Needs Assessment has been adopted in the

principle as the basis for all extension activities, but BSs/SAAOs lack the facilitation

and group motivation skills; The process of decentralization needs to mature to a point

where Thana/Upzila staff have the ability to identify locally relevant technologies; The

majority groups used by DAE are temporary and relatively weak as channels for

receiving effective technologies; DAE targets its technologies according to landholding

criteria which may not be a good reflection of wealth; Despite a major training

program, DAE personnel are not fully committed to the Seasonal Extension monitoring

System (SEMS) monitoring and evaluation system; The role of the regional Additional

Directors, with regard to the effective supervision of District and Thana/Upzila staff

remains weak; Not all DAE projects and special program have adopted the REA.

(8) The Department of Agricultural Extension Strategic Plan (1999-2002) was developed to

address these weaknesses and support a process of continuous service improvement.

The key objectives of the plan were as follows: Ensure full adoption of REA as the

routine method for all DAE extension activities and projects; Review and improve some

aspects of the current REA including FINA; targeting of extension services, the use of

groups, and monitoring and evaluation; Improve the supervision of extension services;

Restore the level of direct contact to at least 15% of the farming community; Increase

the use of low and no cost extension methods; Contribute to increase the coarse food

grain production to help achieve 25 million tones production; Promote the production,

utilization and marketing of other food and non-food crops; Generate foreign currency

earnings by encouraging the production and export of diversified crops; Mainstreaming

gender and social development issues extension service delivers; Strengthen DAE’s

commitment to sustainable agricultural development incorporating environmental

concerns; Strengthen research-extension linkages and develop similar linkages with

other agencies; Further strengthen DAE capacity to use the mass media and build links

with radio and television.

(9) The Department has completed the implementation of its first strategic plan (1999-

2002), and learnt much from the process. The strategic plan (2002-2006) is a bold

attempt to shape a new future for the Department as it enters the 21st Century. The

strategic plan is designed to support the entire policy framework of the Govt. of

Bangladesh, including the National Agricultural Policy, National Rural Development

Policy, National Strategy for Economic Growth, Poverty Reduction and Social

Development and the New Agricultural Extension Policy (NEAP). The strategic plan

has been framed on five objectives as mentioned below:

152 Bangladesh

• Increase agricultural productivity – Food security, Input and Credit support, Crop

Diversification, Appropriate land use, Soil health improvement, Sustainable

agriculture and environment, Commercialization and opportunities for non-farm

economy in Agriculture Development.

• Provide pro-poor services – Poverty reduction as a priority, Targeting, Gender

awareness, Women in agriculture and Farmers charters.

• Development partnership and Links with Local Government – UADC, UAECC,

DAECC, ATC, NATCC and EPICC (procedure for monitoring NAEP committees).

• Develop DAE as an effective Institution for providing Quality and Quantity

Services.

• Develop performance measurement.

(10) Agriculture in Bangladesh is characterized by small farm size and rice-dominated

farming systems. The productivity of rice and other crops is low and there are large

yield gaps between farmer's fields and research trials. Same is true for other agricultural

commodities such as fisheries and livestock. Over the last three decades, there has been

a significant increase in the production of rice to achieve near self sufficiency in food

grains. However, this could be threatened in the future due to increasing population,

declining land base and stagnating yields. Diversification of agricultural production

systems to high value commodities is slow with limited post-harvest value addition.

The private sector makes limited contribution to agricultural research and its investment

in agro-processing is a nascent activity. Acceleration of agricultural growth is being

constrained by: Weak technology generation and transfer; deteriorating and declining

natural resource base, especially cultivable land; Poorly functioning input and output

markets and delivery of other support services; Low private sector investment in agro-

processing; and Weak local institutions such as Producers' Organizations (POs) to

influence performance of the delivery of agricultural services by government agencies,

including the large agricultural technology system (i.e. research and extension) which is

ill prepared to meet the emerging challenges.

(11) Since several constraints to accelerate agricultural growth are directly influenced by the performance of the technology system, a program designed to address its current

weaknesses is critical for the success of a strategy to reduce rural poverty. The project

has four components: (i) Agricultural research support; (ii) Agricultural extension

support; (iii) Development of supply chains; and (iv) Project management and

coordination. Agriculture research support has the activities such as: Competitive grant

program, sponsored public goods research, enhancing institutional efficiency.

Agricultural extension support has activities like: mobilization of common interest

group, and producers’ organizations, decentralization of extension services, knowledge

management and human resources development, institutional strengthening.

Development of supply chain component includes strengthening farmers-market

linkages and enhancing institutional efficiency. :

(12) Agriculture extension in Bangladesh has followed an evolutionary process of

experimentation with component of several recognized extension approaches, such as:

General extension approach, The commodity specialized approach, The training and

visit system, Agricultural extension participatory approach, The project approach,

Farming system research and extension approach, Integrated rural development


approach, Conventional educational approach, Project approach, Group approach,

Farmer’s field school approach, Partnership approach.

(13) Work Programming is the system by which SAAOs former Block Supervisors plan and

assess the work they do. This was previously done using the Fortnightly Visit Schedule.

However, this had a number of weaknesses, for example it did not enable task

completion to be verified. DAE developed the work programming system in order to:

Provide SAAOs with increased freedom and responsibility for planning and assessing

their own work, and hence raise their motivation; Provide supervising officers with a

means of assessing SAAOs performance against verifiable indicators and provide a

framework for the recognition of good work.

There are five stages in the work programming process: Planning at the beginning of

each fortnight, by the SAAOs, of tasks to be carried out during the following two

weeks, and agreement of this plan with the supervisor; Assessment by the SAAO of

their own performance at the end of the fortnight; Constructive analysis of performance

in a meeting between the SAAO and supervisor; Agreement of a new work plan for the

next fortnight, incorporating initiatives to improve capability, resource availability and

motivation where required and learning from the successes and failures of previous

work programs.

(14) DAE define partnership as being a voluntary relationship based on trust and respect in which DAE and a partner organization work together to implement extension".

Examples of this kind of partnership include: Different extension providers

participating in TAECCs and DEPCs; Different organizations attending or participating

in upzila or district fairs; DAE staff working with groups formed by another

organization

(15) Farming systems, household economic activities, agro-ecological conditions, credit and

marketing opportunities vary considerably from place to place. For this reason, the

department has decentralized responsibilities for the planning, budgeting,

implementation, monitoring and evaluation of extension program to staff at block,

upzila, district and regional levels. The upzila level is the basic unit for planning,

implementing, monitoring and evaluating local extension program. This system ensures

that decisions about the services provided by the Department of Agricultural Extension

are taken at the lowest possible level, but with the full support of specialist staff at

district and regional level.

(16) A bottom-up, demand driven extension system must be able to respond to whatever

problems farmers identify. One of the difficulties faced is to ensure the skills and

capacity to solve farmers’ problems. DAE can only provide immediate assistance that is

within its capacity. Capacity is the overall ability of an organization or unit to carry out

various activities. Capacity always has limits. Each extension manager needs to know

the limits of their staff. Work plans must be within limits or within their 'capacity'.

There are many problems to overcome to meet the demands of extension clients. This

means that extension staffs need to have the appropriate skills and knowledge to be able

to provide the correct response to farmers. This might mean technical knowledge about

a particular crop and/or skills in extension such as how to handle a group of farmers so

as to be sure the messages are understood. District and upzila extension managers need

to be sure of the competence of their staff before selecting and assigning activities as

154 Bangladesh

part of the extension plan. The knowledge and skills required to carry out work plans

determine any immediate additional training required. This means both the technical

content of the extension program and the ability to carry out the extension method to be

used.

(17) To monitor and activate effective performance of the functions of the stakeholders in

the linkage systems and to provide guidance to the downstream and upstream linkages

are established through the formation and functioning of several committees. These

committees in the national level are called the Extension Policy Implementation

Coordination Committee (EPICC) and National Agricultural Technical Coordination

Committee (NATCC), and in the regional level, the Agricultural Technical Committee

(ATC), in the district level, the District Extension Planning Committee (DEPC).

Linkages are also functional through the adaptive and Farming Systems Research and

Development (FSRD) activities, research review and planning workshops of the

research institutes as well as special and thematic workshops.

(18) In extension, objectives are based on meeting farmers’ information needs. Success

occurs when objectives are met, and indicators are used to help determine the level of

success. Monitoring is the process of recording these indicators, while evaluation is

analyzing the recorded indicators and determining how to improve performance in the

future. Using monitoring and evaluation tools DAE is able to ensure that the

implementation of extension program follows their design and takes into account the

interests of farmers. Effective monitoring and evaluation should provide relevant and

accurate information, to the right people, at the right time, in the right format, to enable

them to take timely decisions and action. Decentralization provides local flexibility and

freedom of choice, and monitoring and evaluation helps staff make the right choices.


Introduction

1) Historical background with chronological development of agricultural extension activities in the Bangladesh

Details are not known regarding agricultural development activities in the pre-British regime

except some improvements were made by Emperor Akbar, Sher Shah and several other

Muslim Emperors in respect of irrigation and land tenure system. It was due to disastrous

famine which swept over Bengal and Behar that a famine commission was constituted during

the period of Lord Laurence (1864-68), to find out reasons of famine as well as to

recommend for its prevention. During 1800-1908 thirty two big famines occurred and 10

million people died. As a result a scheme was prepared during the period of Lord Mayo

(1869-72) and the Department of Agriculture started functioning in 1870 as one of the

section of the Department of Revenue, to the Government of India.

The Department only arranged to supply irrigation water during drought and distribute food,

seeds and loans to the affected farmers. These were not sufficient to cope with gigantic

agricultural problems. Hence Lord Ripon (1880-84) recognized the importance of the

Agricultural Department and expanded its field of activities. The objective of the Department

was than to push up agricultural production and increase export. Another Famine

Commission was constituted in 1901 during Lord Curzon’s regime (1899-1905). This

Commission recommended for establishment of an agricultural department in each province

for conducting agricultural research and for adoption of scientific agricultural innovations in

practical fields. Government of India approved a scheme for establishment of research

laboratories in 1903 and granted a sum of Rs. 2.4 million for agricultural work in 1905. The

well-known Royal commission on Agriculture, worked during the period of Lord Erwine

(1926-31) which made some valuable recommendations for agricultural development.

In the beginning, this Department functioned as part of the Revenue Department in the

Centre and as a part of the Revenue and Land Records Department in the province. In 1906,

the Department was granted a separate entity in this province and the first Director was

appointed in the same year. In the year 1914, a nuclear stuff for Extension was added and

one Deputy Director of agriculture, six provincial agricultural officers and one officer on

special duty were appointed. Later on one agricultural officer was appointed for each district

and a few agricultural farms were started functioning in the district headquarters. Again the

Department was expanded and technician at union level and specialist at thana, district and

headquarter levels were appointed.

The function of this Directorate may broadly be divided into four divisions viz: (a) research,

(b) education and training, (c) extension, and (d) supply and services.

Agricultural extension in true sense is a recent introduction in the region. Agricultural

Extension actually started functioning after independence (1947). Before independence there

were some private extension service organized by some Zamindars and leaders like Rabidra

Nath Tagore, T.M. Nurun Nabi Chowdhury, G.S. Datta, Mohatta Gandhi. After Govt. took

up the agricultural extension work, several agricultural demonstration farms were established

in district headquarters. The agricultural extension organization expanded greatly when the

staffs of the defunct Jute Regulation Department were transferred to the agriculture

Department in 1951. The Department during those days regularly published reading

156 Bangladesh

materials, conducted demonstrations, fairs and exhibitions, group and mass meetings;

organize crop competitions, made farm visits and personal contacts.

2) Establishment of Extension Institutions

A number of organizations were created during 1951-1980. The agricultural Information

Service came into being as a separate organization in 1961, EPADC-1962, EPWAPDA-

1959, PARD-1959, Village Agricultural and Industrial Development Program (V-AID)-

1954, Department of Agricultural Extension and Management-1968, Directorate of plant

Protection-1956, Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production)-1974, Horticulture Department

Board-1974, Tobacco Development Board-1974, Central Extension Resource Development

Institute-1976, Cotton Development Board-1977, Sugar and Food Industries Corporation-

1976. In 1971 Bangladesh became impendent and in 1974 there was a disastrous famine. To

prevent further famine most of the organizations were created. Up to the early 1980, a unique

feature of agricultural extension in Bangladesh was the existence of many mono-crop

extension organizations. For example, under the Ministry of Agriculture there were six

agencies with extension functions. They were: (i) Directorate of Agriculture (Extension and

management), (ii) Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production), (iii) Directorate of Plant

Protection, (iv) Horticulture Board, (v) Cotton Development Board, and (vi) Tobacco

Development Board. Outside the Ministry, the Water Development Board, Sugar and Food

Industries, Tea Board, Directorate of Livestock and Fisheries have field staff with extension

functions.

3) Reformation and development

The creation of these agencies was justified either by the need to promote a new crop or

emphasis given to a particular crop (such as Jute) or an account of specialized method of

handling a commodity, particularly processing and marketing (Tobacco and Cotton). Thus

each of these services had different objectives, yet most were dealing with the same farmers.

The establishment of a large number of extension agencies over the years had created a

number of problems. These problems were:

(i) Inadequate demarcation of function and absence of definite areas of responsibility

leading to duplication and diffusion of efforts at the farm level. The multiple and

sometimes conflicting approaches by different agencies created confusion in the

mind of farmers:

(ii) There were increasing difficulties of integrating the works of so many agencies and

coordinating their programs at the farmers field, there was also wasteful

competition for the scarce resources of farmers and trained manpower;

(iii) It prevented the fostering of a coherent holistic view of the farm as a management

unit;

(iv) It engendered high overhead and supervision costs, seasonal under employment of

staff and duplication of facilities.

As an important step towards strengthening the agricultural extension work, the govt.

embarked upon program of reorganization of extension service. The following six


departments or agencies were merged in Sept. 1982 to from the Department of Agricultural

Extension (DAE):

(i) Directorate of Agriculture (Extension and Management);

(ii) Directorate of Agriculture (Jute Production);

(iii) Directorate of Plant Protection; (iv) Horticulture Development Board;

(v) Tobacco Development Board;

(vi) Central Extension Resources Development Institute.

The extension wing of Water Development Board was also decided to be merged with DAE

in near future. The Cotton Development Board was expected to be merged by 1985. The

total staff strength of DAE was about 23000 including those involved in services and

regulatory functions.

The main features of the organizational model of DAE were:

i) Advice on crop production and ultimately all farming operations were to be

provided to farmers of a given area extension worker.

ii) Management and communication chain between headquarters and the field to be

shortened; accountability clearly assigned and the supervision arrangements

strengthened with establishment of appropriate spam of contact.

iii) Technical competence of DAE to be improved by introducing a cadre of well

trained SMSs and opening career opportunities for them by establishing a

“Technical stream” and

iv) Strengthening the linkages between Research and Extension and other organization.

There were a number of key points to be kept in view in performing extension along the

training and visit lines. These may be summarized as follows:

1. The farmer should be visited regularly by an able and qualified extension worker.

2. There should be a regular frequent training of staff at all levels in order to keep

them up to date on the latest technological development and enable them to develop

specific recommendation suited to changing farm conditions.

3. The extension message should be focused mainly on selected contact farmers and

other interested farmers as well as groups. All channels should be used for diffusing

recommended practices to other farmers.

4. The linkage with research must be two-way and close.

5. The work of the supervisory extension staff should be focused on supporting the

Block Supervisors presently designated as Sub Assistant Agriculture Extension

Officer(SAAO)

6. T&V is a flexible system to be adapted to meet to local situations.

4) Establishment of National Agricultural Extension Systems

The T&V system of doing extension activities was introduced in 1977 and operated till 1993.

Since 1993 revision of T&V system started taken place to overcome the weaknesses so far

identified, such as:

158 Bangladesh

(i) T&V system was top-down approach;

(ii) It was individual farmers contact approach;

(iii) There were no or little scope to involve farmers and field workers in program

planning execution, monitoring and evaluation;

(iv) It was not responsive to farmers needs;

(v) Extension-research linkage was found weak;

(vi) Demonstration on proven technologies was not included; and

(vii) Finally, extension workers were not appraised on the basis of their performance.

Agricultural extension in Bangladesh has followed an evolutionary process of


Training and Visit (T&V) Approach which was established during the late seventies formed

the backbone of the DAE’s extension practices. To increase its effectiveness and efficiency

DAE has sought to develop the approach. DAE’s Revised Extension Approach (REA)

specially embraces the Department’s mission with context of NAEP. The REA has retained

many of the primary elements of the T&V approach in combination with relevant aspects of

other recognized extension approaches and features developed locally with Bangladesh

extension partners. The result is an approach to extension, which is largely demand driven,

reliant on client. Participation based on working with groups and integrated among different

extension providers.

The key principles of REA are as follows:

Decentralization;

Responsive to farmers needs;

Working with groups;

Targeting;

Using a range of extension methods.

The Govt. policy must directly relate to the core operations of DAE and for which DAE is a

lead implementing agency of the New Agricultural Extension Policy (NAEP) published in

1996.

NAEP Principles are:

(i) Extension support to all categories of farmers;

(ii) Efficient Extension Services;

(iii) Decentralization; (iv) Demand-led Extension;

(v) Working with group of all levels;

(vi) Strengthening Extension-Research Linkages; (vii) Training of Extension Personnel; (viii) Appropriate Extension Methodology;

(ix) Integrated Extension Support to Farmers;

(x) Coordinated Extension Activities;

(xi) Integrated Environmental Support.

DAE already recognized the following weaknesses in the current status of REA

implementation:


(i) Farmers information Needs Assessment has been adopted in the principle as the

basis for all extension activities, but BSs/SAAOs lack the facilitation and group

motivation skills.

(ii) The process of decentralization needs to mature to a point where Thana/Upzila staff

have the ability to identify locally relevant technologies;

(iii) The majority groups used by DAE are temporary and relatively weak as channels

for receiving effective technologies;

(iv) DAE targets its technologies according to landholding criteria which may not be a

good reflection of wealth;

(v) Despite a major training program, DAE personnel are not fully committed to the

Seasonal Extension monitoring System (SEMS) monitoring and evaluation system;

(vi) The role of the regional Additional Directors, with regard to the effective supervision of District and Thana/Upzila staff remains weak;

(vii) Not all DAE projects and special program have adopted the REA.

The Department of Agricultural Extension Strategic Plan (1999-2002) was developed to

address these weaknesses and support a process of continuous service improvement. The key

objectives of the plan were as follows:

(i) Ensure full adoption of REA as the routine method for all DAE extension activities

and projects;

(ii) Review and improve some aspects of the current REA including FINA; targeting of

extension services, the use of groups, and monitoring and evaluation;

(iii) Improve the supervision of extension services;

(iv) Restore the level of direct contact to at least 15% of the farming community;

(v) Increase the use of low and no cost extension methods;

(vi) Contribute to increase the coarse food grain production to help achieve 25 million

tones production.

(vii) Promote the production, utilization and marketing of other food and non-food

crops;

(viii) Generate foreign currency earnings by encouraging the production and export of diversified crops;

(ix) Mainstreaming gender and social development issues extension service delivers;

(x) Strengthen DAE’s commitment to sustainable agricultural development

incorporating environmental concerns;

(xi) Strengthen research-extension linkages and develop similar linkages with other

agencies;

(xii) Further strengthen DAE capacity to use the mass media and build links with radio

and television.

To improve the overall organizational performance, DAE had formed a Management

Committee and under which there were 5 working groups to assist the management running


The Department has completed the implementation of its first strategic plan (1999-2002),

and learnt much from the process. The strategic plan (2002-2006) is a bold attempt to shape

a new future for the Department as it enters the 21st Century. The strategic plan is designed

to support the entire policy framework of the Govt. of Bangladesh, including the National

160 Bangladesh

Agricultural Policy, National Rural Development Policy, National Strategy for Economic

Growth, Poverty Reduction and Social Development and the New Agricultural Extension

Policy (NEAP). The strategic plan has been framed on five objectives as mentioned below:

• Increase agricultural productivity – Food security, Input and Credit support, Crop

Diversification, Appropriate land use, Soil health improvement, Sustainable

agriculture and environment, Commercialization and opportunities for non-farm

economy in Agriculture Development.

• Provide pro-poor services – Poverty reduction as a priority, Targeting, Gender

awareness, Women in agriculture and Farmers charters.

• Development partnership and Links with Local Government – UADC, UAECC,

DAECC, ATC, NATCC and EPICC (procedure for monitoring NAEP committees).

• Develop DAE as an effective Institution for providing Quality and Quantity

Services.

• Develop performance measurement.

Govt. has already taken steps for introducing Integrated Agriculture Development plan. The

background of developing such plan is explained here in brief: There is an emerging

consensus developing among different stakeholders in Bangladesh that the old project based

approach is no longer valid. The reasons are the project based weaknesses: fragmenting

development effort, too many projects, limited policy implementation, waste of resources

etc. The wider agricultural sector in Bangladesh is distributed among 10 different ministries;

including agriculture (crops); Livestock and Fisheries; Food; Lands; Water Resources;

Environment and Forests; Rural Development; Finance; Education; Jute etc. Now need to

think how best we can use of our resources for the development.

5) Strategic Context and Rational of National Agricultural Technology Project

Agriculture in Bangladesh is characterized by small farm size and rice-dominated farming

systems. The productivity of rice and other crops is low and there are large yield gaps

between farmer's fields and research trials. Same is true for other agricultural commodities

such as fisheries and livestock. Over the last three decades, there has been a significant

increase in the production of rice to achieve near self sufficiency in food grains. However,

this could be threatened in the future due to increasing population, declining land base and

stagnating yields. Diversification of agricultural production systems to high value

commodities is slow with limited post-harvest value addition. The private sector makes

limited contribution to agricultural research and its investment in agro-processing is a

nascent activity.

Acceleration of agricultural growth is being constrained by:

(i) weak technology generation and transfer;

(ii) deteriorating and declining natural resource base, especially cultivable land;

(iii) poorly functioning input and output markets and delivery of other support services;

(iv) low private sector investment in agro-processing; and

(v) weak local institutions such as Producers' Organizations (POs) to influence

performance of the delivery of agricultural services by government agencies,

including the large agricultural technology system (i.e. research and extension)

which is ill prepared to meet the emerging challenges.


Since several constraints to accelerate agricultural growth are directly influenced by the

performance of the technology system, a program designed to address its current weaknesses

is critical for the success of a strategy to reduce rural poverty.

Project components

The project has four components: (i) agricultural research support; (ii) agricultural extension

support; (iii) development of supply chains; and (iv) project management and coordination.

A summary of project components, subcomponents and activities is provided below and

details are given in Annex 4.

Component 1. Agricultural Research Support

This component aims to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the national agricultural

research system through: (a) promotion of a pluralistic institutional structure by enabling

entry of new partners to support the research system; (b) making agricultural research more

participatory and demand-led; (c) developing technologies to promote sustainable

intensification and diversification of agriculture and for post-harvest value addition; and (d)

bridging the yield gap between what is possible and what is being currently achieved by

farmers. The component will have national coverage, and the following activities would be

financed.

Competitive Grants Program (CGP) GOB would establish an autonomous Krishi

Gobeshona (Agricultural Research) Foundation (KGF), with its own Governing Board, to

manage the CGP with independence, objectivity and transparency (this has already been

approved by the Government and registered with appropriate authorities). KGF would invite

multi-disciplinary agricultural research and development proposals from all organizations

with capacity to undertake such work, including NARS institutes, universities, NGOs, and

the private sector. By opening the CGP to non-traditional partners, a more competitive

pluralistic institutional structure for the NARS would be facilitated. The priority research

themes for competitive funding would be identified through a demand-led process involving

farmers, including researchable priority themes/constraints identified during micro-level

planning of agricultural extension (described under Component 2).

Sponsored Public Goods Research (SPGR) Long-term strategic and crosscutting research

would be supported on selected priority themes of public goods nature, e.g. issues related to

sustainable management of natural resources, germplasm conservation. The SPGR proposals

would be largely prepared and implemented by the ARIs under NARS and coordinated by

the BARC. However, partnerships between national and selected international institutions,

with excellence in research and education in areas of relevance to Bangladesh, would be

supported, especially to build capacity/skills of national institutions in 'new sciences', e.g.

molecular biology, bioinformatics.

Enhancing Institutional Efficiency To improve governance, institutional responsibilities

and management systems of NARS, the 1996 BARC Act would be amended; and, if needed,

the Acts of individual institutes under the Ministry of Agriculture (and possibly the Acts of

institutes under the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock) would be revised. The amended

BARC Act would also incorporate proposal for introduction of uniform service rules for

the NARS scientists. BARC', organizational structure would be rationalized and its

capacity strengthened for improved resource allocation, prioritization, coordination,

162 Bangladesh

human resource development, monitoring and evaluation of research, as well as for

promoting adoption of participatory research planning and implementation processes.

Concurrently, capacity of BARC and ARIs would be enhanced to manage fiduciary

responsibilities related to procurement and financial management. Funding would be

provided for preparation and implementation of a need-based human resource

development plan, including enhancement of capacity in social sciences, access to

information technology (IT) tools and techniques for improved communications and

dissemination of research information.

Component 2. Agricultural Extension Support

This component aims to establish a decentralized demand-led extension service, which

is knowledge-based with greater accountability and responsiveness to farmers, with a

focus on small and marginal farmers. The proposed interventions would draw on

lessons learnt from extension approaches previously pilot tested in Bangladesh and

other countries in the region, especially the decentralized and participatory technology

transfer mechanism and institutional innovations promoted under the National

Agricultural Technology Project in India, which was completed in 2005.

The national coverage under this component would be achieved in phases, starting with

about 25% of the Districts/Upazilas under the current project and expanding to other

districts and Upazilas during subsequent phases taking into account the implementation

experience and the changing needs of farmers. Multiple criteria, covering socio-

economic, bio-physical and institutional considerations, would be used to select the

project districts, followed by selection of Upazilas. The selection criteria would

include: poverty levels; population density; status of rural infrastructure; bio-physical

(rainfall, soils, irrigation water) potential; major production systems; status of natural

resource base; implementation capacity; and institutional support. The following

activities would be financed.

Mobilization of Common Interest Groups and Producers' Organizations A key

element of the decentralized and demand-led extension system would be. the


Common Interest Groups (CIGs) with the help of NGOs. Participating farmers would

be helped to form groups based on agricultural livelihoods or some other common

interest, e.g. credit, water use. Existing groups formed under other programs would also

be eligible to participate, following reorganization, where necessary, and orientation in

the overall extension approach under the project CIGs would be empowered to play an

increasingly important role in planning, budgeting, implementation and monitoring of

extension activities. CIGs would be federated into Producers' Organizations (POs) at

the Union, Upazila and District levels, with an initial focus on developing the Union

level organization. Capacity of POs would be strengthened to articulate, as well as to

prioritize needs expressed by CIGs, enhance responsiveness of the public service to

their needs, promote linkages with the private sector and play an advocacy role.

Decentralization of Extension Service Overall approach and key steps in

decentralization of responsibility for preparation, implementation and funding of

extension support to the Upazila level would include: (a) targeting, motivation,

organization and capacity building of CIGs to prepare and implement participatory


extension micro-plans at the Union level reflecting the priority needs of the CIG

members; (b) aggregation of Union extension micro-plans to provide the Upazila

extension plan, along with sub-sector (crops, livestock, fisheries) budget estimates, for

review and approval by the Upazila Extension Coordination Committee (UECC); ( c)

funding for implementation of extension micro-plans through the Upazila accounts of

the line departments (DAB, DLS and DOF) under the annual development program

budget of the project of which 5% would be financed by GOB and the remaining 95%

by IDA/IFAD Credit/Loan; (d) technical support and training of CIGs by the Upazila

and Union level extension teams (departmental staff, NGOs and farmer resource

persons), who in turn would be trained and technically supported by the district level

extension staff with the involvement of research scientists; (d) strengthening of

research-extension-farmer linkages; and (e) the national level policy guidance, inter-

agency/departmental coordination and monitoring and evaluation of the decentralized

extension system by the National Extension Coordination Committee (NECC),

supported by the District and Upazila level Extension Coordination Committees

(DECC and UECC), with representation of all relevant stakeholders.

Enhancing Institutional Efficiency This sub-component consists of:

(i) knowledge management and human resource development; and

(ii) institutional strengthening.

Knowledge management and human resource development To enhance two-way flow of

knowledge and information between CIGs and other stakeholders (extension staff, research

scientists, NGOs, the private sector and the local government), the project would support

establishment of Farmers' Information and Advice Centers (FIACs) at the Union level.

Dissemination of knowledge through demonstrations, exposure visits, workshops, seminars

and validation trials would be supported. Increased use of information and communication

technologies would be financed. Human Resource Development support would include

need-based training programs for staff of the line departments, NGOs and CIG members.

Emphasis would be placed on building skills in participatory extension management, as well

as technical subjects. The project would assist with rehabilitation of selected training

facilities, preparation of project specific training modules, training of trainers and

engagement of guest faculties for specialized training.

Institutional strengthening To improve the overall efficiency and responsiveness of the

public extension service, the project would: (a) empower grassroots organizations of

producers (CIGs/POs) to participate in planning, implementation and monitoring of

extension programs; (b) evaluate and revise current structure, functions and business

procedures of different line departments (DAB, DOF and DLS), including capacity to

manage fiduciary (financial management and procurement) responsibilities; (c) update

MOA's National Agricultural Policy (NAP) and the New Agricultural Extension Policy

(NABP) and Extension Policy of the Department of Fisheries. It would assist in preparation

of a new Livestock Extension Policy that is consistent with GOB's PRSP, and a national

extension implementation strategy to strengthen coordination and synergy between extension

activities of different line departments (DAB, DOF and DLS) and complimentarily with the

private sector service providers.

164 Bangladesh

Component 3: Development of Supply Chain

For increasing and diversifying sources of income for small and marginal farmers,

development of supply chains of selected commodities would be supported on a pilot basis.

The selection would be based on findings of the recently completed World Bank study to

identify opportunities and constraints to development and growth of high value agribusiness

in five agricultural sub-sectors, viz. aromatic rice, fruits and vegetables, dairy, poultry and

fisheries. For the pilot phase, the focus would be on the supply chains involving fresh

vegetables, primarily for the domestic market. To maximize profitability of rice and maize

crops, the project would also assist with the development of different rice and maize types

for markets demanding higher value differentiated products requiring minimal incremental

investment on the part of resource poor farmers. During implementation, supply chains of

other commodities would be examined to identify opportunities for the small and marginal

farmers.

Selection of Upazilas for pilot testing would depend on the degree of diversification and

market opportunities. For the pilot phase up to 200 CIGs, formed under Component 2, would

be selected for decentralized participatory planning and market-led integration in the supply

chain. To ensure that small and marginal farmers are not exposed to unsustainable risks in

the selected locations, potential participants would be risk profiled and farmers would self-

select participation through CIGs based on their own judgment of risk exposure. This would

provide the flexibility needed for vertical integration of different segments of the poor in the

selected supply chain. The following activities would be financed under this component.

Strengthening Farmer-Market Linkages To help CIGs to integrate with supply chains, the

project would support contractual arrangements with service providers for the

implementation of location specific participatory production and marketing plans., The

contracted service provider would help to develop POs, with focus on facilitating marketing

agreements, involving both the open market channel and contract farming. Under the open

market channel, CIGs would be able to choose from a basket of market options, including

sale in the local market or to a procurement agent procuring on behalf of a larger trader or a

processor. Under contract farming, CIGs would be linked with processors or trading

organizations, building on experience gained from the on-going contract farming activities in

the country. Where appropriate, contract agreements would include provision of technical

support, inputs and credit by the purchasing agency. In addition, CIGs/ POs would be trained

and demonstrated good agricultural practices. The project would also assist CIGs//POs to

establish low cost packing and storage facilities. Produce handling and sanitation facilities at

selected local markets, where CIGs may take their produce for direct marketing, would be

improved. Introduction of higher sanitary and phyto-sanitary standards required by the

national and export markets would be emphazsized. Although, the initial supply chain

extension contracts would be managed by Hortex, if successful, other options would be

utilized, including mechanism where CIGs/POs would enter in to contracts with service

providers of their choice, e.g. NGOs and the private sector services providers. Such contracts

would be financed on a cost-sharing basis between the project and CIGs/POs.

Enhancing Institutional Efficiency The focus of institutional strengthening interventions

would be to improve institutional and operational effectiveness of Hortex, the specialized

agency established by the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) to promote post-harvest value

addition and market linkages to accelerate growth of high value chains of agricultural


commodities. Technical assistance would be provided to Hortex through a long-term

international consultancy to develop capacity in promoting improved postharvest

management practices, quality, marketing options, agribusiness development and knowledge

management and communications. Support would also be provided for: (a) capacity building

of trainers and training programs aimed at capacity building of CIGs, POs, agribusiness staff

and public officials (research, extension, regulators) in commercial farming practices; (b)

information sharing with the public and private sector participants; and (c) development of

effective linkages with the research system and support for validation trials, especially for

work on local supply chains.

Component 4. Project Management and Coordination

The project would be implemented by MOA and MOFL jointly. However, MOA would be

the nodal ministry for the project. The Project Coordination Unit (PCU) would coordinate

and facilitate implementation of NATP. The PCU would be headed by the Project Director,

who would be responsible to the Additional Secretary, MOA. The KGF, Hortex and the

Project Implementation Units (PIUs) in BARC, DAE, DOF and DLS would be responsible

for implementing project activities assigned to institutions/units under their respective

organizations. The PCU would have 3-5 Technical Coordinators responsible for Agricultural

Research, Agricultural Extension and Development of Supply Chains components. It would

also have expertise in Administration, Financial Management, Procurement, M&E,

Communication, and Social/Environmental Safeguards to support and develop capacity of

implementing agencies, as needed. The GOB would appoint (depute/hire) relevant and

qualified full time staff to PCU and Pills in BARC, DAB, DOF and DLS. The staff needed

for Hortex and KGF would be recruited by their respective Boards from the open market.

The project would provide need-based supplemental support to strengthen procurement,

financial management, procurement, communication, M&E and social/environmental

safeguards capacity in the implementing units.

Lessons learned and reflected in the project design

International experience as well as the World Bank (along with other development partners)

experience in Bangladesh provides many lessons for designing agricultural research and

extension projects. The proposed program has been designed on the following critical

lessons:

• Institutional Reforms: The institutional reform of the existing agricultural

technology system is essential for improved efficiency and effectiveness. Under the

proposed program, the GOB would (i) amend the BARI Act and, if needed, Acts of

individual ARIs (without rescinding them), under the Ministry of Agriculture (and

possibly under the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock), to improve incentives,

productivity, quality and accountability; (ii) establish an autonomous KGF to

manage the Competitive Grants Program for financing agricultural research; and (iii)

decentralize the planning and funding for agricultural extension.

• Institutional Development: Institutional development for agricultural research and

extension is a long-tern process and hence there is a need to support the agreed

approach over a longer period. The proposed long-term programmatic approach for a

period of 15 years is the most appropriate for building and strengthening

development institutions dealing with agricultural technology.

166 Bangladesh

• Sustainability: Lack of sustainability of project activities is one of the recurring

problems. The main reason is lack of adequate resources to cover the operational

costs. Under this program, the policy, approach and operational procedures would be

changed to ensure adequate budgetary financing to meet the operational needs for

agricultural research and extension.

• Governance: Weak fiduciary system (both financial management and procurement)

not only leads to delays in project implementation but also creates governance

problems. The financial management and procurement capacity and systems would

be strengthened under this program.

• Impact: In the past, the main focus of agricultural research and extension has been

on monitoring inputs and outputs rather than the impact on effectiveness, agricultural

productivity and farm income. Under this program, the focus would also include

monitoring and evaluation of the impact (in addition to input and/ output) of

agricultural research and extension activities.

Implementation

Partnership arrangements

The project is strengthening pluralistic institutional structure of the research and extension

service providers, which would broaden partnership of public research and extension

institutions/departments with universities, NGOs and the private sector. The key

stakeholders would be important partners in supporting governance arrangements of the

project. In the case of research programs, partnerships would be supported through the CGP,

where all the agencies with appropriate capacity to undertake research, including

international agricultural research institutes, would be eligible to participate. In the case of

decentralized extension system, rural producers and their organizations would be key

partners in planning, implementation and monitoring of demand-led extension programs.

During project preparation, close dialogue was maintained with other international financial

institutions and development partners. As a result, International Fund for Agricultural

Development (IF AD) has agreed to co-finance the project.

In the context of Paris Declaration on harmonization and alignment of development

assistance and IF AD's Rural Poverty Partnership Initiative in Asia Region, the proposed

program to reform and strengthen the NATS has been identified by the Bank and IF AD as

an appropriate vehicle for developing strategic partnership in a sector prioritized by GOB's

PRSP for alleviation of rural poverty in Bangladesh. During discussions between the World

Bank and IF AD, it became clear that significant gains could be made through this

partnership.

Institutional and implementation arrangements

Project Steering Committee (PSC) This committee would have representation of key

stakeholders of the research and extension systems and would be chaired alternatively by the

Secretaries of MOA and MOFL. PSC would provide oversight, policy guidance and approve

the project's annual work plan and budget. It would facilitate inter-agency cooperation to

ensure achievement of the project's development objectives.


Project Management Committee (PMC) Chaired by Additional Secretary, MOA and Co-

chaired by Additional Secretary, MOFL (when in place), other members of this committee

include BARC Executive Chairman; Director Generals (DGs) of DAB, DLS and DOF;

Heads of PIUs; Executive Director of KGF; and Managing Director of Hortex and Project

Director, NATP. This committee would be responsible for guidance on project management

and implementation, promotion of inter-agency cooperation/coordination, resolution of

conflicts and approval of annual work program, and budget.

National Extension Coordination Committee (NECC) Policy guidance and interagency

coordination for timely implementation of agricultural extension support component would

be provided by NECC, comprising of representatives from the key implementing agencies. It

would be chaired alternatively by the DOs of DAB, DOF and DLS.

Governing Board of the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC) Policy

guidance and oversight for the implementation of agricultural research support component

would be provided by the Governing Board of BARC.

Governing Board of the Krishi Gobeshona Foundation (KGF) Policy guidance and

oversight for implementation of the Competitive Grants Program would be provided by the

Governing Board of KGF. KGF Board would also approve the CGP budget and any

amendment to its operational procedures.

Supply Chain Facilitation Group Guidance for the implementation of the development of

supply chains component, including promotion of agribusiness enterprises in high value

products and public-private partnership, would be provided by the Supply Chain Facilitation

Group.

Project Coordination Unit (PCU) Operating under the overall direction of the PSC and

PMC, PCU would have the responsibility for coordination of NATP implementation by line

departments (DAB, OOF, DLS), BARC, KGF, Hortex, NGOs and grassroots organizations

of the participating farming communities. PCU will be headed by the national Project

Director (PD). The PD will have full freedom to make decisions related to the project as well

as financial management decisions independently within the financial powers that have been

delegated to the PD under the "Delegation of Financial Powers for Development Projects"

issued by the GOB. Based on inputs from different implementing agencies, it would

consolidate NATP annual budget and work plan for approval by the PSC. PCU would

facilitate compliance with fiduciary requirements of the project related to financial

management and procurement, overall monitoring and evaluation of project activities and

inputs from experts on any specialized subject matter to ensure timely implementation of the

project.

BARC This apex agricultural research organization would be responsible for prioritization,

review and approval of the SPGR proposals submitted by ARIs for implementation. It would

also assist KGF in identifying and prioritizing thematic areas for support under the CGP. It

would arrange independent reviews of implementation progress of research programs,

coordinate monitoring, evaluation, as well as impact assessment of research, preparation of

human resource development program for the national agricultural research system and

arrange special studies on thematic areas needed to support ARIs. The Pill in BARC would

be responsible for implementing SPGR and activities for enhancing institutional efficiency.

168 Bangladesh

KGF Operating under its own Governing Board with autonomy and transparency, KGF

would be responsible for managing implementation of the CGP.

Project Implementation Units (PIUs) in DAE, DoF and DLS PIUs in the participating

line departments would facilitate timely implementation of decentralized extension activities

by teams operating at District, Upazila and Union levels. They would have responsibility for

ensuring compliance with fiduciary requirements of GoB and the World Bank.

Upazila Extension Coordination Committee (UECC) would oversee planning, budgeting,

coordination and implementation of extension activities at the Union and Upazila levels.

UECC would have representation from all the key stakeholders (line departments - DAB,

DOF and DLS; farmer organizations, NGOs and the private sector, including input suppliers,

marketing agencies and credit). The participatory extension micro-plans prepared by the

Union level teams would be reviewed and approved by UECC. It would be chaired

alternatively by the Upazila level senior staff of DAB, DLS and DOF, and coordinated by

DAE.

Horticulture Export Development Foundation (Hortex) It would assist in the

implementation of Component 3 by promoting more equitable supply chain governance and

market linkages for selected high value commodities (such as aromatic rice, fruits,

vegetables, flowers, poultry, dairy, fisheries). It would organize training programs and

knowledge sharing on issues related to supply chain development for both the export and

domestic markets.

NGOs Under Components 2 and 3 (agricultural extension support and development of

supply chains), NGOs would be contracted to assist in the development of community-based

grassroots organizations (CIGs and pas). In addition, under Component 3, NGOs, would

assist in developing capacity of CIGs and POs to address their own technical, financial and

marketing needs related to high value commodities.

Common Interest Groups (CIGs) and Producers' Organization$ (POs) CIGs, based on

livelihoods or some other common interest, would be formed to prepare and implement

participatory extension micro-plans at the Union level reflecting the priority needs of the

CIG members in crops, horticulture, livestock and fisheries sub-sectors. CIGs would be

federated into pas at the Union, Upazila and District levels; with an initial focus on the

development of the Union level organizations. POs would facilitate access to technical,

financial and marketing services by the producer members.

Detailed information and organizational charts on implementation arrangements for the

project are given in Annex 6.

Monitoring and evaluation of outcomes/results

A basic results framework has been developed which will be adjusted, as necessary, during

implementation. The main methods and tools that will be used are:

• well-defined Results Framework based on clearly defined goals, objectives, outputs

and activities with corresponding key performance indicators (see Annex 3);

• a comprehensive M&E strategy which clearly defines the roles and responsibilities

of the implementing agencies with respect to information requirements, tools and

methodologies for data collection, analysis and reporting; and


• internal and external periodic assessments and evaluations which will include

participatory stakeholder workshops, beneficiary impact assessments (including

baseline assessment), mid-term review and implementation completion review.

Overall responsibility of the project M&E and reporting will rest with the PCU. Day-to-day

duties will be carried out by an M&E Specialist supported by a small team in the PCU. Each

implementing agency (BARC, KGF, DAB, DOF, DLS, Hortex) will be required to establish

an M&E Cell and design a specific M&E plan (i) to monitor and evaluate the project-

supported activities; and (ii) to report progress on key performance indicators. Close

collaboration will be established between the M&E Specialist and the M&E Cells. The PCU

and implementation agencies would be supported by international and national technical

assistance in M&E.

Participatory evaluation and independent impact assessment of project activities will be

carried out each year. A small household survey of project beneficiaries, and impact

assessment studies, will be outsourced to independent agencies to continuously track and

document project outcomes and impacts. Their reports will provide valuable source material

for annual stakeholder M&E workshops to be organized by the PCU. These workshops will

be held in different strategically important locations to provide a platform for stakeholders to

participate in the evaluation of project activities. The findings of the stakeholder M&E

workshops, and of the impact assessment studies, will be incorporated in the MISIM&E

system.

A 5-member Independent Expert Impact Assessment Team (BIAT), composed of well-

respected experienced specialists in economics, rural development and rural institutions, and

one representative each of fanners' associations and the private sector, will provide

independent assessment of success and failure of project activities. The EIA T will make

periodic field visits, and review the main findings, and actions taken by management in

response to the monitoring and evaluation, independent impact assessment studies and

stakeholder workshops. It will report its recommendati0'ps directly to PSC and PMC

6) Organizations of National Agricultural Extension System (NAES)

The following agencies are involved in extension system:

1. Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE)

2. Department of Livestock (DLS)

3. Department of Fisheries (DoF)

4. Cotton development Board

5. Water Development board

6. Bangladesh Rural Development Academy, Comilla

7. Bangladesh Rural Development Academy, Bogra

8. Tea Board

9. Agricultural Information Services (AIS)

10. Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC)

11. Proshikha 12. Center for Natural Resources Development (CNRS)

13. And many other NGOs

170 Bangladesh

Organogram of NAES with major roles of each position


7) Review of Extension Approaches

Agriculture extension in Bangladesh has followed an evolutionary process of

experimentation with component of several recognized extension approaches, such as:

General extension approach, The commodity specialized approach, The training and visit

system, Agricultural extension participatory approach, The project approach, Farming

system research and extension approach, Integrated rural development approach,

Conventional educational approach, Project approach, Group approach, Farmer’s field

school approach, Partnership approach

• General extension approach: Technology transfer (classical approach), increase

production, controlled by government (top-down), large number of field staff

throughout country, high in terms of salaries, increase in national production. Can

interpret national government policy. Covers whole nation. Continuity. Rapid

communication. Lack of two-way flow of information. Expensive and inefficient.

Smaller numbers of more competent staff more cost effective than larger numbers of

incompetent staff.

• Conventional educational approach: Besides the group members, the key farmers

are involved in the process of motivation and education. The farmers themselves in a

wider area disseminate the knowledge and skills taught to them. This approach has

been effective to facilitate the adoption of new innovation by interested farmer,

which eventually radiated demonstration effect to neighboring farmers.

• The commodity specialized approach: Focus on one commodity most effective if

research, extension, marketing and loans all dealt with by one dynamic body.

Increase production of specific commodity. Less complex and more straightforward.

Also ensure quality is appropriate. Controlled by commodity organization.

• The training and visit system: This system was based on the principle of single

line of command with continues training and contacts. Research extension linkage

was stronger through material support for adoption was quit weak.

• Integrated rural development approach: This approach was based on the

integration and coordinated management of resources for rural development.

Technology support was not adequate.

• Farming system research and extension approach: This approach viewed

research and extension in the whole farming system perspective, so that cropping

system research could be done. Farmers would know the interdependencies between

components and could relate to physical, biological and socio-economic factors.

• The project approach: Every commodity based production program has been

implemented on the basis of Project-designed within the frame work of time

duration, budge expenditure and expected output Package of activities which are

required to achieve the output are identified and included in the Project. This

approach has been adopted in all the seventy-five districts with a priority in the

production pockets.

• Farmers Group approach: The principle is to put the farmers of same interest

together and carry out the activities on group basis. This bas been very effective to

bring the innovation to the groups, which in turn expand to its command area

farmers. The limited manpower and other resources can be well utilized by means of

group.

172 Bangladesh

• Farmer’s field school approach: This is based on the principle of adult learning.

This has been very effective approach in reaching farmers and helping them to have

an access to the knowledge and skill required for crop management. This approach is

becoming popular because of its democratic and participatory process.

• Partnership approach: Government organizations is undertaking partnership

approach with other organizations like Department of Irrigation, NGOs, CBOs,

Private Organization etc. to effectively deliver the extension services. This strategy

has encouraged relevant stakeholders to join hands in development.

8) Extension planning process

Work Programming

Work Programming is the system by which SAAOs former Block Supervisors plan and

assess the work they do. This was previously done using the Fortnightly Visit Schedule.

However, this had a number of weaknesses, for example it did not enable task completion to

be verified.

DAE developed the work programming system in order to:

� provide SAAOs with increased freedom and responsibility for planning and

assessing their own work, and hence raise their motivation;

� Provide supervising officers with a means of assessing SAAOs performance against

verifiable indicators and provide a framework for the recognition of good work.

Work programming was piloted in two districts in order to test whether the concept,

developed by the DAE Management Committee, worked in practice. These pilot programs

showed Work Programming to be both effective in increasing performance levels and

popular with officers and SAAOs.

There are five stages in the work programming process:

� Planning at the beginning of each fortnight, by the SAAOs, of tasks to be carried out

during the following two weeks, and agreement of this plan with the supervisor;

� Assessment by the SAAO of their own performance at the end of the fortnight;

� Constructive analysis of performance in a meeting between the SAAO and

supervisor;

� Agreement of a new work plan for the next fortnight, incorporating initiatives to

improve capability, resource availability and motivation where required and learning

from the successes and failures of previous work programs.

Work Programs are prepared and assessed using the form shown bellow.

SAAO: Fortnightly Work Program

Name: Period Covered By This

Work Program

From:

Until:

Work Program

Approved

SAAO

Signature

Supervisor’s

Signature

Review

completed

SAAO Signature Supervisor’s

Signature

Description Of Task

(What, When and Where

Performance Indicator

(Verifiable Outputs)

Actual Outcome Comments

1

2

3


SAAO work programming forms have four columns:

Column 1: List of tasks to be completed during the work period;

Column 2: Verifiable indicator to show the expected output from the task;

Column 3: Record of what was actually achieved;

Column 4: Comments - causes of failure or consequences arising from experience.

SAAO are responsible for listing tasks and indicators in Columns 1 and 2. Supervisors are

responsible for reviewing and approving Work Programs. SAAOs are responsible for

implementation, then assessing performance using Columns 3 and 4. Supervisors are then

responsible for analyzing performance with the SAAO and agreeing a new work program.

The five stages of work programming are described below.

Stage 1: Planning and Agreeing a Work Program

Every Sub Assistant Agriculture Officer must complete Column 1 (Description of the Task)

and Column 2 (Performance Indicator) prior to a meeting with the supervisor to approve or

adjust tasks.

A task is an activity that needs to be undertaken, usually at a particular place and at or by a

particular time. The tasks on the Block Supervisors Work Programming form should contain:

� what is to be done;

� where it is to be done; and

� when (or by when) it is to be done.

Sometimes, supervisors may have work that SAAOs need to carry out over the coming

fortnight. These should be discussed with SAAOs prior to their completing the Work

Programming form, to provide a starting point for the SAAO in developing tasks and

completing the first column.

A performance indicator is the expected outcome of a task, allowing activities to be assessed

at the end of the fortnight, and showing if tasks that were agreed have been effectively

implemented. Performance indicators must be:

S - Specific and Stretching

M - Measurable

A - Agreed and Achievable

R - Realistic

T - Time-bounded

Once SAAOs have completed Columns 1 and 2, a meeting with the supervisor should be

held. During the meeting, the supervisors should check that the tasks that SAAOs have

suggested are consistent with:

� the DAE Mission Statement” and New Agricultural Extension Policy;

� the SAAO Job Description;

� the Annual upzila Plan; and

� the procedures and principles

Supervisors should also check the targets that SAAOs have set to ensure that they are not so

low that they are easily achievable, and not so high that they can never be attained.

174 Bangladesh

During the meeting, it is important that:

� SAAO's ideas are considered and only changed if the change is agreed between both

parties;

� the outcome of the previous periods work program is taken into account; and

� the meeting is used to identify development needs and as an opportunity to motivate

the SAAOs.

Work Programs give the SAAOs more of a chance to plan their own work. Allowing the

SAAOs to have more control in the planning of their work should increase their motivation.

Once the supervisor and SAAOs have reached an agreement over the work plan, they should

both sign it in the spaces provided.

Stage 2: Implementing the Work Program

SAAOs are responsible for implementing each task, to achieve the performance indicators

that were agreed. Block Supervisors should keep the work program, and refer to it frequently

over the fortnight. They can use their diary to record details about the tasks they have

implemented in order to provide information when reviewing progress.

Stage 3: Assessment of Performance

At the end of the fortnight the SAAO should record the actual outcome of the tasks that were

agreed. Each SAAO should complete Column 3 and Column 4 on the Work Programming

form.

Stages 4 and 5: Constructive Meeting, and Agreement of New Work Program

Once the Block Supervisor has implemented the Work Program, there should be an analysis

meeting with the supervisor. The meeting should be at the end of the fortnight so that the

assessment of the fortnight's work and the agreement of the next fortnight's work are

meaningful. The meeting will give the SAAO an opportunity to talk through the work they

have carried out in the last fortnight, and gives the supervisor an opportunity to assess the

effectiveness of this work. Supervisors should ensure that they have a copy of the SAAOs

Work Program for the previous fortnight and a copy of the Upzila plan.

Supervisors should remember that the performance of SAAOs is related to:

� Capability - the ability of each individual, in terms of their skills, knowledge and

understanding, to implement agreed tasks to a high standard;

� Resources - the resources available to implement tasks - such as training materials,

transport or other resources;

� Motivation - the willingness of each individual to perform their job to the best of

their ability.

Low capability, resources or motivation can lead to poor performance. The meeting is

designed to provide an opportunity to identify development needs and. areas where SAAOs

need assistance to improve the standard\ of their work. This might be by improving

capability, changing the level of resources, or developing motivation. The analysis meeting

helps to:

� measure the performance of SAAOs;

� measure changes in the performance of SAAOs;

� increase motivation by recognizing good performance;


� recognize the development needs of SAAOs; and

� recognize the role of each SAAO in the New Agricultural Extension Policy.

To achieve these objectives during the meeting, the supervisor must:

� behave in a friendly manor;

� end on a positive note;

� praise good work;

� invite the SAAO to contribute, state their position and views on performance;

� ask about specific problems

9) Coordination mechanism

The DAE Management Committee

In order to ensure co-ordination between Wings, to exercise a collective approach to

departmental management, and to provide a forum for strategic management, the Director

General heads a Management Committee comprising the heads of the eight wings and three

co-opted members. This committee has a broad remit, being responsible for:

• guiding operational policy concerning DAE's activities, and where appropriate

making recommendations for the approval of the Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture

(MoA);

• agreeing DAE revenue and development proposals to be submitted to Government;

• monitoring and controlling actual revenue and development budget expenditure;

• reviewing monitoring and evaluation reports from DAE regions on regional

performance to ensure achievement of DAE's Mission Statement and the NAEP;

• reviewing and approving annual regional extension plans and budgets;

• reviewing the activities of the Media Cell of DAE;

• ensuring that annual personnel appraisals are completed for all staff within DAE;

• reviewing and approving annual manpower plans, human resource development

plans and master training plans, and ensuring their implementation;

• periodically reviewing DAE's employment policy;

• periodically reviewing the DAE administrative manual and the DAE Extension

Manual;

• approving all transfers within the Agriculture Cadre up to the level of Additional

Director, and all inter; regional transfers of class III and class IV staff; .

• approving recruitment of staff in class III and class IV at headquarters level;

• approving the publication of the annual report of DAE;

• approving development projects controlled by DAE, reviewing and reporting

progress achieved as required by donors and Government of Bangladesh;

• ensuring full DAE participation in implementation of the NAEP and providing .

support services to other extension

• partners as required;

• managing overall institutional development and change within DAE, including the

setting of targets and monitoring of progress;

• reviewing and revising DAE management procedures and systems to ensure

maximum efficiency.

176 Bangladesh

There are many valid reasons for working in partnership with other extension providers but

the central reasons are that partnership enables extension organizations to:

� provide an integrated service to farmers; and

� share their strengths and resources, and learn from each other.

Integrated Service

The NAEP recognizes the integrated nature of agricultural practices in Bangladesh and, as a

result, a number of institutional mechanisms to encourage partnership between different

types of extension agents have been established This supporting environment enables GOs,

NGOs and the private sector, all of whom have different services to offer, to work together

so that they are able to provide an integrated service to farmers.

For example, most farmers in Bangladesh are not just dependent on crop production. They

also rear livestock and fish, manage trees and maintain the' environment surrounding their

homesteads and land. Often, these practices are related or are dependent upon one another in

some way i.e. they are integrated. For example, rice fish cultivation is an integrated system

because it is a combination of fish and rice production. It can also be linked to other

agricultural practices such as: bund cropping, integrated pest management and poultry / duck

production.

DAE is heavily biased towards crop production but the services it provides do not have to be

solely related to food crop production. For example, DAE can support the Department of

Livestock with extension services related to fodder production or the use of farm yard

manure to improve soil fertility. Other extension agencies may be keen to utilize the services

of DAE because it employs the most field staff in the Government agricultural sector and has

national coverage.

Sharing Strengths and Resources

The NAEP makes a commitment to developing all types of partnership between GO and

NGO extension agencies. Only by utilizing the strengths of all concerned agencies is it

possible to meet the diverse and specific extension needs of all categories of farmers

throughout Bangladesh. Improved co-ordination through the various committees established

under the NAEP, enables extension providers to share their strengths and resources.

Different agencies working in the same area may have complementary expertise and when

this is bought together the effectiveness of services can be significantly improved.

DAE recognizes the importance of partnership and is committed to working with other

extension providers. Partnership has become an important part of DAE's overall strategy for

achieving its mission statement in line with the NAEP. This chapter looks in detail at what

partnership is and how DAE encourages its staff to work in partnership with other agencies.

Understanding Partnership

There are two types of partnership:

� informal partnership; and

� a more formalized version or collaborative partnership.

They are shown and are briefly described below.


Types of partnership

Partnership

DAE define partnership as being a voluntary relationship based on trust and respect in

which DAE and a partner organization work together to implement extension". Examples of

this kind of partnership include:

� different extension providers participating in TAECCs and DEPCs;

� different organizations attending or participating in upzila or district fairs;

� DAE staff working with groups formed by another organization.

Partnership activities are usually no-cost, or financed from existing resources. For example,

no extra funding is required for agencies to share training materials or share resource persons

for training sessions. This is particularly true when an informal arrangement is made

between agencies to provide staff or resources for a particular occasion.

Where minor additional expenditure is required, activities are included in the plans for the

respective agencies, and submitted through their normal channels for approval. For example,

DAE might add to its annual extension plan visits by SAAOs to the groups of a specific

NGO. The NGO might add to its annual work plan the provision of training to SAAOs in

working with its group members. The organizations would share the responsibility for

planning, funding and implementing activities in partnership. In this way, partnership is

formal in that it has been formally incorporated into normal practice but it does not require a

detailed separate agreement for the activities to take place.

Mode Status Characteristics

� Formal Joint activities;

interdependent; success depends upon each

side fulfilling its mandate

� Formal or Informal Areas of contact are neutral

(e.g. sharing resources

information) or mutually supportive (e.g.

exchanging ideas, joint visits;

UAECCs)

� Formal or Informal Can be conflicting, neutral

or supportive

Interaction

Cooperation

Collaboration

178 Bangladesh

Collaboration

Collaboration is also a form of partnership i.e. where two or more agencies work together to

provide services to farmers. However, collaborative partnership is defined as being formal in

that a specific program of activities is agreed in the form of a Memorandum of

Understanding (MoU). This establishes mutual accountability for all program activities as

well as defining specific roles and financial arrangements for each collaborating partner.

Collaboration is really a sub set of a general partnership relationship.

TAECC meetings provide the ideal opportunity for GOs and NGOs to discuss and agree

collaborative programs. To assist the design of collaborative programs UAECCs could use

the following criteria:

Criteria for collaborative programs

� the project should be concerned with agricultural extension;

� the project should be collaborative (joint implementation between one or more

EPICC members);

� the extension approach is in line with NAEP components, particularly

participatory approaches;

� it should benefit a local target group within the NAEP criteria;

� it is approved by the UAECC;

� adequate agreement i.e. Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) is drawn up; and

� arrangement for monitoring and dissemination are in place.

The MoU approved by EPICC's Institutions Sub-Committee which could be adopted by

organizations which undertake collaborative projects. It outlines the responsibilities of each

collaborating partner and provides details of the financial arrangements for collaboration.

Different Types of Partner

A partner will usually fall into one of the three broad categories.

� Non Government Organizations;

� the Private Sector; or

� Government Organizations;

Just like DAE, organizations within each group will have their own ways of planning{

implementing and monitoring their work programs. This manual cannot provide detailed

guidelines on how DAE should work with every kind of organization. There are too many

and the approach adopted needs to be locally applicable and relevant to all the agencies who

agree to work together in partnership. However, this manual outlines some general points for

DAE to consider when working with NGOs. Although emphasis has been given to working

with NGOs it is important to remember that partnerships between GOs can be as valuable in

terms of providing a more efficient and effective integrated service to farmers. Likewise

carefully planned and agreed work programs in partnership with the private sector can also

help field staff deliver a service which is better than DAE could provide on its own.

Working with Non Governmental Organizations

NGOs can be useful partners because:

� they can assist with ensuring that extension support is provided to all categories

of farmers: NGOs can often offer experience of working with small, marginal and

women farmers;


� they can assist with working with groups: utilizing existing groups within the

community to disseminate extension messages is an efficient way of reaching a

larger proportion the farming population and different categories of farmers. Most

NGOs in Bangladesh form groups as the central forum through which their

development activities take place. GO agencies utilizing NGO groups requires a

commitment to partnership by GO and NGO;

� extension activities can be coordinated: co-ordination of extension activities

involves sharing of information and expertise between different extension agents in

order to optimize resources.

Perspectives

The NAEP is a Government Policy which invites NGOs to work more closely with their

counterparts in government agencies. It is a positive gesture but it should not be assumed

that NGOs will adopt it in the same way that DAE has. There are a number of reasons which

are briefly discussed below.

There is a lot of variety within the NGO sector and amongst NGOs involved in agriculture.

Not all NGOs are good at the same thing. To maximize the skills and capabilities within the

NGO sector, DAE should be aware of the different strengths of NGOs. This is particularly

important for field staff when they are trying to identify opportunities for collaboration.

Many NGOs are keen to explore new methodologies and technologies. This requires that

they have highly qualified technical staff and sufficiently flexible management structures to

give local staff freedom to experiment. Once new technologies have been tested in pilots and

proven successful, an NGO may seek the cooperation of a government department to

replicate a new idea.

If DAE wishes to benefit fully from the capabilities of the NGO sector, as the NAEP

suggests, then the ability of NGOs to innovate, should be recognized and encouraged, The

revised extension approach also emphasizes the importance of decentralized decision

making, which should mean that locally based government staff should be confident to

introduce new ideas / technologies that they have heard about from NGOs.

As well as having a group of stronger well funded NGOs, Bangladesh has a growing number

of small local NGOs. Their strength is often in having local contacts and being able to

implement simple packages. They often need technical advice and cannot afford to pay for

highly qualified staff. They are obvious partners for situations where DAE is trying to spread

established technologies. The small NGO may be prepared to give DAE access to their

groups, or to disseminate a message or a technique among group members.

Establishing Good Relations with NGOs

Partnership and collaboration initiatives are more likely to succeed if both partners are

comfortable with the activities being implemented.

A useful guide for working with NGOs includes:

� recognizing that NGOs have different strengths. For example. are they good at

innovation, implementation, or other activities? NGOs are often very different from

each other. Options for partnership should be built on the true strengths of an NGO;

180 Bangladesh

� minimizing differences in organizational procedures which could cause problems in

the implementation of joint activities. This can be done through careful planning at

the initial stages of partnership I collaboration.

Promoting and Monitoring DAE / NGO Activities

DAE needs to continue to promote and monitor its activities with NGOs regardless of

whether they are formal or informal. The District Training Officers (DTOs) and the Regional

Additional Directors are responsible for these tasks as shown below.

DAE /NGO Liaison: The Role of District Training Officers

In addition to managing the training activities in the district, DTOs are required to monitor

DAE/ NGO partnership within the district and promote DAE / NGO partnership. The

specific activities for this are:

Monitoring:

� assimilating information from the level about the extent of DAE’s contact with

NGOs by extracting and analyzing data from SEMS showing collaborating

agency’ in consultation with the District Designated SEMS Officer;

� summarizing the forms prepared at than level which list ‘groups’ in each Block in

a upzila (i.e. community groups, NGO groups).

� comparing SEMS results with Group forms. This should show whether DAE is

working with groups that have expressed a ‘high’ interest in receiving DAE

support or whether there is more scope for working with NGOs in the district;

� finding out whether there are any successful collaborative initiatives between the

DAE and NGOs in the district whether there are any constraints to DAE / NGO

collaboration and whether NGOs are attending UAECC meetings;

� speaking with upzila and district staff to find out their attitudes to working with

NGOs.

Promoting:

� consulting with the DD, to use the monthly UAO Briefing Meeting to collect

information / problems about collaboration with NGOs and to encourage UAOs to

invite NGOs to the UAECC meetings;

� making and sustaining contact with NGOs in the district and encouraging upzila

level staff to maintain good relations with NGOs in each upzila;

� fostering NGO attendance and involvement in the UAECCs and the DEPCs

according to the published criteria;

� encouraging district and upzila staff to look for options for promoting joint

activities with NGOs and solving problems concerning DAE/NGO liaison where

possible;

� attending and supporting particular events which involve DAE and an NGO (for

example a review meeting of a DAE / NGO collaborative project)

Performance Indicators:

Preparing a brief quarterly report which assesses the status of DAE / NGO relationships in


the district for submission to the Regional Additional Director. This report should include:

� statistics on the number of NGOs that DAE has contact with;

� brief details of particular joint initiatives between DAE and NGOs;

� a brief description of activities undertaken to promote DAE / NGO liaison;

� problems or issues concerning working with NGOs that have been identified by

field staff;

DAE /NGO Liaison: The Role of The Additional Directors

The main role of the Regional Additional Director is to support DTOs monitoring of DAE

/ NGO relationships. The main responsibilities for DAE / NGO Liaison are:

� ensuring that the DTOs produce a quarterly report on liaison in their respective

Districts;

� convening a quarterly meeting with the DTOs, exclusively for the purpose of

reviewing DAE / NGO Liaison. The DTOs should present their quarterly reports

on DAE / NGO Liaison on this occasion. This meeting should be minuted and

used as the basis for preparing a Regional Quarterly Report on DAE / NGO

Liaison.

Supporting Partnership:

� attending events which foster DAE / NGO partnership (such as GO-NGO

workshops);

� supporting joint DAE / NGO projects and events (for example meetings reviewing

collaborative initiatives);

� attempting to solve problems concerning DAE / NGO liaison as highlighted in the

DTO’s quarterly report.

Reporting to the DAE /NGO Liaison Committee:

Regional Additional Directors may be invited to attend meetings of the DAE / NGO

Liaison Committee (see below) if they choose to discuss issues raised in specific quarterly

reports. Using the DTOs quarterly reports Regional Additional Directors are required to

submit a quarterly summary of the District reports;

These should include:

� details of successful collaboration between DAE and an NGO;

� issues of particular concern which require policy decisions from the DAE / NGO

Liaison committee; i.e. problems that DAE encounter in the field concerning

working with NGOs;

� suggestions (if any) for research / further investigation that could be undertaken

by the DAE / NGO Liaison committee to further understanding of DAE / NGO

partnership.

The DAE / NGO Liaison committee

The DAE / NGO Liaison Committee meets quarterly at DA~ HQ to consider ways of

fostering DAE/ NGO partnership and to make policy decisions on DAE's activities with

NGOs. It is chaired by the Director General DAE and is attended by senior representatives of

the key NGOs involved in agriculture.

182 Bangladesh

The committee is responsible for:

� recommending to DAE institutional mechanisms and procedures which will

facilitate collaboration;

� identifying areas for possible DAE / NGO collaboration, keeping a linkage with the

Extension Policy Implementation Coordination Committee (EPICC);

� developing a system for monitoring DAE / NGO collaborative activities including

documenting of experiences gained within the DAE / NGO agriculture sector; and

� liaison with the DAE management committee to advise the review and testing of

participatory planning.

A number of mechanisms are already in place for promoting partnership. Whether these

mechanisms are useful depends most of all on the attitudes of both DAE staff and members

of partner agencies. An attitude that welcomes and realizes the potential of partnership takes

time to develop. Informal contact with counterparts in other agencies, small scale

experiments in joint activities and exchange of information regarding farmers needs

represent the first steps towards embodying partnership as a normal way of working.

Partnership with the Private Sector

There is a rapidly growing private sector in Bangladesh, engaged in the sale of agricultural

implements, inputs and outputs. Obviously, the private sector is interested in increasing its

contact with farmers, to increase sales. Partnerships can be developed between DAE and the

private sector, where the private sector meets part of the cost of an extension event, and DAE

provides access to farmers for the private sector. However, DAE must remain non partisan

and should not develop close relationships with specific private products. Here are some

examples of partnership with the private sector.

Examples

� dealers could be invited to the upzila or district fair to show their products to

farmers, in return for the cost of the stall or information leaflets. DAE could even

assist the dealers in designing high quality leaflets;

� private sector representatives could be invited to UAECC, DEPC or ATC

meetings to see if they are interested in funding specific events at which their

products may from part of the event (for example, irrigation pump repair and

maintenance training courses);

� the private sector and DAE could agree to exchange training for example, private

sector pump dealers could train DAE staff (or farmers directly) in the operation

and maintenance of its pumps. DAE could provide the dealers with irrigation

information sheets to pass on to farmers who visit the dealer.

Partnership with Government Organizations

As the implementation of the NAEP begins to take effect agricultural services are likely to

become more closely integrated. This may require that DAE staff work more closely with

other Government agencies. For example, BS may be requested to provide basic information

to farmers on behalf of other agencies.


In addition, there is likely to be an increase in joint activities between government

organizations. These can be discussed and agreed during UAECC meetings. Where these

activities are formal, they should be included in the annual plan. Less formal types of

partnership can also take place between government agencies. For example:

� other departments could be invited to attend the upzila or district fair; or

� government agencies, perhaps though the UAECC or DEPC, could agree to pool or

share resources such as slide sets, flipcharts flash cards, training curricula or other

visual aids.

10) Decentralization of extension delivery system

Farming systems, household economic activities, agro-ecological conditions, credit and

marketing opportunities vary considerably from place to place. For this reason, the

department has decentralized responsibilities for the planning, budgeting, implementation,

monitoring and evaluation of extension program to staff at block, upzila, district and regional

levels.

The upzila level is the basic unit for planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating

local extension program. This system ensures that decisions about the services provided by

the Department of Agricultural Extension are taken at the lowest possible level, but with the

full support of specialist staff at district and regional level. Responsibilities at all levels are

summarized in the following sections.

Block Level Responsibilities

Each Block Supervisor (BS)/SAAO is responsible for the provision of day to day extension

services in the block. A summary of their responsibilities follows:

SAAO Responsibilities

Technical Role

• assisting farmers to identify their problems and possible solutions to them;

• implementing extension events within the block, based on local needs;

• Providing ideas for suitable extension activities for farmers during the Upzila

Planning Workshop (UPW);

• assisting farmers to obtain information and other assistance from other extension

partners;

• collecting and recording information about the block on natural resources,

population, areas of different crops under cultivation, crop input requirements,

marketing systems for locally produced crops, number and extent of farmers

adapting, testing and adopting technologies.

Administrative Role

� maintaining a SAAOs Diary to record day to day progress, plan future activities and

record farmer information needs and responses;

� identifying active farmers groups; including those working with NGOs;

� agreeing a fortnightly World Program within the block in accordance with the annual

extension plan;

� attending and contributing to upzila meetings and training days;

184 Bangladesh

� monitoring the implementation of extension events in the block using the Seasonal

Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) and the registration systems used by DAE

(e.g. Demonstration registers).

Upzila Responsibilities

The role of the upzila is to ensure that an appropriate extension program is planned and

implemented in the upzila and that SAAOs have the necessary skills and resources to

implement the program. Upzila staff also implements some extension activities such as

Upzila fairs and farmer training. Ensuring service quality is very important at this level. The

decentralized responsibilities of the upzila agricultural extension office are shown below:

Upzila Office Responsibilties

Technical Responsibilities

� ensuring effective F1NA within the upzila;

� preparing high quality extension plans;

� preparing training material for farmers and technical staff;

� raising farmer's problems, which cannot be resolved at .block level by DAE, with

other extension. partner during the TAECC, or with District Specialists;

� liaising with farmer associations and other related agencies at upzila level, including

those responsible for farm inputs and marketing;

� providing high quality advice to SAAOs on a range of agricultural subjects,

including crop diversification, extension methods, input and credit supplies and

technologies for onward transmission to farmers;

� assisting SAAOs to organize field events (e.g. farmers rallies, field days and

motivational tours);

� planning and implementing upzila level extension activities (e.g. upzila fairs

and farmer training events).

Administrative/Management

� maintaining links. and co-ordinating activities with other extension providers

through the Upzila Agricultural Extension Co-ordination Committee (UAECC);

� organizing and conducting Upzila Planning Workshops;

� assessing and responding to staff training needs;

� planning and organizing fortnightly upzila training days;

� ensuring that the performance of all SAAOs is monitored through fortnightly Work

Programming assessment meetings and field visits;

� managing and co-coordinating SEMS and KAP at upzila level;

� ensuring that a senior member of upzila staff attends monthly meetings and training

workshops held at the District Office including District Extension Planning

Committees (DEPC)

� ensuring the management of the upzila budget arid the timely production of

accounts;

� collecting information including ad hoc information on emergencies from SAAOs

and reporting to Districts, Regions or Headquarters to an agreed format.

District Responsibilities

The role of the district is to provide technical and management support to upzila in planning,

implementing, monitoring and evaluating extension services. It is also the highest level at


which detailed extension planning takes place.

The decentralized responsibilities of the District Agricultural Extension Office are shown

below:

District Office Responsibilities


� reviewing and checking upzila plans to ensure that they are technically sound, high

quality and reflect FINA;

� Preparing a district extension plan;

� preparing and circulating a monthly district bulletin for all technical staff within the

district;

� ensuring that upzila officers have adequate technical knowledge on current extension

messages and assisting them to adjust messages so that they reflect local

circumstances;

� implementing KAP surveys within the district;

� preparing training materials for effective training of upzila officers;

� participating at ATC meetings and maintaining direct links with research institutes

for the purpose of facilitating the free flow of information on adaptive research,

f1eld trials, and new technologies;

� providing the main link between field officers and technical wing directors, passing

information to them receiving advice and program of extension message and

methods available for use in the field.

Administrative I Management Responsibilities

� organizing and conducting DEPC meetings to review seasonal activities and annual

extension plans;

� submitting all upzila and district plans to the Additional Director (Region) for

technical validation at the Agricultural Technical Committee (ATC);

� supervising the implementation of all upzila plans in the district. This includes

visiting selected extension events in a technical support capacity;

� supervising the assessment of training needs for all staff and drawing up proposals

for training within the district;

� assisting with upzila level training if required;

� managing monthly meetings at the district for all UAOs to discus problems,

solutions, progress and extension activities;

� maintaining a training record for all district staff and upzila officers;

� maintaining up to date staff records stationed in the district;

� authorizing staff to travel outside the district for special training purposes as planned

by Training Wing;

� monitoring DAE / NGO partnership within the district and promoting joint DAE /

NGO activities among district and upzila staff;

� Coordinating and consolidating SEMS;

� ensuring the effective management of human resources in the district and the

assessment of performance and management of their work;

� controlling district expenditure within approved budget ceilings and ensuring timely

submission of monthly accounts to administration and Planning Wing in

Headquarters;

186 Bangladesh

Regional Responsibilities

The role of the region is to: provide independent quality assessment of extension services in

the region; provide technical support in collaboration with research institutes; and, to act as a

focal point for the Management Information System. The main technical and administrative

responsibilities of the regional office are outlined below:

Regional Office Responsibilities


� providing technical advice on extension techniques and agricultural technologies to

districts directly, or indirectly through the ATCs;

� reviewing the technical and environmental quality of upzila and district plans prior

to ATC meetings;

� submitting technical information regarding planned extension activities to

Bangladesh Betar for broadcasting;

� conducting regular field visits and spot checks round the district and upzilas for the

purpose of providing on the spot technical advice and support;

� conducting training programs throughout the region as appropriate and when

required;

� analyzing and reporting of technical information from districts, such as annual crop

and input reports and ad hoc reports on emergencies such as pest and disease attacks,

flood and emergency relief programs.

Administrative/ Management Responsibilities

� chairing and coordinating the Agricultural Technical Committees (ATCs);

� consolidating extension plans and budgets and submitting them to Field Services

Wing for approval;

� updating databases holding regional office information;

� preparing data, summary. consolidation and analysis reports for submission or

transfer to Headquarters and the MIS handling centre;

� monitoring the implementation of annual extension plans throughout the region as

well as the implementation of all training activities in the region through the

Technical Audit;

� receiving and reviewing district level DAE / NGO liaison activity reports and

forwarding consolidated regional reports to the DAE / NGO Liaison Committee;

� providing support to extension events which foster DAE / NGO partnership;

� consolidating district staffing and training needs assessment reports for submission

to headquarters;

� maintaining liaison with farmers associations at regional level;

� maintaining links with Bangladesh Betar;

� preparing draft revenue and development budgets for the region for submission to

Administration and Personnel Wing and Project Directors respectively;

� controlling the annual regional revenue budget;

� producing monthly and annual accounts for the regional office's expenditure;

� ensuring the effective management of human resources in the region including

Deputy Directors, and the assessment of performance and management of their

works;


� approving the transfer and appointment of all Class III and IV staff within the region

and where necessary taking disciplinary action according to regulations;

� managing monthly meetings at the region for all Deputy Directors to discuss

progress, problems, solutions and extension activities and to deliver training so that

they in turn can train other field staff;

� ensuring that problems raised by district officers either through monthly meetings or

during ATCs receive timely responses.

Headquarter Responsibilities

DAE has eight wings based at its Headquarters in Dhaka. Each wing has specific

responsibilities. Many of the responsibilities traditionally associated with headquarters have

been decentralized to regional, district and upzila offices. In light of this, the general role of

Headquarters in providing the necessary management and technical support for

decentralization is shown below:

Headquarter Responsibilities


� reviewing, adjusting and approving upzila and district extension programs;

� receiving and responding to requests for technical advice sent by ATCs and District

Specialists;

� liaising with national and international research institutes through the Research

Institute Coordination Committee (RICC) and the National Agricultural Technical

Co-ordination Committee (NATCC) to gain up-to-date information on new

agricultural tephnq1ogies, and providing these to field staff in appropriate formats

through the Media Cell;

� raising farmers problems which cannot be resolved at field level with the appropriate

research institute through RICC and the NATCC;

� planning, producing, monitoring and evaluating national mass media materials and

campaigns through the DAE Media Cell and in partnership with Agricultural

Information Services (AIS);

� representing the Department on the Extension Policy Implementation Coordination

Committee (EPICC) in technical matters;

� formulating national policy options on tariffs, production, marketing, distribution

and utilization of agricultural products, and on agricultural extension.

Administrative/managerial Responsibilities

� working with Government and donors to obtain and manage financial support for the

implementation of appropriate extension program;

� providing budgets for implementation for upzila and district extension programs, and

for the payment of staff, maintenance of buildings and equipments and running

costs;

� assessing staff training needs, producing training policy and master training plans

and implementing ,monitoring and evaluating these plans;

� producing Human Resources Management initiatives aimed at improving

performance throughout the organization;

188 Bangladesh

� coordinating and supervising the national monitoring and evaluation of extension

programs implementation and overseeing the maintenance of the Management

Information Systema(MIS).

11) Human Resources Development and Capacity Building

i) Involvement of academic and research institutions for HRD through curriculum development and implementation support

a) Areas of perception, skill and capacity building

Introduction

A bottom-up, demand driven extension system must be able to respond to whatever

problems farmers identify. One of the difficulties faced is to ensure the skills and capacity to

solve farmers problems. DAE can only provide immediate assistance that is within its

capacity.

Capacity is the overall ability of an organization or unit to carry out various activities.

Capacity always has limits. Each extension manager needs to know the limits of their staff.

Work plans must be within limits or within their 'capacity'

Relationship Between Capacity Required and staff Development

There are many problems to overcome to meet the demands of extension clients. This means

that extension staffs need to have the appropriate skills and knowledge to be able to provide

the correct response to farmers. This might mean technical knowledge about a particular crop

and/or skills in extension such as how to handle a group of farmers so as to be sure the

messages are understood.

District and upzila extension managers need to be sure of the competence of their staff

before selecting and assigning activities as part of the extension plan. The knowledge and

skills required to carry out work plans determine any immediate additional training required.

This means both the technical content of the extension program and the ability to carry out

the extension method to be used.

Training Needs are Directly Linked to the Extension Planning Process

The Revised Extension Approach is centered on farmers needs. These needs are diverse.

Responding to diverse farmer information needs requires equally diverse extension

programming. Each upzila and districts have their own locally responsive extension

programs, which require specific staff knowledge and skills. Because each plan is different,

the responsibility for staff development rests with the District Deputy Director, the District

Training Officer, and at upzila level with the Upzila Agricultural Officer DAE Headquarters

provides additional assistance and resources but does not have the capacity to respond to all

the extension staff development demands.

During the planning process:

� it is essential that staff ability be considered; and

� it is essential that training possibilities be assessed.


Extension plans can only include those activities that staff are already able to do, or can be

adequately trained to do before the activity is implemented

Female farmers have requested, and the extension plan contains, method demonstrations

on soybean storage. The SAAO does not know how to store soybeans, how to conduct a

method demonstration, or how to work effectively with women's groups.

What are the options?

� Provide the required training to the SAAOs before implementation of this activity,

or

� Give this assignment to another staff member who has the necessary expertise;

or

� Remove this activity from the extension plan. This may mean postponing this

activity until the following year in order to train the SAAOs. (District Specialists

and AEO!AAO may also need this training).

In order to assess the ability of staff to carry out the extension plan district and Upzila

managers must:

� know what skills and knowledge are required to carry out the planned activity;

� know what skills and knowledge staff currently have; and

� identify any gaps in the skills and knowledge that are required.

Once it is known what training is required, an assessment can be made of the feasibility of

providing this training in time to implement the planned extension activity.

Staff skills and knowledge are an essential factor in deciding what extension activities can be

undertaken. If training of staff can not be ensured in time to implement the activity, it cannot

be included in the current extension plan.

It is the responsibility of District and Upzila managers to ensure that their staff are

adequately trained to carry out their assignments under the District and Upzila extension

plans.

Assessing of Staff Competence

Competence is the level of knowledge, skills and experience of an individual to carry out

specific tasks. People have differing degrees of competence in different skill areas. No one is

completely competent at all things. An individual's overall competence is usually related to

the opportunities they have had to develop new skills and to practice the skills they have.

In DAE the main areas of competence are:

� agricultural technical knowledge skills;

� agricultural extension knowledge and skills; and

� management knowledge and skills;

All staff members should periodically assess their levels of competency in all general skill

areas· to do this, staff should complete an annual staff competence form. The completed

forms should be analyzed by the DTO/T AO and kept as a record of competence. This is best

done as part of the "work programming" process, particularly for Block Supervisors.

190 Bangladesh

Completed annual staff competence forms should be entered on computer wherever possible

to enable quick and ready analysis.

The work programming process, particularly with SAAOs, also identifies small gaps in

knowledge and skills where remedial action should be taken.

The information collected through the Annual Competence Assessment forms a database for

the upzila and district to use as a basis for extension planning and for assisting in identifying

areas of training need. If it is done by all field staff in a District, extension managers will be

able to see where further actions are required.

The staff competence database enables extension managers to:

� assess staff competence to implement proposed extension assignments;

� assign activities to individual staff members which they are fully competent to carry

out; and

� identify areas of extension work which cannot be undertaken due to limitations in

staff capacity.

The annual staff competence form identifies six categories of competence as shown in

bellow

Level of Competence Gaps Training Required

5 Expert none, can train others none

4 Completely

Competent

none, no supervision required unsupervised practice

3 Mostly Competent requires adequate supervision supervised practice,

on-the-job training,

2 Moderately

Competent

requires some assistance and

guidance


self directed learning

1 Partially

Competent

cannot complete task alone, lacks

some important knowledge and

skills


self directed learning,

focused training exercises

0 No Competence cannot perform task, no

significant knowledge or skill

comprehensive training

course

Increasing staff competence

It is the professional responsibility of each staff member to constantly increase their

competence in both existing and new knowledge and skill areas. In a bottom-up demand

driven system new skill areas are determined according to what is required to assist farmers

with the problems they identify.

Training is an essential part of ensuring that the extension advice provided is correct and

appropriate. DAE has over the years invested huge resources in training and continues to do

so. However, formal organized training classes are often not the most effective or most cost

effective way to increase competence. Everyone is responsible for his or her own learning

development and the practice of learning from experiences should become an integral part of

our daily lives.

DAE does not have the resources to provide formal training to meet all training needs and all

staff and officers are encouraged to develop their own abilities. Officers are responsible to


train and develop their staff and to help people to learn how to be more effective in their

personal and working lives.

How to Identify Training Needs

The competence assessment form gives an indication of general ability in different

knowledge and skill areas. Where lack of competence is indicated, further analysis is

necessary to identify exactly what knowledge and skill is lacking. This requires breaking

down the knowledge and skill area into its component parts. This is called job analysis

The job analysis process provides a comprehensive understanding of what is required to

adequately perform the various tasks the job requires. Jobs usually include a number of

different activity areas. Each activity area consists of a number of specific tasks which must

be performed. Analysis of a specific task identifies a number of actions required to complete

it. Finally, analysis of a specific action identifies a number of individual steps which are

involved.

Once all of the activity areas are identified, the learner's competence in each can be

measured. What the learner is currently able to do must be compared to what is required to

adequately perform the job tasks. This is called gap analysis. There is a "gap" when the tasks

require more skills and knowledge than the learner currently possesses. It is this "gap" that

must be filled through training. The same competence assessment categories used to indicate

competence in the overall knowledge and skill area are: expert, completely competent, mostly

competent, moderately competent, partially competent, no competence, can also be used to

indicate ability to perform each of the component tasks, actions and steps.

At each stage of the training needs assessment process, it is only necessary to breakdown the

items that competence assessment indicates require improvement. The process is a sequence

of job analysis followed by gap analysis, again followed by job analysis and so on.

The component parts of a "job" can be described in different ways depending on how

broadly the job itself is defined. Sometimes levels of breakdown are skipped. For example

DAE's Job Descriptions go straight to "tasks", skipping the "activity area" level. This is

useful when most of the activity areas within the scope of the job require similar sets of

tasks.

The level of break down necessary will depend on the nature of the activity area and tasks

concerned. Training will be most effective if it focuses on the particular areas where the

learner requires additional knowledge and skills.

The above Table provides example of a job gap analysis. In the general knowledge and skill

area "Tomato Production", a person may have a competency assessment of "2. Moderately

Competent." To find out what the actual training needs are it is necessary to break down the

general area of Tomato Production into its activity areas as shown. This is the "job analysis".

This is followed by a "gap analysis" exercise to focus in on the specific gaps in knowledge

and skills that resulted in the initial general competence rating of "2. Moderately Competent"

Once the activity areas have been identified, competence can be assessed for each activity

area. In this example the competence assessment of activity areas shows that the difficulties

are in 'pest and disease management'. It is now necessary to break down this activity area

into its component tasks. To identify learning needs in the 'pest and disease management'

activity area, competence can then be assessed for each task which has been identified.

192 Bangladesh

In this example, the task 'using a knapsack sprayer' has been identified as the difficulty. It is

now necessary to breakdown the task 'using a knapsack sprayer' into its component actions.

Competence assessment of each action reveals that the real problem is that the learner

doesn't know how to operate the sprayer. This action can now be broken down into its

component steps. The steps involved in correctly operating the sprayer should make up the

training exercise.

Using the process of job and gap analysis helps to focus limited resources on the training

needs which are most critical. After the training needs have been identified it is useful to

determine the frequency, relative importance and learning difficulty for each component.

12) Research-Education-Extension-Farmers Linkages

Introduction

Agriculture is the major economic activity of the people of Bangladesh. It contributes about

25% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and engages about 85 % of the rural people.

National poverty1 level is very high since 50 % of the population is still living below the

upper poverty line2. Thus, the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) has recognized agriculture

and rural economy as the key driver of pro-poor growth strategy. The overall policy of the

GoB is, therefore, to create an enabling environment and play a supportive role so that

agricultural production can move from a predominantly subsistence level to a more

diversified commercial pursuit. The agriculture sector is supported by both public and

private initiatives. The initiatives, among others, support agriculture mainly by generating

and transferring knowledge and technologies to the farmers. Therefore, technology transfer

systems, their performances are critical for the growth in agriculture.

Conceptually, research-extension-farmer linkages are participatory and specific task oriented

functional relationships. In research the approach involve from problem identification to

technology dissemination etc. And in extension activities involve from problem

identification to extension planning, technology demonstration, performance review,

assessing acceptability, piloting, technology diffusion, monitoring, feedback, etc. Field

demonstrations, field days, farmers’ rallies, visit to research centers/fields are also aid in

strengthening linkages.

To monitor and activate effective performance of the functions of the stakeholders in the

linkage systems and to provide guidance to the downstream and upstream linkages are

established through the formation and functioning of several committees. These committees

in the national level are called the Extension Policy Implementation Coordination Committee

(EPICC) and National Agricultural Technical Coordination Committee (NATCC), and in the

regional level, the Agricultural Technical Committee (ATC), in the district level, the District

Extension Planning Committee (DEPC). Linkages are also functional through the adaptive

and Farming Systems Research and Development (FSRD) activities, research review and

planning workshops of the research institutes as well as special and thematic workshops.

Importance of Linkage

Research-extension-farmers linkage is an important area of intervention for the 'Technology

Systems' to be demand driven, farmer led and effective. The importance of research -

extension - farmer linkage has been recognized in the National Agricultural Policy. The


policy suggested further strengthening of the linkage with a view to transferring new

technologies to the farmers. The policy also envisaged involving private sector

entrepreneurs, non -government organizations (NGOs) and farmers in strengthening the

linkage. The second part of the policy statement is to ensure a pluralistic face of the

extension systems in identifying location specific, problem oriented participatory research

agenda, in one hand and transferring the technologies in the appropriate production systems,

on the other. Without effective problem identification in a participatory mechanism of

stakeholders' research remains to be compartmentalized and entire effort and investment

appears to be futile and having no use to the ultimate beneficiaries. Similarly, extension

planning without meaningful participation of the stakeholders in the technology systems is

also without relevance to farmers' needs and aspirations.

The National Agricultural Policy on Agriculture

The overall objective of the National Agricultural Policy (NAP) is self-sufficiency in food

through increased production of all crops including cereals and ensuring a food security for

all.

The National Agricultural Policy (NAP) calls for:

� Implementation of the New Agricultural Extension Policy (NAEP)

� Strengthening of research-extension linkages with a view to transferring

technologies.

NAP reinforces the implementation of the NAEP. In NAEP, as mentioned above, has some

specific commitments. However, issues such as equity, commercial approach to farming and

cooperation and coordination among different public extension service providers (crops,

livestock, fisheries, forestry) remained virtually unfocused in NAP, although private sector

and NGOs are to be brought under a well-organized monitoring system and coordinated. The

extension system has not been able to set up sustainable community based organizations

(CBOs) that would allow an institutional base for group farming and commercial agriculture

and for addressing ecological problems. Without a strong linkage mechanism between

extension service providers and farmers of all categories and also among different extension

service providers, a holistic, bottom-up extension planning and equitable and integrated

extension service will not be possible and the goals of NAP may unrealized in the long run.

The National Fisheries Policy

The National Fisheries Policy (NFP) was formulated in 1998 with the following objectives:

� Enhancing fisheries resources and production

� Generating self -employment for poverty alleviation of fishers

� Meeting the demand for animal protein

� Increasing foreign exchange earning

� Maintaining ecological balance, conserving bio-diversity and improving public

health.

To attain these objectives, the DoF has also developed Action Plan. Activities are being

identified through different project approaches. The department does not have an extension

network down to Upazila level. Through capacity building of individual growers, leaders of

producers organizations under a pluralistic extension approach, the weakness of grass root

level extension approach should be improved.

194 Bangladesh

The Livestock Policy

The Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock (MoFL) has already drafted a Livestock policy

which is expected to be finalized and approved very soon. The major policy issues include:

� Promotion of small holder dairy and poultry development through private sector

interventions

� Development of goat, buffaloes and duck in high potential areas through special

projects

� Institutional reform of DLS to perform public functions, enactment of laws and

regulations for quality control of drugs, feeds and breeding materials

� Exploring all alternatives for fodder production. DLS in line with proposed

Livestock Policy has developed a Road Map and Action Plan which includes:

� Expansion of animal health cares through Community Based Organizations

(CBOs)

� Strengthening of veterinary services at Upazila and Union levels through its rural

service centers.

� Support private sectors for promotion of livestock

� Supporting production, quality control and standardization of feeds, breeding

materials and drugs

� Enhancing institutional reform for making DLS as a good public service.

Fish production from rivers and estuaries has declined but overall fish production has grown

at 6-8 percent over the years. Although open water capture fisheries declined, the rapid,

growth in inland culture fishery is offsetting the loss in capture tit fishery. The Department

Fisheries (DoF) has played significant role in promoting private sector fish culture. Fishery

sub-sector extension service be reformed and strengthened for demand-led extension.

Livestock and poultry sub-sector has turned to be a promising and dynamic sector for

poverty reduction. Milk has a huge potential for import substitution if it could be produced,

processed and distributed hygienically. Extension service of the Department of Livestock

(DLS) is weak and needs to be reformed.

Review of past Research-Extension-Farmers linkage

Formal linkage of the research - extension - farmers in crop sector was first built and

institutionalized in Training & Visit (T&V) system of extension in the Extension Research

Projects supported by the World Bank (WB) during 1977to 1991. In T&V systems linkage in

research-extension was institutionalized. During T&V Senior Scientific Officer (SSO),

Principal Scientific Officer (PSO), On-farm Research Division (OFRD), Bangladesh

Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) was the Member-secretary of the District Technical

Committee (DTC) and Regional Technical Committee (RTC), respectively. Linkage

activities in extension were confined to contacting farmers by Block supervisor(SAAO) in a

block in a fortnight with some relevant impact points developed in the DTC with active

participation of the researchers. These impact points were validated and refined with latest

technical information in the SMS-SSO workshop held monthly in the region and approved

by the RTC. In research linkages was in built in FSRD activities as well as research review

and planning workshops. Other than the above approach of linkage, joint visit by the

research and extension leaders of the region also helped to keep the linkage effective.


Experience of Linkage in the Research System

In the research systems, through the FSRD and other adaptive research, activities, the

scientists identified farmers' problems in a participatory approach and conducted on-farm

trials with backup from on station research. The FSRD and other on-farm adaptive research

activities, supported by Extension and Research Projects (ERP), National Coordinated

Cropping System Research Project, Farming System Research Project and Agricultural

Research Management Project (ARMP), also institutionalized research-extension-farmers

linkages. The linkage activities, as were designed and implemented, though not free from

criticism, yielded some positive results. Among others, skill of both researchers and

extension officials was improved in assessing field problems to reflect in program planning.

Provision for strengthening linkage was also included in the New Agricultural Extension

policy. NARS vision for 2020 highlighted to promote between research-extension linkages

and to establish a functional feedback loop from extension unit to research program.

Mechanism for implementation of the upstream linkage was spelled out in the Strategy for

Implementing the New Agricultural Extension Policy (NAEP) .

Under the Agricultural Research Management Project (ARMP) supported by the Word Bank

research on integrated farming was conducted in 17 FSRD sites. These activities have

strengthened partnership between researchers, extension staff including NGOs and farmers.

These FSRD activities could develop entrepreneurship in small-scale poultry farming and

marketing. But linkage activities were not sustainable-because of withdrawal of funding

support and discontinuation of the support of the livestock and fisheries scientists. Moreover,

the Fisheries Research Institute and the Forest Research Institute did not have structure unit

to carry on with FSRD and linkage activities.

Linkage that existed within the institutes and between the institutes through exchange of

information and field visit had been very informal. Participation of private sector and

agencies other than DAE was almost absent in the downstream linkage. The reasons for

weak linkages might be assigned to (i) inadequate interaction between FSRD scientists and

commodity researchers, (ii) absence of clear-cut understanding of the responsibilities of'

each other positions, (iii) NARS institutes were dispersed over several ministries that made

the linkage very difficult, (iv) lack of adequate appreciation of leaders about the linking role

of FSRD in problem identification, prioritization and research planning, in one hand, and

technology transfer, on the other.

Experience of Linkage in the Extension systems

In extension systems linkages with research were maintained through the committees like

NATCC, RTC and DTC as well as through the monthly SMS-SSO workshops. In addition

field activities like demonstration, field days, etc were also used to maintain linkages with

both researchers and farmers.

Research - extension links had been characterized as weak towards the end of the T & V, and

ASSP supported DAB to re-vamp the system. Eighteen ATCs replaced 64 DTCs and other

government line agencies were brought in to ATC meeting. Regional Technical Committees

(RTCs) were abandoned. The NATCC was to be re-vitalized and Individual Research

Institutes Coordination Committees (RICC) established. But performance of the upstream

linkage was very weak.

Agricultural Support Service Project (ASSP) was designed to take over Training &Visit

196 Bangladesh

System in extension. The project (ASSP) designed Revised Extension Approach (REA) with

principle of decentralization, targeting, responding to farmers needs, using range of

extension methods and working with groups. Development of partnership was a key element

of the project. The upstream linkage activities were continued in the subsequent extension

initiatives like ASSP and ASIRP but were irregular and weak.

DAE operated some 26 projects in '2002-2003. The projects had some elements of linkage

arrangement with farmers in their individual approach but there were almost no inbuilt

arrangement to involve research in a meaningful participation in the downstream.

Experience of Linkage in Non-crop Sectors

Experience of research - extension - farmer linkage in fisheries and livestock was not

conductive to the desired technology systems in the years to come. In the fisheries sector,

lack of initiative on the part of the personnel entrusted with coordinating the research,

extension and farmer linkage exerted negative influence on technology transfer. In livestock

sector, linkage of research with extension was poor. Nevertheless, there was some sort of

linkage of research with DLS and other extension agencies in matters of transfer of some

technologies current linkage with concerned organization was grossly disjointed, coordinated

and weak and was not established on a permanent set up. A system of linkage as existed in

the crop sector might be established.

Experience of Linkage in FSRD Activities

Impact analysis of the World Bank investment in FSRD through ARMP clearly

demonstrated several cases of successful research leading to adoption. This was because of

good functional linkage at work with the farmers. Consequently, it recommended expansion

of the scope of FSRD to cover the entire research and development activities through further

concept/methodology development and institutionalization of the concept should be

attempted. All possible technical and material support to FSRD activities should be given to

continue the program for helping the farmer to utilize his scarce resources in the best

possible way. Immediate steps were needed to ensure continuing financial support for inter

institutional FSRD efforts15.

Current Constraints in research –Extension –Farmer Linkage

Weak research-extension linkages and weak linkage of crop extension with non-crop sector

were identified as constraints for technology generation and dissemination and suggested for

removal by strengthening existing mechanism through NATCC and ATCs to improve

research - extension linkage, and in non-crop sector by ensuring- participation by agencies

and relevant NGOs of the non-crop sector as enunciated in NAEP16. To this effect GOB

from time to time issued necessary instructions to improve efficiency of the ATCs. These

instructions could yield very little impact to improve the desired linkage. The main reasons

for weak linkage were the ineffective performance of the NATCC and ATCs. Some of the

bullets for poor performance of the NATCC and the ATCs were circled around the

followings:

� lack of commitment on the part of some of the heads of the mainstream line

departments.

� absence of a secretariat for NATCC with specific functions

� lack of a sense ownership to the linkage forums


13) Incentive Structure

SAAO Award Scheme

DAE's mission is to provide an 'efficient and effective' extension service to farmers. If this

mission is to be achieved, all DAE's employees must perform their specific roles to a high

standard - low performance is neither efficient nor effective.

The performance of staff is influenced by a variety of factors, but one of the most important

of these is how motivated those staff are. Motivation can be defined as the desire an

individual has to do a particular job. Motivation is effected by a variety of factors, these.

include promotion, pay, degree of responsibility and recognition of high performance.

There is very little DAE managers can do to influence the promotion prospects and wage

levels of DAE staff, but they can ensure that high performance is adequately recognized.

Recognition is an important 'management tool' that managers can use to improve the

performance of their staff. Recognition is the process whereby a manager will congratulate,

praise and/or reward a subordinate who has worked hard or achieved notable results.

SAAOs are perhaps the most important group of staff in DAE because they provide the front

line service to farmers. The quality and effectiveness of the service provided by the

Department depends on the skill, capacity, understanding, creativity and motivation of Block

Supervisors.

The SAAO Award Scheme aims to recognize the role of the Block Supervisors and to

reward outstanding performance.

The scheme takes place every year at Upzila level. The Upzila "SAAO of the Year" is

awarded with a certificate and a gift but, most importantly, is given public recognition and

appreciation for their role in helping to achieve the DAE Mission.

Selection of the SAAO

The selection of the 'Upzila SAAO of the Year' is made in the following way:

Deciding the SAAO of the year

� each officer in the Upzila (UAO, AEO, AAEO and JAEO) individually selects the

three highest performing SAAOs that they work closely with and assesses their

performance using an evaluation sheet;

� all the SAAOs fill in a self evaluation sheet;

� the supervisory officer in the Upzila meet to consider all the selections and

assessments and a decision is made to recommend the three highest performing

Block Supervisors from the Upzila to the Deputy director of the District. The

evaluation forms for the three highest ranked SAAO are sent to the Deputy Director,

the other evaluation forms are related in the Upzila office;

The Deputy Director audits the performance of these three SAAOs, by assessing their

performance against the standards expected of them and by speaking to farmers in their

Block, before making the final decision of ‘Upzila SAAO of the year’.

In selecting the 'SAAO of the Year' the Upzila Officers and the Deputy Director of the

District pay attention to the following sources of information:

� direct feedback from farmers;

� the SAAOs Diary;

198 Bangladesh

� the SAAOs Demonstration Register;

� SEMS Forms;

� Fortnightly Work Program; and

� FINA Reports

Any SAAO who is performing his/her job adequately should be able to demonstrate the that;

� their SAAO Diary is up to date, and contains the following:

- a completed Block Data section at the start of the diary;

- each day's activities;

- farmer problems;

- action taken in response to farmer; problems; and

- the 5 most important problems recorded during each Problem Census;

� over the last year show the range of extension activities that they have been

undertaking, including:

- work with groups; and

- liaison with NGOs;

� the SEMS forms that are being used to monitor extension activities are up to date for

the activities that they have undertaken and show the numbers of contacted farmers

and the number of testers;

� their Demonstration Register is up to date for all demonstrations and that they are in

the process of being or have been implemented (this can be verified by their work

programs);

� Farmer Information Needs Assessment (FINA) has been undertaken and at least four

Problem Census were completed in the preceding year.

However, if a SAAO can demonstrate all of the above it only shows that they are performing

their job to a satisfactory level. A high performing BS will have been doing these things and

more.

14) Management Information System

A Management Information System (MIS), is a system for collecting, storing and analyzing information that is needed by an organization to support its activities. Information

needs may be divided into two types:

• those required directly for the management of DAE's extension program; and

• more general, non-management, information which is used for longer term policy

and planning which are not directly related to the management of extension

activities.

The MIS described in this manual concentrates on the type of information which is directly

essential for the operation of the Department's extension services.

MIS and Computers

The DAE has computer equipment at all levels down to District offices. However, the MIS is

not dependant upon computer operations and there is also a manual system in operation.

The use of specially designed computer programs has great advantages: computers enable

the large amount of information to be stored and handled much more rapidly and analyzed in

more detail than if the information has to be recorded and analyzed by hand.


While computers make it possible to handle more information, more rapidly and in greater

detail it is essential to remember that any system is only as useful as the information that is

put into it. If care is not taken in recording data then inaccurate data may be recorded and the

results will be misleading. Misleading information results in wrong management decisions.

It is essential that the tools used for MIS are looked after correctly. In particular computer

equipment must be handled with care and used in a disciplined manner – only trained and

authorized officers and staff should be allowed access to computer, only software programs

issued by DAE should be used with the equipment and no modifications should be made to

the software programs that have been specially designed for the Department’s MIS

Scope and Approach

The objectives of an efficient MIS are to enable officers to plan and manage their activities efficiently with the benefit of accurate and timely information. The improvement of DAE's MIS is a gradual process; a step-by-step approach has been taken with priority given to the information needed for the direct management of extension activities. The MIS is based on a number of separate components which can be linked by sets of common codes for location, extension method, crop, technical message, source of funds for the activity etc. Each component can be linked with the others or used on its own if there is any problem with another part of the system.

MIS Components

Ten components are included in the MIS. These are divided into three classes as shown in

Table 2.1 below:

Information System Component

(class and purpose)

Name Initials computerised

/ Manual

1 Direct extension management

farmer consultation Farmer information

Needs Assessment

FINA m

extension activity planning Extension Planning

System

EPS c / m

extension activity monitoring Seasonal Extension

Monitoring System

SEMS c / m

internal activity supervision Technical Audit TA m

medium term evaluation Knowledge Attitude and

Practice Survey

KAP m

2. Administration & Finance

finance Financial Information

System

FIS c & m

personnel Personnel Database PD c & m

training management Training Information

System

TIS c & m

3. Longer term policy & planning

crop variety data Crop Returns Database CRD c / m

non-management data General Information

Database

GID c / m

200 Bangladesh

Key c/ m = computerised or manual operation possible c & m = some parts computerised, some manual operation necessary m = manual operation only

The components classified above as direct extension management are described in detail in later sections of this Manual. The components related to administration and finance and longer term policy and planning are not covered since they are primarily used at DAE headquarters.

System Users and Responsibilities

Overall responsibility for the MIS lies with the Planning and Evaluation Wing's MIS Section headed by the Joint Director (MIS) who is supported by specialist MIS / computer staff located at headquarters and regional offices. The MIS Section is responsible for providing assistance to computer operators, the approval and issue of MIS and other software programs and the standards of equipment used by DAE.

There are dedicated specialist MIS staff to assist users in regions and districts posted at each

DAE Regional Office. Each Regional Office has ~ Statistical Officer and an Assistant Chief

(MIS) lor this purpose.

In addition to personnel in the field the information in each component has a number of users

in DAE Headquarters as shown in Table 2.2. The main users, however. are officers and staff

directly responsible for the planning and implementation of the Department's extension

activities.

Table 2.2 MIS users at DAE headquarters

MIS Component User – DAE Headquarters Wing

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Extension Planning System

FSW FCW WMAEW PPW

PEW

Seasonal Extension Monitoring System

FSW

CCW FCW WMAEW PPW

PEW

Crop Returns Database FSW CCW FCW

PEW

Financial Info. System APW PEW ALL WINGS

Personnel Database APW ALL WINGS

Training Info. System TW APW ALL WINGS

General Info. Database ALL WINGS PEW

PEW MIS Section officers have overall responsibility for developing and supporting MIS and its associated computer operations and for the proposed main database. Responsibility for the establishment, and continuing operation, of the individual components of MIS lies with the Wings and Sections to which the data relate which are shown in Table 2.2.

The EPS, SEMS and FIS components are primarily used at levels below Headquarters particularly in districts and thanas, nevertheless it is essential for supervision and control that


overall. responsibility rests in Headquarters. Table 2.3 shows the Wings and Sections and Headquarters' Officers who are responsible for the major MIS components.

The Headquarters' Officers are responsible for the operation and effectiveness of each MIS component but it should be clearly understood that:

PEW-MIS Section has full responsibility in DAE for approving all MIS software and

programs and computer standards. No changes to be made to MIS and/or computer

specifications, software standards and programs etc. without reference to, and formal

approval of the PEW-MIS Section on behalf of the Director General and the Management

Committee. Responsibility for FINA, KAP and Technical Audits lie outside DAE

headquarters. The Deputy Director (DD) Districts are responsible for FINA and KAP; the

Additional Director (AD) Regions for Technical Audit.

MIS

Component

Wing Section Officer In-Charge

(Supervising)

Officer

Directly

Responsible

System

Management

Planning and

Evaluation MIS JD MIS

Extension

Planning

System

Field Services Extension AD Extension DD

Extension

Seasonal

Extension

Monitoring

Systems

Field Services Monitoring AD Monitoring DD

Monitoring

Crop Returns Field Services Farm Economics AD Extension

Financial

Information

Systems

Administration

and Personnel Finance

Assistant Director

Finance

Personnel

Database

Administration

and Personnel Personnel

AD Administration

and Personnel

Training

Information

System

Training Farmer Training Director Training DD Farmer

Training

The Media Cell

The media cell is responsible for providing media support to field staff. It co-ordinates a

large number of productions such as videos, flip charts and posters and the Annual Extension

Planner. It provides a responsive service for field staff and considers request from thanas and

districts. These requests are sent from district offices once a year at the time of preparing

annual plans.

The media cell is chaired by the Director General and the Additional Director Extension acts

as member secretary. Members of the media cell include. all Wing heads, the director of the

Agricultural Information Service, the Director of the Transfer of Technology Monitoring

Unit, BARC, and Principle Scientific Officers from various research agencies.

202 Bangladesh

The media cell is based in Headquarters and meets prior to each season as follows:

Kharif II mid April

Rabi mid July

Kharif I mid January

Responsibilities of the media cell are divided into four main categories:

Production of media materials

distribution of materials

monitoring of media activities; and

co-operation in the production of media with other partners.

These functions are briefly outlined below:

Production

Co-coordinating all media productions at Headquarters with Bangladesh Betar and

Bangladesh Television; producing media in response to specific requests from all DAE

wings and from field offices; ensuring that DAE video productions are approved by the

Chairman of the media cell; producing guidelines for districts and thanas regarding media

production and training; advising the Director, Field Service Wing on national extension

publications and media campaign production expenditure; producing simple technical

bulletins from approved research results; delegating the responsibility for specific

productions and other relevant issues to cell members.

Distribution

Ensuring that all media produced by DAE Headquarters is sent to the field; ensuring that

DAE video productions are distributed with the necessary accompanying literature;

developing procedures for disseminating information to the field and advising district and

thana staff how they can request information; distributing technical bulletins to field offices;

distributing guidelines for media production.

Monitoring

Reviewing information provided by Additional Directors (Regions) from Technical Audit

results; conducting a random annual review of district bulletins.

Co-operation

Encouraging co-operation between DAE and other extension providers in terms of media

production of agricultural information.

15) Monitoring and Evaluation

Introduction

In extension, objectives are based on meeting farmers’ information needs. Success occurs

when objectives are met, and indicators are used to help determine the level of success.

Monitoring is the process of recording these indicators, while evaluation is analyzing the

recorded indicators and determining how to improve performance in the future. Using

monitoring and evaluation tools DAE is able to ensure that the implementation of extension

program follows their design and takes into account the interests of farmers.

Effective monitoring and evaluation should provide relevant and accurate information, to the


right people, at the right time, in the right format, to enable them to take timely decisions and

action. Decentralization provides local flexibility and freedom of choice, and monitoring and

evaluation helps staff make the right choices.

Monitoring and Evaluation in the Planning Process

In DAE monitoring is conducted during implementation and evaluation is usually conducted

after implementation. Monitoring comes first because without collecting information a valid

evaluation cannot be made. However, monitoring will only produce its full benefits if the

collected information is reviewed to learn lessons. This is evaluation. Information for

planning extension programs comes from both evaluation and farmer information needs

assessment - the absence of either source of information will lead to low quality planning.

In the planning process, monitoring and evaluation are tools to help managers in upzilas and

districts improve their performance. Extension monitoring and evaluation are self assessment

processes which should be carried out by upzila and district staff.

There are two kinds of monitoring and evaluation that are important in ensuring effective

extension services: assessment of outcome and assessment of process.

This chapter discusses assessment of DAE's successes in meeting the needs of farmers, and

shows the appropriateness of each District and Upzila's annual extension plan. This

assessment of outcome is accomplished through the review of SAAOs’ Diaries, the Seasonal

Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) and the Knowledge, Attitude, Practice (KAP) survey

system.

This chapter discusses assessment of the successes of Districts, Upzilas, and on an individual

basis of SAAOs, in achieving their work plans ie implementing their annual extension plan.

This assessment process is accomplished through the conduct of Technical Audits and the

Work Programming System.

SAAOs Diary

The SAAOs diary is one of the most important tools used in operating DAE's extension

approach, and can be used to support monitoring and evaluation. During the day to day work

of the SAAOs, the diary acts as a recording tool and should show what is done, with whom,

and what the response was. Farmer problems are recorded, farmers names listed, and farmers

reactions to participating in events are noted - especially in the case of individual farm visits.

The diary is an important source of detailed block level information about what is working

well, and why, and what is not working well and why.

The Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS)

The Seasonal Extension Monitoring System (SEMS) is designed to help extension staff

record indicators of the performance of extension programs, and to summarize and interpret

this information in order to help make future planning decisions

Indicators Used in SEMS

The following primary indicators are included in SEMS.

Contact: How many farmers (male and female, large and small) attended extension events,

and what was the cost per farmer.

204 Bangladesh

Understanding: How many farmers who attended understood the ideas (technologies)

contained in the extension event, and what was the cost per farmer who understood.

Testing: How many of the farmers who attended think that they would try the ideas

(technologies) contained in the extension event and what was the cost per farmer who

intended to test?.

These are the primary indicators of the performance of extension programs. They should

occur in sequence based on the assumption that contact leads to understanding, which leads

to testing.

Decisions Made Using SEMS Indicators

Monitoring and evaluation helps to make better management decisions. The management

decisions which can be made with the help of SEMS are:

Technology Selection: What agricultural innovations should be included in extension

programs?

Method Selection: Which extension methods should be included in extension programs?

Area Selection: Which areas (specific upzila, districts or regions) should be supported or

supervised more closely.

SEMS should show which technologies are most or least successful, which extension

methods are the most or least successful, and which areas are running the most or least

successful extension programs. On the basis of the information, many decisions can be made

and actions taken to continually improve the extension service offered to farmers.

Listed below are some of the actions that can be taken to improve low performing

technologies, extension methods or areas.

Poor Technologies:

� adjust the technology, with help from research staff and the farmers who have tested;

� change the extension method - for example, use group training rather than result

demonstrations;

� improve the extension events - use better publicity, hold events at more suitable

times, use more appropriate venues;

� reduce the budget and resources for the technology in the next extension program.

Poor Methods:

� adjust the extension 'method;

� train staff to implement the method more effectively;

� reduce the number of events of this type in the next extension program;

� use the extension method in combination with other extension methods - for

example, add more field days to result demonstrations;

� delete the poor extension method from future extension programs.

Poor Area:

� organize extra training for the staff in this area;

� increase the frequency of supervision visits to this area, including the use of

Technical Audits;


� provide more advice on the selection of technologies and extension methods for

inclusion in programs;

� reduce the budget for this area, reducing the size of the program until performance

improves.

SEMS information about contact, understanding and testing also help improve the quality of

extension programs. Where contact, understanding or testing is low, the following actions

can be taken:

Low Contact:

� offer more interesting technologies;

� improve publicity to attract more farmers to events;

� hold events at appropriate times;

� review the selection of groups used for this activity;

� hold events in appropriate places.

Low Understanding:

� improve the way in which new ideas are presented - for example, use simple

language, visual aids, live specimens;

� train staff in implementing extension events;

� train staff in facilitation skills;

� use alternative extension events - for example, rather than Upzila Training Days, use

more village level group meetings.

Low Testing:

� improve the quality of extension events at which the particular technology is

discussed;

� adjust the technology, with the help of research staff and feedback from farmers, to

make it more appropriate to farmers needs and conditions.

The decisions that are taken will depend on the type of farmers involved. For example, when

changing the timing or location of extension· events, consideration should be given to

whether the target group are male or female, as they may have different preferences for

timing and venue. Decisions about corrective action can be made with the help of additional

items of information which are collected in SEMS - secondary indicators. A selection

includes:

Extension Methods:

� publicity effectiveness;

� timeliness of event;

� accessibility.

Technology:

� profitability, or cost-benefit analysis;

� risk;

� initial capital requirement;

� labour requirement.

206 Bangladesh

16) Conclusion and Recommendation

Agricultural Extension in SARRC countries faces challenging times in South Asia. Reforms

in public extension services are long overdue. Historically agricultural extension system as a

change engine plays a significant role in the development of agriculture in these countries.

There might be differences in agricultural extension system and administration not only

among the countries but also between region within the country. In view of increased

demand in agricultural production and stark reality of food crises, it is necessary that each

individual country becomes self reliant in agricultural production. In doing so, extension

system need to be revitalized. Learning from the regional development experiences gained

through agricultural extension management system over the past years may help carry the

process forward to remain successful and competitive in agricultural production and trade. It

is necessary to build knowledge based farming communities in the region. And in building a

knowledge-based farming communities require effective and efficient extension system.

Agricultural research system developed a treasure of agricultural technology over the last

half a century. These technologies can be utilized across boundaries with little effort

provided an effective and efficient management system is in place. SAARC countries can

develop effective and efficient extension system learning from each other. The needs and

interest of farmers knowledge and information on production technologies and market

competitiveness are changing fast. As a result of this paradigm shift in agriculture, the role of

extension has also changed. So, extension has to play more facilitation role .to educate

farmers so that they can help themselves in the fast changing environment.

Recommendation

1. In improving farming practices the basic task of extension is to provide facilities to help

farmers choose and try certain useful farming practices. Hence, the technologies have to

be put through field trials. The trail phase is needed because extension staff has to gain

experience and confidence and farmers also have to be made aware of the technologies.

2. Soil, water and biodiversity make up the natural resources base. In the past adequate

attention has not been given to their proper development, utilization and conservation as

part of a good farming practice. Now extension has a critical role to play in management

and conservation of natural farm resource.

3. Farming as a business is not known to most of the farmers. They need to learn quickly to

handle the investment and returns in farming more efficiently. They also need to be

made aware of marketing their produces.

4. Farming as a business is going to replace the family farming. Farming today is mostly

different from what it was about fifty years ago. So, farmers require better managerial

capabilities at present days in terms of farm resources, production planning, credit

requirement, input procurement, product handling and market operation.

5. A key element of the decentralized and demand led extension system would be the


Common Interest Groups (CIGS). Participating farmers would be facilitated to from

groups based on agricultural livelihood or some other common interest, eg, water use,

credit, marketing etc.


i) 6 At the present days more farmers expects an extension out-reach to come to them. But,

the extension agencies have not proportionately grown. In the meanwhile, farming, being

highly dependent on externalities, needs a variety of inputs, services and support

facilities to make tenable. So, multi-agency extension coordinated work is necessary.

6. In response many more development players started working in the field. Hence,

agriculture-base development has become a shared responsibility among the public

agencies, including extension, local bodies, input and credit agencies, seed companies,

NGOs and other organizations. Of course, so far as agricultural development is

concerned, the extension agency will have to play a lead role.

7. Farmers need to be facilitated to have direct access to the institutional resources

available in terms of technologies, advice, inputs etc. for reducing technologies

dissemination losses and a mechanism in place for feedback and follow.

8. Research – Extension- Farmers Linkage: Linkage among research – extension and

farmers are generally weak and neither research nor extension was sufficiently conscious

of the need to understand the constrained and potentials of the different farming systems

as a basis for determining relevant technology and technology development requirement.

9. The revolution in information technology must benefit extension. The benefits could be

derived in many ways. Interactive electronic linkages may be established between

extension and relevant research or other institutes. The effort to apply information

technology should be started at locations where facilities are available. But the

information technology should not be considered as a replacement of human effort in

extension rather just as a supporting tool.

References

Agricultural extension manual, January 1999, Revision. Department of Agricultural

Extension, Khamarbari, Krishi Khamar Sarak, Farmgate, Dhaka.

Effective Communication Media for rural audiences, published in 1973. IARI, New Delhi

FAO’s Corporate Communication Policy and Strategy (2000). Available at:

http://www.fao.org/docrep/x1200e/x1200e00.htm#p0_0

Proceeding of the regional workshop on research-extension linkages for effecti8ve delivery

of agricultural technologies in SAARC countries, SAARC Agricultural information

Center December 2006

Project Appraisal Document on a proposed credit for a National Agricultural Technology

Project, January 3, 2008

Strategic Plan, 1999-2002, Department of Agricultural Extension. DAE Khamarbari,

Farmgate, Dhaka

Strategic plan 2004-2006, Department of Agricultural Extension, DAE Khamerbari,

Farmgate, Dhaka

208 Bangladesh


Bhutan

Dr. Tashi Samdup and Dr. Kailash Pradhan Council for RNR Research of Bhutan (CoRRB)

Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Thimphu, Bhutan.


Cell: 00975-17114221

Executive Summary

The Renewable Natural Resources (RNR) extension system in Bhutan is the means through

which the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests (MoAF) seeks to help farmers develop and

improve their livelihoods. The extension system comprises of frontline extension staffs

based in the Geogs (blocks) and Dzongkhags (Districts) and the institutional support

structure, including research and other knowledge and input centers.

With regards to the historic background of RNR extension activities in Bhutan, it is as old as

modern agricultural development. Initiated with the starting of the planned development

activities in 1961, extension services then was concentrated in and around the research and

demonstration farms. Extension services were responsible for introducing improved

technology and input supply.

A reformation and development strategy occurred with the initiation of decentralization

policy in early 80s, wherein extension activities were handed over to Dzongkhag while

MoAF was responsible for resource mobilization (financial and humans) and technical

support. The Ministry adopted the integrated concept in 7th plan whereby all the three

sectors- Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry was brought together to work hand in hand to

support the farmers’ need who depends on the interaction of these sectors for their

livelihood. Since then, the Ministry of Agriculture is known a Renewal Natural Resource

Sector or RNR sector. The Ministry of agriculture adopted draft National Extension Policy

(NEP) in 1995 which provided policy direction to RNR extension system.

There are several stakeholders/agencies involved directly or indirectly in the national RNR

extension system. At the national level three agencies viz- Ministry of Agriculture and

Forests (MoAF), Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs (MoHCA) and Gross National

Happiness (planning commission) (GNHC) play a vital role in the RNR sector development

interventions. The MoAF is the parent Ministry who has the overall responsibility for RNR

sector development and is directly accountable for all the technical matters including

extension services. The MoHCA through the Dzongkhag Administration and local

government development bodies Dzongkhag Yargay Tshongchung (DYT) and Geog Yargay

Tshongchung (GYT) implements the plan pogrammes. The GNHC supports the GYT and

DYT to plan development activities and monitor its implementation. Formally, National

RNR extension system has four levels: National, regional Dzongkhag and Geog.

The links between the Research x Extension x Farmers linkages are accorded high priority

by the government. It is through these mechanisms that the framers benefit and reap the

benefits of research technologies and interventions. Therefore a close collaboration between

research, extension and farmers exist wherein attempts are made to provide high quality and

timely RNR extension services to farmers. Linkages between the three are emphasized upon

since it is essential to obtain a holistic and systems analysis for research and development

priority settings. Linkages have been created through regional level research–extension

planning workshop, on-farm research programme and regular farm visit and interaction

between the three main stakeholders.

To analyse the benefits of any research and development interventions, the monitoring and

evaluation aspects are integral. The first level of extension programme monitoring is done by

Dzongkhag RNR sector and the geog administration based on the geog plans and the


progress report submitted by the geog staff. Beside, Dzongkhag administrations, concern

Departments, Extension Coordination Committee (ECC) also monitor extension activities on

regular basis. At the national level, the concerned Departments, Policy and Planning

Division of MoAF and the GNHC monitors and evaluate the progress and report it to the

government twice in a plan period. Such monitoring aspects off-late has been put in the

context of the Gross National Happiness agenda.

212 Bhutan

1. Introduction

Bhutan is a small landlocked eastern Himalayan country, bordered by China in the north and

India in the east, west and south. The geographic area of 38,394km is almost entirely

mountainous with the flat land limited to the broader river valleys. The elevation varies from

100 meters above sea level (masl) in the southern foothills to more than 7,500 masl in the

north. The population of Bhutan is close to 700000 and almost 70% reside in rural areas

(Population and Housing Census, 2005). Based on the national poverty line established at

Nu.1096.94 per month, 23.2% of Bhutan’s population is poor. Of this, 98.1% live in rural

area (NSB, 2007).

Agriculture in Bhutan has a dominant role in the economy of the country. Approximately

70% of the population of Bhutan is involved in agriculture. Agriculture sector (commonly

known as RNR sector) consisting of agriculture, livestock and forestry provide livelihood to

at least 66.6 percent of the population (NSB, 2007). Agriculture sector contributes 18.6% to

national GDP (10th FYP). Agriculture in Bhutan is characterized by its labor intensive nature

with relatively low intensity of farm inputs. Most of the farms in the country are small and

marginal.

The total cultivated agricultural land consists of 2.93%, out of that Kamzhing (dry land)

dominates with 61.90% followed by Chhuzhing (paddy land) with 27.86%. The horticulture

land constitutes of 10.24% i.e. Apple orchard (1.81%), Citrus orchard (4.52%), Areca nut

plantation (0.88%), Cardamom Plantation (3.02%) and others (0.01%) (NSSC, 2010)

The major mandate of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests (MoAF) is to enhance food –

self sufficiency, raise farm income and sustainable management of natural resources.

Agricultural development is constrained by poor irrigation structure, wild animal predation

on crops, rough terrain, poor soil quality, limited number of arable lands and rural –urban

migration.

1.1 Agriculture (RNR) Extension System

RNR extension services had played a very important role in whatever agriculture

development our farmers are enjoying. During the last 45 years of planned development,

agriculture has the maximum impact on improving rural livelihood in rural Bhutan (Planning

Commission 2007).

RNR Extension in Bhutan is the means through which the Ministry of Agriculture seeks to

help farmers develop and improve on their livelihood. It includes a wide range of services

from provision of production inputs, dissemination of improved production technologies and

management practices, communication and networking services to capacity building

activities. In keeping with the decentralization policy, extension system also assists local

government in planning and implementing development activities.

The extension system comprise of frontline extension staff based in the Geogs and

Dzongkhags and the institutional support structure, including research and other knowledge

and input centers. The frontline extension staffs have the day to day contact with the farmers,

and provide services and the institutions support structure for identification and adaptation of

technologies and other necessary inputs to the needs of the farmers.


1.2 Historic background with chronological development of Agricultural extension activities

The agricultural (RNR) extension in Bhutan is as old as modern agricultural development. It

started with the establishment of the Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry in

1961 with the inception of 1st five year plans. Agricultural extension service has evolved in

relation to agricultural research systems under the assumption that research systems would

develop agricultural technologies, and extension systems would disseminate them to farmers

who are viewed as passive beneficiaries rather than clients, stakeholders, and active

participants.

The Department of Forest is the oldest department; it was established in 1952 with its head

quarter in Samtse which was later shifted to Thimphu in 1970s. Initially it was involved in

conservation of forest wealth and extraction of timber for export.

In the initial plan period, there was no clear statement on extension objectives pursued by the

Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry. Although extension service was

recognized to be further strengthened, there was no clear indication as how it could be done.

A review of plan documents showed that extension service delivery systems have gone

through number of transformation from centralized to regional, to area based to Dzongkhag

(District) and Geog (Block).

Initially extension services were concentrated in and around the research and demonstration

farms. In the subsequent plan periods efforts were made to expand the extension services to

cover all the Geogs in the country. By the beginning of 1980s, the whole country was

covered by extension network and extension activities were decentralized to the Dzongkhags

Extension activities were mainly aimed at promoting improved varieties of crops and

livestock breed and management practices. Efforts were made to increase the area under

fruits and vegetable, introduction of improved crop varieties, increase animal production and

improve livestock health.

During the 5th FYP, planning and implementation of developmental activities including

Agriculture and Animal Husbandry was decentralized to the Dzongkhag administration.

Development plans were prepared by DYT (Dzongkhag Yarkey Tshongchung or District

Development Committee) and central Departments used to provide technical support. It was

during this plan period that the deliveries of agricultural inputs were privatized and

distribution of credits taken out from the extension agents’ responsibilities. Decentralization

was further taken down to geog level in early 1990s with the establishment of GYT.

With the decentralization policy, the public participation became more pronounced. People

were actively involved in expressing their development and economic needs through GTY

(Geog Yarkey Tshogchung or Block Development committee) and DYT. People were also

involved in implementation of development activities such as irrigation channel, construction

of farm road, extension centres, transportation of inputs etc.

1.3 Establishment of extension institutions

Since the initiation of planned development, investment has been made to strengthen the

government institutions and improve the human resources. With the start of plan

development, Agricultural farms and research stations were established. Extension services

214 Bhutan

were built around these farms. Separate extension manpower was posted in the farm to

promote technologies in farmer’s field. More staff strength was placed in agriculture farms.

Extension staff strength in research stations was fewer in number. Later with the

commissioning of area development projects, extension services were attached to such

projects as well.

1.4 Reformation and development

The above institutional arrangement continued till the decentralization took place in 1980 or

the latter half of fourth plan (1976-1981). In the process of Agriculture development and

service deliveries, Agricultural institution went through various organization and

restructuring. Till the 2nd Five year plan, Departments were independent. During the 3

rd FYP,

Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry were brought under Ministry of

Development and Department of Forest was put under Ministry of Trade, Industries and

Forest. Ministry of Agriculture was established with the starting of 5th FYP in 1981 by

merging Department Agriculture and Animal Husbandry. Department of Forest was clubbed

under Ministry of Agriculture only from the starting of 6th FYP in 1987.

Major shifts in the Ministry of Agriculture took place during the 7th FYP, when the concept

of integrating crop, livestock and forest was adopted. Concept was adopted given the

dependents of farmers in crop, livestock and forests interaction for economic development.

Since then, the Ministry of Agriculture is known a Renewal Natural Resource sector or RNR

sector. The decentralization of extension program was further extended to the geogs during

this period.

Another milestones added to extension system was the i. establishment of Natural Resource

Training Institute (NRTI) which started diploma program in Agriculture, Livestock and

Forestry to build up the extension human resource and ii. The adoption of National

Extension Policy (NEP) in 1995.

During the 8th and 9

th FYP Ministry consolidated the concept of integration and various

organizational structuring was carried out to improve extension service delivery. Four RNR

Research centers were established with the placement of Extension Programme Officer to

link research and extension. At the end of the 9th Plan one more research centre was

established to cater the need of sub tropical research and development. College of Natural

Resources (CNR) the then NRTI started in-service undergraduate programme from February

2010 to upgrade the capacity of extension staff and meet the human resource requirement for

extension and research.


The present organizational structure of Ministry of Agriculture and Forest Services (MoAFS) is as follows:

Fig. 1: MoAF Organogra

215

216 Bhutan

The Secretariat is supported by the Policy & Planning Division (PPD) and Administration

and Finance Division (AFD) discharging policy analysis, planning, administrative and

financial functions. The departments (DoA, DoL, DoFPS and DAMC) discharge technical

functions (Research and Development). The Non departmental agencies like National

Biodiversity Centre (NBC), Bhutan Agriculture and Food Regulatory Authority (BAFRA),

and Information and Communication Service (ICS) provide cross sectoral service and

support. Natural Resources Development Corporation Ltd. (NRDCL) and Food Corporation

of Bhutan (FCB) discharge commercial functions. The Council of RNR Research of Bhutan

(CoRRB) formulates RNR research policies and coordinate research programme within and

outside MoAF. The field programmes are implemented by the technical staff posted at

Dzongkhgas and Geogs. Central programmes (e.g. NSSC, NPPC) and regional establishment

(e.g. RLDC, RNR-RDC) under technical departments provides technical support to

Dzongkhag and Geog to deliver extension services. These central institutions also carry out

extension functions sometimes in collaboration with Dzongkhags and Geogs. In case of

forestry, functional divisions in addition to providing technical support to Dzongkhags and

Gewogs, provide technical support to territorial divisions, national parks and wildlife

sanctuaries implementing their programs as central programs. These agencies are also

responsible for law reinforcement.

1.5 Establishment of the National Agricultural Extension System (NAES)

As mentioned above, the Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry were established

in 1961 and the main objects were to facilitate input supplies and transfer of new

technologies to farmers to increase production.Till 4th FYP i.e. until early 80s, there was no

formal extension network to cover the whole country. Extension activities were centrally

controlled and implemented mainly through government research and production farms.

Country-wide Agriculture and Animal Husbandry development started only from 3rd FYP.

It was only with the initiation of decentralization process in 5th FYP, the agriculture and

animal husbandry activities were implemented through Dzongkhag administration covering

entire country.

Following the decentralization process, forestry development activities were also divided

into two groups. Those that implemented through community participation were designated

as Dzongkhag (extension) activities and handed over to Dzongkahg and all the rest were

identified as central programme. However, just after one year, in 1983 Forestry Dzongkhag

activities were re-centralized considering its technical nature and also due to conservation

mandate. It was only in 1994, Dzongkhag Forestry extension was re-decentralized and

Dzongkhag Forestry Officials and geog extension staff posted.

Extension structure at the Ministry and Department level evolved over the time with

different structure but the mandates always remained guided by the decentralization policy.

RNR extension system received policy direction with the adoption of RNR extension policy

in 1995.

2. Organization of NAES

2.1 Agencies involved in the Extension system

The technical agencies involved in providing extension service to the farmers are at four

levels: 1) Geog Extension Centre, 2) Dzongkhags Extension Service (DES), 3) Regional


RNR Research and Development Center and 4) The technical Departments programmes and

projects, which are at national and regional level. These programme and project provides

technical backstopping to Dzongkahg and Geog extension system. Further there is an

Extension Coordination Committee (ECC) at the MoAF, coordinated by CoRRB to

harmonize and sort out technical issues concerning RNR extension.

The Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and private entrepreneur are also involved in

promoting new RNR technologies to farming communities. The MoAF provides technical

support to these NGO’s and private entrepreneurs when ever required. The MOAF

encourages private entrepreneurs to promote RNR technologies at a commercial scale.

2.2 Organogram of NAES with major roles of each position of the organogram

Formally, National RNR extension system has four levels: National, Regional Dzongkhag

and Geog.

National level: The departments (DoA, DoL, DoFPS and DAMC) under the Ministry of

Agriculture and Forests are the national level agencies mandated with extension. Senior

officers are involved in coordinating field extension services.

Regional level: Regional RNR Research and Development Centers and other regional set-

up such as Regional Livestock Development Centers, farms do not have direct extension

mandate but supports Dzongkhag extension system with input supply and technical

backstopping.

Dzongkhag level: There are RNR heads (agriculture, Livestock and Forestry) at each of 20

Dzongkhags. In addition, there are veterinary hospitals in almost all the Dzongkhag to

support animal health.

Geog level: Most Geogs are staffed with an Extension Agent from Agriculture, Livestock

and Forestry though sometimes one RNR EA may cover two Gewogs.

While the RNR network at the village level is not mandatory as per government rules,

however, some voluntary extension organizations (farmers groups, NGOs, clubs, etc) are

involved in extension services at village level. The Organogram of the National Agriculture

Extension System (NAES) with major roles of different organizations are given below:

218 Bhutan

Figure 2: NAES, linkages and main responsibility of different agencies


2.3 Extension planning process

The planning of RNR development activities are basically done by Geog Yarkay

Tshokchung (GTY) and Dzongkhag Yarkay Tshokchung (DTY) in concurrence with RNR

sector development policy. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forests and Gross National

Happiness committee (GNHC) or Planning Commission facilitates the planning process at

different stages. At the Dzongkhag level, the Dzongkhag Planning Officer is entrusted with

overall responsibility to coordinate Geog and Dzongkhag plans.

From the 5th FYP till 8

th FYP, planning of extension programme was done by the Dzongkhag

RNR sector in consultation with the community and the Ministry’s policies and strategies.

But with the start of the 9th FYP it was decentralized to Geog administration (GYT). In the

present plan period (10FYP), planning at the geog including RNR extension programme

were done by the Geog administration.

Under the overall planning process of the Government as illustrated in Fig 2 below,

extension planning process for 10th FYP followed the following steps.

Figure 3: Illustration of RNR Sector Planning Progress

With the empowerment of the local government institutions, GYT and DYT play a vital role

in identifying the RNR sector development needs and priorities. Initial plans are prepared by

GYT which is represented by local leaders (Tshogpa) from different communities in the

220 Bhutan

geog. Local leaders present the development needs of the respective villages in the GYT for

consideration. GYT reviews the proposal and considering the technical feasibility and

government policy accept the proposal for inclusion in the plan. GYT is chaired by Gup

(village headman) and attended by Geog Administrative Officer and Tshogpa. Geog RNR

staff’s attend the GYT as an observer and provides information on RNR sector policy and

technological options. Once the plans are finalized by GYT, it is presented to DYT which is

chaired by Chairman (elected from among the gups) and attended by Dasho Dzongdag and

Dzongkhag sector heads. DYT after thorough review approves the plans submitted by the

GYT considering the budget ceiling provided to Dzongkhag. After finalizing the Dzogkhag

plan, it is send to GNHC (planning commission). Extension activities such as farmers

training, demonstration, study tour etc are all derived from the plans prepared by GYT and

DYT.

Besides Geog and Dzongkhags’ plans coordinated by GNHC, programme and project at

central and regional level under Ministry of Agriculture and Forests also develop extension

activities in consultation with communities and RNR field staff. Such activities are mainly

planned to achieve goals and mandates of the programme and project. Funding of such

activities is outside the budget ceiling allocated to Dzongkhag and often comes from project

and programme supported by donors and RGOB.

While the planning and implementation of the RNR extension activities are carried out by

the Dzongkhag and Geog administration, technical support are provide to the farmers by

Ministry of Agriculture and Forest through the extension network in Geog and Dzongkhag.

2.4 Coordination mechanism

Nationally four technical Departments are responsible for coordinating extension plans and

programmes at the Dzongkhag level. Each department has many functional divisions and

national programmes to support the districts extension activities. There are also regional

RNR research and development centre which partly coordinate research- extension

programme. There are five such regional centers and each center has extension unit to link

research extension activities. Besides, RNR-RDC, there are four Regional Livestock

Development Centre (RLDC) which provides technical backstopping to Dzogkhags and

Geogs, diagnosis and treatment of animal diseases especially in times of mass disease

outbreaks.

At the Dzongkhags level, there are three sector heads, responsible for Agriculture, Livestock

and Forestry extension. The major role of the District Extension System (DES) is to ensure

that the geog extension centre (GEC) is fully capable of fulfilling its mandate and will

provide technical back-stopping to the GES. DES has the following coordination functions

• Provides guidance for the development of annual RNR Extension programme for the

Geog and Dzongkhag.

• Coordinates to implement Dzongkhag-level activities in the field. Organize meeting

with the GEC to review and plan the field activities.

• Facilitates and mobilizes funds for RNR activities within the Dzongkhag.

• Collaborates with RNR related agencies in delivering effective extension services.

• Provides feedback to departments and relevant agencies carrying out monitoring and

evaluation of planned activities.

• Maintains vertical and horizontal communication linkage,


• Conducts monitoring and reporting of District extension programmes

• Support Local Governments in preparing development plans

Extension staffs at the GEC coordinate the planning and implementation of field activities

with the Geog Administration and concerned sector at the District level. Three sectors at the

geog level also plan the execution of field activities jointly so that there is minimum

disturbance to the farmers. As far as possible, activities such as farmers training, public

meetings, data collection are jointly organized.

The GEC provides feedbacks to service providers and government agencies in an attempt to

improve future services and also provides assistance to relevant agencies in conducting

priority RNR activities.

Extension Coordination Committee

To better coordinate the implementation of extension programme, Extension Coordination

Committee (ECC) is constituted at the national level. It is a cross sectoral committee and the

senior officers, assigned with extension service coordination functions, from each

department and agencies under Ministry of Agriculture and Forests are the members. The

ECC has overriding mandate to facilitate the coordination and integration of RNR extension

services amongst the various agencies of the MoAF. ECC is structurally based with Council

for RNR Research of Bhutan (CoRRB.) The Functions of ECC are as follows:

• Review and develop extension policy framework (strategy, approaches and

methodologies) to generate input for policy decisions.

• Ensure coordination on cross cutting extension themes e.g. extension guidelines and

approaches, social science and management related trainings and recommend

working modalities.

• Identify various extension issues among various agencies of MoAF and beyond.

• Promote and represent MoAF on forums such as conference, seminars on cross

cuttings themes, policies and strategies.

• Review and propose innovative integrated extension approaches to be adopted.

• Strengthen linkages between research and extension.

2.5 Decentralization of extension delivery system

The beginnings of the decentralization process can be traced back to 1981 (start of 5th FYP)

with the establishment of the Dzongkhag Yarkey Tshogchung (DYT) as a semi-

representative Dzongkhag development committee comprising of gups as head of a geog

(block) and chimis (national assembly representative) and establishment of GTY in 1991.

Current decentralization initiatives are part of a gradually evolving process of empowering

people to participate in planning and decision making in all aspects of local development.

The RNR staff posted in the Dzongkhag and Geogs are administratively under the

Dzongkhag administration.

Agricultural inputs like simple tools, fertilizers and seed/seedlings are decentralized and sold

through commission agents located at Dzongkhag and Geog level. However, sale of agro

chemical and large farm machineries such a power tiller tractors etc are centrally operated.

222 Bhutan

3. Governance

3.1 Institutional reforms and efficiency enhancement

The Ministry of Agriculture and Forests has evolved in the process of efficiency

enhancement in term of institutional reforms. Ministry has always been dynamic and

responsive to the development need and the changing situation. During the start of the plan

development in 1960s, three technical Departments were established. Initially, these

technical Departments were responsible for the development of respective sector.

In the process of institutional reform, quite many changes took place and mandates and

functions of the each department were changed. Once all the inputs supply of agriculture and

livestock were mandate of one department (DALSS) and similarly research and development

of the other. To a larger extent, mandate and functions of the Department of Forest and Park

Services has remained same besides research aspects. Until the recent restructuring the

research aspect of the entire three departments was with the Council for RNR Research of

Bhutan (CoRRB). Presently, three technical departments have again been mandated with all

the development and research of the own sector. In 2010, new department has been

established, Department of Agriculture Marketing and Cooperatives to encourage and

support commercialization of farming sector.

Beside changes at the Ministry level, there was changes/reorganization within the department

as well. Inline with the mandate and function given by the Ministry, division and units in the

department were created and restructured to enhance and support service delivery at the field

through extension service.

Extension system at the Dzongkhag and Geog level has not seen many changes but has been

strengthened constantly. There has been a steady improvement in enhancing extension

delivery. All 205 geogs have fully functional RNR centers. Old Agriculture and Animal

Husbandry extension centers have been upgraded to RNR extension centers with the

inclusion of forestry sector. On a pilot basis concept of one stop centre is also promoted, it

houses RNR centre, office of geog administration, and also sales and services of agricultural

inputs and machineries.

3.2 Public-Private-NGO partnership

RNR sector development and the extension services has been an exclusive mandate of

Ministry of Agriculture & Forestry or the government. Involvement of private sector has

remained minimal mainly limited to input supplies. But recently with the Government policy

of encouraging Public Private Partnership (PPP) more and more private and FDI investment

is coming in for commercial production and marketing. Some of the private FDI initiatives

are Bio –Bhutan, Coffee and Hazelnut, Dairy Development etc. Many more proposals are

under review with the Ministry. Involvement of NGO is also in the initial stage.

3.3 Accountability hierarchy

At the geog level Geog Administration headed by Gup and the RNR extension staff are

responsible for implementing and achieving the local plan target and over all RNR sector

development.

Dzongkhag Administration is accountable for the RNR sector development at the

Dzongkhag level. Dzongkhag RNR sectors heads has the responsibility of coordinating and


supporting geog extension activities. Dzongkhag Administration is also administratively

accountability for the RNR sector management.

Regional RNR centers such as Research and Development Centers, Regional Veterinary

Centre, Regional Agricultural Machinery Centre etc are also accountable for the support and

supply of required technology. At the same time development projects under the Department

and Ministry are also accountable for providing requires financial and support services.

Overall, accountability and responsibility of RNR sector development and extension services

lies with Ministry.

3.4 Leadership Development

Empowering local communities is an important development goal of the Royal Government

and in line with the government policy RNR sector also gives priority to develop local

leadership. One of the important mandates of the geog RNR extension services is to develop

a capacity of the local people to plan and manage their enterprises. This is done through

promotion of farmers group and cooperatives where the office bearers are train on group

management and leader ship development.

GNHC (planning commission) also provide regular training and workshop to local leaders in

planning and project management. International development partners like UNDP, SNV,

DANIDA, HELVETAS, FAO etc also support local leadership development initiatives of the

Bhutanese Government.

3.5 Management of information system

Extension information management is done at all level. Geog extension centre have the basic

information of geog such as land use, production and extension activities. They are also the

first hand information provider to other agencies. Sector head at the Dzongkhag level

maintain information of the Dzongkahg level.

At the national level, each technical department has Information Management Section (IMS)

which has a responsibility to collect, analyze and maintain information of the respective

sector. IMS conduct annual 10% (farming population) sample survey to gather information.

Policy and Planning Division (PPD) of the Ministry conduct RNR census every five year.

Last RNR census (2nd of such kind) was done in 2009. Beside Ministry of Agriculture and

Forests, National Statistical Bureau (NSB) also collect and manage RNR extension related

information.


4.1 Involvement of academic and research institutions for HRD through curriculum development and implementation support

Most of the extension staff posted in the Geogs are trained in college of Natural Resources

(CNR) which is under the Royal University of Bhutan. Before inducting with RUB in June

2004, CNR was under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests. CNR so far has trained 1000

plus extension workers with diploma in Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry who are now

working in Geogs and Dzongkhags.

224 Bhutan

Curriculums for the diploma courses are develop in consultation with the Departments and

Agencies under the Ministry of agriculture and Forests. Researcher and scientist working in

research centers and central programmes are actively involved in teaching diploma students.

Research centre and programme also guide the diploma students during their field

attachment which is a part of the diploma programme. Recently, CNR has also started degree

programme for in-service diploma holders. Candidate with undergraduate degree in

agriculture, livestock and forestry from foreign countries also join extension system.

a. Area of perception, skill and capacity building

Programmes and projects under the Ministry provide training opportunities in-country and

abroad. Similarly international and bilateral development partners also offer training support

for the extension workers. Awareness on new and emerging technologies in the RNR sector

are imparted to extension staff through study visit, seminar etc.

4.2 Training of extension workers and farmers through public, NGO and private initiatives

(This part (below) was given in the text of the Country Report under ‘Area of perception,

skill and capacity building’. This seems to fit in better here which was not been covered in

the original text)

Regular training to enhance skill and knowledge of the extension staff are organized.

Programme and projects under the Ministry conducts such training in-country and aboard.

Similarly international and bilateral development partners also offers training support for the

extension. Awareness on new and emerging technologies in the RNR sector are also provide

to extension staff through study visit, seminar etc.

Involvement of NGO and private sector in training extension worker and farmers are

negligible. Recently with the establishment of NGOs, farmers and communities are getting

training and support from them. But in a broader scale, farmers training are an affair of an

extension system which is mainly funded by Government and development partners.

Research centers, central programems, CNR and Rural Development Trainning Centers

(RDTC) are actively involved in farmers training as resource person.

5. Research-Education Extension- Farmers linkages

5.1 Present linkage

A close collaboration between research and extension is vital in providing the high quality

RNR services to farmers. Given the diverse agro-ecological conditions of Bhutan, RNR

research recognizes that the research undertaken must be applied and adaptive research on

farmers need. Both extension and research must understand that they are the strong

components of the same system. At present there are number of forums and procedure which

works on strengthening the extension research linkage.

• Extension Coordination Committee (ECC):

At the National level, the Extension Coordination Committee is mandated to review research

and extension policy to generate to policy decisions. The directors and senior policy level


officers represent their department in the ECC. It is expected that this will increase the

efficiency of the information flow from research-extension-farmers and vice versa.

• Regional RNR planning and Coordination Workshop:

This is one of the important forums, where research and extension staffs meet each other

once a year. They discuss and exchange emerging and available technologies. Extension

agents provide the information on potential locations and interested farmers for on farm

trials. Such forum meets to review and plan through joint problem diagnosis, setting priority

and programming. As both research and development are under the same department, it is

expected that the coordinating planning and review exercise will be more oriented toward

national goal and targets. In recent years, this conference is renamed as national level annual

field crops, horticulture, livestock and forestry planning and coordination workshop.

• On farm research programme:

This is yet another means of linking research extension and farmer. An on farm research

programme helps to develops innovations consistent with farmer’s circumstances,

compatible with the actual farming system and corresponding to farmer’s goals and

preferences. These are drawn up in consultation between research and extension staff with

the participation of farmers. RNR Sector officers and Dzongkhag specialists participate in

planning, implementation and evaluation of on farm programmes and work closely with

farmers. Results are discussed at joint meetings with a view to develop future programmes

including its use in extension.

5.2 Emerging trends Proposed integration mechanism for improved linkages

• Collaborative professional activities:


− Formal collaboration for on-farm trials, surveys and dissemination activities,

− Regular Joint visit,

− Informal sharing of tasks and responsibilities,

− Informal consultations,

− Periodic meetings,

• Communication approach:

Both researchers and extension can share their publications, audio materials, reports, success

stories. Experts from RNR-RDC many times are invited to be resource persons in the

training organized by extension agents. Some trainings and seminars are organized and

participated jointly.

• Resource sharing for joint activities:

Some resource for strengthening linkage can be placed at one e.g. at Dzongkhags for on farm

trials but funds could only be used jointly with research.

• Assigning coordinating responsibilities:

Formal assignment for specific focused programme or activities can be given to a certain

individual, groups, programme in the research or extension.

226 Bhutan

5.3 Institutional reforms for strengthening linkages

Recently, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests undertook restructuring whereby research

implementation mandate of CoRRB has been transferred to respective technical departments.

CoRRB is mandated to develop research policy and maintain its quality. This reform was

primarily put in place to strengthen research –extension linkages and collaboration. After

restructuring, research centers are also given the mandate of development and renamed as

Research and Development Centers.


6.1 Incentives structure: - Present status and Future outlook

Incentive for outstanding and excellent performance is encouraged at all levels. Incentives

are given in the form of cash awards, out of turn promotions, certificate of recognition and

training opportunities. Continuous under performance is dealt in appropriate ways. In

addition to the provision of the civil service rules, this could mean, delayed promotion,

limited training opportunities which could lead to disciplinary actions. The concerned

Dzongkhags and the Departments monitor the performance of the Extension staff. Cash

reward and recognition at present in done at the national level and only best few are

recognized.

This leads to discouragement for rest of the extension workforce. Recognition of extension

staff need to be decentralized and could be done at Dzongkhag level. More incentive

structure could be put in place so that more and more extension staff could be accommodated

to recognize there input.

6.2 Career advancement scheme

In line with the Position Classification System, extension staff is provided with opportunities

to improve his/her their professional qualification in order to enhance their career

opportunities. Priority is given to those, who have the potential and proven outstanding

performance and contribution. To this effect, the departments initiate proper training

identification and training need assessment to ensure proper and required impact (HR

committee). Based on the identification appropriate in-service training is made available.

The ex-country training is also decided on the training needs identification and the selection

is based on their performance.

HRM Division coordinates with the line departments and agencies based on the database the

selection of the candidates to ensure transparency, fairness and relevance. Development and

institutionalization of the Subject Matter Specialist (SMS) is pursued to strengthen the

capacity of the extension system. In country B.Sc in Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry has

been initiated since 2010. First batch of student with in-country B.Sc degree will come out in

December 2011.

Geog extension staff with diploma that enter the civil service in S-2 level can rise up to P-5

in the position classification system. Those with under graduate degree can go up to P-2

level. In the PCS, educational degree is one of the main factors for upward movement. PCS

however allows horizontal movement of staff at all level. Extension staff those with Master

degree and above can vertically move up to EX/ES –I which is equivalent to Secretary level.


6.3 HR management


Plan, 2009).These human resources are posted at different departments, divisions and

centers. The human resource management has become vital for the Ministry in order to make

the optimum use of its human resources. Almost half of this staffs strength is working at

Dzongkhags level. In the 10th FYP, the MoAF has proposed to increase its staff by 50

percent but at the same time around 300 existing staff will retire from their service.

Most geog are staffed with an extension staff each from Agriculture and Livestock. Recently,

forestry extension staff’s are also posted in the geog centre. Most of the extension staff at the

geog level have diploma from the College of Natural Resources (CNR). Sector head at the

Dzongkhag level mostly have undergraduate degree.


are posted in the Dzongkhags and Geogs they are administratively under the Dzongkhag

administration. Although extension staff are technically responsible to the Ministry of

Agriculture and Forests their direct line of authority is through the Dasho Dzongdag (District

commissioner) who is an official within the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs. The day

to day engagement and incentives of extension staff are looked after by Dzongkhag

Administration. Dzongdags have authority and do control the availability of extension staff

for training and in some cases allocates them to other duties. At times, in the interest of the

public and the programme of the local government, Dzongdags recommend the Ministry to

retain or cancel the transfer of extension staff. Promotion of extension staff posted at geog

and Dzongkhag is handled by Dzongkhag authority till P-1 level.


7.1 Institutional review and Program review

The need to streamline and institute an effective system for monitoring and evaluation of

development plans in the country has been recognized for a long time. In response to this

need, Gross National Happiness Commission has developed the National Monitoring and

Evaluation System (NMES) as a standard system for monitoring and evaluating the

development plans by line Ministries, Agencies, Dzongkhags and Geogs.

Gross National Happiness Commission (GNHC) as the central coordinating agency for

development planning, monitoring and evaluation has developed a standardized monitoring

and evaluation system for efficient and effective undertaking of monitoring and evaluation of

development policies, programs and projects. The system has been developed in conformity

with the Good Governance Plus Report 2005.

At the Ministry level RNR–GNH committee is the highest body to monitor the progress of

the plan programme and project. It is chaired by Secretary and represented by head of the


7.2 Monitoring of extension program

The first level of extension programme monitoring is done by District RNR sector and the

geog administration based on the geog plans and the progress report submitted by the geog

staff. They participate in random sample survey for result monitoring.

228 Bhutan


the official from the Department and Ministry. There is a quarterly reporting system whereby

Geog staff submit report on the progress made in a prescribed format to the Dzongkhag RNR

sector head. At the Dzongkhag level, report from the geogs are compiled and submitted to

planning officer who finally upload the report online using National Monitoring and

Evaluation system.

Beside, Dzongkhag administrations and Departments, Extension Coordination committee

(ECC) also monitor extension activities from time to time.

7.3 Follow-up of monitoring

Observation made during the monitoring and the follow-up activities are presented to GTY

and DYT which normally meets twice a year. Follow-up are also done during the quarterly

RNR meet at the Dzogkhag level and the field visit by sector heads and MoAF staff from

region and central agencies.

7.4 Evaluation and follow-up

At the government level or Ministry level programme are review or evaluated twice: once in

the middle of the plan period and the other at the end of the plan period. Evaluation of the

extension activities carried out by the central and regional programme/projects are evaluated

by the Departments and RNR –GNHC. However, during the government’s mid-term and

terminal evaluation, the Ministry has to present all the achievement along with the field

programme/activities implemented by the central programmes, dzongkahg and geogs.


8.1 Conclusion

Currently the RNR sector contributes 18.6% to the national GDP. During the last 45 years of

planed development, agriculture has had the maximum impact on improving rural livelihood

in rural Bhutan. Considering the importance of RNR services to the rural agrarian

communities, there is a need to increase accessibility to such services. Presently, just above

90% of the farming communities have access to RNR services but only 40% of the

communities are within 1 hour of walking distance from the RNR service centre.

The extension services system in Bhutan is the fundamental building blocks for rural

development. The field staff’s posted in Geogs and Dzongkhag are responsible for educating

farmers and facilitate input supplies and services. They also help the local government in

developing plans and programmes.

Decentralization of agriculture development and extension system started from 5th FYP.

With the initiation of decentralization, programme planning and implementation were

handed over to local government. Gross National Happiness Committee (Planning

Commission) coordinates planning and M&E of all the development activities. Local

government under the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs has the responsibility of

implementing RNR development and extension activities. MoAF and its technical agencies

and programmes are responsible for technical backstopping and resource mobilization

including HR development.


In view of the farmers’ dependence on crop, livestock and forest and their interactions,

Ministry of Agriculture and Forests adopted the concept of integration, since than Ministry

of Agriculture and Forests is better known as RNR sector. To promote the integrated

concept, programme planning and review of three sectors are jointly organized. Five regional

RNR – research and development centers are established to carry out research and maintain

research –extension farmers linkages. Council for RNR Research of Bhutan (CoRRB) and

four technical committees including Extension coordination Committee (ECC) under

CoRRB help and facilitate development of integrated RNR concept.

RNR extension system has always been an important component of Ministry of Agriculture

and Forests (MoAF) and will continue to be so. More than 50% of the human resources in

the Ministry is involved in extension service delivery directly. The National Extension

Policy was adopted in 1995 which gave extension system a legal policy directive. To fulfill

the increasing demand for extension personnel, College of Natural Resources (CNR) was

established in 1992. Till date more than 1000 extension personnel have passed out form the

college with diploma degree and they are actively working in the field. Recently CNR has

started a degree course; the first batch of graduate will pass out in December this year.

Despite the maximum impact, efficiency and effective extension service is still one of the

major obstacles in the development of agriculture in our context. There is a big scope for

enhancing extension service delivery professionally and administratively. Ministry of

Agriculture and Forests has always put maximum priority for extension services.

8.2 Recommendations

The following recommendations are made to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the

extension system and the overall improvement of the service delivery by the Ministry of

Agriculture and Forests through the extension systems:

i. Supporting decentralization of RNR extension to produce results

As per Local Government Act, 2007 the Dzongkhag and Geog level RNR extension service

is decentralized and it is under Local government administration. There will be increasing

trend to strengthen the power of elected officials. This is global trend and there are lot of

evidences that this move will make the extension participatory and demand driven.

Unless these important groups (LG officials) are oriented to RNR extension, the threat is

RNR development programme may be marginalized. Thus, the following measures may be

suggested:

• Provide training on decentralization approach, participatory extension, demand

driven approach, community based organization development, farmers group and

cooperatives development, bottom up planning, etc to the RNR extension staffs .

This will change the mindset of the EAs and will be easier to work under the

changed context of decentralization. Build the management capacity of the RNR

extension staff in the new areas e.g. like road and irrigation, community

development, local governance, etc

• Include a module on RNR extension in the training programme for the local

government officials or organize special orientation session on RNR extension. This

will help LG officials to see RNR extension not merely as “technology transformer”

(Technical wing) but an active player and contributor in local development.

230 Bhutan

ii. Creating conducive environment for RNR service providers (public, private and civil

society Institutions) in delivering extension service widely

In the past there were only government institutions providing extension service. But now,

several NGOs and civil societies are involved in providing the extension services. As such

MoAF need to develop policy guidance and coordination mechanism to encourage and

support private, NGOs and civil societies involve in extension service delivery. This will

save time and resource of the public agencies. A well structured pluralistic extension

planning and delivery mechanism will be in the interest of farmers, traders, NGOs and

government.

iii. Enhancing accessibility of farm inputs and information including credits:

Accessibility and availability of improved farm inputs have always been a concern for

farmers and the Ministry. In absence of required inputs and information, farmers are forced

to continue with the traditional practices. Extension staff in the geog is the main source of

information, but given the scattered and isolated distribution of farming communities getting

timely information is impossible.

As such, it high time that we utilize the ever influential ICT for information sharing between

farmers and extension service provider. National and Local print and broadcast media should

be encouraged to carry news and information of farming. Decentralization and privatization

of sales and service of farm inputs such as fertilizer, tools and machineries, planting material

need to be promoted with more favorable policies and resource support.

Another important input for farming is credit. Presently, there is only one bank which has the

mandate to support rural development. Availing credit on time has always been difficult and

fulfilling long formalities have further discouraged farmers from availing it. Many times, the

credit needs of the subsistence farmers are small and immediate, which are often met by

borrowing from local money lender at high interest rate. Therefore, MoAF and Government

should promote affordable and farmers’ friendly credit systems so that it facilitates adoption

of improved farming practices promoted through extension systems.

iv. Budget for extension staff:

In the present system, front line extension staff’s work as per the plans/programme given to

them by the local government. Their main aim is to fulfill the physical target rather than

creating impact. The present system does not provide any room or opportunity to be

innovative as they have no resources at their disposal. Moreover, their performance is judged

on the achievement of physical target than on innovative performance or impact. As such,

government should consider providing financial resources to extension staff posted in the

geogs so that they can be innovative and initiate activities suitable to their local working

environment. At the same time system should reward or recognize their innovation by means

of fast track promotion, training etc.

v. Enhancing moral and capacity Building of RNR Extension staff

The professionalization of the agricultural extension service and incentives for front-line

staff to live in remote areas will be a key to promote better services to the farmers. More

frequent trainings, especially on extension methodology and approaches should be given to


front line extension staff. At the same time, exposure to new and emerging technologies in

the RNR field should be made available to these staff.

9. References

Council for RNR Research of Bhutan, 2010. Draft Renewable Natural Resources Extension

Reference Manual, MoAF.

Dendup, T., D.M. Rai, and S. Rigyal. 2011. Understanding the challenges facing extension

gent working in RNR Extension.

GNHC, 2009. Local Development Planning Manual - Standards for annual planning at

Dzongkhag and Gewog level, Royal Government of Bhutan.

GNHC, 2011. Five Year Plan Documents (1st to 10

th) Available:

http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/five-year-plan/, Royal Government of Bhutan.

Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, MoAF). 2010. RNR Census 2009, MoAF.

Ministry of Agriculture, 1995. Technical Annex to The National Extension Policy, Royal

Government of Bhutan.

National Soil Service Centre, 2010. Bhutan Land Cover Assessment (LCMP), DoA, MoAF.

National Statistical Bureau,. 2005. Population and Housing Census Royal Government of

Bhutan.

National Statistical Bureau, 2007. Bhutan Living Standard Survey Royal Government of

Bhutan.

National Statistical Bureau, 2007. Poverty analysis report Royal Government of Bhutan.

Planning Commission, 2007. Rapid Impact Assessment of Rural Development. Royal

Government of Bhutan.

232 Bhutan


India

Dr. V. VenkatasubramanianAssistant Director General (Agricultural Extension)

Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Cell: 0091-11-25843279

and

Prof. Dr. Ramesh ChandDirector, NCAP

Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Cell: 0091-11-25842684

Executive Summary


Community Development Programme followed by National Extension Service in 1953.



major food grain crops in high yield potential areas. The involvement of ICAR in extension

started with the formulation and implementation of several front line extension programmes.

The Directorate of Extension/Extension Division is the nodal agency in the Department of

Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture for agricultural extension programmes.

National Agricultural Extension System in the country is now being organised under the

Department of Agriculture, Govt of India and operationalised through Directorate of

Extension at the national level, extension wing of state department of agriculture, animal

husbandry and fisheries, at state level. The district level agencies like ATMAs and KVKs

help in implementing the extension and technology application programmes benefiting the

farming community. There are many extension service providers in the field, providing

different kinds of useful services like information and service support to farmers. They are

state, central government agencies, agribusiness companies, agri-preneurs, input dealers,

manufacturing firms, NGOs, farmers organisations and progressive farmers


system through the involvement of farmers and farmer organisations. The organisation of

farmer interest groups, commodity interest groups, farm schools and self help groups at grass

root level mainly aims at the decentralisation of the extension delivery system through

making the users as the responsibility centres in deciding their technological options, their

dissemination and adoption.


provisions of in service trainings, short, medium and long duration trainings. Presently, the

vacant posts are about 32 percent and efforts are made to fill up these posts during the XII

plan period. Lack of quality manpower dedicated to the cause of agricultural development is

a serious constraint and challenge encountered by the system. Agricultural extension should

be on agri-business extension mode and this is possible only if the system recruits personnel

who can bring in different kinds of expertise. For instance expertise related to cutting edge









Several organization implement extension programmes with very little coordination.

Establishment of national extension agency/board (NEA) can potentially bring about much

needed integration for objective planning and delivery of programmes. Integration of

extension activities at the district level also needs policy support. Several initiatives that


were successful at the pilot stage had failed when external support was withdrawn. Another

major constraint is the declining financial support for extension. Enhanced funding is crucial

for improving the ability of extension to deal with the complex challenges faced by it. It also

needs crucial research back up on new approaches, methodologies and management tools

and techniques relevant for different situations.

Among other things, (i) enhanced funding, (ii) strengthening extension research and

education, (iii) creation of a national extension authority, (iv) developing technology

inventory and methodology modules, (v) developing strategies to improve sustainability of

pilot initiatives, (vi) Farming System Approach in Extension along with district resource

mapping and planning, (vii) networking and partnership approach, (viii) inclusion of newer

concept and methodologies, (ix) Creation of national and regional level knowledge

management system for continuous technology and methodology backstopping and (x)

Resource and market led approaches for sustainability are the most important areas to be

focused upon for developing a frame work for technology development and delivery system.

236 India

1. Introduction

The National Agricultural System was evolved in India with an establishment of agricultural

department at the Imperial and Provincial governments before Independence. Realizing the

Country’s technological needs, the Pusa Research Institute was established at Pusa (Bihar) in

1903. The Royal Commission on Agriculture (RCA) was appointed in 1926 to examine and

report on the condition of agricultural and rural economy in India and to make

recommendations for the improvement of agriculture and the promotion of the welfare and

prosperity of rural people. The RCA, 1926 has made valuable recommendations which

formed the basis of a coordinated research and effective agricultural administration. One of

the important recommendations of the RCA was the creation of Imperial Council of

Agricultural Research (ICAR), which was set up in 1929.

The British Administration has formed several committees to understand the features of

livestock farming system and ways for its development. Among the various committees and

their reports, the reports submitted by the Royal Commission on Agriculture (RCA) and W.

A. Burns report on the Technological Possibilities of Agricultural Development in India

(1944) are considered as significant. However, the pre-independence attempts on agricultural

development were limited in scale and geographical coverage. These attempts did not have

any follow-up action and lack specificity in terms of programme planning and

implementation. The above constraints in the agricultural development have been done away

through the introduction of planning in the post-independence period which is emphasized

by a systematic and intensive approach.

1(i). Historical background with chronological development of agricultural

extension activities in the country


Community Development Programme followed by National Extension Service in 1953.

Education and research studies began in 1955 with the initiation of Post Graduation

Programme in Agricultural Extension Education in Agricultural College, Sabour, Bihar. The

early extension efforts had two distinct patterns. First, there were attempts by some

benevolent persons and private agencies to improve rural life. Second, attempts were made at

the Government level to initiate some projects to solve the pressing problems in agriculture.

The attempts made by the individual persons and private agencies are Gurgaon project in

Haryana by Mr. F.L. Brayne; Sriniketan Experiment in Bengal by Sri Rabindra Nath Tagore;

Servants’ of India Society, Pune, in Tamilnadu, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh; Sir

Daniel Hamilton’s Scheme of Rural Reconstruction at Sundarban in Bengal; Rural

Reconstruction Work by Christian Missions through Allahabad Agricultural Institute: The

Christian College, Nagpur; Marthandam project by Dr. Spencer Hatch under the auspices of

YMCA; Sevagram experiment in Wardha by Mahatma Gandhi; Adarsh Seva Sangh, Pohri,

Gwalior, Indian Village Service in Lucknow and Etwah in Uttar Pradesh by Mr. A.T.

Mosher and Sri B.N. Gupta and Sarvoday Programme in Bombay Province.

Among the above attempts, significant extension initiatives during pre-independence were

Gandhian Experiment in Rural Reconstruction (1920), Sri Niketan Project (1921),

Marthandam Project (1921), Gurgaon Project (1927), Rural Reconstruction Movement


(1932), Indian Village Upliftment Scheme (1944) and Nilokheri Project and Grow More

Food Campaign (1947).

Post-independence initiatives include Etawah Pilot Project and Sarvodya Programme (1948).

However, food crisis experienced in the country, in late 1950s refocused the efforts of

extension on food security and increasing food production in the form of Community

Development Programme (1952); National Extension Service (1953) and Intensive

Agricultural Development Programme (1960).



major food grain crops in high yield potential areas. The Intensive Agriculture Area

Programme (1964) and National Demonstration Project (NDP) was initiated in 1964-65 to

demonstrate the technology package on major crops; High Yielding Varieties Programme

with combination of Green Revolution technology in the late 1960s and single line of

command Training &Visit System in the mid 1970s enabled India to achieve food self-

sufficiency..

The post independent extension education and development programmes launched by

Government of India can be generally grouped into five categories. They are:

1. Community development programmes

2. Programmes for technology development

3. Programmes for development with social justice

4. Frontline extension programmes of ICAR

5. Agricultural Research and development programmes by ICAR and Govt. of India.

All these programmes, though not attempted towards development of agricultural extension

but definitely aimed at improving production and productivity which ultimately helped in

obtaining more income and livelihood security. But all the programmes followed extension

approaches to reach its clients and target groups to provide them with education,

information, knowledge, skills, understanding and other related matters so as to empower

them in accomplishing their goal of economic up liftment.

Today, both field extension and extension education are going side by side, helping each

other to reach farming community more effectively by translating research findings into

action through extension and building capacity among the farmers in their farming

endeavour. The self sufficiency in food production and the success of green revolution in

India definitely a testimony for the effective extension service launched in the mid 20th

Century and will be continuing with the larger dimension and strategy orientation

considering change in global agricultural scenario.

Frontline Extension Programmes: The involvement of ICAR in extension started with the

formulation and implementation of several front line extension programmes such as National

Demonstration (1966), Operational Research Project (1972), Krishi Vigyan Kendra (1974),

Lab to Land Programme (1979), Frontline Demonstrations and Technology Assessment and

Refinement (TAR) - Institution Village Linkage Programme (IVLP), National Agricultural

Technology Project (NATP), Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA),

National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) and Horticultural Mission.

The frontline extension programmes of ICAR were designed to organize the demonstrations

by scientists to show the production potentiality of modern agricultural technologies to

238 India

identify its location specificity in the farmers’ field. The ICAR took up Operational Research

Project (ORP) in 1975 to identify technological as well as socio-economic constraints and to

formulate and implement the problem solving technology modules on area/watershed/target

group basis in an operational area. On the eve of Golden Jubilee Celebrations, ICAR

launched Lab-to-Land Programme (1979) to transfer low cost technologies in agriculture and

allied enterprises. As part of Technology Mission on oilseeds and pulses, the Council started

frontline demonstrations in 1990-91. The ICAR piloted under AP-Cess Fund Scheme an

innovative approach for Technology Assessment and Refinement through Institution-Village

Linkage Programme (TAR-IVLP) in 1995 which was further implemented as a program

under NATP. A brief about the selected extension programmes launched by ICAR is given

here under.

National Demonstration Project (NDP) was implemented during the year 1965 to

demonstrate the production potentialities of technology package on major crops to fully

exploit these demonstrations for the purpose of training the farmers’ and extension workers.

Further, it provided the scientists feedback of the problems faced by the farmers with respect

to adoption of new technologies.

Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) was initiated during 1974 for providing vocational training

through work experience to the farmers and extension personnel. The KVK is an institutional

approach to understand technology assessment through On-farm-testing and Frontline

demonstration and technology dissemination through training and extension. The KVK is a

need based, skill based vocational training institute. It is comprehensive in its activities, farm

based support, inbuilt research extension linkage, participatory management,

multidisciplinary team of scientists and mechanism for both feedback and feed forward.

Operational Research Project (ORP) was initiated in 1975 to identify technological as

well as socio-economic constraints and to formulate and implement a combination of

technology modules on area/watershed/target group basis. The performance of the new

technology is to be tested on farmers’ fields at operational level under the existing resources

and socio-economic and cultural conditions to address the common agricultural problems

affecting the existing farm production system on community basis.

Lab to Land programme (LLP) was implemented in 1979, by ICAR as a part of its Golden

Jubilee celebrations. The aim of the programme is to assist the selected farm families for

improving their farming systems and thereby generating more employment and income. The

basic idea is to bring the scientists and farmers into a common forum and to introduce

appropriate technologies facilitating the diversification of labour-use and creating

supplementary sources of income in the fields of agriculture and allied enterprises.

Technology Assessment and Refinement (TAR)- Institution Village Linkage

Programme (IVLP). In 1995, the ICAR launched this innovative programme and the

objectives are to:

i) introduce technological interventions with emphasis on stability and sustainability

along with productivity of small-farm production systems;

ii) introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to sustain technological

interventions and their integration to maintain productivity and profitability taking


environmental issues into consideration in a comparatively well defined farm

production system;

iii) introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to increase the agricultural

productivity with marketable surplus in commercial on and off farm production system;

iv) facilitate adoption of appropriate post harvest technologies for conservation and on-

farm value addition of agricultural products, by-products and waste for greater

economic dividend and national priorities;

v) facilitate adoption of appropriate technologies for removal of drudgery, increased

efficiency and higher income of farm women;

vi) monitor socio-economic impact of the technological intervention for different farm

production systems;

vii) identify extrapolation domains for new technology/technology modules based on

environmental characterization at meso and mega level.

National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP): The National Agricultural

Technology Project was launched by the “Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)

on June 30, 1998, with the support of the World Bank, to strengthen and complement the

existing resources and to augment the output of the National Agricultural Research System

(NARS). The NATP implemented its objectives through Strategies for Organization and

Management Reforms and Research. The Research comprised various modes of objective-

based funding, namely, Teams of Excellence (ToE), Mission Mode (MM), Production

Systems Research (PSR), Institution Village Linking Programme (IVLP) and Competitive

Grants Programme (CGP). Another important component which was funded under NATP

was Innovations in Technology Disseminations (ITD). Projects under ITD were executed by

the Department of Agriculture and Co-operation (DAC), Government of India, and the

ICAR. Production Systems Research (PSR) mode of funding divided Agro-ecological-Zones

into five sub-modes, namely, Rain-fed, Irrigated, Arid, Coastal, and Hill & Mountain. All

five sub-modes were recognized as respective Agro-ecosystem Directorates and were

empowered to source funds and administer & monitor the progress of the projects.

NATP Glimpses: NATP was the world's biggest World Bank assisted agriculture project

worth Rs. 992 crores developed and executed by NARS. NATP lifespan was seven years,

from 1998 to 2005. NATP was the first project in NARS to shift the focus from discipline

oriented research to production system research.NATP was the first project in NARS to

involve competitive funding, & have pluralistic approach to involve and fund partners from

outside NARS. NATP successfully completed a whopping total of 852 projects

National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP): The National Agricultural Innovation

Project was launched in the year 2007 by ICAR. The overall objective of NAIP is to

facilitate the accelerated and sustainable transformation of Indian agriculture in support of

poverty alleviation and income generation through collaborative development and

application of agricultural innovations by the public organizations in partnership with

farmers groups, the private sector and other stakeholders. The specific objectives are to:

a) build the critical capacity of the ICAR as a catalyzing agent for management of change

of the Indian NARS,

b) promote production to consumption systems research in priority areas/themes to enhance

productivity, nutrition, profitability, income and employment,

240 India

c) improve livelihood security of rural people living in selected disadvantaged regions

through innovation systems led by technology and encompassing the wider process of

social and economic change covering all stakeholders, and

d) build capacity and undertake basic and strategic research in strategic areas to meet

technology development challenges in the immediate and predictable future.

National Agriculture Development Programme (NADP) or Rashtriya Krishi Vikas

Yojana (RKVY): Concerned by the slow growth in the Agriculture and allied sectors, the

National Development Council (NDC), resolved in 2007 that a special Additional Central

Assistance Scheme (RKVY) be launched. The NDC resolved that agricultural development

strategies must be reoriented to meet the needs of farmers and called upon the Central and

State governments to evolve a strategy to rejuvenate agriculture. The NDC reaffirmed its

commitment to achieve four percent annual growth in the agricultural sector during the XI

Plan.

Basic Features of the RKVY: The RKVY aims at achieving 4% annual growth in the

Agriculture sector during the XI Plan period, by ensuring a holistic development of

Agriculture and allied sectors. The main objectives of the scheme are to:

1. incentivise the states so as to increase public investment in Agriculture and allied

sectors;

2. provide flexibility and autonomy to states in the process of planning and executing

agriculture and allied sectors schemes;

3. ensure the preparation of Agriculture plans of the districts and the states based on Agro-

Climate conditions, availability of technology and natural resources;

4. ensure that the local needs/crops/priorities are better reflected in the Agricultural plans of

the states;

5. achieve the goal of reducing the yield gaps in important crops, through focused

interventions;

6. maximize returns to the farmers in Agriculture and allied sectors;

7. bring about quantifiable changes in the production and productivity of various

components of Agriculture and allied sectors by addressing them in a holistic manner;

These guidelines are applicable to all the states and Union Territories that fulfill the

eligibility conditions.

The lists of programmes implemented under these five categories are given in Table 1.

Table 1: List of Extension/Development Programmes implemented in India

Community Development

1952 CDP Community Development Programme

1953 NES National Extension Service

1954 CDB Community Development Block

1957 Panchayati Raj Democratic Decentralization

Technological Development 1960 IADP Intensive Agricultural District Programme

1964 IAAP Intensive Agricultural Area Programme

1964-65 ICDP Intensive Cattle Development Project

1966 HYVP High Yielding Variety Programme


Development with Social Justice

1970-71 SFDA Small Farmers’ Development Agency

MFAL Marginal Farmers’ and Agricultural Labourers Programme

DPAP Drought Prone Area Programme

1972-73 PPTD Pilot Project for Tribal Development

1974 T&V Training and Visit Programme

1978-79 IRDP Integrated Rural Development Programme

1979 TRYSEM Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment

1980 NREP National Rural Employment Programme

1982 DWCRA Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas

1983 NAEP National Agricultural Extension Project

1986 TMO Technology Mission on Oilseeds

1989 JRY Jawahar Rozgar Yojana

1993 EAS Employment Assurance Scheme

1994 SFAC Small Farmers Agri Business Consortium

1999 SGSY Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

ICAR Frontline Extension Programmes

1965 NDP National Demonstration Project

1974 KVK Krishi Vigyan Kendra

1975 ORP Operational Research Project

1979 LLP Lab to Land Programme

1995 TAR-IVLP Technology Assessment and Refinement – Institute

Village Linkage Programme

Agricultural Research and Development Programme

1979 NARP National Agricultural Research Project

1989 TMDD Technology Mission on Dairy Development

1998 NATP National Agricultural Technology Project

2007 NAIP National Agricultural Innovation Project

2008 NADP National Agriculture Development

Programme/Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY)

1(ii). Establishment of extension institutions

Extension education as a discipline started from late in 1900 AD in Agricultural extension in

India has undergone several changes over the last six decades, in terms of activities,

organizational types and available manpower. A brief about the important institutional

arrangements for agricultural extension in India are given here under:

Directorate of Extension: The Directorate of Extension was set up in 1958 in the wake of

launching of Community Development Programmes and National Extension Service

throughout the country in 1953. Apart from functions of dissemination of specific knowledge

to farmers and supervision of the countrywide extension training infrastructure, Directorate

of Extension was also later called upon to implement National Programmes like Intensive

Agricultural District Programme (IADP) and Intensive Agricultural Areas Programmes

(IAAP). Since 1974 the emphasis was shifted to T &V system of Extension, which was

introduced in 17 major states.

242 India

The Directorate of Extension is the nodal agency in the Department of Agriculture and

Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture for agricultural extension programmes. It assists and

encourages the State Departments in organising, maintaining and operating professional

extension services. The role of Extension Division/Directorate of Extension is essentially

collaborative, providing guidance, technical support to the Extension Division.

The Extension Division is headed by Joint Secretary (Extension)-cum-Extension

Commissioner who is assisted by an additional commissioner and the three Joint

Commissioners. The Directorate of Extension is a subordinate office, provides technical

support to the Extension Division. The four principal functional areas of the Directorate of

Extension are, Extension Management, Extension Training, Farm Information and Farm

Women Development. The Directorate of Extension has five units i.e. four units

corresponding to those functional areas and the fourth one is Administration Unit.

The Training Unit of Directorate of Extension regularly assess the training needs at the

national level and provides technical support to State Departments and training institutions to

follow a systematic approach for quality improvement in the delivery of training

programmes. The national level training schedule for the Model Training Courses and four

Extension Education Institutes are developed at national level and State Department officials

are sensitized to develop a perspective State training plan. The set of formats has been

developed and standardized for the evaluation/impact assessment of training programmes.

In order to re-orient and develop an effective training strategy, the Directorate of Extension

acts as a nodal agency at the national level to strengthen agricultural extension services and

net-working of training infrastructure in the country.

Extension Education Institutes (EEIs): Since 1952 changes and modification in extension

organization have been brought about to meet the needs of that particular time. However,

training of extension personnel continue to be an integral part of the extension system. Four

Extension Education Institutes have been established on regional basis to meet the training

requirement in the field of Communication Technology, Extension Methodology, Training

Management, Participatory Rural Appraisal Techniques (PRAT), Mgt. of Agricultural

Information System, etc. to middle level extension functionaries of States and UTs as well.

EEIs provide training in different subject matter areas as also cater to the varying training

needs of extension managers, marketing managers and extension functionaries of State

Deptt. of Agriculture and other line departments on a continuing basis. Details of about the

Extension Education Institutes are given here under:

S.

No.

EEI No. of

States

States Covered

1. Nilokheri,

Haryana,(1958)

10 Haryana, Punjab, H.P., J&K, U.P., Bihar, Delhi,

Chandigarh, Uttrakhand and Jharkhand

2. Hyderabad, AP

(1962)

8 A.P., Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa,

Anadaman & Nicobar, Pudicherry & Lakshdweep.

3. Anand(Gujarat)

(1962)

8 Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,

Goa, Dadar Nagar & Haveli, Daman and Diu and

Chattisgarh.

4. Jorhat, Assam

(1987)

9 Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya,

Manipur, Tripura, Sikkim, Mizoram and West Bengal.


National institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE): MANAGE was

established in 1987, as the National Centre for Management of Agricultural Extension at

Hyderabad, by the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India as an autonomous Institute,

from which its acronym ‘MANAGE’ is derived. In recognition of its importance and

expansion of activities all over the country, its status was elevated to that of a National

Institute in 1992 and re-christened to its present name i.e., National Institute of Agricultural

Extension Management. MANAGE is the Indian response to challenges of agricultural

extension in a rapidly growing and diverse agriculture sector. The policies of liberalization

and globalization of the economy and the level of agricultural technology becoming more

sophisticated and complex, called for major initiatives towards reorientation and

modernization of the agricultural extension system. Effective ways of managing the

extension system needed to be evolved and extension organizations enabled to transform the

existing set up through professional guidance and training of critical manpower. MANAGE

is the response to this imperative need and it offers various Professional Services in the

following five streams viz., Management Training, Consultancy, Management Education,

Research and Information Services

Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs): Further, upon the hallmark recommendation of Mohan

Singh Mehta committee constituted by ICAR, in the year 1973, country witnessed a different

kind of experimentation which was mandated to impart vocational training in agriculture

with the establishment of first Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) means Farm Science Centre at

Pudducherry in 1974. As the KVKs continued to gain strength and spread, its mandate also

changed with time in order to meet the changing needs and challenges. From vocational

training, focus shifted to testing and demonstration of technologies during 1990s; to

technology assessment and refinement in X Plan (2002-2007) and in 2009 of XI Plan as

'Knowledge and Resource Centre' of agricultural technology. Therefore, the KVKs are

involved in the application of science and technology of agriculture in the field. At present,

the core activities of KVKs are:

• On-farm testing to identify the location specificity of agricultural technologies

under various farming systems,

• Frontline demonstration to establish the production potential of improved

agricultural technologies on the farmers fields,

• Training of farmers to update their knowledge and skills in various aspects of

agriculture, training of extension personnel to orient them in the frontier areas of

technology development,

• Work as Knowledge and Resource Centre of agricultural technology for supporting

initiatives of public, private and voluntary sector for improving agricultural economy

of the district.

The journey of KVKs has been remarkable enabling its existence in 588 districts till date,

2010. By end of XI plan, establishment of 667 KVKs is envisaged.

Agricultural Technology Information Centres (ATICS): Interestingly, farmers needs

irrespective of their locations and farming practices are not realized by the existing transfer

of technology projects. Hence a new and innovative transfer of technology mechanism

named, Agricultural Technology Information Centre (ATIC) has been conceived and put into

practice since 1998-99 under National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) sponsored

244 India

by World Bank and implemented through ICAR Institutes and State Agricultural

Universities (SAUs) located in various parts of the country.



system for linking the various units of research institution with intermediary users and


inputs, products, information and advisory under Innovations in Technology Dissemination

(ITD) component of National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP), which was funded

by World Bank.

Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA): In the case of public sector

extension, the major reform in recent years has been the establishment of a district level

coordinating agency, the ATMA, in 24 pilot districts across with the World Bank support.

Under ATMA, grass root level extension is mainly channelized through the involvement of

Block level Technology Teams and Farmer advisory committees, farmer groups/ farmer

interest groups and self help groups. ATMA is a district level autonomous agency entrusted

with the role of agricultural technology management in the district.

ATMA is a registered society of key stakeholders in agricultural activities responsible for

technology dissemination for sustainable agricultural development in the district. It is a focal

point for integrating research and extension activities and decentralising day to day

management of the public Agricultural Technology System (ATS).

The ATMA at district level would be increasingly responsible for all the technology

dissemination activities in the district. It establishes linkages with all the line departments,

research organisations, NGOs and agencies associated with agricultural development in the

district. ATMA management committee comprises of the Project Director of ATMA as the

Chairman and members are drawn from line department heads, NGOs and farmers’

organization. The management committee carries out PRA, Strategic Research Extension

Plan for the district, establishes Farmer Advisory Centres and co-ordinates the execution of

annual work plan through participatory line departments such as ZRSs, KVKs, NGOs,

FIGs/FOs and allied institutions. The ATMA creates Farmers Advisory Committees to

provide feedback.

SREP (Strategic Research and Extension Plan): It is the process of finding the best

scenario for agricultural development and setting the best path to reach that destination by

rigorous analysis and choices about goals, opportunities and threats, strengths and

weaknesses with respect to agricultural development in a district.

• Goals-what is intended to be accomplished?

• Opportunities and threats- what is needed and feasible?

• Strengths and weaknesses-what is the capability of doing things?

SREP document provides the details of problems and technological needs for agricultural

development in a district. Basic aim of SREP is to link the research and extension system

with the farmers. It is a bottom up approach exercise carried out at the district level to

identify the technological and training needs of the farmers. It speaks about extension and

research priorities to be undertaken by the extension and research system based on the grass

root analysis carried out by the SREP team. It is a comprehensive document prepared for the


purpose of understanding the district agricultural scenario and to undertake need based

research and extension programmes.

While the farmers require a wider range of support to address the emerging challenges,

extension mainly functions as an agency for technology dissemination. Market extension has

been a recent addition but it is understood and implemented mostly as provision of output

price information in various markets and this is highly inadequate to address the challenges

in marketing. Other extension support facilities created in the country include, farmer

training centres at the district level; SAMETI (State Agricultural Management Extension and

Training Institute) at the state level; EEI (Extension Education Institute) at the regional level;

and MANAGE (National Institute for Agricultural Extension Management) at the national

level.

SAMETI: To meet the requirement of capacity building, a large number of training

activities are needed in the areas of technical as well as human resource management in

Agriculture. SAMETI is a State level institution which is autonomous with greater flexibility

in structure and functioning and are responsible for organizing need based training

programmes for the project implementation functionaries of different line departments as

well as the farming community. This can be achieved through linkages with other technical

and management institutions in the State to support desired training input. 'SAMETI' has to

function with the technical guidance of the National Institute of Agricultural Extension

Management. Its role is as follows.

• To provide need based consultancy services to Agricultural Technology

Management Agency (ATMA) in the areas like project planning, appraisal,

implementation etc.

• Develop and promote appropriate and specific management tools for improving the

effectiveness of agricultural extension services through better management of human

and material resources.

• Organize need based training programme for middle level and grass root level

agricultural extension functionaries.

• Management, Communication, Participatory Methodologies etc. as a sequel to the

feedback from training programmes.

• It should have close linkage with institutions like KVKs, ZRS, State Agricultural

Universities, NGOs, Management Institutions MANAGE, to use appropriate faculty

resource from these institutions for training and consultancy services to ATMA

functionaries, farmers and other clients.

• To conduct studies on problems related to Agriculture Extension Management,

Communication and information technology, agriculture product marketing, human

resource development using participatory approaches.

A brief about the current institutional arrangements of Extension organisations in the country

is given in table-2

246 India

Table 2. Current Extension Institutional Arrangements

Sl.

No

Extension

organisations

Functions/ Roles / Capacity

1 ATMA Aimed at decentralized decision making and bringing

convergence among extension providers in a district:

Promotion of commodity interest groups:

Developmental of a strategic research and extension plan:

Provide additional funds to these agencies for key extension

activities such as farm schools, demonstrations, exposure visits

and trainings.

2. KVK Technology application (technology assessment and refinement)

through on-farm trials, front-line demonstration and training

Formation of FIGs, SHGs, etc.

3. State line

departments

(Agriculture,

Animal

Husbandry,

Fisheries, etc.)

Regulatory role;

Implementation of development programmes that involve

distribution of subsidies and subsidized inputs;

Organizing extension programmes, farmers training etc.

4. FTC Training farmers on new technologies

Formation of SHGs, FIGs, etc.

5. SAU (Directorate

of extension)

Implement extension programmes of the SAU and oversee

activities of KVK

6. NGOs Exhibit wide diversity in terms of reach, credibility and

capacity;

Have good knowledge and networks with communities in

villages they operate;

Present in difficult and remote regions;

Innovative in their approaches;

Can potentially complement approaches of the public sector

extension.

7. Private Agri-

business firms

Agri-input firms mainly involved in product demonstration;

Agro-processing and marketing firms mainly commodity

oriented but do provide integrated support (inputs, technical

support and marketing) for contract growers;

8. Media Dissemination of information on new technologies.

E.g. E TV – Annadata, Krishi Dharsan etc.

9. Private

consultants

Support large farmers growing cash crops and high value

horticulture

10. MANAGE Training senior and middle level extension managers

Conduct studies on extension systems and policies

Conduct management educational programmes in agriculture

Provide Consultancy

11. SAMETI Training middle level extension staff at the state level

Conduct studies on extension systems at the state level

12. EEI Training middle level extension managers at the regional level


1(iii). Reformation and development

Post T and V innovations in extension could be broadly classified into two types: Centrally

driven (implications for more than one state) and State specific attempts.

Centrally driven changes: The Directorate of Extension of the DAC has been supporting the

states for implementing the following programmes on the following items in the IX Plan.

• Support to NGOs and Farmer Organisations

• Women in Agriculture

• Farmer Scientist Interaction and State/District level R-E Interfaces

• Exposure visit of Farmers/Extension functionaries

• Print media/Kisan mela support to SAUs

• Support for training for improving the technical competency of extension

functionaries

However, the most ambitious has been the Innovations in Technology Dissemination (ITD)

component of the World Bank funded National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP).

ITD component of NATP: During 1998, the project on a pilot basis implemented in seven

states namely Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Orissa

and Punjab. The project aimed at pilot testing the innovations like: new institutional

arrangement for technology dissemination at the district level (28 districts, 4 each in 7 states)

and below through establishment of Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA)

as an autonomous body moving towards integrated extension delivery adopting bottom-up

planning procedures for setting the research-extension agenda making technology

dissemination farmer driven and farmer accountable addressing gender concerns in

agriculture and increasing use of information technology for effective dissemination

Programme interventions are based on a strategic research and extension plan prepared in a

participatory mode.

Farm Information and Advisory Centres (FIAC) are created at the block level to act as the

operational arm of ATMA. A Block Technology Team (BTT), comprising technical

personnel at the block level and a Farmer Advisory Committee (FAC) comprising all key

stakeholders and farmers representatives are also constituted at the block level. Under the

project, a state level Agricultural Management and Extension Training Institute (SAMETI)

has been created in all the project states to provide training to state extension functionaries

on innovative areas of project management, participatory planning, HRD and information

technology. Presently, ATMAs have been established in different phases across 604 districts.

As a result the impact of the project has not been uniform in all the districts. A summary of

performance of ATMA is given below.

ATMA- lessons so far

• The integrated implementation of field activities is workable but depends

considerably on the state government's commitment to internalize and practice these

new concepts.

• All ATMAs have made considerable progress on diversification and intensification

of different farming systems.

• The Block Technology Teams (BTTs) and Farmer Advisory Committees (FACs)

need to play a more active role in preparation of block action plans

248 India

• Several farmer interest groups and women farmer interest groups have been formed

and some of them have initiated joint activities. There is a need to involve NGOs in

forming groups of farmers

• Integrated package of exposure visit, training and demonstration has resulted in

better technology adoption

The flexibility to quickly respond to training and information needs of farmers, the

availability of a reasonably good untied operational budget and the participation of the

farming community by way of FAC at the block level are the major factors behind the

apparent success of ATMA. However the project suffers from weak process documentation

and internal Monitoring and Evaluation system. There is inadequate information on

utilisation of IT facilities and progress in implementation of adaptive research through SAUs

and KVKs.

Agri clinics-agri-business centres: The main aim of the scheme is to provide accountable

extension services to farmers through technically trained agricultural graduates at the village

level. The programme is financed through bank loans, and the central government would

provide 25% of the cost as subsidy. The plan is to establish 5,000 agri-clinics to provide

testing facilities, diagnostic and control services and other consultancies on a fee-for service

basis. The programme implemented joinlty through SFAC and MANAGE has attracted a

large number of unemployed agricultural graduates.

State level innovations: Most of the state level innovations emerged after the end of external

funding for T & V system. They emerged to address the limitations of the T and V approach,

the reduced funding available for extension and also in response to the changing national and

state level priorities. Broad basing extension (to include messages related to horticultural and

livestock sectors) was one of the immediate response. However the performance on broad

basing has been highly uneven as the DoA has no administrative control on personnel of

different line departments.

Horticulture, Soil Conservation and Watershed Development wings of the DoA became

separate departments or a separate directorate in many states. States such as Maharashtra

subsequently merged these separate departments to provide a single window system

delivery. Other major innovations include: decentralisation (extension planning and control

under elected bodies at the district level); contracting NGOs for some extension activities;

promotion of private extension initiatives; adoption of group approaches (instead of the

earlier individual approach); the use of para extension workers (as substitutes for DoA field

extension workers and also to increase the reach of the public sector extension system); and

setting up of multi-disciplinary SAU teams at the district level. Another trend has been the

formation of specific organisations (with less bureaucracy, more flexibility and wider

expertise) to implement special programmes related to agricultural development. However,

the functioning of state DoAs exhibit more similarities than differences and these are too

glaring to leave unnoticed. This include:

• A strong linear hierarchy (from Commissioner/Director of agriculture at the top to

Joint Directors, Deputy Directors, Assistant Directors, Agricultural Officers and

Agricultural Assistant or the Village Extension worker at the village level). Each

extension personnel on an average cover about 2-7 villages, except in Kerala where

every village has about 3 extension personnel.


• Some features of T & V still continue in the organisational structure of DoA and

implementation of extension programmes. The notable among them is the

mechanism of research-extension linkages through monthly/bi-monthly workshops,

fortnightly meetings, meeting of zonal research extension advisory committee etc.

States such as Tamil Nadu still follow the permanent field visit schedule for village

extension workers.

• Implementation of a large number of schemes (state schemes, central sector

schemes, centrally sponsored schemes and externally assisted schemes) with specific

targets on demonstrations, distribution of subsidised inputs and subsidies and

training, leave only little time for VEWs for assisting farmers with advice on solving

specific field problems.

• DoA has a number of farms for producing seeds and other planting materials, several

training centres for training staff and farmers and labs for testing seeds, pesticides

and fertilisers. Delivery of inputs such as fertilisers is an important activity of DoA

in North-Eastern States like Tripura.

• Relatively few staff at operational level (district and below) to implement large

number of programmes. Restrictions on fresh recruitment, reduction of cadre

strength and deputation of staff to other departments are the main reasons for this

situation. The manpower available with the Department of Horticulture in all the

states is limited, with the exception of Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal.

• There are serious constraints on mobility of staff for implementation and monitoring

of programme due to limited operational budgets

• DoA staff perform a very narrow extension role, limited to technology dissemination

for increasing agricultural productivity.

Group approach: Kerala initiated the group approach to extension for rice farming in 1989

and this was subsequently extended to other crops. This approach envisaged formation of

commodity groups to improve productivity and reduce cost of cultivation through collective

purchase of inputs and services. To strengthen this approach, extension efforts and delivery

of subsidised inputs were routed through these farmers groups.

Rajasthan adopted the group approach to extension in 1992 and currently village extension

workers operate mainly through kisan mandals, ie. groups of 20 farmers. Now, VEO visits a

revenue village and impart training to kisan mandal farmers once in a fortnight. In Andhra

Pradesh, farmer clubs are formed at each village primarily to facilitate group extension.

These clubs are expected to propagate developmental schemes and facilitate transfer of

agricultural technology among farmers in the village. VEW visit farmer clubs once in a

fortnight.

Himachal Pradesh is also currently forming farmer interest groups (FIGs) primarily to

implement many schemes. The group approach is also an important strategy for many other

agricultural programmes. For instance, the Central Sector Scheme on Women in Agriculture

(CSSWA) is being implemented through women SHGs promoted through this programme.

Formation of FIGs is also an important objective of ITD component of NATP.

The UPSLRP and UPDASP provide a lot of emphasis on formation of SHGs/FIGs for

programme implementation. The Kerala Horticultural Development Programme (KHDP)

formed SHGs of vegetable and fruit growers to help promote new technology and

participatory technology development (PTD) skills, help farmers access credit and strengthen

250 India

their negotiating power through collective marketing. These farmers SHGs currently control

50% of the share of the new company that has replaced the programme, namely the

Vegetable and Fruit Promotion Council, Kerala.

Contact centres below the block level: One of the difficulties with the T and V system was

that a farmer could meet the VEW only once in a fortnight during his fixed village visit. The

nearest office of the DoA was at the taluka or block level, which is far away from most of the

villages. In response to this problem, Kerala created offices of the DoA (Krishi Bhavans) at

each panchayat (roughly covering 1.3 villages in Kerala) in 1987. Maharashtra established

offices of DoA at each circle level (on an average covering 44 villages) in 1998.

In Karnataka, since 2000, a permanent office called Raitu Mitra Kendras (RMKs) /Farmers

Contact Centres are being established at the hubli level. In Rajasthan, a Kisan Sewa Kendra

has been established at every agricultural supervisor circle where agricultural supervior

would be available every Thursday of the week to interact with farmers.

Towards more intensive trainings: The limitations of routine delivery of messages related

to technologies in foodgrain production became apparent in the nineties and several efforts to

provide intensive training on new technologies to large number of farmers were initiated.

There are several training centres (for staff and farmers) under the different line departments.

But considering the large number of farmers to be trained, the DoA has been trying to

explore other facilities available with it and help of other organisations to train more number

of farmers.

For instance, in Andhra Pradesh, since 2000, two farmers training and two farmer-scientist

interaction meetings are organised at each of the 286 Agricultural Market Committees every

year. These training programme are held in collaboration with the Department of

Agriculture/Horticulture and the SAU.

In Maharashtra, efforts are currently on to establish "agri-poly clinics" in each tehsil of the

state on government farms viz, taluk seed farms, trial cum demonstration centres and

horticultural nurseries. Out of the 352 talukas in the state, 232 talukas have government

farms and these are being converted to agro-poly clinic cum training centres. Training halls

are being constructed supported with audio-visual systems and boarding facilities. These

farms are also strengthened for demonstration of improved technologies and with facilities

for water and soil testing and diagnosing pest and diseases from samples brought by farmers.

The Department of Horticulture in Himachal Pradesh has recently established nine

developmental fruit canning units all over the State for providing community canning service

to the farmers, training of the farmers in the home scale preservation of fruits and the

utilization of unmarketable fruits through processing. Besides this, five Community Training

Centres have been established by the Department to train villagers in fruit preservation and

prepare products at the village level commercially for improving the local economy.

Increasing role of private and NGO sector: The NGOs and the private sector have

started to play a greater role in extension in the last two decades. There is an increasing

realisation that public extension by itself cannot meet the specific needs of various regions

and different classes of farmers and the draft Policy Framework for Agricultural Extension

of the Ministry of Agriculture also affirms that the "policy environment will promote private

and community driven extension to operate competitively, in roles that complement,

supplement, work in partnerships and even substitute for public extension".


The Ministry of Agriculture has initiated a scheme "Agricultural Extension through

voluntary organisations" in the year 1994-95 with a view to integrate their efforts with those

of the main extension system. Initially the scheme was implemented on pilot basis by

involving 14 NGOs from 8 states. The scheme was later expanded to 50 NGOs. Under this

scheme NGOs are funded for documentation of farming systems at the micro level, audio-

visual preparation and procurement, training and demonstrations, farmers visit to research

stations, administrative support and contingencies.

The states are also encouraging the NGOs to take up extension activities. The DoA,

Rajasthan initiated agricultural extension and development programmes with participation of

NGOs under the World Bank assisted Agricultural Development Project (1992). Under this

project the functioning of three assistant agricultural officers circles were handed over to

NGOs. Many NGOs were also given grants for specific projects related to heifer

development, integrated watershed development, vermi-composting etc,.

Farmers' organisations and producers co-operatives provide a wide range of extension

support to farmers, but their presence is restricted to very few crops/commodities and

specific regions. Notable among them is the Maharashtra Grape Growers Association.

Extension services provided by dairy co-operatives also have been exemplary.

Newspapers (especially local language dailies), farm magazines, and television media are

important sources of information for farmers. Input companies, especially fertiliser firms

organise several extension activities. The number of private consultancy firms providing

agricultural consultancy to farmers is on an increase. Private extension initiatives by agri-

business companies have been expanding in India. Notable among them are the recent efforts

by several agri-business companies, such as Mahindra & Mahindra, Rallis and ITC.

Mahindra and Rallis model provide an integrated service ranging from information, field

visits, quality inputs, reliable access to output markets and non-exploitative and timely

credit. It also reveals the increasing willingness of farmers to pay for quality services in

agriculture.

Only a few states have tried to partner with the private sector in extension. In Karnataka, the

RMKs are being planned to provide facilities in its campus for the private sector input

agencies to display and sell their products. Punjab Agro-Foodgrains Corporation (PAFC), a

wholly owned subsidiary of the Punjab Agro Industries Corporation, has entered into

agreement with private extension services providers such as Rallis and Mahindra Shubh

Labh Services for contract farming in Punjab. These companies provide professional

extension services to farmers, charging a nominal fee from farmers as well as PAFC.

Para extension workers: The increasing inability of the DoA staff to reach more number of

farmers in distant villages became apparent in the nineties. Para extension workers (PEWs)

belonging to the local community were selected and employed to draw down advice from the

DoA staff, first in Rajasthan as part of the externally funded ADP. Rajasthan is currently

continuing with this approach to supplement field extension in those areas where the DoA

posts are vacant. A provision exists to pay a stipend of Rs.1000/- per month and over a

period of time they are expected to levy charges for their services rendered to the farmers.

For example, The UPSLRP is presently using the kisan mitras (para extension worker) and

mahila kisan mitras (women para extension workers) for farmer led extension. With the

redeployment of kisan sahayaks (village extension workers of DoA) as multi-purpose village

panchayat development officers (VPDOs), the whole extension system in Uttar Pradesh now

252 India

currently revolves around para extension workers (kisan mitra) selected from each

panchayat. There are about 52,000 kisan mitras in Uttar Pradesh and they are given training

under various schemes. Kisan mitras are provided with some assistance to meet the

expenditure for further training of farmers.

In Madhya Pradesh, one or two members and chairman of the permanent agricultural

committee are declared as "kisan bandhus" and are trained to perform the role of master

trainers. They are expected to train other farmers in the village. There are about 50,000 kisan

bandhus in Madhya Pradesh.

Women in Agriculture: Since the 1980s, special programmes to address the information

and technological needs of women farmers were initiated through the DoA in several states.

These include:

• Danish assisted programmes in Karnataka (WYTEP, since 1982); Tamil Nadu

(TANWA, 1986 to 2003); Orissa (TEWA, 1998 to 2003); Madhya Pradesh

(MAPWA, 1993-2002)

• Dutch assisted programmes in Gujarat (TWA, 1989 to 2003); and Andhra Pradesh

(ANTWA, 1994- 2007)

• Central Sector Scheme for Women in Agriculture (CSSWA) in one district each in

15 States (1992-2003)

Village based and institutional training, formation of farm women SHGs, and demonstrations

have been a part of these women specific programmes. Performance evaluation reports

reveal that these programmes have made impact in terms of improving access to information

on agricultural technology, adoption of new technology and gaining benefits from their use.

However the planning and implementation of these programmes could be considerably

improved.

Efforts are currently being made to mainstream gender in agricultural extension, whereby the

General Extension System is drawn into providing services specifically to women

farmers.The Ministry of Agriculture has developed a cafetaria of approaches for

implementation of women in agriculture. Maharashtra and Himachal Pradesh have already

initiated schemes to expand the women in agriculture programme to more blocks based on

the experience of CSSWA.

University role in Extension: State Agricultural Universities in India have been playing

only a limited role in field extension activities. The Directorate of Extension (of SAUs)

implements and co-ordinate extension activities through its three major units, namely,

training Unit, communication centre and farm advisory services. Activities of KVKs under

the SAU are also co-ordinated by the Directorate of Extension.

But two SAUs, one in Punjab (PAU) and the other in Andhra Pradesh (ANGRAU) have

expanded their extension activities to provide more comprehensive services to farmers.

Punjab Agricultural University employs its own multi-disciplinary extension team in each

district, engaged in adaptive research, training and consultancy. ANGRAU has established a

District Agricultural Advisory and Transfer of Technology Centre (DAATTC) in all the

districts, (comprising a team of 2-4 scientists of various disciplines) to refine technology,

make diagnostic visits and organise field programmes in collaboration with DoA and other

line departments.


Information Technology and Media: The widespread availability and convergence of

information and communication technologies (ICTs) - computers, digital networks,

telecommunication, television etc in India in recent years have led to unprecedented capacity

for dissemination of knowledge and information to the rural population. The village

knowledge centres initiated by the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) in

Pondicherry aims at building a model for the use of ICTs in meeting the knowledge and

information requirement of rural families. Value addition to the raw information, use of local

language (Tamil) and multi-media (to facilitate illiterate user participation) and participation

of local people from the beginning are the noteworthy features of the project.

ITC has established e-chaupals, which are village internet kiosks that enable access to

information on weather, market prices and scientific farm practices. Launched in June 2000,

the company has so far established 1200 e-chaupals across four states (Madhya Pradesh,

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh). A local farmer (sanchalak), selected from the

village and provided with short training runs each kiosk. Agricultural Market Committees in

various states are computerised and networked at present to provide uptodate and reliable

market information to farmers. Karnataka plan to provide internet facilities to all RMKs to

help the staff and farmers in accessing useful farm information. Maharashtra has a more

ambitious plan to set up a "virtual university for agrarian prosperity" to consolidate, process

and disseminate information on various aspects of agriculture using advances in information

technology.

DoA in Madhya Pradesh is currently utilising the SATCOM centres in 350 blocks to telecast

live agricultural programmes every monday (3-5 PM). The system works on a one-way

video-two way audio mode and farmers' querries are addressed by the experts during the

programme. Teja TV in Andhra Pradesh telecasts an on-line (live) phone in programme in

collaboration with DoA and ANGRAU to answer farmers' questions every day. E-TV also

telecast agricultural programmes in Telegu, Kannada and Marathi languages every day.

National Agricultural Innovation Projects (NAIP) for rural livelihood security:

Agricultural innovations and diffusion of new technologies are the important factors in the

country’s quest for food, nutrition, environmental security and enhancement of income and

employment. Agricultural research in India has generated outstanding productivity increases

in the past and shall continue to play an important role in supporting rural livelihoods and

accelerating rural growth. However, rising population and per capita income are pushing up

the food-demand, which needs to be met through enhanced productivity per unit area, input,

time and energy. At the same time, the issues of decreasing factor productivity and resource-

use efficiency have also emerged. Furthermore, many promising research findings have not

reached the farmers, due to either inadequacies in research designs or research results,

deficiencies of delivery systems or lack of economic incentives.

This is particularly visible in the complex environments and less-favored areas. In order to

address the problems of poverty and hunger, it is critical to redirect and augment resources

devoted to agricultural research to the farming and livelihood systems of the poor rural

communities. Further, to utilize the technological breakthroughs that are already available

for commercial use, the agricultural research priorities and strategies will have to be revisited

and new system-wide approaches need to be developed and adopted.

The NAIP will address the above issue through a coordinated effort on changing the content

and process. Policy and technology options will be screened or tested by the end-user for

254 India

applicability as well as for economic social and environmental sustainability. In the applied

and adaptive research projects, the end-user of innovations will be involved from the start of

programmes and projects and will remain partner till their completion. Both indigenous

knowledge and frontier technologies will be used to generate the targeted products. The

overall objective of the NAIP is to facilitate an accelerated and sustainable transformation of

the Indian agriculture so that it can support poverty alleviation and income generation

through collaborative development and application of agricultural innovations by the public

organizations in partnership with farmers’ groups, the private sector and other stakeholders.

The specific objectives envisaged are :

a) To build the critical capacity of the ICAR as a catalyzing agent for management of

change in the Indian NARS

b) To promote ‘production to consumption systems research’ in priority areas / themes

to enhance productivity, nutrition, profitability, income and employment.

c) To improve livelihood security of rural people living in the selected disadvantaged

regions through technology-led innovation systems encompassing the wider process

of social and economic change covering all stakeholders.

d) To build capacity to undertake basic and strategic research in frontier areas of

agricultural sciences to meet challenges in technology development in the immediate

and predictable future.

The NAIP was planned for six years (2006-12) to allow time for piloting, learning and

scalingup, wherever possible. Currently, the period of NAIP is extended up to March, 2014.

1(iv). Establishment of NAES:

National Agricultural Extension System in the country is now being organised under the

Department of Agriculture, Govt of India and operationalised through Directorate of

Extension at the national level, Extension wing of state department of agriculture, Animal

Husbandry and fisheries, at state level. The district level agencies like ATMAs and KVKs

help in implementing the extension and technology application programmes benefiting the

farming community.

Under the ICAR system, the extension largely assumes the role of technology application

through assessment, demonstration of proven technologies, capacity building of farmers,

rural youths and extension functionaries. The supply and service role of general extension

system are not the part of extension programmes implemented by the ICAR system.

Under the National Agricultural Extension System institutions like MANAGE (at national

level),EEI (regional level),SAMETI (at state level) assumes the role of capacity building and

training activities. At, District level ATMA assumed the responsibility of managing the

extension programmes and KVKs by ICAR functions as resource and knowledge centres

apart from the technology application and capacity building activities.

2. Organisations of National Agricultural Extension System (NAES)

Extension in this context includes all those agencies in the public, private, NGO and

community based initiatives that provide a range of agricultural advisory services and

facilitate technology application, transfer and management.. While public sector line


departments, mainly the Department of Agriculture was the main agricultural extension

agency in the 60’s and 70s, the last two decades have witnessed the increasing involvement

of private sector, NGOs, community based organisations and media. In the public sector, the

extension machinery of the state Department of Agriculture (DoA) reaches down to the

block and village level.

The village extension workers of the DoA continue to be an important source of information

for farmers in India, even though information is clearly targeted at grain production, visits

are irregular, and the service is pre-occupied with the implementation of government

schemes linked to subsidies and subsidised inputs. With the external support drying up with

the end of the T&V (Training and Visit) system of extension in the early 1990s, states have

been left to fund their extension machinery and this has led to considerable weakening of

public sector extension.

In the case of public sector extension, the major reform in recent years has been the

establishment of a district level co-ordinating agency, the ATMA (Agricultural Technology

Management Agency),initially tested in 28 pilot districts with the World Bank support is

now successfully replicated in 604 districts of the country as a Plan programme of

Department of Agriculture and Cooperation. Under ATMA, grass root level extension is

mainly channelized through the involvement of BTTs (Block level Technology Teams) and

FACs (farmer advisory committees), farmer groups/ farmer interest groups and self help

groups.

ATMA is a district level autonomous agency entrusted with the role of agricultural

technology management in the district. The district collector/deputy commissioner heads

ATMA Governing Body, with members drawn from the line department, KVKs, farmers and

NGOs (Fig 1)

Fig.1 Organizational Structure of Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA)

Based on the experiences gained from the pilot district, the Ministry of Agriculture,

Government of India in 2004-05 decided to expand the ATMA model across all the districts

in the country. Apart from bringing some additional resources for extension activities to be

256 India

decided at the district level in consultation with farmer representatives, ATMA is yet to fully

address many of the institutional constraints affecting extension performance

The number of KVKs (Krishi Vigyan Kendras) funded by the ICAR has increased during

this period. Presently 600 KVKs are established in the country. The motto is to cover each

district with one KVK with a mandate of technology application through OFTs,

demonstrations and training. It is an institutional approach and is comprehensive in nature.

It functions on farm based model with a built in research-extension linkage through a multi-

disciplinary team. It ensures feedback and feed-forward through participatory management.

It is the largest research based extension body in the country by the ICAR at the district

level. However, the effective reach of these KVKs is marginal mainly due to inadequate

linkages with other development agencies. Moreover, their main focus is on technology

testing, assessment and application under farmers’ condition through conducting on-farm

trials, demonstrations and training.

Extension services in the case of animal husbandry and fisheries continue to remain weak.

While public sector extension arrangements have weakened, the number and diversity of

private extension service providers has increased during last two decades. These include

NGOs, producer associations, input agencies, media and agri-business companies. Many

provide better and improved services to farmers, but their effective reach is limited and many

of the distant and remote areas and poor producers are neither served by the public nor the

private sector.

Extension continues to be funded as part of central and state level schemes/programes

without much operational freedom at the local level, though the strategic research and

extension plans (SREP) under ATMA envisage bottom up planning for extension. While the

farmers require a wider range of support to address the emerging challenges, extension

mainly functions as an agency for technology dissemination. Most of the organizations

including the public sector departments continue to work in isolation. Govt of India launched

Kissan call centres to leverage the extensive telecom network in the country to deliver

extension services to the farmers. The purpose of these call centres is to respond to queries

and issues raised by farmers instantly in the local language on a nationwide toll free number

1800180 1551

Marketing extension has been a recent addition but is understood and implemented mostly as

provision of output price information in various markets and this is highly inadequate to

address the challenges in marketing. Other extension support facilities created include,

farmer training centres at the district level; SAMETI (State Agricultural Management

Extension and Training Institute) at the state level, EEI (Extension Education Institute) at the

regional level; and MANAGE (National Institute for Agricultural Extension Management) at

the national level.

2(i). Agencies involved in the extension system (GO and NGO)

Major Govt agencies are:

1. Department of Agriculture, Govt of India and of different States

2. National Agricultural research and Extension System comprising of ICAR and SAUs

Major Non Government agenies are:

1. Farmers Co-Operatives, FIGs CIGs,FFS etc

2. Industrial houses like ITC, Nagarjuna fertilizers, Seed companies etc


2(ii). Organogram of NAES with major roles of each position of the

organogram

The organisational structure of the NAES comprises of various institutional arrangements

like department of Ag. extension under ministry of agriculture responsible for field extension

work and the ICAR system responsible for the technology application and integration in the

system. These two structures are integrated at the field level through their programmes and

activities. Recently a joint statement signed by both the secretaries envisaging functional

convergence of ATMA and KVK system has been issued by the ministry of agriculture, GOI

for implementation. The organogram of NAES is given at fig.2 and detailed at table.3.

Fig. 2. National Structure of the Indian agricultural extension system

258 India

Table 3. Organogram of NAES showing the major roles of each position

Table.3 National Agricultural Extension system

technology and

Knowledge Source

Management centres Knowledge Delivery System

NARS ICAR Govt agencies EEIs at the

regional level

for extension

training

ATMA at the district

level looking after the

technology delivery

system by

coordinating various

agencies functioning

in the district.

Farmers training

centres at the district

level for capacity

building of the

farmers

ICAR

research

Institutes

SAUs

Directorate of

Knowedge

Management,

ICAR

Directorate of

Extension,

MoA, GOI and

State Depts of

Agriculture

Farmers

ITKs.,

innovation

etc

CGIAR

institutes

JDs of

Extension,

ICAR,

National Inst.

like IARI,

and IVRI

Agriculatural

technology

information

Centres

(ATICs).Single

window

arrangement for

technology and

technology

products

SAMETI at the

state level

looking after

the training

components

Public and Private

institutes outside

NARS

BPD/ZTM

Zonal level

technology

magmt

centres by

ICAR

MANAGE

National level

HRD and

MGMT inst

KVKs for

technology

application,

demonstration,

and capacity

building

Farmers

coops,

FIGs,

CIGs,

FFS,SHGs

etc

NGOs,

e-

choupals,

RKCs

etc

National Agricultural Research and Education System (NARS): National Agricultural

Research and Education System (NARS) in India constitutes a vast network of research

institutes (49), project Directorates (25), National Research Centres (17), Bureaux (6), All

India Co-ordinated Research and Net-work projects (78), Agricultural Technology

Information Centres (44), 591 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (Farm Science Centres) etc., under

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and there are about 55 State Agricultural

universities and one Central Agricultural University currently functioning in the country.

NARS is one of the largest in the world with respect to human resource engagement and

infrastructure and ICAR is the apex body of the National Agricultural Research System.

Administratively, ICAR is an autonomous organisation under the Department of Agriculture,

Government of India. ICAR is involved in coordinating, guiding and managing research,

education, and extension in agriculture, including horticulture, fisheries, and animal sciences

in the country.

Agricultural Knowledge and Technology Management: An Overview

(i) At National Level: Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture (DKMA),

Indian Agriculture Statistical Research Institute and Intellectual Property Right and

Technology Management unit are the important institutional arrangements at national level

to deal with the agricultural knowledge management in the country.


(ii) At Zonal Level: ICAR has established the Zonal Technology Management and Business

Planning units to ensure a strong Intellectual Property Management system. The Zonal

Technology Management &Business Planning units (ZTM-BPD) are one stop shop for

entrepreneurs who can receive pro-active, value added support in terms of technical

consultancy, access to critical tools such as entrepreneur ready technologies, vast

infrastructure and other resources that may otherwise be unaffordable, inaccessible or un

known. The units will provide links to industries; business support services to enhance and

develop business; upgrade skills and techniques; technological advice and assistance with

intellectual property protection; initial test marketing and also provide access to potential

investors and strategic partners.

(iii) At State level: In the state level, ICAR has established Agricultural Technology

information Centres (ATICs) to provide direct access to the institutional resources to the

farmers and stake holders. ATIC is a single window support system linking various units of a

research institution with intermediary users and end users (farmers) in decision making and

problem solving exercise. It has got an inbuilt mechanism for providing feedback to the

scientists and research managers.

There are 55 State Agricultural Universities are presently functioning in the country

imparting agricultural education and carrying out research and extension activities to meet

the local needs of the state. The agricultural universities through their zonal agricultural

research stations, and district level university research, training and extension centres cater

the location specific needs of the farmers and other stake holders like agri – entrepreneurs

2(iii). Extension Planning process

(a. Problem identification process, b. Priority fixation of extension activities and c.

Resource allocation and budgeting)

At national level the planning process is undertaken through a well defined rigorous exercise

of formulating a national extension plan for five year. This exercise is carried out by the

planning commission in collaboration with ministry of agriculture, ICAR, SAUs reputed

NGOs and farmers. For every five years, a national level working group is constituted for

this purpose under the Chairmanship of a Secretary level officer with a good experience in

the field of agriculture, planning, evaluation, finance and various aspects of governance.

Under the core group various sub groups are constituted to review the ongoing programmes,

current status, future needs and challenges. Leading agricultural scientists, extension experts,

administrators, technocrats, representatives of NGOs working in the agricultural

development, farmers’ representatives etc are included as members of the working group and

sub groups.

After reviewing the development during the current plan period, the sub group members

work out various programmes and budgetary requirement for the next five years with respect

to various aspects like training, HRD, extension for dis advantaged areas etc .For the

planning process for forth coming XII plan period a total number of nine sub groups have

been constituted covering various aspects of Ag Extension. Various theme areas identified

for the formulation of XII plan are given here under:

• Technology Mapping, Adoption, Impact, Farm Innovations & Agricultural

Education

260 India

• Extension Planning and Management in Agriculture and Allied Sectors

• HRD, Training & Accreditation

• Involvement of Panchayati Raj institutions, Literacy Missions, Cooperatives, Urban

local bodies, Schools & Colleges, farmer groups and other organisations for

community Mobilization and Farmers Empowerment

• Extension through Information & Communication Technology, Electronic Media,

Print Media, Documentation and publications

• Public-Private Partnership for agricultural development

• Convergence and programme delivery for agricultural development

• Extension Strategies for difficult areas (J&K, NE & Hill Areas, Sensitive Coastal

areas, Bundelkhand, Naxal affected, Rainfed/ drought prone) disadvantaged farmers

(tribal, small & marginal and tenant) and farm workers

• Empowering Women for Agricultural Development

Similarly, individual state Governments, also constitute expert groups for planning their

agricultural development and extension programmes based on the national priorities and

their current relevance to their states.

Budgeting for the individual theme areas are worked out based on the components

incorporated. A final consolidated report is prepared by the working group by examining the

individual sub group reports and budget proposed. National level review and discussions are

made to prepare the final plan document o extension programmes for the plan period along

with the budgetary requirement is submitted to the planning commission. The planning

commission finally examines the document and approves the programmes for

implementation along with programme wise financial allocation. The funds will be made

available by the Govt of India under the respective programmes/schemes to the

implementing agencies and the states.

2(iv). Coordination mechanism:

The extension programmes in the country are implemented through various agencies and at

the district level the programmes are coordinated through the ATMA which is a society of

stake holders in agriculture for sustainable agricultural development in the district. It is a

focal point for integrated research and extension activities endowed with the responsibility of

all technology dissemination activities at the district level. The budgetary requirement for

different programmes coordinated by ATMA is routed through ATMA for beer coordination

and utilisation of the funds.

ICAR has established eight Zonal Project Directorates in the country to coordinate and

monitor the activities of KrishiVigyanKendras established in the country. At ICAR HQs, the

activities are monitored by Division of Ag Extension headed by Deputy Director General

along with a team of two Assistant Director Generals.

In the SAU system the programmes are monitored by the Director of Extension and his team.

A joint guideline signed by the Secretary, DARE and Secretary, Agriculture was issued for

achieving coordination between the KVK and ATMA. Zonal level coordination meetings are

organised to review the programme progress and suggesting further course of action as per

the mandated activities.


2(v). Decentralization of extension delivery system


system through the involvement of farmers and farmer organisations. The organisation of

farmer interest groups, commodity interest groups, farm schools and self help groups at

grass root level mainly aims at the decentralisation of the extension delivery system through

making the users as the responsibility centres in deciding their technological options, their

dissemination and adoption.

ATMA again comprises of a management committee which carries out PRA, strategic

research and extension planning for the district, establishment of farmer advisory centres and

coordinates the execution of annual work plan through participatory line departments such as

ZRSs, KVKs, NGOs, FIGs,/FOs, and allied institutions. The ATMA also establishes farmers

Advisory Committee to get the feedback. The funds required for the district extension

programmes are routed through ATMA and thus conventional hierarchical bottlenecks are

avoided.

Panchayat Raj institutions and extension services: After the 73 rd Amendment most states

are conducting regular elections to the Panchayats. Some states have also delegated suitable

administrative and financial powers to the three tier Panchayat Raj institutions. In these

states the extension personnel are placed under the administrative control of Panchayat,

whereas for technical guidance they remain under the control of respective technical line

departments. Since the Panchayat system are evolving in different states and are currently in

a state of flux, the ATMA model at the district, BTCs and FACs at the Block and the FOs at

the village level offer suitable linkages with the Panchayat Raj institutions.

Accountability to farmers: Efforts to make the extension system farmer driven and farmer

accountable were initiated in several states. The constitutional amendments that strengthend

the Panchayat Raj Insitutions (PRI) have further accelerated this trend. Many states such as

Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh have a separate wing for agriculture development at Zilla

Parishad and block levels. Their role is mainly planning and implementation of schemes for

agriculture primarily funded through district governements or Zilla Parishad.

Priorities for the development of agriculture in respective villages have to be approved by

the gram sabha (village assembly). Administrative control of DoA staff rests with the gram

panchayat or block panchayats in those states that have implemented democratic

decentralisation more seriously (West Bengal, Madhya Pradhesh, Kerala). In Madhya

Pradesh, there is a permanent agricultural committee at the village level. In Maharashtra, the

Agricultural Development Officer at the Zilla Parishad is Secretary to the Agricultural

Committee of the district.

Agricultural Development Committees (karshika vikasana samithi) comprising farmers and

elected representatives of people are constiuted at the panchayat and district levels in Kerala

to advise farmers on issues related to agricultural development. In Rajasthan a Krishi

Salahkar Samiti has been constituted at the Asst Agricultural Officer level to guide, monitor

and evaluate the working of kisan mandals. It also scrutinises the various proposals received

from kisan mandals for funding by DoA. In ATMA districts, the Farmer Advisory

Committee (FAC) comprising key stakeholders and farmer representatives exert

considerable influence in the preparation and scrutiny of block action plans.

262 India

3. Governance

3(i). Institutional reforms and efficiency enhancement:

The technology generation and its application is focusing upon the themes of optimization by

producers of their valuable resources, sustainability and copying with diversity by adapting

technology more specifically to agro-ecological or social circumstances. The details of

extension reforms initiated are given in the table 4 below:

Table 4. Details of Extension Reforms

SI.

No.

Extension

Reforms

Issues addressed and Approaches

1. Policy

Reforms

i) Farming systems Approach Multi agency extension service

(a) public extension services

(b) private extension services

(c) mass media and information technology

ii) Promotion of farmer participatory approach

iii) Promotion of demand driven and farmer accountable

extension

iv) Public extension to enable farmers for problem solving skills

v) Encouraging private sector involvement in technology transfer

vi) Public funds for private extension services

2. Institutional

Restructuring

(i) District level Agricultural Technology Management Agency

(ATMA) model

(ii) Strategic Research and Extension Plan (SREP) through

participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

(iii) Block/Mandal level technology centre for single window

extension system.

(iv) Group Approach to Extension (v) Strengthening Research-Extension-Farmer linkages.

(vi) Promotion of multi-agency extension service for widening the

range of extension delivery agencies

3. Management

Reforms

(i) Central support to state Govt. of extension services on their

undertaking of policy and institutional reforms.

(ii) Routing of Central Govt. funds through ATMA

(iii) Central Assistance to SAUs for expanded role in field extension

(iv) Promotion of community based private extension services

(v) Promotion of NGO based private extension services and

contracting out extension services

(vi) Promotion of para-professional based private extension

(vii) Linkage of performance with funding for public sector

4. Strengthening

Research

Extension

Linkages

(i) Promotion of direct interface between farmers and scientist

(ii) Activating existing interface mechanisms

(iii) Research priority setting based on SREP


SI.

No.

Extension

Reforms

Issues addressed and Approaches

5. Capacity

Building of

Extension

Functionaries

(i) Formulation of HRD policies by states

(ii) Formulation of training plan for extension functionaries

(iii) One time catch-up grant for training infrastructure

(iv) Upgrading State level extension Training Institutions (v) Strengthening role of MANAGE

(vi) Developing professionalism in cost effective manner and

networking among extension institutes

6. Empowerment

of Farmers

(i) Involving farmers in setting extensive agenda

(ii) Implementation of programme through farmers users groups

(iii) Involving rural youth and mainstreaming of women with crop

and livestock

(iv) Improving access to extension and training

(v) Expounding the sphere of women extension workers and

redesigning of extension services to reach women farmers

7. Use of

Information

Technology

(i) Wider use of electronic mass media and increasing use of

information technology in extension

(ii) Farmers participation in IT Programme

(iii) State support for information technology and networking

(iv) Promoting private information Kiosks

(v) Capacity Building for use of IT

8. Financial

Sustainability

and Resource

Mobilisation

(i) Cost cutting mechanisms for extension services and efficient

use of available resources

(ii) Privatization of agro services (iii) Towards a realistic cost recovery of agro-services (iv) Co-financing of public extension (v) Initiating new financial systems and management for avoiding

bottlenecks and redtapism

3(ii). Public-Private-NGO partnership

Widening the range of extension delivery agencies for the resource poor farmers and those

residing in the hilly, tribal and remote areas , the public system will have to remain as the

chief extension mechanism with NGOs possibly being able to play a significant role.

ICAR has so far established 598 KVKs in the country out of which 99 KVKs are established

under the NGOs. The participation of NGOs in the implementation of KVK project by the

Govt of India is one of the successful Public-private partnerships in the country. Strength of

NGOs is in their ability ability to mobilise communities into Farmers organisations

(FOs)/Farmers Interest Groups (FIGs)/Watershed Associations/Market Associations. As

such NGOs complement the public extension effort in several centrally sponsored

programmes. Also extension services are contacted out and out sourced to NGOs at Block

level in some states. In such cases the NGOs substitute the public extension.

Promotion of para –professional based private extension: Para –extension workers are

organised at the grass root level to supplement public extension in a relatively cost-effective

manner and overcome constraints of absentee public extension functionaries (for example,

Gopals for AI services, Mitra Kisan for agri-services such as soil testing etc.).

264 India

Private Extension Initiatives in India: Many of the private extension initiatives in India

emerged without any active state support. Quite often they emerged in response to deficiency

in public extension service provision. The private extension service providers in case of

agriculture extension include the following:

• Input agencies (dealing with seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, equipments).

• Large agri-business firms (involved in manufacture and sale of inputs and purchase

of outputs).

• Farmer organisations and producer co-operatives.

• Non-governmental organisations (NGOs).

• Media (print, radio and television) and web based knowledge providers.

• Financial agencies involved in rural credit delivery.

• Consultancy services.

Input Agency Extension: Many agro-input companies perform some extension functions.

This may also be viewed as one function of marketing and often it is the marketing officers

who oversee the extension-related functions. Major categories of agro-input companies

include, those dealing with seeds, fertilisers, pesticides and agro-machinery. All these

agencies publicize their products through billboards, wall paintings, leaflets and

advertisements in newspapers, farm magazines and television channels. A few of them also

take up few demonstrations to publicize new products. These companies generally do not

provide any extension support to individual growers or farmer groups as they employ only

limited manpower in their target area.

Unlike the case of seed companies, the extension activities of fertiliser companies are more

visible and diverse, though it is difficult to fully differentiate market promotion and

extension activity. Indian Farmers Fertiliser Co-operative Limited (IFFCO) and Krishak

Bharati Co-operative (KRIBHCO), the two major fertiliser co-operatives in the country are

actively involved in organising several extension activities. They conduct farmers meetings,

organise crop seminars, arrange soil testing facilities and also implement village adoption

programmes. Though the technical manpower available with them is limited, they arrange

several programmes in close collaboration with agriculture departments and state agricultural

universities.

KRIBHCO Initiated Gramin Vikas Trust

Gramin Vikas Trust (GVT) was established as an independent legal entity by KRIBHCO,

a premier fertiliser company of India, in the cooperative sector under the Government of

India. For the past one and a half decades, it has managed and implemented programmes

for enhancing sustainable livelihood development and poverty reduction and empowering

communities to manage resources in rural and tribal areas, initially under direct control of

KRIBHCO, and since 2000, independently. Initial funding was made available by the UK

Department for International Development (DFID-UK). GVT believes that community

participation in development programmes is crucial towards ensuring peoples'

contributions, financial as also their physical energies and innovative insights. The

objectives of GVT are to:

• improve socio-economic conditions of the poor and the marginalized

• develop gender responsive participatory approaches

• establish village based institutions for sustaining change


• maintain partnerships with diverse stakeholders

• promote, coordinate and conduct applied research and

• create a centre for knowledge assimilation and sharing

The strength of GVT lies in their long experience in sustainable livelihoods support in the

rainfed and resources poor tribal areas and successful participatory models in farming

system development. GVT believes that communities have the capacity to take decisions

and implement them effectively, if they have enough knowledge and their approach is

based on this belief. GVT engages in various aspects of development which include,

natural resources management; agriculture; sustainable livelihood improvement; migrant

labor support programme apart from different projects of state and central governments on

partnership basis. The GVT team comprises of well-qualified, experienced,

multidisciplinary and full-time professionals - 165 in the Western region (Madhya

Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat) and 64 in the Eastern region (Jharkhand, Orissa, West

Bengal); 30% of these professionals are women. The teams include specialists in the fields

of community development, gender, savings and credit, forestry, crops, livestock, soil and

water conservation, water resource development, monitoring and impact assessment,

development management and financial management (Source: http://www.gvtindia.org).

Tata Chemicals Limited, an agro-chemical company has initiated Tata Kisan Kendras

(TTKs) in 1998 with the objective to provide the farmer with a package of inputs and

services. This model was subsequently expanded as Tata Kisan Sansars (TKS) which is a

network of nearly 600 farmer resource centres that caters to more than 3.5 million farmers in

22000 villages in the northern and eastern part of India.

Tata Kisan Sansar

The centres are one-stop solution shops that provide farmers access to a wide range of

agricultural inputs such as fertilizers, seeds, and pesticides along with agricultural services

such as soil testing, crop advisory and foliar application services. The objective of the

TKS network is to enable and empower the farmer in creating and generating more value

for farm produce by providing information on new and improved agronomic practices and

by facilitating better and more efficient use of agricultural inputs. TKS functions as a hub

and spoke model. Each TKS centre is a franchised retail outlet and solution provider that

caters to about 30-40 villages in the surrounding area. The centres are in turn serviced by

about 30-odd resource centres (known as Tata Krishi Vikas Kendras or TKVK), with each

resource centre looking after 17-18 TKS centres. There are more than 60 agronomists

available at the hubs to provide advice on crops and farming issues. New services being

explored include financial services and IT enabled market information

Agri-business Firms:Major agri-business firms ITC and Pepsico during the last few years

have initiated innovative arrangements to provide farmers with integrated production and

marketing support.

Indian Tobacco Company (ITC) is a market leader in tobacco products, hotels, and

packaging, and its International Business Division is one of India’s largest exporter of

agricultural commodities. ITC’s extension effort revolves around e-chaupals, which are

village internet kiosks that enable access to information on weather, market prices and

scientific farm practices.

266 India

E-chaupals

Launched in June 2000, the ITC has so far established more than 6500 e-chaupals

covering 40,000 villages and serving over 4 million farmers. Currently, the 'e-Choupal'

website provides information to farmers across the 10 States of Madhya Pradesh, Haryana,

Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala

and Tamil Nadu. The services reach more than 750,000 farmers growing soyabean,

coffee, wheat, rice, pulses and shrimp. Each kiosk is run by a local farmer (sanchalak),

selected from the village and provided with short training. The company provides the

infrastructure for the choupal, including a computer, a printer, UPS system, solar panel

and internet connectivity through VSAT. The sanchalak provides the space and has to

meet other operational expenditures such as electricity charges. Producers could access

information on cultivation practices, daily information on prices prevailing in different

markets and the price offered by ITC, detailed district-specific weather information

through computers installed at the e-chaupal. It is a virtual market place where farmers can

transact directly with the processesor and can realize better value for their produce. The

sanchalak has a transaction-based income. Farmers are free to use this facility and there is

no fee or registration charge. ITC target to cover 25 million farmers in 1 lakh villages by

establishing 20,000 more e-choupals in 15 states by 2010. (Source:

http://www.itcportal.com/rural-development/echoupal.htm)

Farmer Organisations and Producer Co-operatives: User groups, including farmer

interest groups, farmer clubs, commodity groups, women farmer groups, special interest

groups’ etc play a very important role in extension. Government is also keen on promoting

farmer organizations as it could create mechanism at the village level among farmer

members to empower them for their own problem solving. However, there are only very few

functional farmer organisations in India. One of the oldest and most successful farmer

organisations in India is the Grape Growers Association of Maharashtra (Maharashtra Rajya

Draksha Bagaitdar Sangh or MRDBS). MRDBS provides a wide range of services to its

member producers.

Extension by Farmer Association- a case of MRDBS

The Maharashtra Rajya Draksha Bagaitdar Sangh (MRDBS) established in 1960, has been

the main force behind the development of grape cultivation in Mahrashtra. The

Association is managed by elected representatives of the growers. The association

regularly conducts group discussions and seminars at different locations for grape

cultivators. It also publishes leaflets and booklets covering different aspects of grapes

cultivation. The association has full-fledged independent R&D wing headed by competent

scientist. Evaluation of new varieties of grapes, pest controls are some of the subjects

researched upon. It also seeks the expertise of scientists in research centres and

universities and other experts on viticulture in India and abroad to support grape farmers

with technical support. The association had been instrumental in the creation of

MAHAGRAPES, a confederation of 16 grape grower societies from Sangli, Solapur,

Latur, Pune and Nasik areas of Maharashtra in 1991. The main objective of Mahagrapes is

to boost the export of grapes for which facilities like pre-cooling and cold storages has

been erected at each grape grower co-operative society. Due to the concerted efforts of

'Mahagrapes' the brand of Maharashtra's Grapes is well established in the international

market.


Non-Governmental (voluntary) Organisations (NGOs): Estimates of the number of

NGOs active in rural development in India range from fewer than 10,000 to several hundred

thousand depending on the type of classification used. Some 15,000-20,000 are actively

engaged in rural development. India has a number of NGOs with varying levels of capacity,

implementing a wide range of programmes. Bharatiya Agro-Industries Federation (BAIF),

Professional Assistance for Development Action (PRADAN) and Action for Food

Production (AFPRO, Foundation for Ecological Security (FES) are some of the important

NGOs working in several states. Wide variation in density of NGOs exists among states.

Within states, certain districts have high density of NGOs, which overlap and compete for

clients, while in other areas, there are hardly any NGOs active on the ground. The eighties

saw a spurt in the growth of rural development focused NGOs and several of them got

actively involved in watershed development. In the nineties, several NGOs got involved in

promotion of micro-credit through organising SHGs. Due to their effectiveness and flexible

operational mechanisms, governments are increasingly finding partnering with NGOs

attractive. Several Ministries of the Union Government have a separate provision to fund

NGOs for specific activities.

Media and Information Technology: The widespread availability and convergence of

information and communication technologies (ICTs) – computers, digital networks,

telecommunication, television etc in India in recent years have led to unprecedented capacity

for dissemination of knowledge and information to the rural population. Mass media and

print media have been traditionally linked with extension programmes in India. The All

India Radio and the Doordarshan (state run radio and television units respectively) transmit

programmes on different aspects of agriculture every day. In the nineties, private TV

channels like E-TV started telecasting daily programmes on agriculture.

The village knowledge centres initiated by the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation

(MSSRF) in Pondichery aims at building a model for the use of ICTs in meeting the

knowledge and information requirements of rural families by taking into account the socio-

economic context and gender dimension. In 2004, MSSRF, IDRC, Microsoft, NASSCOM

Foundation and ISRO initiated steps to extend the Village Knowledge Centres (VKCs) to

different parts of the country by creating multi-stake holder partnership called "Mission

2007: Every Village a Knowledge Centre".

Village Knowledge Centres

Since 1992, M S Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) – a non-profit research

organization has been implementing the Village Resource Centres (VRCs) and Village

Knowledge Centres (VKCs). Normally the VRC is located at block level or commune

level or mandal level or at the centre point of a cluster of villages. VKCs are normally

located among a cluster of villages or panchayat level. Space and electricity for

operationalising the VKC are provided by the partners (elected village administration,

traditional village administration, farmers and fishermen associations, milk societies,

youth clubs, NGOs, religion based institutions such as temples and churches, village

development council, etc.).

Most of the operators and volunteers providing information are women. Information

provided in the village knowledge centres is locale specific. For instance at Pondicherry,

information provided include prices of agricultural inputs (such as seeds, fertilisers,

pesticides), outputs (rice, vegetables, sugarcane), market entitlement (the multitude of

268 India

schemes of the government), health care (availability of doctors and paramedics in nearby

hospitals, women’s diseases), cattle diseases, transport (road conditions, cancellation of

bus trips) and weather (appropriate time for sowing, areas of abundant fish catch, wave

heights in the sea). Most of the information is collected and fed in by volunteers from the

local community itself. Much of the content has been developed in collaboration with the

local people. The volunteers were trained in PC operations and in using the data-cum

voice network.

Financial Institutions: Financial institutions lending to agricultural sector provide advice

and consultancy to potential borrowers on financial viability of their proposals. All banks

involved in agricultural lending organises farmer meetings and seminars every year.

Rural Lending and Livelihood Promotion- A Case of BASIX

The Holding Company of the BASIX Group is called Bhartiya Samruddhi Investments

and Consulting Services (BASICS) Ltd.) which started operations in 1996 as India’s first

“new generation livelihood promotion institution” . BASIX works in 15 states - Andhra

Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamilnadu,

Rajasthan, Bihar, Chattisgarh, West Bengal, Delhi, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Assam. It is

currently working with over 1.5 million customers, over 90% being rural poor households

and about 10% urban slum dwellers. BASIX mission is to promote a large number of

sustainable livelihoods through the provision of financial services and technical assistance

in an integrated manner.

BASIX strategy is to provide a comprehensive set of livelihood promotion services to

rural poor households under one umbrella and it operations are guided by its “livelihood

triad” strategy. The rationale behind the Livelihood Triad strategy is as follows: Micro-

credit by itself is helpful for the more enterprising poor people in economically dynamic

areas. Less enterprising poor households need to start with savings and insurance before

they can benefit from micro-credit, because they need to cope with risk. However, in

backward regions, poor people, in addition to microfinance, need a whole range of

Agricultural/ Business Development Services (productivity enhancement, risk mitigation,

local value addition, and market linkages). Agriculture and Business Development

Services aim to strengthen the livelihoods of the rural poor and women by identifying the

sub sectors on which a significant number of people are engaged and institutionalize the

services to work on the gaps identified. The services include productivity enhancement,

risk mitigation, facilitating input and output linkages and value addition to ensure a fair

return to the producer.

Consultancy:Farmers generally consult other relatively progressive farmers for information

and advice related to production, post harvest management and marketing. Another major

source of advice is the local input dealer. Some input firms such as AGROCEL and Tata

Kisan Kendras provide free consultancy services. Emergence of paid extension services in

agriculture is a relatively recent phenomenon.


Agri-clinics and Agri-Business Centres

To tap the expertise of a large pool of agricultural graduates in the country, the Ministry of

Agriculture in association with NABARD and MANAGE is implementing the Agri-

Clinics and Agri-Business Centres (AC&ABC) Scheme.

The objectives of this scheme are as follows.

• supplement the efforts of government extension system,

• make available supplementary sources of input supply and services to needy

farmers and

• to provide gainful employment to agricultural graduates in new emerging areas in

agricultural sector

Agricultural graduates are provided training in agri-business development for two months

through institutions in public/private sector. The entire cost of training and handholding is

being borne by the Government of India. The trained graduates are expected to set up

AC&ABCs with the help of bank finance. More than 11500 graduates have been trained

resulting in establishment of 3750 centres in various parts of the country spread across 36

categories of agri-ventures.

Privatisation of Livestock Extension Services: In India, Livestock extension is carried out

mostly by the Departments of Animal Husbandry and to some extent by the Milk Unions,

State Veterinary/ Agricultural Universities (SAUs), Research institutions of ICAR, and

NGOs. The animal husbandry information and other technical inputs and services are being

provided to the livestock owners through public sector organisations. With the increase in

the pressure on the land and other resources and emphasis on efficiency on the use of

resources, public spending on animal husbandry extension services is being questioned.

Recognizing the limitations of public extension services in meeting the wide ranging

demands for agricultural technology, it was suggested to promote private and community

driven extension to operate competitively with pubic extension. The government expenditure

on animal husbandry extension is justified in view of the fact that animal husbandry is one of

the very important secondary occupations to a large population of poor cattle owners, which

include small and marginal farmers and landless agricultural labourers. The livestock

owners are being trained by different organizations by offering incentives to the trainees

such as free board and lodging to encourage their participation in such training programmes.

The National Commission on Agriculture (NCA, 1976) recommended that cattle owners

should be charged for AI in areas where it is popular. However, it is being done by

collecting nominal charges by the Departments of Animal Husbandry, on cost basis by some

of the Milk Producers' Cooperative Societies and NGOs like Bharatiya Agro Industries

Research and Development Foundation (BAIF). Similarly, the Milk Unions and AHDs are

supplying cattle feed and vaccines on subsidy to milk producers. Some of the Milk Unions

have implemented welfare measures like free cattle insurance, scholarships for children of

the milk producers and accident insurance cover for the milk producers etc. In the case of

poultry, which is being run more on commercial lines compared to other livestock, the

Animal Husbandry Extension services are more organized and the poultry farmers are

charged for almost all the services, which include vaccination, debeaking, post mortem,

diagnosis and treatment of chicks.

270 India

Based on the study conducted on Privatizing Agricultural Extension in India, Rasheed and

Sadamate (2000) suggested that the public sector should concentrate on organizing

educational programmes for farmers, which are less attractive to the private agencies. The

public sector should also take up the role as facilitator in the formation of farmers' groups,

building linkages with other extension agencies and initiating paid consultancy services by

maintaining a cadre of qualified staff at district and sub district levels and some of these

services can later be entrusted to the farmers' groups.

Private sector extension cannot completely substitute for public agencies in those

circumstances where direct benefits do not assure to the firms involved, target populations

are diffuse or remote, where infrastructure is inadequate and when production consists

mainly of basic food grown by subsistence farmers. Research clearly indicated that

investments in agricultural research and extension yield high returns. Ahuja and others

(2000) concluded based on a study conducted in three states of India that there is a

significant demand for the delivery of veterinary services at home and the cattle owners

including the poor are willing to pay to receive these services.

The public extension service has still an important role to play in increasing the production

of backyard poultry, which even today is the major contributor for egg and chicken

production in the country. The Animal Husbandry Departments (AHDs) continue to provide

free inputs and technical services such as vaccinations to the backyard poultry.

Based on a review of private extension initiatives in India, Sulaiman (2003) has identified

the following lessons on private extension:

• The private extension offers much scope for supplementing and complementing

public sector extension.

• Crop/commodity focussed extension of private sector though very useful, is narrow

in one sense as they do not engage with other related issues such as farmer

organisation development or those issues related to sustainability of resource use.

• Remote areas and poor producers (especially those growing low value crops and

having little marketable surplus) are poorly served by both private as well as public

sector extension.

• While public funding would remain important, the delivery of all kinds of services

need not necessarily be though the public sector. Several of these services could be

either contracted by the public sector to other private extension providers such as

NGOs and private consultancy firms for delivering specific services in select

regions and client groups or jointly funded and implemented by public and private

agencies

• Public funds also could be utilised to fund farmer organisations to help them contract

services from other service providers including public sector. However, efforts

should be made to strengthen the capacity of farmer organisations to prioritise,

demand, contract and monitor services.

• Private extension is not a substitute for public extension and there is a need for

significant public funding for extension in the years to come.

• As farmers are also willing to pay for value-added services, the challenge is to create

quality services so that partial cost recovery can commence.

• Financial participation needs to be seen more as an accountability enhancing

mechanism and not purely as a mechanism to reduce costs.


3(iii). Accountability hierarchy

The national agricultural extension system prescribes a well laid in built accountability

system. The top level officers in the system decides about the policy reforms, programmes

budgeting and implementation strategies.

In the planning commission, activities related to extension programme planning, finalisation,

budget allocation under the plan to respective programmes and the states are carried out

under the direct supervision of Member Agriculture and Advisors.

In the ministry of Agriculture, the extension system is placed under the administrative

responsibility of a joint secretary level officer assisted by an additional commissioner and his

team who are mainly responsible for the national level implementation, monitoring and

evaluation of the progress of various extension programmes including ATMA..

The directorate of extension and training is responsible for the implementation process by

coordinating with various states and agencies.

In ICAR, the responsibility of implementing the front line extension programmes like KVK

project lies with agricultural extension division. Deputy Director General (Ag. Extension)

assisted by two Asst. Director General implement the KVK project through eight Zonal

Project Directorates in the country.

The KVKs in each zone are monitored, coordinated and supervised by the Zonal Project

Directors. The Director of Extension Education in the university are bestowed with the

overseeing responsibilities and providing the technology back stopping from SAUs and

ICAR institutes in the zones. KVK programme coordinators are responsible for the

technology application through conducting assessment and refinement, evaluation,

demonstration and capacity building.

Similarly, ATMA Project Directors are responsible for the coordination of activities related

to technology management and delivery system in the district level.

3(iv). Leadership development

For the purpose of leadership development for the extension functionaries the Govt of India

has established institutions like MANAGE, EEI, SAMETI and KVKs. Along with these

institutes National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM) also gives

specialised training programme in the area of research management and leadership

development for the research and extension managers in the country.

3(v). Management information system

At National Level: Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture (DKMA), Indian

Agriculture Statistical Research Institute and Intellectual Property Right and Technology

Management unit are the important institutional arrangements at national level to deal with

the agricultural knowledge management in the country.

As a commitment to deliver cost-effective and production-oriented technologies for the

welfare of farming community, ICAR has adopted ICT based information dissemination

system. There are considerable resources of knowledge and information in the ICAR system

that can be harnessed for realizing full potential of technological interventions developed so

272 India

far. Several ICT-driven information delivery mechanisms have been developed for quick,

effectual and cost-effective delivery of messages.

The e-connectivity of ICAR institutes has been strengthened and state-of-art data centre has

been established to cater the ICT services and provide connectivity to various stakeholders.

192 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (Farm Research Centres) have been provided e-linkage for

establishing an interactive interface between farmers and scientists. The research journals

have been made available in open -access mode for the benefit of students, researchers,

farmers and various stakeholders belonging to national and global communities.

The ICAR research journals are made available in the inter-net with a provision of online

submission of manuscript, review and downloading of articles. Web based knowledge

dissemination, weather based agro-advisory and news updates are some of the important

features of the user-friendly website of ICAR. Use of database, expert system, decision

support system and web based dissemination of knowledge, inter and intranet services, i-

telephony and video conferencing are some of the major initiatives by ICAR for knowledge

sharing and AKS management in the country.

IT Based Interventions for Sharing of Knowledge: The ICAR website (www.icar.org.in):

Developed by using an open source content management system called DRUPAL, the

website is a unique platform for sharing and dissemination of information to a wide range of

users and stakeholders in agriculture sector. The News section is updated daily with inputs

from the centres of National Agricultural Research System across the country.

Interesting Success Stories of Indian farmers are presented weekly on the homepage of

website to inspire and motivate farming community. The Weather Based Agro-Advisory

developed by subject matter experts is also updated weekly for the direct use of farmers. The

website provides links to international agricultural organizations and to ICAR library and

other libraries of interest. A useful link connects the visitors to the global agricultural news

released from various international agencies. More than 2.05,436 visits are recorded per

month from 157 countries.

The ICAR research journals (The Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences and The Indian

Journal of Animal Sciences) are available in open-access mode and have been downloaded

in 157 countries from a knowledge portal developed and hosted by the Directorate of

Knowledge Management in Agriculture (DKMA) of the Council. The online research

journals provide facilities like registration for reviewer, author, reader and manuscript

submission for publishing.

The status of articles submitted may also be viewed (http://epubs.icar.org.in). A host of other

useful publications including newsletters can also be viewed on the website. The Hindi

(national language) version of the website is also available with regular updates. Around one

lakh farmers/ visitors are making use of updated information on website every month. The

website has proven its potential for sharing and delivering knowledge at national and global

level.

National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) Initiatives: Under NAIP 10 crop

knowledge models have been developed along with Portal based decision support services.

In addition, advanced Q&A forum designed for content management. About 2.2 million

SMS texts transacted with over 26,000 farmers. It was adjudged as best ICT- enabled agri

project in 2010. A rice knowledge management portal and re-usable learning objects (RLOs)


in ODL system were developed under this project. Nine communication centres set up to

enhance public awareness of ICAR.

KVK e-Linkage Project: ICAR as part of its mega ICT driven knowledge management and

technology application strategy has envisioned for providing e-linkage to its networks of

KVKs and Zonal Project Directorates (ZPDs) during XI five year plan (2007-2012). The

linkage facilities helped to achieve an enabling environment to KVKs for developing close

fruitful partnership and collaborations between subject matter specialists of KVKs and also

research scientists, extension personnel and farmers for sharing and upscaling of appropriate

agricultural knowledge and technologies, best practices and innovation among them and

other stake holders. Initially, this facility is being created in 192 KVKs and all eight ZPDs.

In the course of time this linkage will be expanded to all the KVKs in the country. The major

objectives and rationale behind this initiative is to improve KVKs connectivity with;

• technology generating institutes such as SAUs, ICAR institutes and other related

national and global centres of excellence

• farmers, grass root level organisations like co-operatives, Self- help groups and

commodity interest groups

• technology delivery system and public and private extension service providers at

district level

Govt of India launched Kissan call centres to leverage the extensive telecom network in the

country to deliver extension services to the farmers. The purpose of these call centres is to

respond to queries and issues raised by farmers instantly in the local language on a

nationwide toll free number 1800180 1551.

Agriculture Knowledge Products from ICAR: ICAR through its sustained efforts involved

in the creation of data bases, information and expert systems for the benefits of various stake

holders. The summary of the same is given here under.

Information System: There are more than 60 information system products developed and

some of the most important products among them are Plant Variety Information System,

Plant Variety Germplasm Registration System, NORV-Notified and Released Varieties of

India, INDUS-Indian Information System as per DUS guidelines, National Information

System for Pest Management (Bt–Cotton), Phenotypic Characterization of Animal Genetic

Resources of India (AGRI-IS), Water bodies information systems for West Bengal, E-Pest:

Awareness-cum-surveillance programme for the management of major pests, Digital

Herbarium of Medicinal & Aromatic plants, Networking of herbal gardens in India, Fodder

Resources and Waste land of Bay Islands, NISM-National Information Sharing Mechanism

for the PGR-GPVR (Germplasm and Plant Varieties Registration), National Information

System on Long Term Fertilizer Experiments, Project Information & Management System

Network for NATP, Personnel Information Management System Network (PERMIS NET)

and National Information System on Agricultural Education Network in India (NISAGE

NET).

Decision Support Systems/ES: There are more than 20 decision support systems available.

Most important among them are; Wheat Crop Management, Marine Fisheries Management,

Advisory System for Potato crop Scheduling, Nutrient Management in Tuber Crops, GIS

Based Decision Support System for Aquaculture in Cold Water Region, Rice-Crop Doctor,

Expert System for SERICULTURE, Expert System for GROUND NUT CROP, KMART-

Decision support system for farmers, researchers, policy makers and development officials,

Poultry Expert System (PES) on poultry farming etc.

274 India

E-Advisory/E-Learning Resources: There are more than 20 e-advisory and e-learning

resources available with ICAR. The most important among them are; Geo spatial Village

Knowledge Management System (GVKMS -Web Based), Knowledge Management for

Agricultural Research and Technologies - KMART (Web Based) and e-GRANTH for

strengthening of Digital Library and Information Management under NARS. Under

Consortium for e-Resources in Agriculture (CeRA), libraries in NARS and contents from

2917 journals were covered. In addition, ICAR also created a data ware house with more

than 59 data bases and a web based integrated National Agricultural Resources Information

System.

Collection, Documentation and Validation of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK)

and Farm Innovations: A major initiative was undertaken by ICAR in documenting and

validating the Indigenous Knowledge Systems practiced by the farmers in the country.

Through the country wide initiative a total number of 4880 Indigenous Technical Knowledge

(ITK) in 23 thematic areas were collected, validated and published in seven volumes.

Further, seven ITK e-Books and a resource Book for training on ITK was also published.

Similarly, potential innovative ideas, methods and inventions made by the farmers were also

documented and published for cross country reference by various stake holders.

AKS National Projects and Products: Some of the most important AKS project under

NARS and their output is given here under in the Table 5.

Table 5. Details of important national projects on AKS and their output

Project Major Focus

FERTNET Network for Integrating Nutrient Management

VISTARNET Agricultural Extension Information System Network

PPIN Plant Protection Informatics Network

APHNET Animal Production and Health Informatics Network of 42000 Animal

Primary Health Centers

FISHNET Fisheries Informatics Network

LISNET Land Information System Network

AFPINET Agricultural and Food Processing Industries Informatics Network

ARINET Agricultural and Rural Industries Information System Network

NDMNET Natural Disaster Management Knowledge Network

Weather NET Weather Resource System of India

AGRISNET Network of Agricultural Offices for Extension & Agribusiness

Activities

AGMARKNET Network of Agricultural Produce Wholesale Markets (7000) & Rural

Markets (32000)

ARISNET Agricultural Research Information System Network

SeedNET Seed Informatics Network

CoopNet A Network of Agricultural Primary Credit Societies (PACS) and

Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Societies (93000)

HORTNET Horticultural Informatics Network



Government support for HRD in agricultural extension is available through providing

training support to the agricultural extension functionaries for their knowledge and skill up-

gradation. The XI plan had several schemes with built-in HRD and training components for

farmers and extension personnel. Strong institutional base has been created for catering to

training and HRD requirements of farmers and extension personnel, the quality of training

infrastructure, training module design, delivery, trainers etc. have been matters of concern to

improve overall effectiveness of training and HRD.

Approach of training and capacity building components built in to most of the centrally

sponsored, central sector and state plan schemes in agriculture and allied sectors suffers from

the following practical problems: Multiplicity of schemes adds lot of confusion among the

implementing agencies and their personnel as to which scheme to prioritize and focus for

implementation. Often times, training and HRD end up as a ritual to either meet the targeted

numbers or to spend the allocated budget. It also leaves no clue among stakeholders (farming

community) as to which scheme to choose for availing benefits.

4(i). Involvement of academic and research institutions for HRD through

curriculum development and implementation support.

(a. Areas of perception, skill and capacity building).

A long term training plan keeping in view of the requirements of extension system is

developed by the national and regional training centres in the country. The training

programmes are planned based on the needs and skill gap analysis. For this purpose the

training institutions periodically conduct the need analysis through systematic studies.

Identified Priority areas of Training of Farmers and Extension Professionals are; Climate

change implications and coping mechanisms

Scaling up of water productivity in agriculture, Scaling up resource use efficiency in

agriculture and allied sectors, Scaling up energy use efficiency in agriculture, Selective

mechanization in agriculture, Secondary agriculture (post harvest handling, storage and

processing),Innovative extension models and approaches, ICTs for knowledge & enterprise

management, Group based approaches for production, processing and marketing, Micro-

level implications of IPRs – PPV&FRA, GIs, TK, etc.,

Bio-diversity conservation and management for sustainable use and benefit sharing,

Integrated farming systems, Dry land agriculture and horticulture, Conservation agriculture,

Organic farming, High value farming, Marketing – domestic and export, Agricultural finance

and insurance, Planning and management of development plans (SAWP, SAP, CDAP, BAP,

etc.),Project formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, Skill development for

entrepreneurship, Negotiation skills for farmers and other primary stakeholders in agriculture

and allied sectors, group formation, development of entrepreneurial skills for agri-business,

agribusiness management, WTO and its implications, marketing of agricultural produce,

PHT management, conflict resolutions and negotiations management of common property

resources use of different type of media, communication, project preparation etc.

276 India

4(ii). Training of Extension workers and farmers through public, NGO, and

private initiatives:

Training institutes like MANAGE, NIAM EEI, SAMETI, NAARM, KVKs etc involved in

specialised training for the extension professionals and farmers. National Academy of

Agricultural Research management (NAARM) under ICAR is the apex institute in the

country involved in the training of scientists, programme coordinators of KVKs in various

aspects of project management techniques. NAARM carries out research on HRD planning,

training need analysis, developing various e-learning modules, training modules,

standardisation of training methodology etc.

NAARM also runs a diploma programme agri business management helping the agricultural

extension system in the country with qualified professionals. SAU system in the country and

National institutes under ICAR like Indian Agricultural research Institute(IARI) , Indian

Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), National Dairy Research Institute(NDRI),Central

Institute of fisheries Education(CIFE) which are also recognised as deemed universities,

contribute to a great extent carrying out systematic research studies in agricultural extension

to formulate suitable HRD programmes. Apart from this the NARS also actively engaged in

training of extension professionals in teaching, training and field extension works. The

major training facilities in the country is given in table.6

Table 6. Major Training Institutions in India

IInnssttiittuuttiioonn HRD & Training Focus Clients served RReemmaarrkkss

I National Level

ICAR Institutes Higher education

Technology & extension

centred training

Students, Scientists, Faculty,

Extension personnel, Farmers and

others

CCoommmmooddiittyy//aarreeaa

ssppeecciiffiicc

Directorate of

Extension,

DAC

Technology and

extension centered

training

Scientists, Faculty, Extension

personnel MMTTCCss

NAARM Higher education

Research, education &

extension management



others

MANAGE Higher education &

extension training



others

PGDM

PGDAEM

DAESI

NIRD Higher education &

extension training



others

PGDSRD Agri &

Rural Devt.

NIPHM Technology centered

training



others

Plant health

management

NIAM Higher education &

Marketing extension

training

Higher education

Technology & extension centred

training

Commodity

Boards

Technical, extension,

market and export

oriented training

Extension personnel, farmers and

others

IGNOU,

YCMOU and

Education, vocational

education and training



Mostly in ODL

mode


IInnssttiittuuttiioonn HRD & Training Focus Clients served RReemmaarrkkss

other Central

Universities

others

APEDA &

MPEDA

Technical, extension and

export-oriented training

Extension personnel, farmers and

others

CICEF,

CIFNET, IFP

Technical and vocational

training

Fisheries extension personnel,

fishermen, etc.

II Regional Level

EEIs (4) Extension training Scientists, Faculty, Extension

personnel, Farmers and others

III State Level

SAUs (51) and

affiliated

institutions

Higher education

Technology & extension

centred training

Higher education

Technology & extension centred

training

SAMETIs (27) Extension training Extension personnel

SIRDs Rural development &

Extension training

Extension personnel & PRIs

IV District Level

KVKs (594) Technical, extension and

vocational training

Farmers, Extension personnel,

rural youth

ICAR, SAU and

others

ATMAs (598) Planning and financing

FTECs Technical, extension and

vocational training

Farmers, Extension personnel,

rural youth

SDAs in some

states

Agricultural

Schools/

Polytechnics

Technical and vocational

training

School drop-outs, Farm youth SDAs in some

states

V Others

NGOs Social mobilization,

conservation agriculture,

allied enterprises

Farmers and others At different levels

Private Higher education,

Technical and extension

training



others

5. Research- Education- Extension – Farmers Linkages

5(i). Present linkage

There are many extension service providers in the field, providing different kinds of useful

services like information and service support to farmers. They are state, central government

agencies, agribusiness companies, agri-preneurs, input dealers, manufacturing firms, NGOs,

farmers organisations and progressive farmers. There is duplication of efforts with

multiplicity of agents attending extension work without convergence. There should be a

coordinated attempt to synergise and converge these efforts at the district level and below to

improve the performance of various stake holders. One such frame work for Technology

Development and Delivery System by ICAR is given at Fig. 3

The critical areas in which convergence efforts made are :

• Farmer empowerment and farmer organisational development

• Technology backstopping and management

278 India

• Public private partnership’s

• Frontier areas for extension, HRD and skill development

It is beyond doubt that combination of human performance with proper resource structure

lead to development. An effective convergence of method/ procedure, Agency/ infrastructure

no doubt will ensure proper use of scarce resources, time and energy. An exercise has been

made to indicate the types of convergence in the above critical areas of extension and

presented hereunder.

Institute Village Linkage programme (IVLP) -Technology Assessment and refinement

Programme implemented by of ICAR under National Agricultural technology Project

(NATP), is one of the institutionalised approach of linking the farmers with the research,

education and extension system in the country. Main Objectives of TAR – IVLP are:

• To introduce technological interventions with emphasis on stability and

sustainability along with productivity and profitability taking into account

environmental issues in well endowed and small production systems.

• To introduce and integrate appropriate technologies to increase the productivity with

marketed surplus in commercial and off farm production systems.

• To monitor socio-economic impact of technological interventions for different

production systems.

Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) means Farm Science Centre are the interface mechanism

between the research and extension system in the country. They are engaged in the process

of customising the technology in agiven farming situation through conducting on farm trials.

The KVKs undertake technology refinement with the involvement of farmers and scientists.

As the KVKs continued to gain strength and spread, its mandate also changed with time in

order to meet the changing needs and challenges. From vocational training, focus shifted to

testing and demonstration of technologies during 1990s; to technology assessment and

refinement in X Plan (2002-2007) and in 2009 of XI Plan as 'Knowledge and Resource

Centres'


ACTIVITIES INSTITUTIONS OUTPUT

SAUs / AICRPs

---------------------

Private Sector

KVKs,

ZRSs

Technologies & Products

------------------------------

Proprietary Products

Location,

Situation,

System specific

Technologies

KNOWLEDGE

Technology

Assessment,

Refinement and

Demonstration

ICTs,

Mass

Media,

etc.

Basic &

Strategic

Research

Applied & Adaptive

Research

ATMAs

(District Level)

Block Co-Ops,

NGOs

Panchayat & Village

Farmers

Outcome

Enhanced Profitability, Productivity, Sustainability, Livelihood Security, Employment

Generation, Competitiveness and Food, Nutrition & Environmental Security

National: ICAR Institutes and

Universities

National / Region- Specific Strategic

Research : SAUs, AICRPs, Private

Sector

Principles, Processes

and Methodologies

Line

Departments

Fig. 3. A Framework for Technology Development and Delivery System (Source: ICAR)

280 India

Therefore, the KVKs are involved in the application of science and technology of agriculture

in the field. At present, the core activities of KVKs are:

• On-farm testing to identify the location specificity of agricultural technologies

under various farming systems (KM process – transforming data into information)

• Frontline demonstration to establish the production potential of improved

agricultural technologies on the farmers fields (KM process – transforming data into

information with field experiences – there by transforming into useful knowledge)

• Training of farmers to update their knowledge and skills in various aspects of

agriculture, training of extension personnel to orient them in the frontier areas of

technology development (KM process – sharing implicit knowledge and skills – by

converting into explicit knowledge/ skills)

• Work as Knowledge and Resource Centre of agricultural technology for supporting

initiatives of public, private and voluntary sector for improving agricultural economy

of the district (harnessing a cafeteria of KM processes, tools and strategies)

The journey of KVKs has been remarkable enabling its existence in 600 districts till date and

by the end of XI plan, establishment of 667 KVKs is envisaged.



system for linking the various units of research institution with intermediary users and


inputs, products, information and advisory under Innovations in Technology Dissemination

(ITD) component of National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP), which was funded

by World Bank.

At present, National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) launched during 2006-07 is

being implemented by the Council in ‘Consortium’ mode through four major components;

ICAR as catalyzing agent for management of change of National Agricultural Research

System (NARS), Production to Consumption research, Sustainable Rural Livelihood

Security and, Basic and strategic research in frontier areas of agricultural sciences. These

consortia aim at developing scientific knowledge for the immediate benefit of the value

chain. In case of component 4 of NAIP, the aim is to develop basic/strategic scientific data/

information.

5(ii). Emerging trends of linkages

The Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Government of India with the assistance of

World Bank designed and piloted a decentralized extension approach in the form of

Agriculture Technology Management Agency (ATMA) under NATP, which focused on

agriculture diversification and thereby made it more demand and market driven. ATMA is

functioning towards increasing farm income by organizing the farmers & farm women and

making the system viable through ‘decentralized, participatory and market driven’ approach.

Participatory knowledge generation, dissemination and sharing are integral part of ATMA.

The storage and retrieval issues at higher magnitude could be addressed with technology

mediated KM strategies.


Moreover, the Department has initiated a number of programs in XI Five Year Plan (2007-

2012) to help and guide the State Governments so as to take up scientific and technological

interventions for higher agriculture growth. Programs like Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana

(RKVY-National Agriculture Development Scheme), National Food Security Mission

(NFSM), National Horticultural mission (NHM) & Technology mission on horticulture,

Macro Management of Agriculture (MMA) scheme, Micro irrigation and watershed

management, Integrated Scheme of Oil Seeds, Pulses and Maize (ISOPAM), Promotion of

Maize for food, nutrition and livelihood security, enhancing sustainability in dryland and

rainfed farming, Technology Mission on Cotton (TMC), National Bamboo Mission have

been launched. Recently Ministry has started Special Initiatives for Pulses and Oilseeds in

Dryland Areas under RKVY by organising demonstrations in 60, 000 pulses and oilseed

villages. Further, Terminal Market Complex Scheme has also been initiated in few states for

providing state-of-art facilities for electronic auction, storage, handling, and strengthening

offline backward and forward linkages to agricultural produces.

The Indian Metrological Department (IMD) in collaboration with NARS rendering Agro-

metrological Advisory Services (AAS) about crop and livestock management to farmers,

extension personnel and other stakeholders in 127 agro climatic zones of the country, which

contributed to contingency planning, biotic and abiotic stress management, managing

enterprises of agriculture, livestock and fishery sector in changing climatic situation and

helps to macro and micro-level planning. These services are delivered through All India

Radio, Television, Print media, Webinars, Emails, Mobile and other Multi-media tools.

5(iii). Proposed integration mechanism

The technical convergence of ATM and KVK at the grass root level during the XII plan

period is one of the important aspects in strengthening the linkages between institutions and

farmers. In the similar way linking the famers institutions like dairy cooperatives, farmer

interest groups, SHGS etc with research and extension system through creating a national

level coordinating agency during the XII plan is planned.

5(iv). Institutional reforms for strengthening linkages

In the larger district two KVKs have been established by the ICAR. Through National

Agricultural Development Programme the state governments are provided with adequate

financial assistance for strengthening their research-education-extension infrastructure in the

country. In addition, ICAR has taken initiatives to strengthen the SAUs with experiential

learning units, state of art facilities for creating e learning facilities. Through the

establishment of e connectivity facilities, ICAR has facilitated the interaction of scientists

from ICAR research institutes with the subject matter specialists of KVKs, farmers, and

extension specialists in the country. The grass root level convergence of various

infrastructure in agriculture extension is given in table 7.

282 India

Table 7: Infrastructural convergence at Grass root Level

Sl

No.

Areas of capacity building Method / Procedure Agency/ Infrastructure/

convergence

1. Farmers knowledge, skill and attitude

i) Breeding ii) Feeding iii) Health care and disease

prevention iv) Value addition and

marketing

i) Training/ Demonstration ii) Exhibition & farmers fair iii) Extension literature iv) Mass Media v) Use of ICT and cyber

extension vi) Field campaign

KVKs, SIRD, NIRD, IIE, ICAR & SAU Extension system. State level livestock development agency and Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry.

2. Leadership, communication, skill and managerial development

i) Strengthening of village level leadership

ii) Developing interpersonal communication

iii) Managerial skills such as planning, organizing, coordination etc.

i) Training/ Role play ii) Success stories and cases iii) Management games

KVKs, EEI, IIE, MANAGE, NIRD & SIRD

3. Organisational Skills

i) Organisation of farmers groups.

i) Organisation of producer/ cooperatives/ societies/ union or federations.

i) Training in leadership ii) Training in group dynamics

& group formations iii) Performance linked

specialized training iv) Record keeping v) Financial management

i) Cooperative training institute.

ii) IIE iii) NIRD/ SIRD iv) EEI

4. Marketing and Business Skills

i) Market Analysis ii) Demand and supply

Forecasting iii) Supply chain, Cold chain

and networking iv) Retail marketing and

creation of market network

i) Lectures and skills training by practical

ii) Exposure visits to progressive states and leading co-operative dairies

i) Cooperative training institutes

ii) MANAGE iii) IIE/EEI iv) NIRD/SIRD v) Leading management

institutes in Rural development.

5. Establishment of grass root level infrastructural facilities

i) AI Centres ii) Mobile unit iii) Fodder demonstration

units iv) Milk Collection centres v) Bulk Coolers vi) Chilling centres vii) Rural Marketing

Network and centres viii) Establishment of Milk

Processing centres at regional level

i) ix) Value addition and manufacturing facilities at district level

i) Analysis of the types of breed requirement and quantity of semen requirement

ii) Ensuring quality semen supply and availability of skilled insemination

iii) Training of rural youths for paid insemination services.

iv) Preparation and submission of suitable projects for the establishment of milk collection centres, chilling centres and rural marketing centres through funding agencies.

i) Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying

ii) State Milk Federation

iii) NDDB iv) NEDFI v) NABARD



6(i). Incentive structure: Present status and future outlook

The pay and allowances of the extension professionals in the country are governed by the

provisions of sixth pay commission pay structure.The pay scale varies according to the level

and cadre of the employee.Some of the state Govt adopts their own pay scale instead of

central Govt prescribed pay scale. The details of various pay band adopted across different

levels may be seen from the web site of DoPT,Govt of India.

6(ii). Career advancement scheme

There is a well laid promotion policy is adopted in the NARS wherein the ARS scientists

working with ICAR are covered under the revised CAS implemented by ICAR according to

the sixth pay commission pay scales. The entry level scientist are assessed to the next grade

pay after four years in a well defined assessment criteria. In a similar way the subsequent

promotions are granted after subjecting the scientists in a periodical manner according to

their job structure and responsibilities.The subject matter specialists working in the KVKs

are governed by the technical service rules of ICAR for those KVKs under ICAR and the

SAU system follows the UGC pay scales and the CAS.

6(iii). Prize and reward system

A good number of awards and reward system is established in the country to encourage the




KVKs across the country. The award amount for the best KVK comes about Rs.12 lakh

which includes Rupees five lakh for overseas training for the Programme coordinator,

Rupees three lakh for the infrastructure development, one lakh for sharing among the staff,

and a cash prize of three lakh.




at central and state level are existing to encourage the extension professionals, famers and


6(iv). HR management



vacant posts are about 32 percent and efforts are made to fill up these posts during the XII

plan period. The details of present manpower deployment in agricultural extension is given

in table 8.

284 India

Table 8: Human resources in Agricultural Extension

Level Sanctioned Filled Vacant Vacancy (%)

State 2047 1682 365 17.83

Regional 806 653 153 18.98

District 3655 2811 844 23.09

Sub divisional 1228 955 273 22.23

Block 22848 16853 5995 26.24

Sub Block 13168 9121 4047 30.73

Circle 4488 2412 2076 46.26

Panchayat 40610 25572 15038 37.03

Village 7851 5413 2438 31.05

Total (All

India) 96701 65472 31229 32.29


7(i). Institutional review and program review

The inbuilt component of ATMA is concurrent monitoring and evaluation of the


monitor and evaluate the work during its monthly meeting. In case of KVKs.

7(ii). Monitoring of extension program (including follow up)

Monitoring and evaluation cells were established in 32 institutes to strengthen priority

setting, monitoring, and impact assessment work within and outside the NATP Project.

Similarly, NAIP also has got a well laid monitoring and evaluation system inbuilt in the

project component. The periodical review through quarterly, half yearly and annual reports

project progress review workshop are some of the monitoring and evaluation mechanism in

operation.

KVKs are monitored through the Zonal Projectors situated in eight zones. In addition the

Director of Extension of SAUs are given the overseeing responsibilities. Scientific Advisory

Committee of the KVKs review the progress of the KVK work in the district.


the KVK system for continuous monitoring of the project. The KVK activities are evaluated

by a group of experts during the annual zonal workshop and annual action plan meetings.


workshops and quinquennial review team. The strong evaluation of the activities helps to


level rabi and kharif conferences help to evaluate the programmes progress with respect to


Extension programmes are investments where capital resources are expended to create

functional units at gross root level from which we can expect to realize the benefits over an

extended period of time. According to USDA, evaluation is the process of determining how


well one is doing in what one is trying to do. Evaluation when applied to the field of

extension may be defined as a process of systematic appraisal by which we determine the

value, worth or consequences of the extension programme/activity. Most of the evaluation

study conducted in extension was of mostly comparison of production yield before and after

the implementation of the programme. However, it must be understood that evaluation is not

simply a measurement of achievements, which is usually done after a programme is

executed.

A complete evaluation for extension is one which aims at the full length enumeration of both

tangible and intangible costs and benefits involved. Both tangible costs and benefits are easy

to identify but it is not so for intangible ones. The application of such knowledge by farmers

is generally termed as adoption and is usually measured by adoption rates, that is, the

proportion of farmers applying knowledge of a particular technology that they have acquired

from extension agents. Economic evaluation is a part and parcel of all phases in an extension

programme right from its initial planning to implementation and completion.

The economic concept of extension is applied at all the three stages of the project that is i) at

project selection, ii) during implementation and iii) after completion of the project.An

evaluation that takes into account only the cash inputs (such as gross margin analysis) may

be appropriate for certain type of technologies only (Amir and Knipscheer, 1989). The net

cost and benefit in any extension programme includes both tangible and intangible costs. The

social cost is anything the society pays/sacrifices save monetary contributions for the

execution of an extension programme.

Likewise the social benefits are those benefits other than its monetary benefits derived from

the outcome of the project on its execution. Mostly, the social cost and benefits are indirect

in nature. The social cost which the society incurs on the execution of the programme cannot

be ignored. Even though it is intangible, it is considered for the cost estimation because of

the social value attached to it. The difficulties involved in measuring the social cost benefit

are in the realm of anybody’s imagination. Yet without the inclusion of these intangible costs

the efforts to evaluate the extension largely remains non-functional.

The animal health services rendered by the State Departments of Animal Husbandry

involves social costs in providing the subsidized services to the livestock owners. However,

these services like vaccinations, diagnosis and treatment of animals, prevention and control

of zoonotic diseases have far reaching social benefits in terms of getting quality livestock

products and in the control of spread of diseases. Since economic cost-benefit analysis is one

aspect of the whole which we have to measure for determining worth of an extension project,

it is the responsibility of the extension professionals to undertake a complete evaluation in a

holistic manner to do justice in this job. This helps to obtain a complete picture on project

cost, output, outcome and impact created across the system.


With fifteen discrete agro climatic regions, country’s agriculture is very diverse and so the

distribution of livestock population. The impact of research and development efforts is

reflected in remarkable increase in an all round productivity w.r.t. crop, horticulture, animal

and fishery sectors. Compared to 1950, the productivity in 2005 became 3.3 times in case of

food grains, 2.1 for vegetables, 1.6 for fruits, 5.7 for fish, 4.8 for eggs and 1.8 for milk. In

286 India

spite of these remarkable achievements, country faces great challenges in further increasing

the productivity of all these sectors to match the population demand. The livestock and

fisheries sector play an important role in generating income and employment for marginal

farmers and landless labourers in meeting nutritional and livelihood security.

Addressing the emerging challenges would require new approaches which must be supported

by extension research and education system. The extension research and education system

should focus on the application of cutting edge technologies, thrust on technology

integration, use of information communication technology, quality aspects in addition to

increase in quantity, thrust on post harvest, food processing and value addition, resource

management etc.

Right technology and Right methodology are the two key elements required to be focused by

the extension research and education systems. The inventory of right technology and

methodology need to be made available by the system. Extension Research and education

system must reform itself in terms of content and adequate focus has to be given on effective

technology selection, optimization, application, sustainability and management.

The frame work of strengthening the Extension research, education and delivery system

includes.

• Assessment of existing extension education system, approaches and organizations

against the back drop of changing scenario to come out with practical solutions for

strengthening/ restructuring the system.

• Broadening the scope of technical mandate keeping in view the current demand

scenario.

• Development of location specific, participatory gender sensitive and customized

extension materials and methodologies.

• Emphasis on FSR/E and farmer participatory approach.

• Strengthening the operational linkages and partnership between research, extension,

farmer, market and other key stake holders.

• Empowering farmers and organising them into commodity groups/associations and

federating them.

• Integrating ICT in the extension research, education and technology development

system.

• Focus on issues like IPR, Farmers Rights and DUS guidelines.

The technology delivery system needs to gear up their capacity in terms of manpower,

expertise, finance, structure, institutional linkages and the kinds of methods, approaches and

delivery system they employ. The issues to be taken up for strengthening the delivery

system are;

i) Farmers empowerment and farmer organizations development

ii) Institutional linkages, convergence and Partnership issues

iii) Technology backstopping, application, integration, ICT use and management

iv) Frontier areas of extension, HRD and skill development

v) Policy issues

Lack of quality manpower dedicated to the cause of agricultural development is a serious

constraint and challenge encountered by the system. Agricultural extension should be on


agri-business extension mode and this is possible only if the system recruits personnel who

can bring in different kinds of expertise. For instance expertise related to cutting edge









Strengthening the expertise of extension organization includes :

• frontier areas of technology

• resource conservation and management

• market development, linking with markets and export development

• quality and standards

• organic agriculture

• enterprise/entrepreneurship development,

• skill development in horticulture, seed and plant material production

• research and extension in response to adaptation to climate change and risk

management

• financing and insurance

• extension for resource conservation and management

• extension management techniques (programme/project management- PERT, CPM,

log frame, 5-S etc)

• legal and regulatory issues (farmer rights, IPR)

• promotion of public-private partnership

• application of ICTs, content development and updating

• skills related to farmer organizational development and farmer empowerment

• Strengthen extension in animal husbandry and fisheries sector

• Initiate manpower planning in extension organizations, create new positions and fill

existing vacancies based on manpower planning

• Address HRD and skill development in extension organizations through the

following strategies:

- new recruitments,

- contract arrangements,

- consultancies,

- staff trainings

- partnering with organizations having expertise

Policy Issues

Several organisations implement extension programmes with very little co-ordination. Co-

ordination is lacking even among public sector organisations. Establishment of a national

288 India

extension authority (similar to the National Rainfed Area Authority), can potentially bring

about the much needed integration for effective planning and delivery of extension

programmes. Integration of extension activities at the district level also needs policy support.

Several initiatives that were successful at the pilot stage had failed when external support

was withdrawn. Another major constraint is the declining financial support for extension.

Enhanced funding is crucial for improving the ability of extension to deal with the complex

challenges of the second green revolution. Extension also needs crucial research backup on

new approaches, methodologies and management techniques relevant for different situations.

Policy issues need to be addressed through

• Enhanced funding

• Strengthen research in extension

• Establish a national extension agency/board

• Developing strategies to improve sustainability of pilot initiatives

• Strengthen mechanisms for district level planning

• National Centre for Agricultural Knowledge management

Way Forward

Several organization implement extension programmes with very little coordination. Co-

ordination lacking even among public sector organizations. Establishment of national

extension agency/board (NEA) can potentially bring about much needed integration for

objective planning and delivery of programmes. Integration of extension activities at the

district level also needs policy support. Several initiatives that were successful at the pilot

stage had failed when external support was withdrawn. Another major constraint is the

declining financial support for extension. Enhanced funding is crucial for improving the

ability of extension to deal with the complex challenges faced by it. It also needs crucial

research back up on new approaches, methodologies and management tools and techniques

relevant for different situations.

To summarize, among other things, (i) enhanced funding, (ii) strengthening extension

research and education, (iii) creation of a national extension authority, (iv) developing

technology inventory and methodology modules, (v) developing strategies to improve

sustainability of pilot initiatives, (vi) Farming System Approach in Extension along with

district resource mapping and planning, (vii) networking and partnership approach, (viii)

inclusion of newer concept and methodologies, (ix) Creation of national and regional level

knowledge management system for continuous technology and methodology backstopping

and (x) Resource and market led approaches for sustainability are the most important areas to

be focused upon for developing a frame work for technology development and delivery

system.

References

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District, Publication of KVK – Papumpare, Directorate of AH and Vet. Arunachal

Pradesh, ZC Unit (Zone III) Barapani

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Chandrashekhara, P. (2001). Private Extension in India: Myths, Realities, Apprehensions and

Approaches, MANAGE, Hyderabad.

Chandrashekhara, P. (2001). Private Extension: Indian Experiences, MANAGE, Hyderabad.

FAO (2009) Agricultural Extension in Transition world wide : policiesa and Strategies for

reform, Training Manual, Food and agricultural Organisation, Rome.

FAO (2009). Agricultural extension in transition worldwide: policies and strategies for

reform, Training Manual, Food and Agricultural Organisation, Rome

Katz, E. (2002). Innovative Approaches to financing extension for Agricultural and natural

Resources Management – Conceptual Considerations and Analysis of Experience.

Lindau: Swiss centre for Agricultural Extension.

Katz, E. (2002). Innovative Approaches to financing extension for agricultural and natural

resource management-Conceptual considerations and analysis of experience.

Lindau: Swiss Centre for Agricultural Extension.

Kidd, A., John Lamers and Valker Hoffman (1988). Towards Pluralism in Agricultural

Extension-A growing challenge to the public and private sectors. Agriculture +

Rural Development Vol (1)

Ramkumar, S and Rao, SVN. (2001). Wome Self Help Groups and Cattle Rearing –

Preliminary Performance Appraisal, RAGOVAS Pondicherry, India

Rivera, W.M. & Zijp, W. (2002). Contracting for agricultural extension: international case

studies and emerging practices. Wallingford: CAB International.

Sadamate, V.V, Venkatasubramanian V and Sulaiman Rasheed (2008). Technology Transfer

and Extension – issues and recommendation, Second Green Revolution summit

proceedings, CII, Kolkatta

Subbaiah, Y, Sudakar R, Aruna Kumari and Krishnamurty V, (2008). facilitating

entrepreneur development process through SHGs in East Godavari Dist. of Andhra

Pradesh. In Models of technology Delivery mechanism – Experience of KVKs edited

by Das. P and Prabukumar, Division of Agricultural Extension, ICAR, New Delhi.

Sulaiman, V.R. (2003). Agricultural Extension: involvement of Private sector, Occasional

Paper, National Bank for Agricultural and Rural development (NABARD), Mumbai.

Sulaiman, V.R. and gadewar, A.U. (1994). Privitisation of Extension Services – Implications

in the Indian Context, JRural Reconstruction, 27(2).

Sulaiman,V.R. and Gadewar, A.U. (1994). Privatisation of Extension Services-Implications

in the Indian Context, J

Venkatasubramanian, V, and Deo Singh, K. (2002). Farming System Analysis and

agricultural development in tribal areas.. KVK CTRI publications, Rajamundry.

Venkatasubramanian, V, and Rao, SVN. (2010). Livestock Extension Education, Concept

Series-I, Published by Zonal Project Directorate, Zone III, ICAR, Barapani. ISBN.

978-81-910017-2-3.

Venkatasubramanian, V, and Sajeev, M.V. and Singha, A.K. (2010). Concept, Approaches

and Methodologies for Technology Application and Transfer, (Second edition,

290 India

ISBN. 978-81-910017-0-9), published by Zonal Project Directorate, Zone III, ICAR,

Barapani.

Venkatasubramanian, V, Sadamate, V.V. and Chandra Gowda, M.J. (2009). Agricultural

Systems: Issues and Strategies for Convergence, In Proceedings of National seminar

on Agricultural Extension, MoA, GoI, New Delhi: P-P: 43-49.

Venkatasubramanian, V, Sudakar and Deo Singh, K. (2002). Rural Handicrafts. KVK CTRI

publications, Rajamundry


Nepal

Dr. Nil Kantha SharmaCommunications Specialist

Nepal Economic, Agriculture and Trade (NEAT) Activity

(USAID Project), Lalitpur, Nepal


Cell: 00977-9841272108


Executive Summary

Agricultural extension service is one of the major under takings of government to educate,

disseminate information and support the livelihoods of the Nepalese farmers. The extension

service provides both productive inputs and services to teach farmers about improved

technologies so that they can improve their productivity, incomes and standard of living. The

extension service also helps to empower the farming communities by forming farmers

groups to help them to decide on how best use of available local resources and to articulate

the needs of farmers.

Since 1950, government has implemented several extension models and approaches with

donor support or support from the government's own resources. The models / approaches

adopted in Nepal are conventional, T and V, Block Development, IRDP, Tuki, Farming

System Research, Farmer Group Approach, Contract out / Partnership of Extension

Programs, IPM (Farmers Field School) and others. These approaches all have some strengths

and weakness but all of these approaches / models have made significant contribution to

educate and transfer of technology to the farmers.

Initially, Agricultural Extension System in Nepal was mostly used as synonymous to

government/public services. The economic globalization, liberalization, privatization and

advent of information and communication technologies have been brought tremendous

changes in the field of agriculture development. The needs and interests of the farmers,

knowledge and information on production technologies and production objectives are

changing rapidly. Thus, farming is now closely linked with quality production, market

competitiveness and sustainability rather than the increasing production alone. As a result of

this paradigm shift in agriculture, the role of government extension services has also

changed. There is a shift for government to play more of facilitation role and for more

services to be provided by the private sectors. Now, there are different types of organizations

other than government agencies providing extension services to the farmers on contract out

or partnership basis. The extension service providers in Nepal can be identified as

governmental, community based organizations (CBOs) such as farmers associations and

cooperatives, developmental and institutional organizations (IAAS, NARC, vocational Trade

Schools, NGOs, training institutions, etc.) and private service providers (agrovets,

traders/processors, contractor/consultant, etc.)

In spite of the significant efforts made by extension system, however, there are still several

problems and issues that require attention to perform its function more efficiently and

effectively. One of the major challenges for agricultural extension system is how to serve the

majority of rural poor and socially disadvantaged groups who had long been neglected by

extension and other services. Other problems are inadequate linkage among research and

extension, education, farmers and other stakeholders, poor infra-structural development,

insufficient number of extension personnel etc. to carter diversified agricultural services.

Government has decided to implement the full fledge devolution modality in 14 district out

of 75 districts to provide quality services based on the needs and interests of local

communities. But it seems that there are several issues to be resolved in this modality,

particularly the full fledges devolution of agricultural extension programs. In past,

agricultural sector had always been placed at lower priority both in terms of program

planning and budget allocation in district level planning, which may create both financial as


well as managerial problems in the long run. It should be noted that it is agricultural services

that have the most direct impact on increasing the incomes of poor rural farmers.

The country paper consists of different technical chapters including one main theme paper on

Review of Agricultural Extension System in Nepal. There are all together 7 chapters in the

paper. The first part of the paper attempts to provide an overview of the agricultural service

system in Nepal including historical perspectives of extension organizations, comparative

analysis of different models and approaches adopted in past and at present and out comes of

these approaches in over all agricultural development.

The paper also describes the national extension strategy of the country, with historical

background and periodic reformation of the system. This paper has made an attempt to

justify the need of national extension system. The second chapter has tried to analyze the

different organizations of National Agricultural system, agencies involved in the system,

extension planning process of the country, coordination mechanism between public and

other different agricultural development sectors. It also describes the aspects of devolution,

some experiences of devolution practices adopted in different countries. It has also discussed

about the possible consequences of agricultural extension devolution in Nepal and has made

some suggestions to move ahead.

Third chapter consists of institutional reform including partnership and collaborative effort in

agricultural extension. The paper has made an attempt to foster the areas of partnership,

comparative strength of public and private service providers and some experiences of

partnership program in Nepalese agricultural extension system. This chapter also describes

the accountability hierarchy in over all government system in Nepal related with Agricultural

Extension Development and over all management information system of the nation. Fourth

chapter is trying to explore on human resource development and capacity building and fifth

chapter regarding the linkage system, mechanism and their importance for the development

of agriculture. Sixth chapter provides an over view of monitoring and evaluation system of

agricultural extension system of Nepal in general. The paper has thoroughly analyzed the

common features and issues in extension service delivery with more emphasis on

agricultural extension system with some meaningful recommendation.

The paper is trying to indicate that legislation on agricultural extension is essential to provide

the policy mandate, direction and necessary support to build a stable and effective extension

system.

294 Nepal

1. Introduction

Nepal is a land locked country situated between the People’s Republic of China in the north

and Republic of India in the remaining sides. It has an area of 147181 km2 of which 51817

km2 are covered by Mountain region, 61345 km

2 are covered by Hilly region and 34019 km

2

are covered by Terai region. Nepal has a population of nearly 30 millions.

Around 85 per cent of Nepal’s people live in rural areas. They draw their livelihood

primarily from agriculture and related activities. The share of agriculture in GDP was 39.16

in 2002/2003. However, majority of people still continue to depend heavily on agriculture

sector for income and employment opportunities. The 2001 census indicate that till now 65.6

per cent of economically active population in Nepal are employed in agriculture and related

activities (Economic Survey 2000/2001). Women constitute about 60 per cent of labour

force. They have little access to alternative employment opportunities. They are among the

poorest in the country. With small operational land holding averaging even less than half

hectare, agriculture reflects low level of productivity and absence of viable employment

opportunities for the rural people and thus poverty perpetuates.

Nepal is a multiethnic and multilingual society. The 2001 Census identified 103 caste or

ethnic groups and subgroups of the population. Similarly, same Census lists 93 different

languages or dialects prevalent in the country. These languages originated from two major

groups: the Indo-Aryans, who constitute about 85 percent of the population, and the Tibetan-

Burmese, who constitute about 15 percent of the population. Nepali is the official language

of the country and is the mother tongue of about 49 percent of the population. Newari,

Maithali, Awadhi are other languages spoken in the country.

Map of Nepal


Nepal, noted for her majestic Himalayas, the roof of the world, Sagarmatha, Mount Everest

(8848 m) in the north and the lowest point Kechanakal (70 m) in the south. The Himalayas

which in Sanskrit means the home of snow, the water towers, which supply water to the

Indo-gangetic plain of Indian subcontinent, are the proud of the mountainous and hilly

country, Nepal. Its shape is roughly rectangular, about 650 kilometers long and about 200

kilometers wide. Climate of Nepal varies from cool summers and severe winters in north to

subtropical summers and mild winters in south.

Agriculture sector still has prime role to play in Nepalese economy. This sector has 38

percent contribution to the National GDP and 13 percent of the total foreign trade of the

country. Keeping in view of the contribution, the agriculture sector was given priority for its

development from the onset of the periodic plans till the Eighth Five Year Plan. In this

background, the major objective and challenge of agriculture is to reduce poverty and to

support the development of non-agricultural sectors through high growth in agriculture.

1.1. Review of Agriculture Extension System in Nepal

1.1.1. Agriculture Extension in Conceptual Framework

Different extension specialists have conceptualized agriculture extension in different ways.

This is natural that the definition has been retuned on the basis of changing context. The

basic concept of extension is to transfer the appropriate technologies to the farmers and get

them adopted for their benefit. Extension always puts emphasis on educating the cliental to

solve the problems absorb the changes and stand on their own. However, some of the

concepts have been mentioned below:

(i) Agri. Extension relates to the process of carrying the technology of scientific agriculture

to the farmer in order to enable him to utilize the knowledge and a better economy. It

seeks to impart the necessary skills to the farmers for undertaking improved agriculture

operations, to make available to them timely information about improved practices in

an easily understandable form suited to their level of literacy and awareness, and to

create in them a favorable attitude for innovation and change (Benor et. al 1984)

(ii) The extension is an ongoing process of getting useful information to people (the communication dimension) and then in assisting those people to acquire the necessary

knowledge, skills and attitudes to utilize effectively this information or technology (the

educational dimension). Thus extension is central mechanism in the agriculture

development process, both in terms of technology transfer and human resources

development (Samantha, 1993).

(iii) Van dun and Hauking (1997) states that synthesized perspectives of extension are:

• Transferring knowledge from researchers to farmers.

• Advising farmers in their decision-making.

• Educating farmers to make similar decisions in the future.

• Enabling farmers to clarify their goals and possibilities and to realize them.

Stimulating desirable agricultural development.

(iv) To fit into current context, the agriculture extension should be capable enough to provide advisory services to farmers, processors, traders and other stakeholders

involved in the value chain system of agriculture.

296 Nepal

1.1.2. Historical Background of the Department of Agriculture

• 1942: Agriculture Office was established as an institutional effort.

• 1952: Department of Agriculture was established.

• 1966: Restructuring of Department of Agriculture and establishment of five

Departments:

− Department of Agriculture Extension

− Department of Fishery

− Department of Horticulture

− Department of Livestock Health

− Department of Agricultural Education and Research • 1972: Lack of effective coordination among the departments again led to the creation

of the Department of Agriculture.

• 1972: The need and sensitivity of agricultural markets gave rise to the establishment

of the Department of Agricultural Market Services.

• 1979: In view of effective program implementation of agriculture and livestock

sectors two separate departments; one for agriculture and another for livestock were

established - Department of Agriculture and Department of Livestock Services.

• 1990: Establishment of Department of Horticulture.

• 1992: under one umbrella policy all the five Departments - Horticulture; Crop and

Fishery; Food, Agriculture and Market Services; Livestock Health and Food

Research Laboratory were brought into one department called the Department of

Agricultural Development. Under this department one Director General and seven

Directors were posted.

• 1995: Under the new restructuring program three departments came into existence;

viz -Department of Agriculture, Department of Livestock Services, and Central Food

Research Laboratory.

• 2000: To enhance the effectiveness of services and supports to the Department of

Agriculture, 11 Technical Divisions at the center were reorganized into nine

Program Directorates.

• 2004: Program Directorates were reorganized and established 12 Program

Directorates and 14 National Programs under the Department of Agriculture.

1.1.3. Agricultural Extension in Nepal

The Tribhuvan Village Development Program (TVDP) included agriculture extension as one

of the components, which was the first in its kind. It was essentially an integrated

development program, where promotion of agriculture was the core component. Following

"Block Development Approach" TVDP encompassed other social components like

education, adult literacy, health and the general community development activities.

However, TVDP could not continue longer.





agriculture, which also included agriculture extension as one of the subjects, were supposed


to make the farmers aware and persuade them towards adopting new technologies,


Awareness raising methods among the farming communities were used. These included

individual contacts, group contacts and mass contacts. Attempts were also made to convince

the farmers about the superiority and usefulness of the modern/improved advocated


demonstrations, agriculture fares and farmer's day, farmer's field visit and observation tours,

and use of audio-visual aids.

The traditional extension approach was based on the "Trickle down" theory of the

dissemination of technologies. The underlying assumption of this approach was that if

innovation is introduced to small number of farmers (progressive/contact/leader farmers) the

diffusion process would automatically take place, and there will be multiplier impacts of the

interventions. This approach was successful to a limited extent. There was inadequate

motivation for the poor farmers to take the benefit of technology adoption. To overcome this

problem, the need for deliberate attempts to reach such farmers was realized. To support and

provide reinforcement to the field level extension workers -(JT/JTAs), Para extension

workers (such as " Agriculture Assistants", and 'Tukis") were employed. However, these

grassroots level extension support workers very soon became non-functional as they were

poorly paid and inadequately motivated. And the JT/JTAs again remained the sole extension

agents with a lot of limitations. More emphasis was laid on technical support while social

mobilization was neglected.

It was considered important that government alone may not be able to cater fully to the needs

of providing necessary production inputs and technical service to all farmers and in all

geographical areas. Realizing this, the government has adopted the policy of farmers' group

approach and involving the Community Based Organizations (CBOs) and Non-Government

Organization (NGOs) in the development efforts. It is assumed that it will be easier for the

extension workers to reach the maximum number of farmers and would be sustainable even

after the phasing out of the external assistance.

Despite many perceived weaknesses in farmer group approach, the government is pursuing

this approach to serve as the vehicle for bringing socio-economic changes at the grass root

level. The government is trying at best to remove the weaknesses identified so far about the

group and redefine the role of government.

Past Efforts

The history of agricultural development can be traced since 1950 and even before. But to

have a comprehensive idea it can be divided into two parts, as follows:

Before 1950: This period includes the opening of Nurseries, Veterinary Hospitals, Central

Research Farm, and Technical School etc. Administration was centralized, and there was no

problems regarding linkages and coordination. Level of farmer's awareness and ambitions

were very low and the farming was almost subsistence type.

After 1950: Systematic efforts towards national development began in the fifties with the

formulation and subsequent implementation of the first five-year plan in 1956. All the plans

formulated since then have emphasized generation of appropriate agricultural technologies

and their effective dissemination.

298 Nepal

The agriculture extension program was first included as a build in component of the

comprehensive Tribhuwan Village Development Program (TVDP), implemented through

USAID assistance. It was essentially the integrated village development program, where

promotion of agriculture was the core component. Following "Block Development

Approach" TVDP encompassed other social components like education, adult literacy, health

and the general community development activities. However, TVDP could not continue

longer.





agriculture, which also included agriculture extension as one of the subjects, were supposed

to make the farmers aware and persuade them towards adopting new technologies,


Various extension methods such as individual contacts, group contacts and mass contacts

were used for awareness rising among the farming communities. Attempts were made to

convince the farmers about the superiority, usefulness and profitability of the advocated


demonstrations, agriculture fares and farmer's day, farmer's field visit and observation tours,

and use of audio-visual aids. This traditional approach of extension continued for many years

before some of its basic weaknesses were recognized as the limiting factors in motivating

adequately the farming community to adopt the recommended agricultural practices. It was

realized that these were some inherent drawbacks in the system in a way that majority of the

farmers could not be reached. Specially, the poor and deprived communities remained, by

and large, out of the reach of the extension services. The main reason attributed to such

situation was the limited number of field level extension workers, as compared to the vast

number of farm households, combined with difficult terrains especially in the hill and

mountain.

The traditional extension approach was based on the "Trickle down" theory of the

dissemination of technologies. The underlying assumption of this approach was that if

innovation is introduced to small number of "progressive farmer" "contact farmer", "leader

farmers" and likes, the diffusion process will automatically take place, and there will be

multiplier impacts of the interventions. This approach met with limited success, mainly due

to the limited resources in terms of technical advice, production inputs and credit, service in

remote areas. Adequate motivation and persuasion were not there for the poor farmers to

take the benefit of technology adoption. To overcome this problem, the need for deliberate

attempts to reach such farmers was realized. To support and provide reinforcement to the

field level extension workers - (JT/JTAs), Para extension workers (such as "Agriculture

Assistants", and 'Tukis") were employed. However, these grassroots level extension support

workers very soon became non-functional as they were poorly paid and inadequately

motivated. And the JT/JTs again remained the sole extension agents with a lot of limitations.

Carrying out agriculture extension activities solely by JT/JTAs was not only the numerical

problem of non-availability, but it also suffered conceptually. Under this system, too much

emphasis was laid on technical support, and social mobilization aspect was neglected. It was

deemed necessary that delivering the technical services without social preparedness, at the

receiving end, is not going to achieve the purpose of agricultural development. Restoration


of multiparty democracy in the country in 1990 gave Nepal a new multiparty democratic

constitution in 1991, which appropriately recognized decentralization as a means to ensure

optimum involvement of the people in the governance. In this context it was therefore

realized that social mobilization at farmer's community should be done through farmers

groups empowered to effectively participate in development programs. It was also

considered important that government alone may not be able to cater fully to the needs of

providing necessary production inputs and technical service to all farmers and in all

geographical areas. Accordingly, the government has adopted the policy of carrying out the

extension activities through following the farmers group approach and involving the

Community Based Organizations (CBOs) and Non-Government Organization (NGOs), in

the development efforts of the government, It is assumed that it will be easier for the

extension workers to reach the maximum number of farmers through groups; and the groups

if properly developed can efficiently manage its activities through their capacity build up.

The approach may be sustainable even after the phasing out of the external assistance.

Despite many perceived weaknesses in farmer group approach, the government is pursuing

this approach to serve as the vehicle for bringing socio-economic changes at the grass root

level. The government is trying at best to remove the weaknesses identified so far about the

group and redefine the role of government.

1.2. Review of Extension Approaches

1.2.1. Approaches adopted in the past

(i) Training and Visit System: This system was based on the principle of single line of

command with continues training and contacts. Research extension linkage was

stronger though material support for adoption was quiet weak.

(ii) Integrated Rural Development Approach: This approach was based on the

integration and coordinated management of resources for rural development.

Technology support was not adequate.

(iii) Tuki Approach: This approach had the thrust of utilizing trained local farmers based on self-motivation principle. These farmers were also working as agri. input dealer, so

that the technological message could go along with inputs required.

(iv) Farming System Research and Extension Approach: This approach viewed research

and extension in the whole farming system perspective, so that cropping system

research could be done. Farmers would know the interdependencies between

components and could relate to physical, biological and socio-economic factors.

(v) Block Production Program: This program was based on the principle that intensive

use of resources consolidated together in an area called "Block" could increase the

productivity. This was not effective for scattered area.

1.2.2. Approaches at present

(i) Conventional Educational Approach- Besides the group members, the key farmers

are involved in the process of motivation and education. The farmers themselves in a

wider area disseminate the knowledge and skills taught to them. This approach has been

effective to facilitate the adoption of new innovation by interested farmer, which

eventually radiated demonstration effect to neighboring farmers.

300 Nepal

(ii) Pocket Package Approach- Pocket package approach refers to the production strategy on pocket area basis. The feasible pockets for a certain commodity are selected and then

a project is developed through bottom up process. This has been positive to introduce

the package of technologies as demanded by pockets. It has also helped to develop the

crops/commodities on commercial scale.

(iii) Projectization Approach- Every commodity based production program has been implemented on the basis of Project-designed within the frame work of time duration,

budget expenditure and expected output Package of activities which are required to

achieve the output are identified and included in the Project. This approach has been

adopted in all the seventy-five districts with a priority in the production pockets.

(iv) Farmers Group Approach- The principle is to put the farmers of same interest

together and carry out the activities on group basis. This has been very effective to

bring the innovation to the groups, which in turn expand to its command area farmers.

The limited manpower and other resources can be well utilized by means of group.

(v) Farmers Field School Approach-This is based on the principle of adult learning. This

has been very effective approach in reaching farmers and helping them to have an

access to the knowledge and skills required for crop management. This approach is

becoming popular because of its democratic and participatory process.

(vi) Partnership Approach- Government organizations is undertaking partnership

approach with other organizations like Department of Irrigation, NGOs, CBOs, Private

Organizations etc, to effectively deliver the extension services. This strategy has

encouraged relevant stakeholders to join hands in development.

Comparative Performance Indicators of Various Extensions

Approaches Adopted in past

S.

No.

Particular T & V IRDP Tuki FSR/E Conventional Block

Production

1. Relevancy of Technical

recommendation

Low Low Low High Low High

2. Agent client ratio 1:1621 1:1244 1:1154 1:451 1:1270 1:192

3. Research Extension

Linkage

High Poor Medium High Poor Medium

4. Coordination Low Low Low Low Poor High

5. Contact cost by

JT/JTAs (Rs.

3.59 2.13 7.69 8.74 6.37 7.59

6. Information flow Effective

and Rapid

Effective and

Slow

In effectice NA Ineffective and

slow

Effective

and Rapid

7. Visit to farm High and

Scheduled

Low and non-

scheduled

Non-

scheduled

Non-

scheduled

Low and Non-

scheduled

Non-

scheduled

8. Generation of

Technology

No No No Yes No Yes

9. Competency of

workers

Low Low Low NA Low High

10. Privatization of inputs No No Yes Yes No No

11. Training of field

staff

Regular

and

Scheduled

Irregular and

Non-scheduled

Irregular

and Non-

scheduled

Irregular

and Non-

scheduled

Irregular and

Non-scheduled

Irregular

and Non-

scheduled

12. Clarify in job

description

Yes No Yes Yes No No

13. Supervision and

Monitoring

Yes No No Yes No yes


1.3. Latest National Agricultural Extension Strategy

Background

With the devolution of agricultural extension function to the local elected bodies (District

Development Committees) as per the letter and spirit of the Local Self Governance Act 1999

(LSGA), the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has been attempting to formulate

National Agricultural Extension Strategy (NAES) consistent with the LSGA, APP, national

agricultural policy and national periodic plan. The work was initiated by the World Bank

supported Agricultural Research and Extension Project in 2001. As we all know, a taskforce

was formed and a national workshop was held in September 2001. Several excellent working

papers were prepared and presented at the seminar. However, efforts of AREP to reformulate

NAES by accommodating changed political, institutional, social, and economic landscape

and the visions on service delivery approaches appropriate to the 21st century remained

incomplete. The AREP was terminated as it completed its planned period. Prior to the above,

we recall to other National Agriculture Extension Strategy which was formulated in 1994

keeping in view of the upcoming Agricultural Research and Extension Project. Despite that

the official status of the 1994 strategy is not known, the Agricultural Research and Extension

Project (AREP) was approved by the World Bank after the formulation of this strategy and

that the MoAC and World Bank both were happy with the then strategy formulated in 1994.

Implemented in 19 Terai districts and 4 hill districts of Nepal between 1997 and 2002, AREP

is credited for its attempts to introduce several reform measures, methods and approaches in

the agricultural services delivery, which, among others, include the farmer centered

participatory group approach, projectization, privatization and partnership (GOs, NGOs and

private sector) approaches in agricultural service delivery. The influences of this project in

Nepal's agricultural history will remain for many years. With the termination of the AREP,

the Agriculture Perspective Plan Support Program implemented by the MoAC in July 2003

with the support of the DFID agreed to support the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives

to resume the task of formulating NAES. A new taskforce was formed under the

chairmanship of Mr. Aseshor Jha (Then Joint Secretary of MoAC) in April 2004 recognizing

the need for a nationwide strategy to provide new directions, mechanisms and processes for

the service delivery. This taskforce prepared two reports- a Background Paper on NAES,

2004, and the draft NAES 2004. However, prior to the presentation of the draft NAES to

different key stakeholders and its subsequent approval by the government, further actions

related to the NAES formulations were deferred by the APPSP. The reason was the initiation

of a higher level study on APP Review* which aimed at the formulation of the Agriculture

Perspective Plan (APP) Implementation Action Plan (APP-IAP). The postponement was

necessary as APP would provide policy framework and contexts for the NAES. It is very

important that the NAES and the APP-IAP be consistent to each other and the one reinforces

the other. As the APP implementation Action Plan has been prepared and is now within the

MoAC for further discussions and actions, the APPSP is expected to expedite the completion

of the NAES.

1.3.1. The Rationale for National Agricultural Extension Strategy

Issuance/ proclamation of a national agricultural extension Strategy (NAES) is necessary for

the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives as the global and national environment and

contexts for agricultural extension has tremendously changed in recent years. Business as

302 Nepal

usual will not meet the increasing expectations of the people. Poor and disadvantaged groups

will continue to be greatly ignored and their access is likely to be limited. Gaps between the

policy and its implementation are a reality. Nepalese agricultural extension services which is

now at the verge of transition from production focused to people focused, from hard systems

thinking to soft systems thinking and from transfer of technology types of approaches to that

of participatory approaches which are driven by the ethos of participation and put people at

their centre.

1.3.2. Reforming Agricultural Service Delivery, a National Agenda

In Nepal, agricultural extension is dominated by the activities of the two departments under

the MoAC- the Department of Agriculture (DOA) and the Department of Livestock Services

(DLS). Despite many encouraging evidences with regard to the performance of public sector

agricultural extension in the past, Nepalese public sector agricultural extension is often

criticized for its strong technology transfer and seemingly failure to contribute to sustainable

agricultural growth. Problems such as the following are often noted with regards to Nepal's

public sector agricultural extension:

• Domination of supply driven approaches rather than demand driven.

• Failing to cater the needs of the specialized client and demand for location specific

extension services as required by the commercialization of agriculture.

• High cost, low impact of extension programs.

• Insufficient face-to-face contact between extension worker and farmers.

• Inadequate funds for operational purpose.

• Inadequate technical qualifications of grassroots extension workers such as

JTs/JTAs,

• Inefficiency of extension personnel

• Dilution of impact by thin coverage.

MoAC's efforts to facilitate the evolution of self-standing and self-sustaining groups and

their empowerment to become self-reliant and capable of articulating their needs and

problems effectively have hardly matched with the resources, opportunities and capacities of

the public extension system. Furthermore, the current extension system is still out of reach of

majority of people. The extension worker: farmer ratio is very wide.

WTO Membership

After many years of efforts, exercises and controversies, with effect from April 23, 2004,

Nepal has become 147th member of the WTO Accession to the World Trade Organization is

often heralded as a major breakthrough in Nepal’s trading history. Getting membership in

the WTO was crucial for Nepal in the sense that no country, whether developed or

developing, can exist in isolation without trade with other countries. And the WTO is a

global body that makes global trade more disciplined and equitable. However, benefits to

WTO accession are potential and intangible; the costs are immediate and real. Unless

domestic policies, which include services delivery approaches and method, are reformed,

likelihood of benefiting from WTO membership for countries like Nepal is bleak. For

producers to benefit from the WTO, they need to be aware about the quality standards

imposed by the importing countries, produce quality products at competitive prices and

know all necessary phyto-sanitary rules and regulations, otherwise let the country be


prepared to observe the share of agricultural exports in total exports being declined, and the

economy of the country moving towards collapse.

While above problems remain, the government has devolved agricultural extension to the

local bodies. The devolution of the agricultural extension to the local elected bodies, has

however, created new challenges and opportunities.

Furthermore, the formulation of NAES has become crucial for the following reasons:

• Institutionalizing the participatory demand driven extension system;

• Sustaining the institutional parallelism within the public sector agricultural extension

service delivery;

• Making extension service delivery pro-poor and inclusive;

• Mainstreaming gender concerns in the agricultural extension services

• Strengthening the devolved agricultural extension systems

• Shifting the focus of agricultural extension system from the production to the people,

from the technology to the innovation system, and from farming to livelihoods;

• Making the public sector agricultural extension system work within the present

conflict situation (conflict sensitive service delivery approach)

• Revisiting the current agricultural extension educational methods the norms for

which have been so formulated that the materials and expenditure criteria hardly

differ either with the changes in the geographic diversities and physio-graphic

conditions of the district nor with the nature of technology;

• Strengthening the research, education and extension triangle and so forth

• Making extension efficient and effective in helping traders, producers and

consumers to benefit from the WTO membership and the implementation of

SAFTA.

1.3.3. Global Context

While national needs have necessitated us to formulate the national agricultural extension

strategy, changing global context, demands and expectations have made it urgent. The

following highlight a few global concerns.

Millennium Development Goals

A global development agenda, agreed by all the world’s countries, is now in place. The

agenda is set out in particular in the UN Millennium Declaration which was adopted in 2001.

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) represent concrete step-by-step objectives and

targets in specific areas. The MDGs consists of eight-time bound, mutually-reinforcing and

interrelated goals. These include:(a) eradicate poverty and hunger, (b) achieve primary

education, (c) promote gender equality and empower, (d) reduce child mortality, (e) improve

maternal health, (f) combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases, (g) ensure environmental

sustainability and (h) develop a global partnership for development. Achieving MDGs would

be remote if we go with the same approaches and methods of service delivery.

Food Security

The challenges facing agriculture and of assuring global food security and the sustainable

management of natural resources are manifold and immensely complex. Achieving the food

security requires two things. First it should be placed in a broad context and secondly it is

necessary to acknowledge the "multifaceted character of food security, as has been argued

304 Nepal

in" The Rome Declaration on World Food Security” in 1996. For this, the "business as

usual" will not work any more.

Globalization

Globalization refers to interdependence and linkages of the world economies, markets,

services, and people. It presents both emerging challenges and new opportunities. For

enabling Nepal’s agriculture to enter through new doors and get benefits from new

opportunities created under globalization by escaping its threats and meeting the challenges

requires reforms in the service delivery approaches and strategies.

A Rights Perspective on Development

The rights perspective comprises democracy and respect for human rights. Central to rights

based perspective is the realization that democracy and human rights are mutually

reinforcing, and one can’t exist without the other. The rights perspective focuses on

discriminated, excluded and marginalized individuals and groups. It urges that people must

be able to enjoy their rights regardless of sex, age, disability, ethnic background and sexual

orientation. This perspective helps to identify areas in which special actions are required to

ensure that the effects of various decisions are as fair as possible. Gender equality is a key

element of the rights perspective. It is necessary to give attention to the different conditions,

interests, capacities and needs of women and men, girls and boys. As many women are

among the poorest of the poor, securing women’s access to land, credit, clean water and

other resources as well as their participation in decision making is vital to their prospects of

overcoming poverty.

Good Governance

There has been increasing realization among development stakeholders that good governance

is needed for achieving sustainable development and poverty reduction. Likewise, there is

increasing recognition that the highly centralized institutional structure that characterizes

many government administrative systems can lead to losses in effectiveness of development

investments and policies. During the 1990s, pluralistic democracy replaced authoritarian

regimes in many countries including Nepal. The nature of governance also changed. The

concept of good governance, which rests on the four pillars (ownership, equity, transparency

and accountability, and efficiency) transcends the idea of governance as just “methods that

societies use to distribute power and manage public resources and problems” to champion a

process that “provides an enabling environment for human development and eradication of

human deprivations” (NHDR 2001).

Sustainable Livelihoods

Because livelihood strategies of the poor people are complex, a livelihoods perspective will

provide better insights into the ways in which agricultural growth can reduce poverty and

vulnerability. Needless to say, poor people in rural areas, including those with no land,

typically derive half their household income from farming. This includes working on the

farms of others.

Therefore, Sustainable Livelihoods Framework is gaining popularity for it offers a

conceptual and analytical framework to understand causes of poverty, analyze relationship

between relevant factors at micro, intermediate, and macro levels. The approach explicitly


requires going beyond sectoral barriers, to look at more of the context in which people live.

The framework for sustainable livelihoods dynamic recognizes changes due to both external

fluctuations and the results of people’s own actions. The starting point for the sustainable

livelihoods perspective is to look at first the vulnerability context within which people

operate.

Shrinking Funds and Resources

While investments in agricultural research and extension grew at a rapid pace, estimated at a

global average of over 6% per year during the 1960’s and 70’s, it has begun to stagnant or

decline from the 1980s, and this has been more drastic in the case of extension. Most of the

developing countries, extension services are often widely seen as having become grossly

inefficient, burocratised and ineffective. Donors are no longer willing to bear the running

cost of extension organizations for they are often viewed inefficient, monolithic and costly.

1.3.4. National Agricultural Extension Strategy

Mission

The mission of the NAES is "the efficient and cost-effective need-based participatory

delivery of agricultural services, prioritized and targeted to the needs of different categories

of farmers, particularly focused on small, poor and deprived.

Overall objective

The overall objective of NAES is to reform and reorient public sector agricultural extension

service in order that it will strengthen decentralized agricultural extension services and

ensure the access of the poor, deprived and socially excluded to the agricultural extension

service.

Specifically, it will

1. Provide a common framework for funding and delivery of agricultural extension services which will (a) be responsive and flexible to farmers’ needs (b) ensure farmers’ equitable

access to opportunities and benefits created provisioning of services, (c) be transparent

and disciplined in actions and (d) ensure active participation of all relevant actors and

stakeholders as to the nature of innovation/technology.

2. Create favorable opportunities and appropriate environment to support and sustain currently initiated learning centered participatory service delivery approaches.

3. Increase farmer's capacity and self-reliance to improve their livelihoods through farming systems.

4. Develop pro-poor professionalism in agricultural extension and keep the frontline extension workers active, motivated, disciplined and updated to both (a) technical

knowledge and skills and (b) social skills.

Thrusts of the NAES

• Poverty Reduction: NAES is oriented towards attacking poverty through multi-

approaches and actions at multi-layers in a coordinated and coherent way.

• Sustainable Livelihoods: In harmony and coherence with long-term NARC

research vision, the NAES will centre around the sustainable livelihood approach

(SL approaches) which is gaining popularity as an approach for addressing poverty.

306 Nepal

• Food Security: NAES will be directed towards improving food security in line with

the commitments made in the World Food Summit 1996, and followed by World

Food Summit, 5 years later.

• Conservation of Agricultural Biodiversities: NAES will work towards fulfilling

our commitments on improving biodiversity conservation and respond to declining

agricultural biodiversities.

• Equity and Inclusion: The NAES will aim at reforming service delivery modality,

particularly the dominant blue print approach- the Transfer of Technology Model, in

order that many, who are excluded from the present agricultural development efforts

due to factors such as the socio-economic reasons, sex, effect of the dominant trickle

down model of development, geographical isolation, remoteness, cultural factors, the

lack of the capacity poor to present their voices and concerns etc., are included

• Commercial Agriculture: The NAES will facilitate the implementation of centrally

supported/ administered programs in close collaboration with the Nepal Agricultural

Research Council (NARC) and concerned program directorates for the development

of the commercial farming sectors.

NAES Framework

• Decentralized agricultural services Delivery: In the last four decades, Nepal has

traveled a long road towards decentralization in an attempt to bring government

closer to the people. When power is brought closer to the citizens, the political

process is expected to become more tangible and transparent. As a result, more

people can become involved. The LSGA lays down the vision for decentralization,

the end goal where Nepal wants to go.

• Institutional pluralism (promote the private and community driven extension to

operate competitively, in roles that complement, supplement, and work in

partnership with public sector extension and outsource some of the activities

performed by the public sector extension)

• Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems (AKIS): AKIS views

agricultural research and extension as necessary but, by themselves, insufficient

elements in complex innovation-oriented institutional arrangements. It emphasizes

towards achieving synergy among diverse and complex institutional actors and

stakeholders.

• Participatory extension to enhance the capacity of the local people to actively take

part and influence decision making process about the cause of development that

affects their livelihoods.

Key Programmatic Elements

Key programmatic elements of our NAES include the following:

• Enhancing local bodies capacities

• Projectization approach (Cluster approach)

• Establishment and operation of demonstration farms (Resource centers and private

demo- farms)

• Convening village workshops

• Farmers' group organization and development

• Coordination and linkages


• Livelihood analysis

• Developing and mobilizing community based organizations and locals resource

persons

1.4. Contribution of Agriculture Extension in Agriculture Development:

Until the faculty system was established, whatever was done in agriculture, it was considered

to be the contribution of agriculture extension and research Faculty system in spite of its

positive aspects has significantly compartmentalized the manpower of the department,

creating confusions misunderstandings and rivalry within the organizations. It is really

difficult to demarcate the contribution made by research and extension, which are considered

as the two pillars of agriculture development, yet it can be said that they share almost equal

level of contribution in general. However, the contribution of Agriculture extension could be

noticed as follows:

1.4.1. Extension as a vehicle

Agriculture extension, as a matter of fact, is serving as a vehicle for carrying messages to

farm communities and in turn bringing back the solution seeking feed back to the concerned

organizations and so on.

• Massive awareness: Extension agents tried to reach the farmers as much as they

could. They started answering the questions raised by the farmers and gradually

farmers started using improved technologies in their field. They heard about new

things and they applied them in the practice and ultimately obtained benefit from it.

In this way farmers raised their level of awareness in getting information, knowledge

and skills for using the information in the field and then generate income out of it.

The extension educational activities, trainings and vigorous interactions with farmers

tremendously helped to make the farmers aware, alert and educated in agriculture.

• Introduction of modern concepts and approaches: It is well known that every

thing in the universe is changing. What is today does not necessarily remain

tomorrow. So is the case with agriculture. Now concepts, approaches and

technologies of agriculture generated around the world greatly influenced Nepalese

farmers also by means of different media such as contacts by the extension agents,

exposure visits, publications, telephones, electronic media and so on Farmers now

are very much aware of different actors of development and know to join hands with

them. They have been professional to go into the depth of the techniques and use

them to improve their farming.

• Adoption of new technologies/innovations: The main job of agriculture extension

is to communicate, educate and convince the farmers about new technologies or

innovations that are suitable to adopt in their conditions. In this context, several

extension techniques such as demonstration, group discussion, educational visit,

trainings are applied, so that the farmers are motivated and also become technically

able to adopt new technologies in their field.

1.4.2. Creation of farmer's demand for the facilities and services

Farmers when realized the importance of agriculture extension started putting their demands

for facilities and services. They used to ask for Agriculture Service Centers, qualified

308 Nepal

JT/JTAs, input and credit facilities, irrigation, marketing centers etc in their area so that they

could make use of them in their farming purposes.

1.4.3. Improvement in the Production System

Towards Commercialization: Agriculture extension by using several tools and techniques,

attempted different concepts and approaches towards improving production system. Pocket

package strategy as pinpointed by APP was implemented for the commercialization of

agriculture by focusing one or two main commodities in the pocket. Farmers with similar

interest were put into the group or lager organizations to consolidate and establish a working

mechanism towards commercialization. In this context one of the major extension services

these days has been to transfer subsistence farming into commercial farming.

Cropping Intensity: With the efforts of extension services the cropping intensity in many

cases has been increased even up to 300 per cent and per unit area production per year thus

has increased in the country,

Towards Food Security: Several attempts have been made to increase production and

productivity to address food security issues. Needs regarding the production inputs have

been catered both by private and public sector. Local farmers have been involved in

generating resources such as seeds, seedlings etc. Some of the special programs implemented

for this purpose are as follows:

Small Irrigation Scheme: Small irrigation scheme program has been implemented in the

needy are as or needy farmer groups of all the seventy-five districts. Since, these schemes

could be scattered even within the district, it could in deed hit the problem. The small and

marginal farmers, women farmers and disadvantaged sector are specially paid attention while

deciding the schemes.

2. Extension Organizations

Organizational structures of agriculture extension are changing several times. Some times

there is one department and some times different departments. So far as the specific

extension organization is concerted it stunted as Agriculture Extension Section first and

gradually enlarged to Directorate of Agriculture Extension and its main mandate is to

facilitate the working by supplementing the operational guidelines for field extension

activities to be conducted as per their technical standard. However, after the restoration of

democracy two major changes occurred in the organizational front. In 1991, first the

responsibility of agricultural research was detached from the then Ministry of Agriculture

(MOA) and handed over to Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), an independent

and autonomous research organization. Second, the Department of Agriculture (DOA) and

the Department of Livestock Services (DOLS) were merged into a single Department of

Agriculture Development (DOAD). But merging two departments into one could not

continue for longer. Following Local self Government Act 1999, HMGN since 2001/02 has

devolved the agriculture extension services to District Development Committees (DDC)

adding one more dimension to the ongoing reforms in the delivery aspect. All the regional

and district organizations have been adjusted accordingly. Recent structural change has

substantially reduced the number of Agriculture Service Center (4 per Tarai district, 6 per

hill district and 4 per high hill district. This has resulted for JT/JTA to serve quite large area


and farm families. Special working mechanisms need to be established to properly address

the emerging issues faced by the farmers and other stakeholders involved in the system.

2.1. Agencies Involved in the Extension System (GO and NGO)

2.1.1. Public Level

There are various service delivery institutions to ensure the agriculture service delivery to

meet the need and demand of farmers in Nepal. The detail of different institutions is attached

at annex 1 (Organizational Chart of MoAC). Following are the agriculture extension service

delivery institutions.

310 Nepal

District Agriculture Development Office (DADO)

District Agriculture Extension Offices (DADOs) are the service providing organization at

district level regarding agriculture and livestock sector respectively. Likewise, District

Livestock Offices (DLSOs) are concerned with delivery of extension services on livestock.

Agriculture Service Centre

The Agriculture Service Centres (ASCs) are the grass root institutions to provide the

agriculture extension service that work closely with the farmers. As the numbers of ASCs are

limited, some supplementary provisions have been made to provide the services for the

farmers. These include:

Contact Centre

After the restructuring of MoAC in 2061 BS, the numbers of ASCs per district were reduced.

This created the pressure in the ASC to cover the larger clientele. In this context, DoA

provided flexibility to districts to establish contact centers (Samparka Kendra) to effectively

utilize the existing physical resources such as Agriculture Sub-Service Centers as well as

demand of VDCs.

Model Agriculture Service Centre

The concept of model service centre was put to increase the efficiency and implement the

service delivery with improved effectiveness so that it could be internalized in other service

centers. Priorities have been given to improve the physical condition and equip with essential

facilities. Such model service centers have been established in following five districts in each

development region.

1. Agriculture Service Centre, Urlabari, Morang 2. Agriculture Service Centre, Gunjanagar, Chitwan 3. Agriculture Service Centre, Shishawa, Kaski 4. Agriculture Service Centre, Ramghat, Surkhet 5. Agriculture Service Centre, Attariya, Kailali

Community Agriculture Service Centre

The concept of Community Agriculture Service Centre (CASC) has been put forward by

MoAC with the objective of making service delivery more inclusive as well as to help

commercialization in agriculture through best utilization of local resources and skills of local

individuals. Though the establishment of 25 CASC was announced by Nepal Government in

annual budget and program of FY 2065/66 it has not been implemented yet. The proposed

model emphasize the participation of farmers groups and cooperatives in the management

and implementation of program at service centre level to make service more responsive and

client oriented. The contribution of local government bodies (VDC/DDC) and concerned

NGOs/CBOs/private sectors is also expected. Farmers improved access is expected to

through the representation of each groups and cooperatives in a management team for

CASC.

Similarly, recently farmer's cooperatives are equally utilized in the delivery of agriculture

extension service.


2.1.2. International/National Nongovernmental organizations (I-NGOs)

There are ten thousand nongovernment organizations involved in community and rural

development sector (Three year interim plan). I-NGOs have played very significant role in

Nepalese society in a number of ways including successfully arousing consciousness and

making advocacy of/for a number of developmental issues and other global democratic

values( good governance, civil society, globalization, privatization, liberalization,

transparency, responsibility, participatory democracy and development, decentralization).

NGO Strengths

• The majority of NGOs are small and horizontally structured with short lines of

communication and are therefore capable of responding flexibly and rapidly to

clients' needs and to changing circumstances. They are also characterized by a work

ethic conducive to generating sustainable processes and impacts.

• NGOs' concern with the rural poor means that they often maintain a field presence in

remote locations, where it is difficult to keep government staff in post,

• One of NGOs' main concerns has been to identify the needs of the rural poor in

sustainable agricultural development. They have therefore pioneered a wide range of

participatory methods for diagnosis3 and, in some contexts, have developed and

introduced systems approaches for testing new technology,

• NGOs' rapport with farmers has allowed them to draw on local knowledge systems

in the design of technology options and to strengthen such systems by ensuring that

the technologies developed are reintegrated into them

• NGOs have also developed innovative dissemination methods, relying on farmer-to-

farmer contact, whether on a group or individual basis

• In some cases, NGOs have developed new technologies such as by Li-bird and

SEAPRED

• Undoubtedly, one of the main strengths of NGOs has been their work in group

formation. This has been in response to perceived needs at several levels.

NGO Weaknesses

• NGOs' small size means that their projects rarely address the structural factors that

underlie rural poverty. Small size, independence, and differences in philosophy also

militate against learning from each other's experience and against the creation of

effective forums, whether at national or district levels.

• Some "fashionable" locations have become so densely populated by a diversity of

NGOs that problems have arisen not merely of competition for the same clientele,

but of some undermining the activities of others

• NGOs have limited capacities for agricultural technology development and

dissemination and limited awareness of how to create effective demand-pull on

government services.

• Some NGOs are more accountable to external funding agencies than to the clientele

they claim to serve. Donor pressure to achieve short-term impacts, combined with a

lack of cross-learning, has led in some cases to the promotion of inappropriate

technology,

312 Nepal

The I-NGOs have either interacted or linkage with the beneficiaries, user groups, self help

organizations (SHOs), CBOs, and other people’s organizations or part of them and have also

linkages with external actors/forces ,they have successfully mediated or played the role of

mediators and communicators between the state /government and the people and tried to

bridged the gap. They have played important role in empowerment (poor, women,

marginalized, Dalits, Adibasi janajaties, powerless, voiceless, vulnerable groups, and

empower the poor for self help development and networking), governance, capacity building

(e.g. Of institutions, development planning , information exchange, training of personnel,

institutional building) and management(coordination of activities monitoring control

evaluation feedback and reporting) .They have also played significant role in identifying

developmental needs priorities and activities and recommending the policy makers to

correcting their weakness and for their effective implementation .Some I-NGOs have also

worked as umbrella organizations including many intermediary institutions ,voluntary

organizations and associations, user’s groups .CBOs and SHOs. Some have even tried to

penetrate in a remote rural areas contributing or monitoring the developmental activities of

the local organizations. Some of them have even contributed to strengthen the developmental

power of the people to overcome their existing problem, issues, challenges (e.g. poverty,

illiteracy, malnutrition and powerless), miseries and inequalities.

2.1.3. Community Based Organizations

A CBO is an organization that provides social services at the local level. It is a non-profit

organization whose activities are based primarily on volunteer efforts. This means that CBOs

depend heavily on voluntary contributions for labor, material and financial support.

Indigenous CBOs were well established traditions in Nepal in the past. Their powerful

presence, which existed among all ethnic communities prior to the unification of Nepal in

1768, has since eroded. Most indigenous CBOs treat ethnicity as a major focus. These

culture sp0ecific organizations are characterized by social, religious and developmental

practices, quite unique to each ethnic group. Some examples of these ethnic groups are:

Dhikuri- associated with the Thakalis, Bhotias and Gurungs of western Nepal.

DharmaPanchayat- a sociopolitical and legal organization of the Thakali ethnic community

that helped them exercise local autonomy even during the feudal Rana regime.

Guthi- an indigenous social and religious organization of Newars of the Kathmandu valley.

Rodi- a unique social organization of the Gurungs of western Nepal.

Bheja- an indigenous social political, economic and legal organization of the Magars.

Kipat- a similar organization of the Limbus.

These organizations function within their own traditional practices and codes of ethics, but

are quite different from the emerging modern concept of local NGOs in Nepal.

Funding agencies should be aware that in rural areas, the rural elites tend to have overriding

decision making powers. The rural population is highly heterogeneous in terms of caste

ethnicity and socioeconomic status. In some cases user groups such as water or forest user

groups being promoted in grass root projects may not be representative of the majority

population of the area.


CBOs are recognized as organizations that provide development services to grass root

communities at village and district level through the mobilization of paid members or unpaid

volunteers. CBOs are rooted in the communities they serve.

CBOs in Nepal sometimes are based in ethnic group, seeking benefit for a particular ethnic

group. It is important to differentiate between induced and indigenous CBOs. CBOs that

originate with projects are regarded as induced.

Characteristics of a CBO

• It is non-profit;

• It relies on voluntary contributions;

• It acts at the local level; and

• It is service-oriented.

There are many forms of community based organizations in Nepal. They are in the form of

mere farmer groups to well organized structures such as federations, forums, networks,

cooperatives, and so on.

2.2. Extension Planning Process

According to Kelsey and Hearne (1967) an Extension program is a statement of situation,

objectives, problems and solution. It is relatively permanent but requires constant revision. It

forms the basis of extension plans.

Extension planning is a process, which involves studying the past, and present in order to

forecast the future and in the light of that forecast determining the goals to be achieved and

what must be done to achieve them. Program planning is a decision making process

involving critical analysis of the existing situation and the problems, evaluation of the

various alternatives to solve these problems and the selection of the relevant ones, giving

necessary priorities based upon local needs and resources by the cooperative efforts of the

people both official and non-official with a view to facilitate the individual and community

growth and development.

Problem Identification Process

With in the DOA and DOLS Participatory Bottom-Up Planning (PBUP) process of

agricultural extension program planning is followed in planning process. Based on national

agriculture policy and priority the planning is done. For this, Central Program Directorate

and Offices of DOA and DOLS prepare technical guidelines in their respective areas. The

departments compile technical guidelines along with the guidelines provided by the National

Planning Commission (NPC) and MOAC. Thus prepared guidelines and directives are made

available to DADOs and DLSOs through RD. The DADO and DLSO Chief inform their

SMSs and Incharges of ASC/ASSC and other technicians about central guidelines and

directives and guidelines receive from DDC. The guidelines and directives should reach

ASC/ ASSC before the PBUP at the ASC/ASSC level starts.

Levels of planning

1. ASC/ASSC level planning can be divided into; planning for pocket area and planning for non pocket areas.

2. District level planning

314 Nepal

3. Regional level planning workshop 4. Central level program reconciliation and approval

2.2.1. ASC/ASSC level planning (Planning for pocket areas)

Agricultural production pockets are geographical locations that are agro-climatologically

suitable for the production of particular commodity or for other agricultural productions. For

the intervention of agricultural extension, pockets bearing potentialities of commercial

production and with access of irrigation, road, market, electricity and agro-based industries

are selected. Agricultural production pockets may cover certain areas of a word or tit may

spread in more than one VDC and even areas of more than one ASC/ASSC.

Planning in the pocket area is done by using participatory planning tools mainly PC/PS.

PC/PS can be supplemented by one or more PRA tools to get necessary information about

eh pocket area. Detailed aspects of PC/PS approach will be discussed in the following

section.

Outcomes of the PC/PS exercise will be the activities related to one or more elements of

production packages that include small irrigation, inputs management, agricultural land,

agricultural roads, rural electrification, production technology, agro-processing and market

management etc. These packages are provided in the pocket area to fully exploit the

production potential of the particular commodity; that what we call is Pocket Package

Program (PPP). These activities related to elements of production package are combined to

give a form of time bound project with specific objectives, activities to be carried out,

resources required, roles and responsibilities of major actors. Thus prepared projects, in

crude form, are later translated by the ASC/ASSC in to the standard Project Formulation

Format (PPF) circulated by DOA.

2.2.2. District Level Planning

DADO is the converging point for the adjustment in the district agricultural need and

priorities and central directives, guidelines and resources (budget ceiling). Programs/ projects

generated in ASC/ASSCs provided the basis for DADO annual program. In addition to that,

it compiles analyses and updates the data coming form the ASC/ASSCs.

DADO itself prepares programs that are implemented directly from the DADO headquarter.

These programs are to support the programs/ activities, but beyond the capacity to run, of

ASC/ASSCs themselves. These programs include district and regional in-service and farmers

training, district level workshop, feasibility study, impact studies, agricultural business and

market promotion, coordination and management of inter5nal external resources, monitoring

and evaluation etc. All these activities should necessarily be the activities of different

projects. Projects thus formed are discussed in the District Agricultural Development

Committee (DADC).

In line with concept of promotion partnership and pluralism in extension, DADO can offer

some of its selected activities of NOGs/CBOs, farmers' groups and private sectors to

implement in partnership or contract-out on competitive basis according to the guidelines

provided by the MOAC.

Finally DADO will prepare a comprehensive scenario of agricultural development of the

district that also include annual program to be launched in the district, their objectives,


responsibilities of personnel and organization, resources required, calendar of operations etc.

Program thus prepared by the DADO are discussed in detail in DADC and are submitted in

District Assembly (DA) thorough Agriculture Forest and Environment Committee and

District Level Planning Coordination Committee of DDC for approval.

2.2.3. Regional level planning workshop

DADO presents program approved by DA in the regional program budget workshop to be

organized by the concerned RDA. In regional workshop mainly technical aspects of district

programs are discussed and resource matching is done. Besides DADOs, other participants

are central program directorates, regional offices of line agencies, government farms and

resource centers, laboratories. Line agencies are invited into the workshop to ensure better

coordination in program implementation. There may be amendments in the district programs

only from technical point of view.

2.2.4. Central level program reconciliation and approval

DOA reconciles the district programs on the basis of guidelines and directives provided by it,

technical aspects of the program and budget ceiling in the presence of central level program

directors. After that it forwards the programs to MOAC. Several round of discussions are

held at MOAC, National Planning Commission (NPC) and Ministry of Finance and

programs are approved with or with out trimming them. DOA receives that approved budget

and programs that it sends to each DADO to implement.

2.2.5. Projectization of Agricultural Extension Activities

DOA has started to adopt projectization approach for district extension programs. District

extension activities have now converted into project format. Any extension activity is now a

component of a defined project with clear title, purpose, objectives, indicators, and

institutional arrangements of managing implementation and monitoring and evaluation.

2.2.5.1. Projectization Process

1. Farmers' problems are identified and prioritized using PC/PS process in the pocket area with the involvement skateholders. PC/PS process clearly identifies project purpose and

logic.

2. Prioritized problems and solutions lead clearly to project components. Project components are fited together into a project design format.

A good project design/document, in a simple way, makes clear:

• Why the project is proposed, and exactly what the project sets out to accomplish

• Who will benefit

• Why and how the project is expected to accomplish its purpose and objectives- its

strategy and set of activities

• How those involved will know when they have accomplished what they set out do

• The timeframe, resources, polices, and implementation arrangements for doing so

3. Projects are then fitted into a prevailing program-budget formulating formats. DADO forwards the annual programs for the approval of related authorities.

316 Nepal

2.2.5.2. Implementation of Projects

After the approval of annual programs, DADO implements projects through the Project

Management Committee (PMC). The PMC comprises:

Chief, DADO Coordinator

Agricultural Extension

Office (AEO)/Assistant AEO (AAEO) Member

Assistant Planning Officer Member

Accountant Member

Concerned SMS Member-secretary

Terms of Reference (TOR) of Project Management Committee (PMC)

• The concerned SMS should prepare calendar of operation and communicate it to the

chief and APO.

• At the project level, if necessary, a Project Implementation Committee should be

formed and that should take care of implementation issues.

• The SMS should coordinate with line agencies and other stakeholders.

• Given the workload of SMS in the district, responsibility may be entrusted to other

SMCs as well. The decision may be made by the PMC.

• PMC should meet a day prior to DADO staff meeting.

• Financial administration of the project will depend upon the recommendation of the

SMS or the designated staff associated with the project. Accounts will be made

transparent and the APO will maintain project-wise expenses as well.

2.2.6. Recent Interventions in Reforming Extension Planning Services

• Participatory project planning process is developed, and accordingly, extension

activities of all districts (75) are projectized from FY 2001/02. The projects are

based on local priorities identified through a participatory bottom -up planning

process institutionalized throughout the organizations in DOA. Projects such as

AREP (HMGN/WB), TLDP (HMGN/ADB), HARP (HMGN/DFID) etc have

established participatory planning tools such as PCPS, SLA, PRA, VLW etc.

• With projectization, it has now become possible to identify components based on

local priorities directly benefiting the users, linking measurable outputs to objectives

for a given timeframe and designing activities/inputs to produce the desired outputs

and impacts. The process could establish a system, within the organization from

national to grassroots level, of standard project management, staff utilization and

monitoring. Project profiles are documented at each level of the organization

(national planning commission, ministry, department, region and district).

• In preparation for implementation of projectization process, extension staffs in field

are oriented in mass followed by a refresher training to prepare a cadre of at least

one master trainer in each district, regional and central program unit. The

projectization process enhanced the need of linking central program units to districts

for technical back up in project identification, project formulation and monitoring.

Visits of senior subject matter specialists from these units to district project sites

become more frequent.


• With projects’ initiative, the government introduced policy reform to promote public

private partnership, partnership with beneficiary groups and community

organizations.

• Agencies within the organization began to be oriented to change the mindset to

promote such collaboration and partnerships. Policy of contracting out extension

programs is emphatically introduced.

• The newly introduced reforms in national extension strategy initiated under the

projects created heavy need for staff orientation across the organization to reorient

the extension agents associated with GOs and NGOs, PSOs and CBOs and also

policy makers affiliated to local bodies. The key contents of this mass training are

the changed role of public sector as a facilitator rather than a service provider,

commercial outlook to service delivery, social mobilization and participatory

development tools.

• Sustainability of these initiatives is ensured from the fact that DOA/DLS reformed

national training strategy commencing implementation from the beginning of the

tenth five-year plan (2002-07). New training modules for areas such as project

planning, project monitoring and evaluation, marketing, commercial farming,

mainstreaming gender in agriculture and agricultural resource management needed

to improve human resource capability are prepared.

• Available socio-economic studies and district database analysis indicates that farm

level productivity and income during various projects’ period has significantly

increased. However, this gain is realized in limited resourceful areas and among

resourceful farmers, making the national benefit at large very nominal and far behind

the national requirement.

• For feedback to national extension system, the impact studies, case studies and

special technical studies are initiated. These studies validate the impacts of priority

national programs or, in more cases, the impacts of micro-level projects at

beneficiary level.

• Joint research-extension-farmer–nongovernmental research provider planning,

implementing and monitoring systems are established.

2.3. Coordination Mechanism

Agriculture development program aims at improving the quality of life of rural people.

Agriculture development implies the shift from traditional method to new methods of

production that include the use of better and improved seed, fertilizers, tools, pesticides, even

new farming system, etc.

Extension component is essential in the agricultural development process but it is, by no

means, the only factor in the process. Equally important components are the development

support systems such as research unit, various service and supply agencies, government

bodies, etc. Each unit in its own way shares responsibility of agricultural development. In

theory the extension system, beside its educational communication function, is expected to

help farmers learn about new technological alternatives and the way to gain access to inputs,

credit and marketing services so that farm output and incomes can be increased. The

extension also intends to inform farmers about the si9tuation of inputs, credit, market

problems, etc. So there is a dire need of having close relationship and linkage among the

various agencies involved ion agricultural development programs.

318 Nepal

District Coordination Committee is of the mechanisms to establish coordination of regular

program activities of the districts. The project activities are decided jointly by project

personnel and extension workers. The planned activities are coordinated by Agriculture

section of the project.

Under the decentralization policy of the HMG/N, District Development Committee is

responsible to build and approved programs in different fields in consultation with all

concerned agencies (DADO, AIC, LSC, ADB/N, Cooperatives, Research farmers, etc.) and

the representatives from different users' group. It is also a mechanism to established

coordination of regular program activities of the District.

AIC with necessary farm inputs chanalizes its activities through the Cooperatives, sales

depots, private dealers, etc. in various parts of the country and works in close contact with

extension for what, when and how much inputs to be supplied. On the other side, ADB

makes available loans/credits either through Cooperatives or directly to the needy farmers in

consultation with the District Agricultural Offices. It is, therefore, necessary that for the

success of a program the function of these agencies must be integrated with one another.

2.3.1. Coordination and Linkage Model of Agro-Technology Transfer

A model of agro-technology development and dissemination has been outlined (Paudel and

Thakur, 2008) in Nepal (Fig, 2). This model depicts how agro-technology is generated,

verified and disseminated to the end users/clienteles. The model is based on participatory

concept involving public-private-partnership where international, national, regional, and

local stakeholders are linked to agriculture research and development (R&D). The limit of

research is up to outreach research (OR) site where extension agencies are supposed to take

fine tuned technologies for wider dissemination. In Nepal, Nepal Agricultural Research

Council (NARC) is responsible for technology development while Department of

Agriculture (DoA), Department of Livestock Services (DLS) and Community Based

Organizations (CBOs) are the partners of technology dissemination. International/National

Government Organizations (I/NGOs) are involved into research and development according

to their priority and target set as well. Institutions which have strong linkage at OR site and

which have poor linkage serve their function to deliver technologies to the clienteles with

strong commitments and weak commitment, respectively, which is clearly indicated in the

following fig.


Agrotechnology

Generation Dissemination Verification

NARC IARS/Donor/CBOs University// NARC University

DoA DLS I/NGOs/CBOs

OR Site

Agriculture Service Centre

End Users/

Clients

Agro-technology development and transfer model in Nepal

Abbreviations included in Fig. 2

IARS

CBOs

NARC

DoA

DLS

I/NGOs

OR

International agricultural research systems

Community based organizations

Nepal agricultural research council

Department of agriculture

Department of livestock services

International/national government organizations

Outreach research

319


2.3.2. Different Extension Organizations and their Coordination at Grassroots Level

An efficient extension organization needs to develop the capability of responding to changes

in relation to its environment. Extension organizations have to cope with changes within and

outside the organization, such as changes in farm technology, communication methods,

needs of farmers, rural situations, export and import of farm produce, and market economy.

Organizational development allows for planned changes in the organization's tasks,

techniques, structure, and people. Attitudes, values, and practices of the organization are

changed so that it can cope with changing situations. The employees also gain greater skills

to deal with new problems.

Extension, though controlled and regulated by the central level organization, is in practical

sense carried out by the grass-root level organizations. Extension institutions at grass-root

level are of public (government) organizations, international or national non-governmental

organizations, community based organizations and private organizations.

Government Organizations

Government organization at grass-root level are the Agricultural Service Centers (ASC) and

their sub-centers located at particular locations to serve assigned number of VDCs. Earlier

Junior Technicians (JT) and Junior Technical Assistants (JTA) were supposed to provide

mobile extension services in the villages. With the growing demand of the farmers and their

limited number they could not cater their services efficiently. Then the government changed

its policy to station these JT/JTAs in the ASCs and provide extension service to Farmers'

Groups (FG) through these stations. They have to go to the villages of farmers' field to

advise whenever there is a group meeting or problem en mass.

The number of ASC in each district is 4 for high hills, 6 for mid-hills and 4 for terai. The

number of sub-centers is not fixed and is being assigned as per need by DADO. It mostly

depends upon the availability of field staff and office building to station them. The number

of ASCs and field level staff has been drastically cut off after the organizational restructuring

of Department of Agriculture (DOA) in FY 2060/61. Earlier ASCs were established and

operative in almost all ilakas of the district. The government policy was to establish all

developmental and administrative service centers in each ilaka. The number of , nine in each

district during Panchayat regime, however varied district wise. Foreign aided projects like

Integrated Rural Development Projects (IRDP), Agricultural Extension and Research

Project(AERP), Upper Sagarmatha Agricultural Development Project(USADP), Hill Fruit

Development Project(HFDP), Hill Agriculture Development Project (HADP) and others

supported to construct ASCs in different ilakas of the project districts. Now these structures

exceeding the number of ASCs are being used as sub-centers.JT/JTAs stationed in ASCs

provide extension service to the farmers, collect information for management and policy

formulation and also play regulatory role. In the changed context they work as agriculture

development workers rather than agricultural extension workers.

2.4. Decentralization of Extension Delivery System

2.4.1. Decentralization: Concept and Issues

Decentralization is the transfer of authority and responsibility to lower level of government,

quasi-government or private sector organizations for the public functions otherwise


implemented by the central government. However, this term should be interpreted with

caution since decentralization differs, in forms and combinations, from country to country

given the specific situation of its own. Decentralization comes by desire of the central

government, demand from below or compulsion of the central authority because of

government constraints to provide effective services. Following the pace of development,

fulfilling farmers’ demands at the local level in such a varied agro ecological zones and

often-rugged terrain in Nepal by the central government has become a challenge for

agricultural extension services.

The reasons why the central governments prefer to decentralize stems from the facts of:

• Need to address complex situations at the local level

• Central level funding may not be enough to finance agricultural extension services

demanded by the farmers

• The grassroots farmer's participation may be better solicited through devolution

In our situation, the Agriculture Service Centers (ASCs) have to serve a large area often

diverse in agro-ecological make up, natural resource endowments, category of farmers, and

socioeconomic circumstances. Further, the political boundary of the ASC at the sub district

(Ilaka) level and of the District Agriculture Development Office (DADO) at the district do

not match with agro-ecological domain. This renders agricultural extension service provision

even more difficult to fulfill farmers’ demand for relevant, responsive and sustainable

agriculture. There is a difference between the extension service and the advisory services—

the former is to teach what the extension agent knows and is to accomplish the given task by

their boss as targets and the latter is to respond to farmers’ demand for specific problem

solving.

Because the location specific problems/needs are as diverse as the locations themselves,

demand for services are innumerable and require a large sum of extension budget as well as

the knowledge and skill on the part of extension worker. This has implication for

competently qualified manpower, program budget, and so forth. The central government in

any country may not be in a position to fulfill this demand of the lower tier local

government. This is very true in Nepal as well. Both the DADO and Farmers Group (FG)

request for annual plan budget that far exceeds the actually available at the end. This has

been insoluble as has been experienced in the past. Hence, the central government feels it

necessary to decentralize in the excuse that local level agricultural extension funding is

raised locally on top of central grants. Thus, in recent years decentralization has been the

“excuse for escape” to avoid criticism from the local governments. Nepal is no exception.

Agricultural extension has been always the subject of criticism at the district level, both from

farmers and local leaders, and at the parliament alike for not serving the clients to affect

vibrant agriculture in Nepal.

Linkage has been one of the talked about areas even in the centralized agricultural extension

function. After decentralization, linkage is still another very important area in the context of

limited research centers rested with Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), more so

because of the numerous microclimates interwoven in the complex production subsystems in

Nepal. Expanding research base would mean added burden on budgetary resources from the

central government.

322 Nepal

Decentralization may bring the decision makers closer to the farmers, but there is no

guarantee that farmers will be heard responsively. If the extension personnel have no

different orientation, attitude and improved skill and knowledge, there will be no positive

change towards improving the farming community livelihoods and reduction of poverty

which is the overarching objective of the Tenth Plan.

Different forms of financing extension comprise users’ contribution to extension programs.

For this the farmers must be organized as farmers groups (FGs) and raise funds on their own

initiative. Then the agricultural extension service can be sustainable. Mutual trust is all the

more overriding for FGs to invest, and or share cost, in agriculture based on the advice of

extension agents, and participatory decision making in management of extension prevails.

2.4.2. Types of Decentralization

Broadly, decentralization can be categorized into:

• Political decentralization

• Administrative decentralization

• Fiscal decentralization

• Economic or market decentralization

Political decentralization

The first type of decentralization, aims to encourage the participation of citizens or their

representatives in public decision-making. The assumption behind this decentralization is

that through local electoral jurisdictions the elected representatives know better the needs

and aspirations of the voters/citizens who elected them and the policies thus formulated

would be more geared towards meeting their needs. In so doing, the initiatives of the central

government orient towards strengthening the local institutions through the enactment of legal

measures like the Local Self Governance Act (LSGA), 2055 BS and Regulation 2056 BS and

the associated Guidelines in Nepal.

Administrative decentralization

This takes the form of redistributing responsibility, authority and financial resources from

the center to plan, to fund and to manage central level public functions by lower tier

government agencies, corporations, semiautonomous bodies, or functional authorities. Not

all functions of the central government are decentralized. The 3Ds of administrative

decentralization are: deconcentration, delegation and devolution.

Fiscal decentralization

This is the vital component in the decentralization initiative, for: one, that the local

institutions or the private organizations must have adequate revenues for financing the

decentralized functions; two, that these local institutions must have authority to make

decisions on their own.

In the beginning, central grants form substantial component of the revenues and the rest is

raised locally. Fiscal decentralization can be of different types in combination, such as:

1. total grant from the centre, and central and local combined, 2. fee-for extension charging the farmers for services,


3. partnership and/or collaboration with farmers groups in the form of cash or kind, 4. raising funds from direct or indirect taxes.

In developing countries like Nepal, extension funding from the local government is generally

difficult and there is a resistance for this type of decentralization from below. The central

grant or subsidies becomes an obvious source for finance.

Market decentralization

In the liberalized economy, this form of decentralization is possible since privatization and

deregulation policies become evident and functional. Therefore, it is said to be the most

complete form of decentralization. With this, private business houses, NGOs, local

community organizations, voluntary groups, cooperatives, etc run the extension functions

which, otherwise, were carried out by the government entities. Contracting out of extension

services is one type that has been introduced in Nepal. Public-private partnership

arrangement could be another type of extension decentralization based on market forces.

Deregulation policies will encourage the participation by the private sector and thus promote

competition among service providers.

2.4.3. Historical Perspective of Decentralization in Nepal

There have been attempts for decentralization in the past by assigning lead roles to Chief

District Officer (CDO) under the District Administration Plan 2032 BS or to the then District

Panchayat (now the DDC). In the former decentralization, the CDO who was previously

responsible for law and order situation in the district was also given the responsibility of

development works signifying the development oriented administration. Nothing changed

significantly except that the chief of DADO was put directly under CDO’s limited

administrative control for permission to leave the district and to take the approval for the

leave of absence which previously fell under the Regional Director of Agriculture. Similarly,

in the later the Local Development Officer (LDO) was the focal point and things did not

change significantly from the former except the official pad and the sign board. Business was

done as usual. At certain occasions, the JTAs (Junior Technical Assistants) were put under

Pradhan Pancha (village chief) of the then Village Panchayat for administrative control, and

programs and budget remained with the DADO as before. Things did not seem to improve

because mutual relation between the JTAs and the Pradhan deceived the DADO in most

occasions and vice versa. An account of the decentralization initiatives is given in the annex.

2.4.4. Description of the Reform Measures: Devolution

The Constitution of the Nepal 2047 BS had made a provision for the decentralization.

This time, some seven years have passed in attempting to institutionalize devolution in

Nepal.

The legal framework comprises of three basic acts and regulations this devolution stems

from:

(a) Local Self- Governance Act, 2055 BS (b) Local Self -Governance Regulation, 2056 BS and (c) Local Body (Financial Administration) Regulation, 2056 BS.

324 Nepal

To oversee the implementation status of devolution according to LSGA and to monitor,

Decentralization Implementation and Monitoring Committee (DIMC) have been formed

under the chairpersonship of the Right Honorable Prime Minister and the working committee

under the minister of local development (DIMWC). The Tenth Plan has also envisaged the

decentralized functions based on basic principles of people’s participation and

empowerment.

The devolved structure comprise of three main aspects as (Mahesh Dahal, 2005):

1. Function: duty, authority and responsibility 2. Functionaries: staff, office space, equipment, liability, monitoring and evaluation 3. Funds: tax and non-tax revenues and grants

The twenty one-point program of the last government aims to effect decentralization on

political, financial, social, administrative and semi-judicial authorities to the village level. As

Ministry of Local Development (MLD) is the focal ministry charged with the responsibility

of devolution, its action plan includes the study to find ways to make capable the local

bodies. In so doing, the appropriate institutional structure, number and provisions with the

concept of inclusive democracy for a viable unit will be sought for. The sectors of

agricultural extension, livestock services, primary education, primary health and local

infrastructure development will be fully devolved and internalized within the DDC in fiscal

year 2062/63. While this is aimed at,

Decentralization Implementation Program 2058 will also be reviewed for any new changes

to be adjusted for smooth devolution. The full devolution considered includes such aspects

as disciplinary areas (in this case the agricultural extension), funds, offices and physical

facilities, personnel, capacity building of local bodies to discharge devolved functions,

monitoring and evaluation. Interactive consultations with concerned central ministries are

underway by MLD and a Task Force is working to formulate Devolution Guidelines and

Procedures. The Budget Speech has already earmarked 14 districts, one from each zone, as

pilot districts for full devolution this fiscal year. The indicators used for the identification of

these districts include: geography (i.e., one from each zone), accessibility, resource base,

institutional capability, level of conflict, and level of infrastructure development. The

districts thus identified are: Jhapa, Morang, Saptari, Dhanusha, Chitwan, Bhaktapur, Kaski,

Rupandehi, Parbat, Dang, Banke, Jumla, Kailali and Kanchanpur. Under MoAC, District

Agricultural Development Offices and Agriculture Service Centers, District Livestock

Service Offices and Service Centers, and Cooperative Division Offices will fall under the

devolved institutions. But closely related research and irrigation institutions are not covered

which may imply some coordination issues during implementation.

Staffing

One very sensitive issue is with the staff in the present central civil service cadre; these staffs

are to be deputed as and where they are basis until the time local service act is in force and

reconciliatory solution is worked out. These positions have to be treated as central reserve

pool under the same service and faculty and all the remuneration, career development and

salaries according to the prevailing civil service act continued. As situations arise, the

recommendation of local authorities may be entertained where applicable and thought

appropriate.


Funding

The fund flow is very direct from the Ministry of Finance (MOF) to the District

Development Fund (DDF) of the DDC.

Institutional arrangements

National Planning Commission will act as coordinating body with the participation of

concerned ministries. A facilitation committee is proposed with the secretary of MLD as a

chairperson. At the local level, DDC is to facilitate implementation. Again, to assess an

appropriately structured viable unit of the local body, a high level commission will work on

it and determine therein.

2.4.5. Proposed program for devolution in the agriculture sector

• Local level periodic and annual program formulation, approval, implementation and

M&E

• Agriculture and livestock extension services

• Quality inputs production and distribution, improved livestock and poultry breeds,

fingerlings

• Agriculture, livestock and cooperatives basic training and human resources

development

• Animal health preventive and curative services, treatment of animals and veterinary

drug management

• Agriculture market development, agriculture fair and exhibitions

• Statistics collection, analysis, documentation and updating

• Regulatory and M&E functions

• Quality control of agricultural inputs

• Technical services to farmers and awareness raising programs

• Income generation through fruit and vegetable cultivation, floriculture, apiculture,

sericulture

• Registration, approval, regulation and monitoring of cooperatives

• Production, marketing and promotion of milk and milk products

• Modern slaughter house construction, management, regulation and monitoring

• Quality control and regulation of food, beverages and meat products

• Observing food health standards in hotels, restaurants and canteens

• Promotion of organic manures and organic farming

• Extension and promotion of IPM

• Any other activities determined as other than central functions

2.4.6. Lessons Learnt

1. One limiting factor working with devolution may be imposed by the lack of agricultural legislation in the country. This legislation as a guiding and umbrella principle for the

agriculture sector should also be compatible with LSGA.

2. The present day agriculture should integrate the Nepalese youth in the wake of modernization and commercialization. The future agriculturists of the country are very

poorly attracted to this enterprise, more so given the insurgency situation. The educated

326 Nepal

youth would be an asset for new initiatives towards globalization as they are more tuned

to recent information through internet, which is a limiting factor for the old and illiterate

farmers, and take more risk. Thus the unemployed agricultural graduates and young

entrepreneurs should be attracted to agricultural business like undertakings. In fact, the

earlier 4-H youth program should be revived with refinement to suit to the present day

need.

3. The knowledge base of extension is very weak. As there is a need of closer working relation between farmers (producers, entrepreneurs), research and extension, the demand

for agricultural information has become more pressing than ever before (e.g., web

search).

4. In the attempt for extension reform, many developed as well as developing world agriculture have resorted to strategies suitable for each country. Of course, there is no

such model as a panacea but experiences are abounding in different continents. Good

practices should be tried based on the lessons learnt from them. One strong consideration

is of the incentive mechanism built in the extension system. The extensionists should be

tied with producers challenging them to deliver the services demanded by the enterprise

on performance basis entered into agreement with the producers. To begin with

manpower quality in high priority areas should be developed and or managed

accordingly.

5. In the wake of devolution, earlier attempts may demand at least as much funding as was supported by the central government previously, if not more. The assumption that

devolution reduces budget burden as it is financed by the local government also may not

hold true in many cases because preparatory works to devolution itself may be costly to

train manpower, upgrade institutional set up and implement devolution through

monitoring support. Otherwise, the task of devolution becomes one of frustration to local

bodies, extensionists and farmers. This gives the impression that “earlier system was

better than the devolved one” and the whole task of devolution carries a negative

message and to begin with extension staff tend to choose the central service commission

in favor of the local one.

3. Governance

3.1. Institutional Reform

Institutional reform and organizational development are cross-cutting issues that impact on

all areas of development. Building a strong, accountable and responsive bureaucracy is

essential to providing a stable environment for private sector development; economic

growth; sustainable resource management; livelihoods; and service provision (e.g.

agriculture, education and health). Therefore many program with a technical theme focus on

strengthening the target organizations. Key aspects of these programs include:

• restructuring and capacity building;

• conflict management;

• financial management systems;

• personnel management systems;

• information systems; and

• monitoring and evaluation systems.


Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives’ (MOAC) Agriculture Perspective Plan Support

Program (APPSP) was designed to deliver appropriate agricultural support services to the

rural poor through improved policy and institutional arrangements. This project provided

technical advisory support and fund management implementation for the APPSP.

The program was focused on two levels of government:

i. At the district level, where a fund for agricultural service delivery (District

Agriculture Development Fund - DADF) was established in twenty districts. The

DADF was managed by the District Development Committees, and the program

built the capacity of these committees to plan for and manage the DADF, ensuring

that the poor and excluded beneficiary groups were targeted by the fund.

ii. At the central level, where the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC)

and other Agriculture Perspective Plan implementers were assisted with

organizational and policy support.

In order ensure opportunities and lessons learned from the program are incorporated into

future government initiatives, good practice and other key lessons that emerged from the

APPSP were captured and disseminated within the MOAC and more broadly to the 75

districts of Nepal.

3.2. Public-private-NGO partnership

3.2.1. Introduction

Agriculture extension activities of the public and private sector for technology transfer have

largely been undertaken separately in Nepal and South Asia over the years. The search for

more effective ways to deliver public services dates back to the early 1980s when several

agricultural extension models were tested. The private sector has worked to promote

extension activities in the marketing of agricultural inputs and outputs largely in isolation

from public sector activities.

The lessons of 1980s and 1990s have shown that neither the public nor the private sector

alone can be effective in delivering services. There is a strong need for different types of

public private partnerships in agricultural extension and development programs.

There is fine line dividing partnership and collaboration. Without entering into a debate on

semantic differences this paper treats these two concepts grossly as one.

Partnership/collaboration may be conceived as mutually beneficial and well defined

relationships entered into by two or more organizations to achieve results they are more

likely to achieve together (Winer and Ray). In general partnership/collaboration involves:

• A minimum of two organizations,

• An agreement about roles and responsibilities,

• Common objectives and activities aimed at the delivery of services, and

• The sharing of risks, benefits, and resources-both tangible and intangible.

Rosenbeth Moss Kantor (1990) described productive partnership as those which evolve,

continue to yield benefits, create value, work through interpersonal connections and internal

infrastructures that enhance learning. She identifies eight characteristics of best partnerships:

• Each partner contributes something of value,

• The strategic objectives of all partners are addressed,

328 Nepal

• Partners have complementary skills and assets,

• Each partner makes an investment in the other,

• Communication is reasonably open,

• Mechanisms for smooth working together are in place,

• Each partner becomes both teacher and learner, and

• There is integrity and mutual trust.

The practice of partnership and collaboration logically leads us to acknowledge pluralism in

agriculture extension and in reality there are a broad variety of institutions providing

agricultural extension services. There has been a realization that farmers are best served by

the broadest possible array of information sources and structures. The complexity of rural

development demands a plurality of technological solutions and service structures. Farmers

need access to many services such as input supply, credit, and even emergency responses to

disease/pest infestations.

The emergence of the value-chain approach to address agricultural development also points

to the comparative advantages of public and private partners in the delivery of extension

services and in creating an enabling environment for agricultural development. The value-

chain approach as applied to agriculture seeks to identify services that are missing or weak in

a sector and develop the capacity of private and public service providers to address

weaknesses. There are a variety of services where market failures occur. Government has a

key role in providing public goods including market and productive infrastructure, research,

the provision of basic knowledge, and the role of setting the policies and rules by which

economic actors interact.

Experience has shown that the private sector is most efficient at providing inputs, embedded

information with the sale of specific inputs, marketing channels, and the promotion of

products/markets. The NGO sector has shown greater flexibility and efficiencies in

introducing and supporting farmers to adopt new technologies, conducting planning and

analysis activities, working with the business community and civil society to lobby for

reforms, and to act as a facilitator of public private partnerships.

In the case of many agricultural export markets important public infrastructure, testing

facilities and policies must be developed to enable the private sector to take advantage of

market opportunities. Export facilities, laboratories, phyto-sanitary certifications, tax

policies, and sector policies need to be developed in close public-private partnership to be

successful.

Partnership is not a model administered or implemented by the state, but rather, it is a

process how government agencies, development oriented NGOs, business and farmer

organizations, private sector firms and others can support development. The purpose of

entering into partnership is to take into consideration the presence of ongoing activities and,

rather than trying to gain control over them, to instead choose niches and to identify common

concerns where different approaches may lead to synergy.

In the recent past public extension has come under scrutiny for its limited accountability,

inefficiency, and lack of responsiveness to changing farming conditions. Scarcities of

financial resources for extension, changing ideology emphasizing efficiency over welfare,

and heightened competitive interests from the private sector has led to acknowledge the

private sector and NGOs as an important partner in the delivery of extension services.


3.2.2. Emerging trends of Partnership and Collaboration: A Journey towards Pluralism

The emergence of new extension arrangements offered by private sector, NGOs, and

voluntary organizations has created a platform where delivery of services is undertaken

independently or through various forms of partnership arrangements. The list of

organizations providing extension services is growing. Various organizations providing

services can be put into the following typology:

• Government organizations: line ministries

• Local government bodies: DDCs, VDCs

• Project organizations- These are created to oversee implementation of project

activities for certain period and are generally publicly funded

• Private for profit organizations- these include private agribusiness, consulting firms,

agri input dealers, traders/processors. It also includes such mechanism as contract

farming with inputs, extension services, and markets are provided by agribusiness

and the provision of embedded services with the sale of inputs or purchase of

outputs.*

• NGOs (non-profit) that may be funded by government, or private sector sources

* An example of embedded service is when an agro input supplier provides detailed

information on the use of agricultural input, for example when seeds are sold the supplier

provides details on planting dates, production techniques, and potential markets. This use of

embedded service increases the demand for the input and effectively provides farmers with

needed information.

• Community-based organizations (CBOs), these are membership organizations based

at village levels. They could be self-initiated, self-evolved, NGO initiated,

government initiated, and project initiated.

• These organizations deliver services in a variety of ways. However, there is

realization that there is a comparative advantage with each organization, and that a

single organization cannot meet the varied needs of the target group. This has

invoked a need for entering into partnership resulting into synergy. Entering into

partnership may entail a renewal of traditional roles for higher efficiency,

effectiveness and sustainability. Partnership can take place at various levels; these

can be classified broadly into three types:

• Informational: In such arrangements organizations with similar interest get together

to share information. Such exchange of information can take place through forums, networks, in specific themes like, food security, organic farming, IPM, or rural roads.

• Institutional: Institutional arrangement to forge partnership among various agencies

is provisioned through legislation, directives or by-laws or understandings.

Development Boards, project steering/coordination committees, are some example

of institutional partnership where representatives of various organizations work

together for common goal.

• This can be termed as representational partnership.

• Programmatic: Partnership is reflected at various stages of program implementation.

• Partnership could be at the planning stage where planning is done jointly and

implementation is done separately. Programmatic partnership can further be

delineated into two sub–types:

− mutual: unifying comparative advantage by cost sharing

− contractual: providing services through competitive bidding

330 Nepal

Partnership arrangements can take the following forms:

• Public- Public

• Public- NGOs

• Public- Private

• Local bodies- NGOs/private

• Projects- public/local bodies/NGOs/private

• Multi-partner (Public—Public-local bodies- NGO- Private)

It is apparent that agriculture extension service providers, government, NGOs, agribusiness,

have perceptual differences in extension issues resulting in differences in their focus.

A study (Ojha, 2000) on partnership in agriculture extension in Chitawan, Nepal has shown

that among partnerships, Public + Private and Public + NGO are more effective than other

forms of partnership. The same study concluded that partnership is and effective strategy but

is specific to circumstances and should not be generalized in all situations.

In this context it is worthwhile to review the strengths and weakness of organizations in

agriculture extension.

NGO strengths include

• The majority of NGOs are capable of responding flexibly and rapidly to client’s

needs and changing circumstances as they are small and horizontally structured with

short lines of communication.

• NGOs’ concern with the rural poor means that they often maintain a field presence

in remote locations, where it is difficult to keep government staff in post. This is

well demonstrated in Nepal due to the conflict situation.

• A main concern of NGOs’ is to identify the needs of the rural poor in sustainable

agricultural development. For this they have therefore pioneered a wide range of

participatory methods for diagnosis and program implementation.

• One of the strengths of NGOs has been their work in group formation and

mobilization.

• As result of working in participatory approaches and close communication with rural

communities NGOs have been effective in lobbying for agricultural reform and

policies to benefit small producers

NGO weaknesses include

• NGOs’ small size means that their projects rarely address structural factors that

underlie rural poverty.

• Some fashionable areas have become densely populated by a diversity of NGOs that

problems have arisen for competition for the same clientele.

• NGOs have limited capabilities for agricultural technology development.

• Some NGOs are accountable to external funding agencies than to clientele they

claim to serve. Donor pressure to achieve short-term impacts, combined with a lack

of cross learning, has led in some cases to the promotion of inappropriate

technology.

Public sector strengths

• Wide network of staff covering all geographical areas.

• Better access to technology and resources.


• Well trained personnel.

• Continuous presence thus ensuring sustainability of services.

• Should be accountable to farmers and political structures.

Public sector weakness

• Supply driven rather than demand driven,

• Commercialization of agriculture gave rise to specialized clients and demand for

location specific extension service which are not catered to by public systems,

• Extension provided are general in nature rather than specific and intensive,

• Insufficient face to face contact between extension agent and farmers possible,

• Inadequate technical qualification of technicians,

• Public extension is target oriented and less participatory,

• Extension treated as policy administration rather than change process,

• Professional and timely monitoring at all levels is lacking,

• Not effectively reaching poor and disadvantaged segments,

Involvement of NGOs and the private sector in agriculture extension has been experimented

in various forms around the world. The following examples illustrate some experiences in

private sector involvement in agriculture extension:

3.2.3. Reflections on Public Private Partnership Experiences in Nepal

In Nepal as else ware extension has long been grounded in the diffusion model of

agricultural development. It is only recently beginning in the 1990s that emphasis and efforts

towards involvement of the private sector in agriculture development have begun. Still

efforts to involve and link to the private sector remain nascent. Donors have begun to

promote programs for more private sector involvement. In Nepal partnership between

government agencies existed since early days of agriculture extension. For instance,

Tribhuwan Village Development Program was an example of partnership between

government agencies (Department of Rural Development and Department of Agriculture).

During 70s and 80s the theme of linkage and coordination received prominence as

coordination among research, extension, input and credit related agencies was considered

important in agriculture development. Through research – extension linkages in practice

have been weak.

An important partnership program with private agencies began with the World Bank funded

Agriculture Research and Extension Project (AERP) during mid 90s when the project

contracted out extension functions to consulting firms and NGOs.

Agricultural policy, 2061 of HMG/N has laid a policy framework to attract private and NGO

sector specifically in the areas of food and nutrition, agriculture production, collection,

grading, storage, processing, packaging etc by providing tax incentives and institutionalizing

competitive biding.

ADB Crop Diversification Project (CDP). The CDP has initiated two modalities of

contracting agriculture extension activities:

• Contracting out extension activities to private extension service providers

(NGOs/CBOs) to mobilize farmers in production pockets;

332 Nepal

• Mobilizing farmers group by the social mobilizers recruited by DADO. In this

strategy, both DADO and social mobilizers work on their strength such as group

formation, mobilization and management to be done by Field Teams (social

mobilizers) and technical backstopping by DADO staff.

CDP has three types of production pocket areas a) production pocket areas completely

contracted to private extension service providers’ b) production pocket areas with field

teams; and, c) regular DADO pocket areas;

A mid term assessment of CDP (CDP 2005) has shown that technical staff have not owned

and internalized the field teams as their supporting partners and that NGO partners are not

providing enough technical backstopping, training and physical support to the field teams.

As FTs have limited technical knowledge, their primary job is to convey the farmers’

problems to their supervisors and consequently to technical staff. But due to the poor

presence and inefficiency of supervisors and technical staff, farmers’ problems are not

properly addressed. The same report indicates that there has been significant increment in the

social mobilization aspects after the involvement of FT.

DFID has given grant assistance for a period of five years effective from March 2003 for the

APPSP. The program is aimed to orient agricultural services to reach target groups including

the disadvantaged, marginal, poor women farmers, dalits, and ethnic minorities.

Establishment and operation of District Agriculture Development Fund

(DADF) forms the basis for the implementation of APPSP in the districts. It attempts to

devolve agriculture extension services as well the promotion of public-private partnership.

APPSP has been implemented in 20 districts. As of July 2005, 217 projects have been

funded through District Extension Sub-fund (DEF). DEF is a competitive fund established

for service providers to strengthen and decentralize extension service. A total of 1, 287

projects are funded through the Local Initiative Sub-fund (LIF). LIF is a competitive fund

established for farmers’ groups. The purpose of LIF is to address the needs and demands of

poor farmers, particularly marginalized, women, disadvantaged groups and those living in

remote area and support their initiatives. There is wide range of projects funded by DEF but

most of the projects fall in the category of goat raising, marketing, vegetable production,

and, seed production. The program has been broadly successful but has been challenged to

receive strong proposals from local potential service providers.

Third Livestock Development Project (TLDP), Paincho (loan –in- kind) program on goat in

TLDP is an excellent example of partnership between government and NGOs. Under this

program, partner NGOs assume responsibility of farmer mobilization, help in establishing

private vet services, and provide micro-credit to farmer group members while government

agencies provides funds, supplies goats, veterinary services and funding for establishing agro

vet shops along with other support services like training to NGOs and monitoring and

evaluation. This program is implemented in 19 districts in partnership with 77 NGO partners

(Sherchan, L)

National Agriculture Research and Development Fund (NARDF) was established in

accordance with the principles of competitive grant system in 2002 under the Working Fund

Act 1986. The fund targets government, non-government, educational, private sector and

civil society organizations involved in agriculture research and development. It aims to


encourage these organizations to compete in partnership or collaboration for partial or

complete funding. So far 23 projects are under operation.

The Nepal Tea and Coffee Global Development Alliance Experience

Starting from 2002 USAID has supported Winrock International to facilitate two public

private partnership alliance programs, for specialty tea and coffee development for

international export markets. Under the Global Development Alliance approach Winrock

worked to identify stakeholders, including government agencies, private sector industry

associations, farmer/producer organizations, and development partners including NGOs,

INGOs, and donors. Each alliance has a formal written constitution, common objectives, a

workplan, and a monitoring / reporting function. The alliances meet regularly and have

proved highly successful:

• The coffee alliance - has established Nepal as a specialty coffee exporting country

shifting processing from nearly 100% low quality dry processed to over 60%

washed/semi washed for international export markets. And has facilitated a

tremendous increase in economic opportunities for poor smallholders

• The tea alliance – has played a major role in establishing international market

linkages and a branded identity of Nepal tea. In the past Nepal tea was being sold to

India as an unbranded product. The alliance has facilitated Nepal tea entry into the

USA market and branded Nepal tea in the major German market. The alliance has

also facilitated the industry to adopt a code of conduct for social and environmental

responsibility that is a strong marketing tool.

The alliance program is now in its final phase and is working to strengthen the capacity of

the Tea and Coffee Development Board to continue the coordinating role and success of the

alliance approach.

Smallholder Irrigation Market Initiative (SIMI)

The Nepal SIMI project supported by USAID and implemented by Winrock International,

and partners International Development Enterprises, CEAPRED, SAPPROS, and AEC

represents a model program for developing district and local level public private partnership.

SIMI promotes micro irrigation (primarily drip and the treadle pump) for vegetable

production by smallholders. SIMI takes a value chain approach building the linkages and

capacity of agro input manufacturers, input suppliers (agrovets), equipment dealers, micro

irrigation installers, and traders/ processors. The SIMI program has closely facilitated

partnership with government agencies including MoAC, DOA, DOI, MLD, WDD, MOF,

NARC and government projects APPSP, CDP, MGEP, PAF, and others. Government in the

partnership has taken a lead role in developing marketing infrastructure, developing multi

use piped water systems, providing market information through radio broadcast, providing

basic extension services, adaptive research, providing resources to assist the poorest to adopt

micro irrigation, and creating an enabling policy environment. SIMI has facilitated a wide

range of partnership types include GO-NGO partnership, GO-Private Sector, and GO-NGO-

Private Sector. Examples of GO-Private partnership facilitated by SIMI include the provision

of marketing infrastructure that is utilized and managed by the private sector in partnership

with government. Overall SIMI public private partnership activities are facilitated by a

government advisory body and by participating on district and local level agriculture

334 Nepal

development committee meetings and close coordination with government line agencies

Development Boards. Development boards can be conceived as an institutional mechanism

for fostering public private partnership. Composition and autonomy are key factors affecting

the functioning of development boards.

3.3. Accountability Hierarchy

Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative (MoAC) is the central apex body of the

Government of Nepal to look after the agriculture and allied fields in the country, and is

responsible for overall development of agriculture (crops, livestock, food and nutrition and

fishery) and co-operative sector. It is headed by the Minister, with complementary support

from the Minister of State for overall policy matters and affairs of the ministry. The secretary

is the administrative head and chief adviser to the Minister on policy, planning and

administration. The ministry consists of five divisions, namely Agri-Business Promotion and

Statistical Division; Planning Division, Monitoring and Evaluation Division, Gender

Equality and Environment; and Administration Division and two centers they are Agriculture

Information and Communication Centre and Seed Quality Control Centre. Besides, there are

two autonomous councils: Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC), and Nepal

Veterinary Council; and three National Boards related to Dairy Development, Co-operative

Development, and Tea and Coffee Development. Similarly, there are four departments

responsible for development of their specific subsectors: Agriculture, Livestock Services;

Food Technology and Quality Control; and Co-operative, There are also three corporations /

company, and five different committees constituted in different areas of operations. The

Agriculture Research and Development Fund (NARDEF) is responsible for research and

development activities.

Under the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operative, the Department of Agriculture is mainly

responsible for development of agricultural crops and fisheries. The Department is headed by

the Director General (DG). Under the DG, there is a provision of three Deputy Director

Generals (DDGs) to provide assistance in three major areas: Planning and Human Resources

Development; Monitoring, Evaluation and Administration; and Technologies Transfer and

Co-ordination. For providing technical support and backstopping to the agricultural

development program, there are 12 program Directorates related to: Fruit Development;

Vegetable Development; Fisheries Development; Crops Development, Agricultural

Training; Agri- Business Promotion and Marketing Development; Agri. Extension; Plant

Protection; Industrial Entomology; Post- Harvest Management; Soil Management; and

Agricultural Engineering. Under each of the Directorates there are, as per relevance,

different sections, resource centers and development programs.

Directly under the DoA, there are five Regional Directorates, one each in the five

Development Regions of the country. The Regional Directorates are headed by the Regional

Directors. The main responsibility of the Regional Directorates is to supervise the

agricultural development programs in their respective regions. To implement the agriculture

development programs at the districts level, there are District Agricultural Development

Offices (DADOs) one each in the 75 districts. Each of the District Agriculture Development

offices is headed by Senior Agriculture Development Officer (Gazetted 2nd class) and

administratively, they are responsible to the respective Regional Directorates. In order to

provide technical backstopping to various aspects of the agriculture development programs

of the districts, there are Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs). Similarly, there are provisions


of Agricultural Services Centre/ Sub-centers staffed by JT/ JTAs to provide extension

services at the sub-district levels, to the farmers. To assist on various aspects of the

agriculture development programs, there are Laboratories and Training Centers at the

regional level. For the implementation / management of the development projects, there are

provisions of a separate Project Implementation/ Coordination Office for each of the

projects. The Co-coordinator is appointed as the chief of such projects. The project co-

coordinators are directly responsible to the Director General.

The beginning of the institutional development in agriculture is as old as 1978, when for the

first time, the "Krishi Adda" was established. The MoAC, with a vision to improve the

standard of living of people through sustainable agricultural growth by transforming the

subsistence farming system to a competitive and commercialized one, has the following

main defined objectives:

• To reduce poverty through increased agricultural production and productivity;

• To make Nepalese agricultural products competitive in the regional and world

markets by developing the foundation of commercial and competitive agricultural

systems; and

• To conserve the natural resources, environment and ecological diversity and utilize

them for sustainable agricultural development.

In order to realize the above objective the Ministry is mandated with the following main

functions:

• Formulation and implementation of agricultural and cooperative development

policies and plans;

• Implementation of development activities to develop cereal crops, cash crops,

industrial crops, horticultural crops and industrial entomology;

• Livestock development activities, such as farming, breeding, feed as well as pasture

development;

• Operating agriculture farms and centers.

• Agriculture research and survey on cereal crops, horticulture crops, oilseed crops,

industrial crops, livestock, veterinary services, agri-engineering, fishery, food

technology, industrial entomology, cooperatives and dairy development;

• Training to farmers on different agriculture;

• Transfer of modern technologies aspects of related to agriculture, to farmers; and

• Carrying out the activities to develop youth and women farmers.

In order to provide impetus to the development of agriculture sector through conceiving a

development framework in a long term perspective, and identify the key areas of

development priorities and necessary interventions in a cohesive and integrated manner, the

Government adopted the Agriculture Perspective Plan (APP), prepared in the perspective of

20 yrs covering the period from 1995 to 2015. The implementation of APP commenced from

1997. Under the Agriculture Perspective Plan support programmers there are seven projects

being implemented mainly in the fields of Crop Diversification, Community Livestock

Development, Commercial Agriculture, Soil Management and Agriculture Extension and

Training. The APP is one of the documents that have received consensus of the major

political parties and key stakeholders. The document provides long term vision and strategies

for agriculture growth and poverty reduction. The Ninth 5- years Plan well recognized the

central role of agriculture in the overall economic development of the country and adopted,

336 Nepal

by and large, the strategies, and priorities defined by the APP. The Tenth 5-year Plan

recognized as the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), provided continuity to the

efforts and initiatives started under the 9th Plan.

The investments in the development of the agriculture sector have not been adequately

matching with its potentials for actual needs and its contribution to the overall economy.

Furthermore, the results expected even from the present level of investment cannot be said

satisfactory. There are some inherent weaknesses in sound planning and effective

implementation of the programs in agriculture sector, along with the weak monitoring and

evaluation system, resulting into non-realization of the expected level of results. Being

cognizant of this reality, while formulating the 10th Plan some basic elements of Managing

for Development Results (MfDR) was incorporated to improve the quality of planning and

monitoring and evaluation The development of agriculture sector plan, along with those of

other sectors, was based on the Policy and Result Matrices and the focus of the proposed

strategies and working policies, and proposed programs was on the achievement of desired

results. The same approach was followed in formulating the Three-year Interim Plan (TYIP).

However, there appears a strong need to improve further the whole range of planning,

implementation and monitoring and evaluation system through operationalizing the MfDR

approaches at the macro meso and micro levels.

The Asian Development Bank is providing technical assistance to five ministries and some

selected agencies to improve their management efficiency through operationalizing/

internalizing the MfDR approaches, to help realize the desired results in terms of outputs,

outcomes and impacts. The present TA (ADB TA 7158-NEP), among others, covers MoAC

with main focus on the Department of Agriculture under it. Accordingly, MoAC and DoA is

being supported based on the experiences of previous ADB TA projects by undertaking

status assessment regarding their preparedness for operationalizing the MfDR; developing

their results frameworks and results indicators; and preparing business plans to be main

streamed into planning, budgeting and monitoring systems. Based on the preliminary

assessment of the factors responsible for low performance of the agriculture sector, the

following main areas have been identified needing special attention for improvement of the

performance of the agriculture sector:

• Integrating the farmer's crops production calendar with the supply of irrigation water

from the DOI irrigation projects.

• Critical assessment of the supply situation of the key production inputs, such as

fertilizers, foundation and commercial seeds, fruit saplings of known progeny and of

specified standards, and fingerlings, and taking necessary measures to improve the

situation in this regard.

• Generating reliable baseline data on area and production of various agri-

commodities for the assessment of actual realization of the intended results.

• Need for improving the quality of monitoring data.

• Making use of the feed-back information by different levels of the management

hierarchy, for improvement of efficiencies and effectiveness of the programs.

• Introducing motivation and accountability measures along the management chain

• Ensuring an effective mechanism for co-ordination among the various agencies

responsible for supporting various aspects of the on- farm production system, as a

whole.


• Assessing the appropriateness and effectiveness of extension tools applied to

motivate the farmers for adoption of improved practices related to production and

post- harvest operations.

• Improving the situation regarding timely technical backstopping to the production

programs at the farmer's level.

• Improving further the research and extension linkages.

• Adopting appropriate policy on providing subsidy and protection to the agricultural

products to enhance their competitiveness vis-a- vis the products of the neighboring

countries.

• Raising the level of investments in the agriculture sector in conformity with its

present and the potentials for contribution to the overall economic development of

the country.

The status of MfDR implementation in MoAC is as follows:

• Readiness analysis of MoAC is completed and sectoral performance gap analysis of

the agriculture and food security sector is under progress.

• Further activities including preparation of business plan for MoAC awaits budget

discussion for FY 2010/11.

3.4. Management Information System

Realizing the growing importance of information in agricultural development in Nepal, the

Agriculture Information Section (AIS) became operational in 1965 as a separate unit in the

Department of Agriculture (DOA). This section was renamed as Agriculture Communication

Division (ACD) in 1990. In course of restructuring of the Ministry of Agriculture and

Cooperatives in 2000, it was given its current name of Agricultural Information and

Communication Center (AICC) and was attached to the Ministry as one of its central units

with greater role and responsibility. AICC is a professional wing of the Ministry of

Agriculture and Cooperatives entrusted to produce agricultural information relevant to

farmers, traders, entrepreneurs and professionals and to communicate the information

through different media. The Center also bears the additional responsibility and challenge of

managing and using digital information generated recently by the growing application of

personal computer, internet and mobile telephone in modernizing agricultural development

in the country.

The vision of the government is building an organization driven by information and

communication technology (ICT) capable of ensuring timely, faster and relevant access to

information to facilitate agricultural stakeholders and practitioners for building knowledge

based farm communities.

3.4.1. Program activities

a. Farm radio program

Radio has been the most effective means of mass communication since its establishment in

1951 in Nepal. Its broadcasts in short wave are received all over the country while 83 per

cent of the population can receive medium wave broadcast. It is estimated that there are more

than 3.0 million radio sets in the country. AICC has been running its farm radio program

since December 10, 1966. It produces seven programs a week each of 15- minutes duration

in its own studio and aired on Radio Nepal at the evening time (6.40 to 6.55) daily.

338 Nepal

Table 1. Radio Program Activity (6.40-6.55 evening)

• Sunday - Agricultural news

• Monday - farmers' questions and expert's answers

• Tuesday - Food and Nutrition, Cooperatives etc.

• Wednesday - Interview with farmer and specialist

• Thursday - Livestock farming radio magazine

• Friday - Dialogue between JTA and old woman

• Saturday - Commercial Agriculture

Regional stations of Radio Nepal are also running agricultural programs produced by

Regional Communication Unit of the government and some private FM radios have also

been broadcasting farm programs produced locally by District Agriculture Development

Offices or by the FM Stations themselves. There are altogether 205 licensed FM radio

stations across the country of which only 69 are in operation. Recently, role of radio has

become important in making farmers aware of the prices of agricultural commodities at

different locations of the country. FM stations are playing effective roles in informing local

market prices of agricultural commodities. Besides this, they are also useful media for the

farmers to get first hand information about agricultural practices and also in knowing

important events in agriculture.

b. Agriculture television program

Nepal Television (NTV), which started its service in 1984, has 3 studios and 15 broadcasting

centers telecasting to about 50 percent of land coverage and 65 percent of population

coverage in Nepal. NTV is using geo-satellite to broadcast its programs and capable of live

cast with its Digital Satellite News Gathering (DSNG) equipment from any part of the

country. Its second channel the metro NTV2 is also running in the recent years while 8 of 14

licensed private television companies are providing services at this time. There have been

482 licensed cable TV operators, of which 365 cable TV companies are operating in

different parts across the country. AICC has been telecasting 15 minutes program since 1996

from NTV daily at the evening time (Table 2). From the mid July 2006, the telecasting

duration has been extended to 20 minutes.

Table 2. Television program activity (6:30-6:50 evening)

• Sunday - Discussion on Agricultural Issues

• Monday - Success Story

• Tuesday - Farmers' Problems and Technicians' Reply

• Wednesday - Agriculture Technology

• Thursday - Agriculture in Foreign Country/farmers' useful technology

• Friday - Agricultural Activities

• Saturday - Agricultural Tele serial

AICC produces a number of documentaries on various aspects of farming and broadcast

through NTV agricultural program. From October 2004, Agricultural News has been

broadcasting on Friday of each week. From last year there is daily agriculture news with

national news at prime time. AICC in collaboration with NTV has recently restructured its

program format to introduce value-added services reflecting the changed needs of the users.

Different I (NGOs) and donor agencies involved in agriculture sector also produce project


related agricultural information material and telecast through public and private television

channels.

c. Publication and print media

AICC has been publishing Krishi, a vernacular bi-monthly agriculture magazine for over 40

years. It has been updated and reformed in its look and style recently. The center’s other

publications are agriculture diary, booklets, leaflets, and calendars. Among these

publications booklet and folder are distributed free of cost to the farmers, agriculture

technicians and other concerned persons.

Bi-monthly magazine and calendar are provided to the central as well district level offices of

the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives on a quota basis. In case of Bimonthly

magazine, there is provision of subscription as annual and life memberships to the persons

and organizations.

Publication and print remains number one media in agricultural technology dissemination.

These media are operational from grass root to national level, from community based

organizations (CBOs) to INGOs and from government level to private level. A national daily

like 'The Kantipur Daily' has its permanent page on agriculture each Sunday. Other dailies

publish agriculture information (news articles, technologies, announcements, interviews etc.)

periodically. Similarly weekly, fortnightly and monthly newspapers and magazines also

publish agricultural articles and information periodically. Among these magazines, the

Himal and The Nepal fortnightly very often publish agriculture related news articles and

technology packages. Agro based industries, private farms, NGOs and INGOs working in the

field of agriculture also publish agricultural information and technologies as per need of the

projects handled by them. Federation of Nepal Chamber of Commerce and Industries

(FNCCI), Agro Enterprise Center (AEC) and Rural Urban Partnership Program (RUPP) are

involved in providing price information of agricultural commodities by publishing price

bulletins. Such institutions also publish technology packages for commercial production of

crops. A very good example of such publications can be cited to an article on Off-season

Vegetables, September 2006 by AEC/ FNCCI. Local news papers also publish relevant

agricultural news and information valued at district level.

Many national and international agencies in Nepal are involved in projects like poverty

reduction, income generation, rural employment generation and the like which are obviously

directed towards agricultural development. These agencies also publish agricultural

information and technical packages for the farmers. The leading agencies in this sector are

USAID, JICA, DIFID, CIDA, Helvitas, IRRI, CYMMIT, SNV, SIMI-Nepal and CEAPRED.

Similarly, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences (IAAS), Himalayan College of

Agricultural Science and Technology (HICAST) Nepal Agricultural Extension Association

(NAEA) also publish agricultural articles in journals and also provide information to other

media. Regular agricultural bulletins are published by regional and district offices of

Department of Agriculture.

d. Computer application and internet use

Computer, email and Internet have become increasingly popular since the introduction of

computers in Nepal by the government in 1971. With access to low cost personal computers

in recent years and the growing involvement of private sector in computer business, the

340 Nepal

availability of internet became possible only towards 1993-94 but in limited scale. The rate

of computerization and automation in public sector remained still low as most computers are

used for word processing purpose. AICC possesses about a dozen of computers with radio

link broad band connectivity installed at the Center. This has given a way to reform

governance making the organization more efficient, transparent and effective in the exchange

of information within and between organizations. To be of use AICC has created its web

portal www.aicc.gov.np in which general agricultural statistics of Nepal and introduction of

organizations, departments, centers, boards and committees under the ministry are placed. As

an electronic journal the bimonthly agriculture-Krishi has also been put in the website as pdf

file which can easily be downloaded and read. The National Agriculture Policy 2004,

Agriculture Business Policy 2004, and a number of booklets on various aspects of

agricultural technologies are also kept in the website. As these materials are in vernacular

Nepali, any citizen and literate farmer can read and get benefited from the information. The

portal is also a gateway to all government ministries and relevant organizations as they are

linked to the website. Some important websites linked to this URL are www.moac.gov.np,

www.nardf.org.np, and www.narc nepal.org

e. Recent initiatives and achievements

• Daily Agricultural News Broadcasting in Radio Nepal and Nepal Television,

• Establishment of Information and Documentation Unit at the center

• Agriculture Television program made more attractive with inclusion of teleserial,

agriculture talks program and lessons from agriculture of foreign countries

• Website Construction and Online Magazine, Statistics, and Booklets hosting,

• Radio Link High Speed Internet Connection at the AICC Premises,

• Improvement in the Structure and Look of the Bimonthly Magazine, Krishi,

• Agriculture Technology Book (Nepali), a hand book made for the lower level

technicians and farmers, Published and Distribution in Progress.

f. ICT guidelines and directives

ICT has been recognized as one of the most important infrastructures for spurring

agricultural development. Many of the existing conventional methods and technologies have

become obsolete or ineffective with the advent of global IT revolution. It is therefore

imperative for us to reap the fruit of IT revolution in bringing farm communities into the

chain of ICT to build a sustainable and knowledge based farming system. The challenge that

lays ahead us is how to utilize ICT effectively for the benefit of the masses of the farmers at

the grass root level. To address such a question and to bring ICT at farmers’ doorsteps in

playing a greater role in farm technology diffusion, rural market integration and to diversify

productive capacity of rural people, the Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agriculture and

Cooperatives, on the initiation of AICC, has made the following decisions on the application

of ICT in agricultural development in the country.

3.4.2. Central level

• Establishment of Agricultural Information and Documentation Unit (AIDU) at AICC

to collect agricultural information, processing and distribution

• Management and making available of new technologies to technicians, farm

communities and concern agencies through CD-ROM library, CD and emails ,


• Gradual computer networking of central, regional and district agencies under the

Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives to the central agricultural information and

documentation system.

• Agricultural programs on radio and television will be made more informative and

attractive to the audience and collaborative works will be launched with the local

FM radios.

• AICC will focus its attention to publish materials related to common problem of

technology, market development and policy matters on agricultural development.

• Monitoring and coordination of agricultural information and communication

programs implemented by the regional and district offices.

• Formulation of working procedures for the establishment of rural agricultural

information center (RAIC) in the districts.

• To include the above-mentioned agenda, program formulation will be done based on

the priority and within the approved budget ceilings.

3.4.3. Regional level

• To strengthen the regional agriculture communication unit one of the agriculture

extension officers at the Regional Directorate of Agriculture is given responsibility

of the unit. Agriculture communication unit should implement the agriculture

information and communication programs in coordination with the Regional

Directorate of Livestock Services and other allied agencies.

• Carry out the role of coordination and monitoring for the farm radio programs

implemented by the district offices. Coordinate district agencies and private

broadcasters to formulate more effective and region specific regional radio program.

• Formulation of program to establish regional agricultural information and

documentation unit.

• Organize at least one workshop a year for an interaction among local press,

representatives of national media, agricultural technicians, local bodies and NGOs to

make them aware of the regional agricultural information and communication and

other activities.

3.4.4. District level

• Agriculture extension officer (AEO) of DADO is made responsible to formulate and

implement agricultural information and communication program in coordination

with other related agencies at the district.

• Formulate programs to establish agricultural information and documentation unit

(AIDU) at DADO.

• Adopt print and publication program based on the local needs and feasibility.

• In view of the local needs and feasibility initiate the launching of farm radio program

from the local FM station.

• Formulate programs to motivate local cooperatives and/ or farmer’s groups to create

Rural Agricultural Information Center (RAIC) through the identification and with

collaboration of communities, local cooperative societies, VDCs, DDCs and local

NGOs.

• Plan for an E-extension to be implemented as pilot project through RAIC or active

groups of farmers in the district.

342 Nepal

3.4.5. Agricultural information resources

AICC is serving as a full-fledged center founded on ICT culture to motivate communities to

adopt knowledge-based agricultural systems by fostering greater organizational efficiency

and interrelationships among farmers, extension workers, researchers and entrepreneurs. The

primary source of agricultural information for AICC is National Agricultural Research

Center (NARC) from where agricultural technologies are generated. Other sources of

agricultural information are

• Ministry of Agriculture and cooperatives for policy related information

• IAAS and HICAST for technology

• Government farms for technology and practices

• NGOs/INGOs working in agriculture sector (e.g. CEAPRED, Li-bird, Nepal SIMI)

for technology and good practices

• Private farms for good practices

• Progressive farmers for good practices.

• Different websites related to agriculture

Public media and private media also serve as information sources for the farming

communities. They usually transmit/publish/telecast

• success stories,

• government policies,

• price information

• good agricultural practices

• agricultural news etc.


4.1. Central Agricultural Training Centre

Central Agricultural Training Centre (CATC) has been reorganized and renamed as

Directorate of Agricultural Training (DAT) under the Department of Agriculture (DOA) as

per Government decision of 20 November 2003. The CATC was established on December

10, 1987 along with ten Regional Agriculture Training Centres (RATCs) two each in the five

development regions. The RATC were strategically created in the key locations for hills and

terai in each development regions. Later in 1992 CATC was reorganized and ten RATCs

were reduced and consolidated into five RATCs thus having one RATC in each development

region. Prior to this establishment training programs were handled and managed by the then

Agriculture Extension and Training Division of the Department of Agriculture. Following

the inception of CATC, agricultural training programs scattered across the country were

streamlined and made to link with the prioritized production programs. DAT has been

organizing various types' in-service training courses for the gazetted officers working under

the Department of Agriculture. The directorate, at present administers about a dozens of

training courses annually, in which about 250 DOA officers are trained in various

commodity specific fields, training related skills and in institutional capacity building.

During the Ninth Five Year Plan (1996/97-2001/02) a total of 1027 officers have been

trained through 49 training programs.


Vision

DAT as a government owned comprehensive agricultural training institute, under the DOA,

Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, a center for professionalism dedicated to service

and training excellence.

Mission

DAT shall contribute to develop competent human resources in support to the food security

and poverty reduction through agricultural modernization.

Mandate




multilevel training programs and developing human resources

• Design and implement training related research and study programs



The courses offered by DAT are among the high standards in the kingdom as they are

designed by highly qualified resource persons together with the dedicated team of

management. Training courses, thus aim to improve the capability of trainees to activity

lead, participate and collaborate in planning and implementing agricultural extension

activities so as to give impetus to agricultural development endeavors.





4.1.1 Publications

DAT in collaboration with Manpower Development Agriculture Project (MDAP/GTZ) has

published 32 different types of training manuals on various technical fields. DAT newsletter,

a four-monthly publication is also a regular publication of this directorate. DAT has started

publishing a Journal of Agriculture Development from fiscal year2003-04. Progress report,

training effectiveness studies, brochure etc are directorate other publications.

4.1.2 DAT Network

DAT has network of five RATCs located in different development regions of the country

and entrusted to run training programs for support staffs and farmers. Recently, RATCs are

reoriented to offer more specialized training courses to the varying needs of farmers and

support staffs tailored according to their background, interest and aptitude. RATCs usually

give training to around 1000 JT/JTAs and over 3000 farmers on wide range of subjects

annually.

344 Nepal

Regional Agricultural Training Centre

Eastern Development Region, Jhumka, Sunsari

Central Development Region, Naktajhij, Dhanusha

Western Development Region, Lumle, Kaski

Mid- western Development Region, Khajura, Banke

Far-western Development Region, Sundarpur, Kailali

4.2. Agricultural University

The Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS) - Nepal, began as a School of

Agriculture under the Ministry of Agriculture in 1957 to train Junior Technical Assistants

(JTAs) in agriculture. In 1968, the school was upgraded to College of Agriculture and a two-

year Intermediate of Agricultural Science (I.Sc.Ag.) program was started. In 1972, the

College of Agriculture was given the status of the Institute of Agriculture and Animal

Science under Tribhuvan University. Until this time, the institute did not have its own

buildings and facilities and was operated at "Jagdamba Bhawan" at Pulchok in Kathmandu.

In 1974, the institute was relocated from Kathmandu to its present site at Rampur in Chitwan

District where 110 hectares of land, buildings and facilities of then Panchayat Training

Center were endowed to the institute. Later in 1978, 125 hectares of livestock farm under

Ministry of Agriculture was handed over to IAAS for teaching. At present the institute has

its central campus at Rampur and two branch campuses. The Lamjung Campus, located at

Sundar Bazar in Lamjung District was established in 1975 and The Paklihawa Campus

located at Bhairahawa in Rupandehi District was established in 1978. Started with a few

permanent faculty positions in 1972, the IAAS now implements teaching, research and

extension programs through a core of over 150 trained and dedicated faculty members at its

central and the branch campuses.

4.2.1. Academic

At present, the institute offers B.Sc. Agriculture (Bachelor of Science in Agriculture),

B.V.Sc. & A.H. (Bachelor of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry), M.Sc.

Agriculture, M.Sc. Animal Science, M.V.Sc., M.Sc. Aquaculture and Doctor of Philosophy

(Ph.D.) programs at Rampur. The two branch campuses at Lamjung and Paklihawa also offer

initial two years of B. Sc. Agriculture course.

4.2.2. Research

Research is an integral part of the IAAS system. Besides the course work, the faculty

members and students are actively engaged in research activities. Although, IAAS do not get

regular budget for research from the university, the institute strongly encourages faculties

and students towards research activity and supports a number of research projects annually

by mobilizing internal resources. The research projects are managed by the Directorate of

Research and Publication wing of the Dean Office. The institute adopts highly flexible and

transparent research project administration policy to facilitate researchers so that the

scientific objectives can be achieved effectively and efficiently. Usually IAAS incurs 10% of

the total project budget as overhead cost to cover the project management expenses.

Within its limited resources, IAAS annually invests over 600,000 (NRs.) to support faculty

and students research projects, mainly postgraduate thesis research work. Depending upon


the availability of funds, undergraduate student’s research projects are also supported. The

financial support for such projects is awarded on meritorious basis.

IAAS faculties have been highly successful in competitive research grant application.

Currently, over 20 faculty research projects covering a wide rage of topics of crop science,

horticultural science, fishery, animal husbandry and veterinary science are on-going. The

total budget of these projects amounts over 40 million Nepalese Rupees. The major in-

country funding agency is the National Agriculture Research and Development Fund

(NARDF) and among the international agencies DFID, FAO, USAID, UNDP, IFS, Eiselen

Foundation, TUFT, IRRI/IFAD, CIMMYT AquaFish/CRSP, EU and WWF are the major

ones.

4.2.3. Extension

The Directorate of Extension (DOE) was established on January, 2000 (2055-10-7) to

strengthen the extension service delivery system of the IAAS.

The mission is to provide services to farmers by using more innovative, participatory and

methodological approaches in the areas of developing human resource as well as farm

resources on a continuous basis.

The major objectives are:

• Exposure of the faculty and students to of real farm conditions and agricultural

production systems and their integration in the academic programs, research and

innovative extension approaches and

• Establishment of relationship with community and sharpening its image as the active

contributor and partner of the national agricultural development.

Following are the areas where the DOE has the opportunity and conducts its regular

programs:

1. Developing and providing short term trainings based on clients’ needs inclusive of all stakeholders.

2. Provide technical and diagnostic services to farmers as soil testing insect-pest and diseases of plants, and veterinary services on campus and also in the form of mobile

animal health clinic to rural area farmers.

3. Conduct farm and home visits to specialized groups of farmers in specific crops, vegetables and fruits

4. Establish linkage with and co-work with the extension programs of District Agriculture Development Office and District Livestock Service of the home district.

5. Arrange workshop, seminar and interaction meeting for all types and levels of stakeholders of agriculture development and ultimately the farm families.

4.3. Nepal Agriculture Research Council

NARC is an apex body for agricultural research in the country with the ultimate goal of

poverty alleviation with sustainable growth of agriculture production through the

development of appropriate technologies in different aspect of agriculture.

Objectives

• To conduct qualitative studies and researches on different aspects of agriculture

• To identify the existing problems in agriculture and find out the solution.

346 Nepal

• To assist government in formulation of agricultural policies and strategies Functions

and Responsibilities

• Conduct qualitative agricultural research required for national agricultural policies,

• Prioritize studies and researches to be conducted,

• Provide research and consultancy services to the clients,

• Coordinate, monitor and evaluate the agricultural research activities in Nepal,

4.4. Training of extension workers and farmers through public, NGO and private initiatives

There are more than 5000 NGOs and dozens of INGOs and some technical and vocational

institutes working in the country for the development of agriculture sector. These

organizations provide different types of training to the farmers, traders and local leaders. The

trainings includes awareness program to skill development program related with agriculture,

livestock, food security, nutrition and health, cooperatives and other related field of

agriculture.

5. Linkages among Extension, Research, Education, Farmers and Other

Stakeholders

5.1. Linkage

In the beginning, there were no problems of coordination and linkage problems because of

less number of stakeholders, organizations and comparatively low level of transactions of the

farmers. Over the years, the growth occurred in terms of organizations, stakeholders and

transactions of the farmers that created the problems in linkages and coordination. As a

result, special mechanisms were developed gradually.

a) Traditional Linear Linkage

In this traditional system, farmers' problems were collected by extension agents and these

problems were brought to research for solution. The solutions provided by research system

would come to extension and ultimately to farmers through extension. Both research and

extension used to be public base. Extension used to remain in touch with farmers and

therefore considered as a bridge between research and farmers.

b) Farmers at the Center of Knowledge Triangle

The research, extension and education are considered the three pillars of the agricultural

knowledge system (AKS). It is also called the “agricultural knowledge triangle” which

places farmer at the center. The AKS integrates farmers, researchers, extensionists and

agricultural educators, enabling them to harness knowledge and information from various

sources to improve farming and livelihoods.

Research

(Public)

Extension

(Public)

Farmers

(Private)


c) Multi-sectoral net work of stakeholders

The concerned agencies are functionally connected in many ways. For all the stakeholders

focal point becomes the farmer. They are interlinked in terms of their services to end-users.

Banks

Input

Providers

Commercia l

Farmers

Farmer

Coops

Farmer

G roup

Trade

A ssociatio

Exporter

s

Private

Extension/

Reserach

Agro

Industry

M arkets

T raders

NGO

Public

Research

Public

Extension

M FI

348 Nepal

d) Value-chain approach

As agricultural gets commercialized, it involves the production of crops and commodities for

sale rather than on-farm consumption and the use of sale proceeds to buy family and farm

requirements. To maximize benefits (or value added) from the business activity and be

sustainable, each participant in the delivery chain from producer to consumer must operate

efficiently, profitably and in collaboration with other participants in the chain. To be

efficient each link in the chain should be operating with the most appropriate technology, in

full knowledge of market requirements, and within a business environment where a fair and

transparent tax regime applies, trade impediments are minimized and acceptable quality

controls are in place. This is the concept of the Value Chain. A generic value chain system

for agricultural products is illustrated below.

The primary mechanisms for enhancing value chain performance are by (i) reducing costs at

any point along the value chain, (ii) differentiating products by making them uniquely

attractive to the consumer, and (iii) introducing appropriate technology at any point in the

value chain system (iv) improving the performance and collaboration between stakeholder

organizations involved in the value chain. In doing so, research, extension and other

stakeholders in this chain should have strong linkages and play specific roles.

5.2. Linkage and Coordination Mechanism Between R&D

Agricultural technology plays vital role in increasing agricultural productivity.

Transformation of subsistence agriculture into commercial one depends, to a large extent on

the modern farming technologies are available to the farmers and they adopt them. Research

centers are responsible to generate clientele oriented technology. Extension workers on the

other hands are responsible to disseminate the proven technologies developed by research

Figure 1: Generic Agricultural Value Chain System

Production

Inputs

Technology

Capital

Land

Labour

Materials

Indigenous

knowledge

Production

Agricultural products

Livestock Products

Forestry products

Fisheries products

Other primary products

Collection

Aggregation

Packaging

Transport

Processing

Grading

Processing

Packaging

Transport

Wholesale

Marketing

Storage

Promotion

Distribution

Retail

Marketing

Storage

Consumer sales

Promotion

Production Post Harvest

Collection

Inputs

Infrastructure

markets

roads

Technology

Processing

Inputs

Technology

Capital

Land

Labour

Materials

Wholesale

Inputs

Infrastructure

markets

Technology

Market knowledge - prices, quality standards

Trade environment - international and national santiary and phytosanitary standards, non-tariff trade barriers

Fiscal environment - taxation and levies

Industry management and coordination


stations to the farming communities and bring back the problems and needs of the farmers to

the research centers.

A close working relationship between research and extension is in vital in maintaining this

ideal linkage between r& e and hence in providing high quality agricultural services to

farmers.

5.3. Key components of the system for R & E Linkages in Nepal

5.3.1. At the Central Level

• Tripartite meeting

• Technical panel meeting

• National Agriculture Technical Working Group (NATWG)

• Seasonal crop and other technical workshops

5.3.2. At the regional level

• Outreach Research Program (ORP)

• Outreach Research Planning and Coordination Meeting (ORPCM)

• Regional Agriculture Technical Working Group (RATWG)

5.3.3. At the district and grass root level

• District Agriculture Development Committee (DADC)

• District Agriculture Development Program Implementation Committee (DADPIC)

• Village Level Planning and Review Workshop

• Farmers Acceptance Test

Third trimester (NARC)

Second

Trimester

(Regional Directorate of

Agriculture)

Third Trimester

(Regional/Agricul

tural Research Station)

Second Trimester

(DADO/DLS)

Regional Workshops (3)

National

Workshop (1)

District Level

Workshop (1 combined)

First Trimester

(Regional

Directorate of Livestock)

350 Nepal

Model of linkage and coordination between R&D in Nepal

Linkage and coordination between R&D institutions in Nepal is tailored in such a way that

there is a frequent interaction between different layers of intuitions to get two way feedbacks

for agriculture research and development. Linkage mechanism is targeted for different

hierarchy comprising from central to district level where frequent interactions among

institution is a mandatory business so that coordination mechanism has been tied up in their

annual targets. NARC is technology generator while DoA and DLS are technology promoter.

This linkage and coordination mechanism has given a sense of responsibility to institutions

assigned to their respective job of technology development and technology dissemination


Monitoring and evaluation are essential management functions that are interactive and

mutually supportive. M & E are of critical importance for realizing the objectives of

development programs and project, particularly for agriculture and rural development

projects because of their poverty alleviation and multidimensional nature. M & E must be

continuously strengthened to enable any development agency to respond to demands for:

• Adjustment of ongoing activities,

• Greater accountability in the use of resources,

• A clear basis for transparent decision making and

• More practical lessons from experience to guide future development interventions.

• M & E must be result oriented and provides assessments of the relevance,

performance and success of development interventions.

6.1. Monitoring mechanisms of agricultural extension programs

A variety of means are available for use by extension program and project managers and

other stakeholders in monitoring a program or project.

6.1.1. Work plans

Program or project managers must prepare annual work plans in operational terms. The work

plan should describe in detail the delivery of inputs, the activities to be conducted (which

one and how) and expected results. They should clearly indicate schedules and persons

and/or institution responsible for providing the inputs producing results. The work plan

should be used as the basis for monitoring the progress of program or project

implementation. To keep higher government authorities and even donor informed of the

progress of programs or project, managers should also provides them with work plan which

simply indicate critical milestones in implementation with the corresponding time table

and responsible actors.

6.1.2. Field visit

Program or project managers must make field visit at regular intervals and adequate

budgetary resource should be allocated for this purpose. In addition to inspecting the sites,

physical output and services of the program or project, the visit must focus on interaction

with target groups to obtain their views on how the program or project is affecting them


(directly or indirectly, positively or negatively) and their proposed solutions to perceived

problems. Person under taking the field visit must prepare their reports either at the site or

immediately after the visit, focusing on relevance and performance, including early signs of

potential problem or success areas.

6.1.3. Stakeholder meetings

The objective of stakeholder meeting is to involve the major stakeholders in addressing

issues that pertain to the programs or project, there by creating a sense of ownership. Besides

the executing and implementing agencies and other development partner, it is essential that

target groups expected to be affected by the programs or projects, be included in the

discussion of issues relevant to them.

6.1.4. Systematic Reporting during Implementation

Program or project management must prepare monitoring reports more frequently (eg

monthly, quarterly and /or semi annually) to serve its internal management requirements and

also to submit to the higher authorities. The executing agency must also submit an annual

report to the reporting agencies on the relevance, performance and likelihood of success of

the program or project.

6.1.5. Terminal reports

Upon completion of a program or project, the executing agency must prepare a terminal

report that focuses on the relevance and performance of the project, the likelihood of its

ultimate success, and the initial lessons learned in term of best and worst practices. The

report should also contain recommendations for follow-up action by appropriate institutions

where necessary.

6.2. Existing M & E Arrangements in the Department of Agriculture and

Livestock

6.2.1. At service center/ sub center level

Field observation

Meeting with farmers group

Progress reporting

Documentation






6.2.2. At the district level

Field observation from time to time

Monthly staff meeting

• Review of last months progress

• Decisions on the next month's program

352 Nepal

• Problems encountered and action taken for solution

• Input supply situation

• Standing crop condition

Organizing coordination meeting with line agencies compilation and reporting of progress

report and publication of agriculture information

Media publication

Participation and presentation of progress at regional directorate and district council

Updating district database









6.2.3. At the Regional Directorate level

Field observation/supervision from time to time and monitoring of on going programs

Organizing quarterly progress review of program implemented under the region

Compilation and reporting of progress reports

Media publication

Organizing coordination meeting with line agencies

Periodic reviewing of the regional crop/livestock situation









6.2.4. At the departmental level

Compilation and reporting of progress reports/publication of progress report

Organizing department level progress review meeting

Coordination among line agencies at the department level


Coordinating all program directorates to overcome technical problems faced by the districts

Decision over the solution on problems encountered by the districts

Participation in regional as well as ministry level program review workshop










6.2.5. At the ministry level


Organizing ministry level review meeting

Decision to overcome the problems for effective implementation of the programs

Compilation, reporting and publication of progress reports


7.1. Conclusion

Presently, business environment for agricultural extension is changing fast, particularly due

to increasing globalization of farm sector. This calls for change in the attitude of public

sector organizations and also of other stakeholders and the need to reorient their capacity of

delivering services. Broader extension agenda is emerging. Shift in paradigm of extension is

taking place to cater the emerging needs of the farmer for diversified technologies, marketing

and agribusiness, natural resource management, farm mechanization, etc. Extension service

providers are diversifying. Recently, a large number of outside government organizations,

particularly I/NGOs, CBOs, PSOs etc have emerged in the scene and have become more

competitive and cost effective. Studies have proven this and have proposed alternative

institutional models for delivery of research and extension services. Role of public sector

extension is changing. Public sector has to play the role as “service provisioner” rather than

as “service provider” demanding more sectoral support for quality assurance, monitoring and

regulatory services. Country needs to respond to changes such as decentralization of

extension services, privatization and downsizing and increasing efficiency. This calls for the

need to reorient vision for extension, which should be based on the considerations of

farmers, input suppliers, private and civil society extension service providers, local

governmental bodies, central and regional governmental institutions, and the diversifying

extension agents. With projects’ initiative, the government introduced policy reform to

promote public-private partnership, partnership with beneficiary groups and community

organizations. Agencies within the organization began to be oriented to change the mindset

to promote such collaboration and partnerships. Policy of contracting out extension programs

is emphatically introduced. Implementation of extension programs in line with Local

Governance Act of 1998 has been initiated; implementation strategy is to be

institutionalized.

7.2. Recommendations for improvements

Despite criticisms regarding service delivery in agriculture extension, there is scope for

improvements in the service delivery. Based on above discussions, following

recommendations can be made to improve in future.

354 Nepal

i) Assess the existing extension organization against farmers’ needs and determine

whether to strengthen or restructure it

ii) Decentralize extension but not before capacity-building of the staff and orientation of

relevant elected officials

iii) Broaden the technical mandate of extension to aim at broader development of rural

human resources

iv) Promote pluralism in extension by involving public, private and civil society

institutions

v) Privatize extension partially or fully only where it is socially and economically

feasible

vi) Develop original, location-specific, participatory, gender-sensitive and inexpensive

extension methodologies and materials instead of applying those methodologies

which are promoted as universally suitable

vii) Encourage the extension services to empower farmers through organizing them into

legal associations to constitute a strong lobby for themselves and for extension

viii) Encourage bottom-up, grassroots extension program planning by farmers in order to make extension demand-driven, but also exercise supply-driven, top-down modality

for promoting common public good practices such as conservation of natural resources

and environment protection.

ix) If the extension function is to be performed with relatively small number of extension

staff, follow appropriate strategies for getting maximum output

x) Ensure effective operational linkages between extension and research and other key

relevant institutions

xi) Agriculture extension program should be based on demand of the clients. The program

should be planned and implemented based on demand of the farmers rather than

supply based.

xii) Clear cut job responsibility in a new context is must. The extension staff should not be

utilized for engaging in programs and activities that require specific professional

background. The extension staff should not be utilized in the detail engineering works

in implementation of small irrigation program for which they lack professional

experiences. The job definition of the different extension works at different level needs

defined and implemented accordingly.

xiii) Advertise and advocate the services offered. xiv) Implement programs with the local bodies. Complete devolution with full

responsibility.

xv) There is need of comprehensive policy regarding agriculture extension service delivery

and support system in Nepal that provide the foundation for commercialized agriculture responsive to need of client. The specific areas that need to be defined may be :

a. Agriculture extension b. Agriculture input supply c. Agriculture technical support d. Postproduction management e. Market development and management f. Rural and agricultural credit

g. Law enforcements.

xvi) The physical condition of the ASC should be improved and they should be equipped with minimum equipments supplemented by appropriate teaching materials.


xvii) The command area of the ASC should be well defined based on the availability of

human resources, geographic location and area to be served. The present structure

can not be effective in providing services. The concept of CASC which has been put

forward should be effectively implemented. The concept of CASC can be very

effective in increasing the access of farmers through greater social participation. The

experience of community forestry, community school management should be

internalized in designing the CASC approach. Firstly, the existing ASC should be

given priority to be converted into CASC and this opportunity can be provided to

intended VDCs and farmers of the concerned pocket area. The concern of CASC

should be on utilization of local resource centres and resource persons, greater

access of farmers' organization for extension services and commercialization of

agriculture.

xviii) The institutionalization of the farmer's organizations such as farmers groups,

farmer's cooperatives, Farmers Groups Coordination Committee (FGCC) as in Crop

Diversification Project (CDP), Agriculture Development Comittee (ADC) as in JICA

funded Agriculture Training and Extension Improvement Project (ATEIP), Farmers

Alliances as in Commercial Agriculture Development Project (CADP) should be

well capitalized in the extension service. Empowerment of these farmer based

organization should be the major strategy for greater efficiency in the service

delivery mechanism.

xix) Service delivery effectiveness is largely influenced by both demand and supply side

strategy. So, there is need for improved strategies on both sides. On demand side,

improving farmers' ability to demand better services and on supply side improving

the capacity and efficiency of the delivery institution is a must. Empowering farmers

based organization and political decentralization foster demand side strategy where

as administrative decentralization and public sector reform along with civil service

reform may promote supply side strategy.

xx) The model service centre should be able to demonstrate cost effective and efficient

service

xxi) The motivation package, inclusive of capacity enhancement opportunity as well as

monetary and non-monetary incentives, must be insured for the field level staff.

xxii) The job responsibility and Terms of References (ToR) for different extension

personnel should be redesigned with their shifting roles in the present context. The

need for service of overseer/sub overseer has emerged with inclusion of small

irrigation program in DADOs. Creation of such posts in DADOs is necessary if this

program is to succeed.

xxiii) The technical capability of the extension staff should improve. Moreover, the

extension worker should be well trained regarding good governance and new

emerging issues in agriculture extension.

xxiv) Monitoring and evaluation should be made objective. The monitoring should be

done at micro level and on basis of team approach. Participatory monitoring

evaluation should be internalized in the system.

xxv) The need for different services has been recognized by new agriculture extension

strategy. The strategy has spelt out the need for action plan for implementation of

extension services. Hence, the action plan should be developed regarding the

internalization and application of already developed extension services that provide

356 Nepal

bases for the extension need and services for different categories of clients and

entrepreneurs.

xxvi) The practice of devolution in line with Local Self Governance Act has mixed result.

It has eased in the planning and approval of program, improved accountability

towards local government and greater access of local government bodies over

program. Still, there is ambiguity regarding extension function, role clarity among

DADO/DLSO and DDC, HRD, chain of command, fund contribution to agriculture

extension, technical backstopping and ownership towards program. The devolved

extension should internalize the experiences learned so far and a clear cut working

guidelines needs to develop in line with LSGA for improved service delivery.

xxvii) View extension within a wider rural development agenda: Emerging view of extension is not that of service or system but of a knowledge and information needs

of rural people. The knowledge and information needs of rural people are so diverse

that there is a benefit of having a range of providers to deliver advice, technology,

innovations and services.

xxviii) Define an extension policy for a pluralistic system: Extension strategies need to identify the overall objectives for public sector involvement in extension and define

the roles and responsibilities of other service providers and of public funding.

xxix) Develop a stakeholder coordinating mechanism: Some type of coordinating

mechanism is needed for the various stakeholders in extension in order to provide a

common framework.

xxx) Putting information technology in service of extension: The revolution in

information technology must benefit extension. The benefits could take many forms.

Interactive electronic linkages may be established between extension and relevant

institutions. The efforts to apply information technology should be started at

locations which have necessary infrastructure and pre-requisites. The information

technology should not be considered as a replacement of human effort in extension,

but just as a supporting tool.

xxxi) Build capacity of public sector and service providers: The funding should be

increased for capacity building and institutional strengthening to widen the pool of

qualified service providers.

xxxii) Introduce some cost recovery: Reforms should encourage valuing information and knowledge services. This will encourage a market for knowledge services.

xxxiii) The technical mandate should be broadened to educate farmers in interrelationship between agriculture production, food security, population and environment. It should

engage in developing human capacities in farmers, which go beyond technology.

xxxiv) Recognize rural men, women and youths as extension clientele. xxxv) Empower farmers to organize them in groups, cooperatives and larger organizations.

Ensuring their legal status through formal registration should follow this. The next

action should be to provide them with training needed to make plans and make

decisions.

xxxvi) Farmer to Farmer extension should be encouraged for utilizing indigenous knowledge and skills. For this, Farmers Organizations should be institutionalized,

made active and efficient.

xxxvii) Time has come that there should be gradual initiation of fee charging extension services with the commercial and competitive farmer.


xxxviii) Multi sectoral coordination and linkages in terms of resource sharing and functions should be promoted to meet current complexities in agriculture sector.

xxxix) Contracting–out is conceived as shifting responsibility while responsibility. It is the observation of the authors that many NGO implemented programs on technology

dissemination and poverty alleviation have been highly successful but that efforts by

the government to contract out extension services have had challenges, particularly

efforts to privatize extension for whole districts;

xl) The private sector is able to directly provide extension services mostly for high-

value and export oriented crops. Mechanisms of private extension include:

• Embedded services provided by the sellers of inputs and buyers of outputs

• Contract farming relationships

xli) A key recommendation of this paper is for government to develop, formalize, and

implement mechanism to foster public private partnership and private sector linkage

with provision of extension services. Such mechanisms should include:

• Project Advisory Bodies. To link government services and public goods to the


advisory bodies can play a key role, as exemplified by the SIMI advisory body.

Such projects can also play a key role in fostering local level public private

partnership in activities such as marketing infrastructure.

• Development Alliances. When initiating major sectoral development and when

substantial private sector partners are involved the use of development alliances

that include government agencies, producers’ organizations, processors/trader

organizations, and the development community are highly efficient. The Nepal

Tea and Coffee Development Alliances are successful models of this approach

• Development Boards. As development alliances mature the development and/or

strengthening of development boards is a key tool to bring together national

level stakeholders.

• Embedded Services. The local level private sector agricultural community also

needs to be served and included in training and capacity building programs.

Agro input suppliers and traders have the ability to reach large numbers of

households with new technologies efficiently. But currently the private sector

lacks access to latest technologies and often has limited capacity. Agriculture

education should also be geared to develop technicians build private sector.

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360 Nepal


Pakistan

Dr. Waqar Hussain MalikEx-Member (Social Sciences)

Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC)

Islamabad, Pakistan


Cell: 0092-300-5055114

362 Pakistan

Executive Summary

The agricultural extension system in Pakistan has a unique charter of serving people in the

countryside to improve the quality of their life. It is an agency for change, a catalyst for

individual and group action with a history of half-a-century of public service. Agricultural

extension system is a vast partnership made up of several disciplines and organizations

involved in promoting farm sector in Pakistan.

Extension’s primary motive is education. The system transmits practical information

produced by research centers and universities to the public. Its aim is to help farm people

identify and solve problems through the use of new technology.

Extension programs are designed to help fulfill local and provincial needs with a flexibility

to encompass national objectives. Extension offices established nationwide at district, sub-

district, and union council levels and the outreach activities of the universities and private

sector and civil society organizations form an information network. Extension mission is

better farming, better farm communities, in the aggregate, a prosperous Pakistan.

Over the past decades, the Extension has been challenged to pay closer attention to the

emerging issues such as increasing pest and virus infestation to important crops like cotton,

rice, and sugarcane and water and soil quality deterioration. Likewise, Extension had to

broaden its focus to work on high value agriculture.

This country study report is orchestrated on the guidelines delineated by SAC. It includes the

brief history with chronological developments in Extension system of Pakistan. The report

also highlights the role of various government, non-government, private sector agencies and

parastatals involved in purveying the research-born information to the farm communities in

tandem with agricultural extension.

The report also covers various home-grown as well as donor-assisted mega interventions

instituted from time to time to support extension effort in the country. While the

organizational structure, planning, monitoring, and coordination mechanism are discussed,

the governance, capacity building, incentive structure and extension’s linkages with research,

education and farmers are part of this report.

Analyzing the manu of options that challenge the country’s agriculture, the study suggests

reform measures and realignment of the existing extension system. There is a need to have

increased focus on small farmers deploying the participatory approach. Likewise, the

extension collaboration with NGOs and private sector needs to be expanded so that the task

of public sector extension is re-enforced. Apart from the food commodities, the extension

personnel have to be prepared for promoting high value agriculture particularly in the

emerging challenges of globalization and market liberalization. A rigorous monitoring and

evaluation system and improved extension-education-research linkages mechanism required

to be in place. Pre-service and in-service training of the extension staff needs substantial up-

gradation. Measures to improve the functioning of training institutes and addition of a

service academy for extension officers have also been proposed.


1. Introduction

While the dissemination of relevant information and advice to farmers has a long history that goes back to 1800 B.C., the first agricultural extension service of a modern kind came into

existence as a result of an outbreak of the potato farming (potato blight) and vine growers devastation caused by aphid infestation in the United Kingdom during 1845. Closer to the

same period, in 1866 Orissa famine in the sub-continent triggered the need to establish a

central department of agriculture by the British rulers. By 1905, on the recommendations of the Famine Commission, the then government of united India decided to set up department of

agriculture to organize agricultural research and demonstration farms in every province. In 1947, at the time of partition, Pakistan inherited the provincially organized similar

agricultural infrastructure. Since then, agriculture in Pakistan has undergone a tremendous change.

Agricultural extension in Pakistan did not have a separate structure till 1962 when an independent department of agricultural extension was created within the provincial

agricultural set up. During the fifties and early sixties, agricultural extension activities were carried out as a component of the integrated agricultural development approach whereby the

Professor of Agriculture in Agriculture Colleges, also used to act as Deputy Director Agriculture and was responsible for agricultural research, teaching and extension. However,

in 1962, the teaching was separated from research and extension with the establishment of West Pakistan Agriculture University Lyallpur (presently known as University of

Agriculture, Faisalabad). Since then, the agricultural extension work is planned and carried out following a structure headed by Provincial Secretary of Agriculture who also heads the

Department of agricultural research and several other related departments.

The Director General of Agricultural Extension (DGE) is the overall administrator of the

public sector organization in the province who is responsible to the Secretary of Agriculture.

Agricultural extension is one of the means available to help alleviate poverty and improve food security. It promotes the transfer and exchange of information that can be converted

into functional knowledge, which is instrumental in helping to develop enterprises that promote productivity and generate income in the present climate of change. In addition to

technology transfer, agricultural extension is a unique service in that it provides access to small farmers and the rural poor living far from the urban centers in acquiring non-

formal education and information services.

Efficient functioning of any organization calls for necessary reforms and

improvements in line with the changes in the working environment within which an organization functions. Without such reforms, the organization will either collapse or will

keep working inefficiently and eventually becomes obsolete. The changes or the forces of change in the working environment vary in nature and scope. They could be political,

technical, economic, or social. They could be location specific, regional, national, or global. The effects of these forces of change may be immediate, medium-or long-term and they may

be direct or indirect. In response, the organization may make adjustments internally, externally, or both. National agricultural extension systems are no exception and they too

are also directly or indirectly affected by such changes and are required to make internal and

external adjustments in order to keep functioning at the same or higher level of efficiency. Before delving into explanation of reforms instituted or required in agricultural extension

system of Pakistan, it will be in order to have an overview of the evolution of agricultural extension in Pakistan.

364 Pakistan

1.1 Evolution of Agricultural Extension Activities in Pakistan

Pakistan is a federation of four provinces where the provincial governments are primarily

responsible for agricultural research and extension functions. Several extension

approaches, designed primarily to improve the living standard of rural people through

increased agricultural production and improved farm income, have been tried. During the

last five decades, varying perspectives of agricultural extension have emerged. They

include:

i. The Village Cooperative Movement

This movement started in the early 50s under the aegis of the Cooperative Department. It

proposes that all farmers in every village be united under the umbrella of the village

cooperative societies, choose their own management committees, and find the means of

their development on a cooperative basis. The primary thrust of this movement is to educate

member farmers about new technologies and to arrange farm-input delivery on soft-term

credit. However, the experience suggests that the cooperative movement has not been

able to achieve a consistent success. Some places where local leadership and cooperative

department staff have been sincere and effective, it has achieved good results. It has proven a

good source of farm input supply and technology transfer to the small farmers at village

level.

ii. The Village Agricultural and Industrial Development Program (Village-AID)

The Village-AID program began in Pakistan in 1952, a little after independence, with

substantial help from USAID and Ford Foundation. This program sought to bring about

all-round development of the villages through organizing village councils, building

roads, digging wells, constructing schools, and disseminating improved agricultural

technology. This program achieved a good deal of success in the beginning but became a

victim of departmental jealousies and political change in the country. With the abolition of the

Village-AID program in 1961, rural development became a part of the Basic Democracies

System (BDS).

iii. The Basic Democracies System (BDS)

Phased in 1959, this system was designed to bring together both the elements of community

development and political development, especially at the local level. The government

administrative and development tiers were organized into five levels where the union

council, a group of 3-5 villages, was the lowest tier. The councils undertook a variety of

social and economic development work in their respective areas. The problems union

councils tried to solve were in the realm of education, infrastructure, agriculture, and

sanitation. The BDS went a long way in developing awareness and building local

leadership among the rural masses. The BDS also met the same fate as its predecessor

program. The change in the government in 1970 saw the abolition of the BDS and

introduction of a new rural development approach the 'Integrated Rural Development

Program' (IRDP).

iv. Agricultural Development Corporation (ADC)

For supply of seed, fertilizer and farm machinery, the ADCs were established in 1960 at the

provincial level in West and East Pakistan (Bangladesh). In 1970, the ADC was renamed as

Pakistan Agricultural Development and Supply Corporation (PAD&SC) which was


primarily responsible to promote cooperatives, disseminate farm information, produce,

procure and distribute improved seed, fertilizer through a well established input supply

network all over the country. Other important functions performed by ADC included

development of new lands, establishing seed farms and rendering farm equipments and

machinery to the growers. Subsequently, the government decided to disengage itself from

farm input supply functions, and the ADC was wound up.

v. Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP)

In early 1970, once again due to the change of political scenario and the problems

with the previous development strategies, the government decided to try a new development

approach - - the IRDP. Development of agriculture was the central force behind this

program. Moreover, the IRDP was created as a subsidiary of the Agriculture Department, its

leadership was heavily drawn form the agricultural department, and all frontline workers

recruited to run this program were agricultural graduates. On the other hand, Local

Government Department controlled rural development funds. This dichotomy in modus

operandi not only resulted ample tension between the two agencies, but also created

frustration among the workers of this newly launched program. The IRDP staff, using their

professional skills, started a campaign to enhance agricultural productivity, which had a

tremendous impact on crop yields. Its one of the principal functions was to integrate the

functioning of various line departments and facilitate farm service delivery to the farmers at

one point. This coordinating role could not be accomplished successfully for hard

departmental boundaries. Subsequently, in 1978, the IDRP was subsumed into the Local

Government Department and turned into a routine bureaucratic agency.

vi. Training and Visit (T&V) System Training and Visit (T & V) system of extension was introduced in 1978 in the first phase in

the five districts of Punjab province with the financial and technical support from the Word

Bank. In the second phase, it was extended all over the country in 1986-87 (Ahmad and Haq

1994, p.1). Under T &V system of agricultural extension, the functions of transfer

of technology were clearly delineated and separated from supply functions such as

provision of farm inputs. Technology transfer was kept with agriculture extension in

public sector and the functions pertaining to supply of inputs and services were handed

over to private sector or commercial corporations.

This system had three components: adaptive research, training, and an extension wing. The

adaptive research component was responsible for the testing of the findings of applied

research at adaptive research stations established at the regional level. The most promising

innovations selected by the adaptive research scientists for the region were delivered to the

farming community by the personnel of extension wing.

The Subject Matter Specialists (SMS) along with the personnel of the training wing,

conducted regular fortnightly training meetings for the extension personnel to strengthen

their professional competencies.

The main job of the extension wing was the transfer of the messages prepared by the SMSs

and the training wing to the farm community through the contact farmers. The system was

based on two-step flow of information, from the contact farmers to the whole farming

community. The number of farm families that an extension worker (locally designated as

Field Assistant) could cover varied considerably from place to place depending on

366 Pakistan

population density, roads, intensity and standard of cropping, and the types and diversity of

crops grown. There was no fixed ratio of Field Assistants (FA) to farmers (Mullah, 1993,

p.49). Generally speaking, the farm families on the jurisdiction of a FA were divided into 80

groups of about equal size. Then about 10 percent of each group were selected as contact

farmers. Usually, on an average, the number of contact farmers in a group varied from eight

to ten. FAs were supposed to visit the contact farmers according to a prefixed schedule

known to the farmers as well as their supervisors (Ahmad, 1998, p.42-43). During a

fortnight, the allocation of time of extension worker was eight days to contact farmers, two

days each for training and extra visit/office work. The system did not yield the desired

results as it strengthened the existing hierarchical tendencies with centralized management

and top down planning several evaluations of the T&V concluded that it failed to bring about

the desired changes in production practices, input use level and crop yields. Further it tends

to marginalize the benefits of agricultural development to small farm holders, tenant farmers,

and women.

The T & V system could not sustain when the World Bank assistance was withdrawn in

1994-95 and provincial governments failed to pitch in promised operational budget. The

salary and operational budget ratio came down from 57:43 in 1993-94 to 93:7 in 2001-2002,

severely hampering the operational activities of the extension system.

Thus the intensity of agricultural extension approach established under the T &V system has

gradually diluted. The squeeze of financial support reduced the facilities for regular backup

training to the staff and their mobility. Adaptive research farms discontinued and the morale

of extension staff affected. The vacant positions of Agricultural Officers that come to several

hundreds were never filled. Despite all such odds, the extension staff kept on maintaining

limited contacts with farmers, organizing field days and field seminars. In some areas like

train the trainer’s programme and media extension, the private sector support such as

pesticides and fertilizer companies was sought to keep the extension service in operation.

Because of certain compelling forces, at some places particularly cotton and rice belts of

Punjab province, extension was organized differently. Both the commodities have export-

led potential. The growers became very receptive of the improved production and protection

practices. The traditional role of extension staff from person-to-person contact transformed

to electronic means and print media. The growers were encouraged to visit commodity

research institutes and acquire state-of-the-art knowledge and the best production practices.

The training of extension staff was organized on regular basis employing modern training

techniques. The monitoring and evaluation of the field staff by district and provincial

extension managers was developed on mechanical and quantitative patterns. Use of fax

machine helped sub-district and district extension officers to promptly feed the provincial

government with the latest information about availability of seed, fertilizer, irrigation

water, machinery, and other inputs besides crop stand , prevalence of any insect, pest, or

disease, the anticipated yield production levels and marketing of the farmer produce.

1.2 Establishment of Agricultural Extension Institutions, Reformation and

Development

Since independence, Pakistan inherited Punjab Agricultural College established in 1908 and

agricultural research institute both located at then Lyallpur presently Faisalabad, in the

Punjab province. Subsequently, the Punjab Agricultural College was upgraded to the level of


an independent agricultural university. Gradually, more agricultural colleges and research

institutes in different parts of the country were established. Presently, there are five

Agricultural and Veterinary Universities, five Agricultural and Veterinary Colleges and eight

Agricultural and Livestock Training Institutes in the country. Several other general

universities have independent faculties of Agriculture and Livestock, besides, there are

fifteen research organizations at the federal level which are involved in conducting research

relating to agriculture. Each province has a multidisciplinary and multi-commodity research

institute with substations located in different ecologies. There are a number of commodity-

specific institutes which operate as part of the main provincial research system. Research on

crops is mainly conducted by the provincial Agriculture Department whereas research on

livestock, poultry and fisheries is done by the Provincial Departments of Livestock and

Dairy Development, Poultry and Fisheries.

The agricultural extension system’s mission, which has been expanded several time since its

founding in 1962, is to deliver information to the farmers through links among the above

listed agricultural research institutes, academic institutions, and farm training organizations.

When agricultural extension system was established, its focus was on food crops which

gradually expanded to incorporate high value agricultural commodities, environment and

food safety. Accordingly, several institutions were established to handle the emerging issues.

2. Organizations of National Agricultural Extension System (NAES)

Pakistan is federation of four provinces of Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan and Khyber

Pukhtunkhwa, and four autonomous administrative units including Islamabad Capital

Territory (ICT), Federally Administrative Tribal Areas (FATA), Gilgit-Baltistan (GB), and

Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK). Accordingly, each province and administrative unit has

developed agricultural extension system in line with the peculiar needs of their farming

systems. Generally, Punjab acts as a role model in introducing innovative models and

methodologies in agricultural research and extension.

2.1 Agencies involved in the extension system (GO and NGO)

A wide range of agencies including public, private, and civil society organizations have

been engaged, at different level, in diffusion of information to the farmers of Pakistan. To

reinforce the extension effort, time to time, several commodity-and area-specific initiatives

were also undertaken. These include the followings:

A. National Agricultural Extension

� Public Sector Agricultural Extension System

• Barani Area Development Programme

• Crop Maximization Programs

• Italian Crop Maximization Program

• Cotton maximization program

• Rice maximization program

• Training and visit system

• Banani Agricultural Research & Development Program (BARD)

• Pak-Swiss Potato Program

368 Pakistan

• Agricultural Extension Services (AES) in ICT

• Technology transfer program of NARC

� Private Sector Extension

• Fertilizer Producing and Marketing Firms.

• Pesticide company, mostly involved in marketing their products.

• Rafhan Maize Product/Sugar Mills.

� Civil Society/Non-Government Organizations-Driven Extension � Universities-Supported Extension

• Public Sector Agricultural Extension System

Prior to the introduction of Training and Visit (T and V) system, traditional

agricultural extension system had been in practice to disseminate the findings of research

among the farming community. The following approaches, initiatives, and programs

were introduced to the public sector extension system. were used under this system.

a) The Service to Farmers Approach: This approach was based on the philosophy of establishing model farms with progressive farmers which would have a trickle down

effect on other farmers and ultimately adoption by the fellow farmers of the area. In

the diffusion process, extension was deploying the traditional means of

communication and emphasis was on personal contacts involving individual and

group meetings, home, and farm visit, etc. The diffusion process was relatively slow

and extension was accessible to large farmers and village elites. This approach

resulted widening the gap between large and small farmers in their access to

information sources. Likewise, the spread of information as well as pace of diffusion

was limited.

b) The Inputs at Farmers’ Door Step Approach: Under this approach, extension personnel were entrusted the responsibility of providing agriculture inputs, such as

improved seed, fertilizers, pesticides, etc; near the door step of the farmers.

Government subsidized these inputs to encourage their use. This approach helped in

substantial increase in agricultural production but it turned the extension worker into

a salesman for agricultural inputs (Government of Punjab N. D. p.6). In addition, not

fully conversant with handling sale proceeds and financial bookkeeping, several

extension workers landed in financial irregularities and faced disciplinary

proceedings. However, both the above approaches were focused on production and

productivity enhancement of food crops. In the meantime, T&V system was in the

offing and in different phases it was introduced in most part of the country.

• Barani Area Development Programme (BADP)

This program was launched in 1978 for the rainfed areas by the Government of Punjab.

Later on Agency for Barani Area Development (ABAD) took over the operational

control of BADP. The programme was confined to the productivity enhancement of

crops and livestock sectors in the rainfed regions of the Punjab province. The

programme has undertaken several specific initiatives to develop farmers’ interest

groups and upgrade their quality of life. The farmers of the programme area had been

given several incentives to upgrade the level of technology use. The prgramme is

currently headed by a Project Director with the requisite infrastructure and professional

staff.


� Crop Maximization Program

• Italian-Funded Crop Maximization Programmes

This programme was sponsored by Italian government primarily in support of Afghan

refugees in early 1980s. PARC spearheaded this effort in providing professional staff

and technological backup. The programme was focused in rainfed areas of Northern

Punjab and KPK (NWFP) provinces which were the pressure areas of Afghan refugees.

The programme covered maize, wheat, and rice crops. The program aimed at

maximizing commodity production through an integrated approach. Under this

programme the extension staff were organized around productivity enhancement of the

specific commodities and farmers of the area were provided with technological package

including the farm inputs. The extension professionals were also sent for overseas

training to build up their technical capacity. It turned out to be successful and productive

intervention which after closure of the Italian funding was internalized by the provincial

governments and technology transfer program of NARC.

• Cotton Maximization Program

The cotton maximization project was implemented by the Punjab Agricultural Extension

Department. The objectives of this project were (a) Intensifying availability of extension

services to the farmers (b) Imparting necessary on-farm training to the growers about the

cotton production technology (c) Arranging major inputs at the door step of the farmer

and (d) Enhancing the availability and use of supervised institutional credit. The project

had a positive impact on the yield of seed cotton.

• Rice Maximization

Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) took an initiative to enhance the rice

production in the rice belts of Punjab, Sindh and Balochistan provinces. The extension

staff in the respective areas took the lead while the PARC research system provided all

the necessary technological and financial backup. The objectives of this program were

(a) Demonstration of proven package of technology (b) Participation and coordination of

all concerned nation building departments for the production of commodity (c) Provision

of feedback to the researchers, etc; about the problems/constraints in the adoption of

improved practices (d) Achievement of higher production within a short period. Besides

the above objectives, PARC had been instrumental in providing planting material

(seedlings), rice planting and harvesting machinery. The rice maximization program had

a very bracing impact on the productivity of the rice growers in the respective zones and

the improved farm practices were internalized by the rice growers.

• Barani Agriculture Research and Development Programme (BARD)

For improving dry land agriculture which represents one of the greatest technical

limitations to accomplishing the production potential of barani rainfed lands, the

(BARD) program with the technical and financial assistance of the Canadian

Government was launched in 1981 under the umbrella of PARC. The objectives of the

program were: (i) To introduce high yielding varieties and their production techniques

suited to the socio-economic conditions and the varied climatic patterns and farming

systems found across the rainfed areas; (ii) To demonstrate the findings of research

programs at NARC through provincial operational research programs and to estimate the

impact of research towards capturing some of the potential for increased food production

in various barani areas; (iii) to disseminate proved packages of agronomic technology to

370 Pakistan

all institutions and agencies responsible for increasing agricultural production in the

Barani areas. The program had been instrumental in introducing Canola crop which

contributed tremendously in promoting use of canola oil in the country. Likewise, the

project introduced improved varieties and production of peanut plantation. Subsequently,

the programs activities were subsumed by PARC through its technology transfer efforts.

• Pak-Swiss Potato Program

The Pakistan-Swiss Potato Development Program started its activities in Kalam valley in

1984 under the agies of Pakistan Agricultural Research Council. The program effort

concentrated mainly on the problems found at farmer level. The program covered

diversified activities such as research and on-farm trials, development of extension

scheme, identification of pest and diseases, management of seed, potato production

through TPS, alternative crops and germplasm screening. Each of the activities have had

a visible impact on improvement and productivity of potato in the valley. Thus special

attention was given to the farmers’ production system. The close relation with the

farmers was very useful to identify limiting factors to potato productivity. The control of

late blight had a visible impact on potato yield.

• Agricultural Extension Services (AES) in ICT

While carving the capital city Islamabad out of the Punjab province and granting it a

status of the federal district with the authority of a provincial government in 1980 a new

autonomous administrative unit was created as Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT). PARC

assisted ICT administration in establishing agricultural extension services in the ICT.

The AES in ICT is composed of five departments- - agricultural extension; livestock and

dairy development; fisheries; soil conservation and cooperatives. The AES is responsible

to provide scientific information and services related to the farm needs of the farmers

living in 145 villages around the capital. The service operates under the Chief

Commissioner who is the administrative hand of the Capital.

• Technology Transfer Program of NARC

In order to extend a full range of research backup to ICT growers through AES, PARC

established the Technology Transfer Unit (TTU) in 1982 at its National Agricultural

Research Centre (NARC) in Islamabad. The TTU subsequently was upgraded to a

Technology Transfer Institute (TTI) and several more TTIs were set-up all over the

country and housed at the heart of each provincial agricultural research institute. They

are mandated to serve as a link between the scientists and farmers for disseminating

modern technology among the farm communities and feed back to researchers the

constraints and limitations of the farmers in application of a specific technology or

scientific recommendation. Each of these institutes have a specific mandate that is

accomplished through in collaboration with the farmers organizations, agricultural

universities, colleges, commercial and public research institutes, NGO’s and extension

organizations located in the same ecological zone by undertaking the following

initiatives: (i) Research in extension methodology; (ii) Training of extension agents; (iii)

Exposure of progressive farmers to sophisticated or special technologies for large scale

dissemination; and (iv) evolution and testing of innovative approaches to extension.

TTI initiative of PARC succeeded in initiating a process of establishing functional

linkages among all stakeholders, undertaking extension methodological research,


conducting, evaluation/assessment studies, training of extension workers and farmers

covering different areas of interest, establishing audio-visual units and documenting,

printing and disseminating information.

� Private Sector Extension

Pakistan has a vast network of private sector organizations involved in manufacturing,

marketing, and distributing the essential farm inputs and food products. During the sale

promotional efforts of their products, some of them are deeply involved in purveying

scientific information that is specific to their product and has a value-addition impact on the

specific crop. In this process, a great deal of knowledge transfer and information diffusion

take place at the farm level.

• Fertilizer Producing and Marketing Companies

Currently, seed, fertilizer, pesticide and farm machinery are in the private sector.

National Fertilizer Corporation (NFC), Fauji Fertilizer Co. (FFC), Exxon Chemical Ltd.

and Dawood Hercules Ltd. (DHL) to mention a few, are the producers and marketers of

fertilizers in Pakistan. NFC and FFC have the most extensive extension programme.

However, for the sake of developing an understanding the NFC and FFC extension

program are briefly discussed here.

NFC extension aims at reaching all sort of farmers by employing simultaneously three

extension approaches: Extension Agronomy, Zarai (farm) Service and Mass Media.

Extension agronomy entails activities pertaining to advisory service through farmers’

calls, farm visits, group discussion, farmers’ meeting, demonstration and field days,

crop/agriculture seminars, agricultural exhibitions, crop movies, and on-the-site soil

testing.

Zarai service encompasses issuance of quarterly magazine in local language, letter

service for literate farmers, posters containing crop production and protection

recommendations, publication and dispersal of crop and product folders containing wide

range of information on crops and products, mainly fertilizers and pesticides.

Mass Media includes NFC-sponsored radio agricultural programs, news paper and

magazines, roadside hoarding bearing slogans on modern agriculture management

practices and TV brand promotion programs which in part display production

technology.

On the pattern of National Fertilizer Corporation (NFC), the Fauji Fertilizer Corporation

(FFC) has started its extension efforts. However, this organization is also involved in

training of the technical staff of sugar mills and providing training to the dealers. The

dealers are imparted training about soil fertility and plant nutrient, time and methods of

fertilizer application.

FFC also initiated an innovative approach of “Mobile Farm Extension Service” in 1987.

Under this approach, a van fully equipped with soil testing laboratory moves at a pre

planned and well-notified schedule in different villages. The van also has a provision of

living facility for extension staff who camps in the rural areas for providing soil testing

services and extending best site-specific farm services.

372 Pakistan

• Pesticide Companies

In the last decade when the cotton crop had a devastating attack of “cural leave virus” ,

the use of pesticide surged un-proportionately. This gave tremendous boost to the

pesticide business and companies dealing in pesticide emerged in hundreds, mostly

based in the cotton belt. These companies are primarily involved in marketing the

imported products. The pesticide giants in Pakistan are Syngenta, Bayer, Dow

Chemicals, Nichemen, FMC, HELB, Agrevo, Ciba Giegy, Jaffar Brothers, ICI,

Granulars Ltd while hundreds other local pesticide companies are aggressively involved

in this business. Some of the extension functions performed by the pesticides companies

are:

− Introducing new pesticides on to the market for providing efficient plant protection

services to the farmers.

− Providing technical guidance to the progressive farmers at their door steps

concerning the safe use of pesticides.

− Conducting free pesticide trials at the farmers’ fields and to show video programs

and documentaries, and organize field days to showcase the best practices of the

pesticide use.

The prime mover of extension work by the pesticide companies has the inherited

objective of promoting sales through popularizing their products among the farmers and

ultimately earning more profit. The companies have developed their extension network

to liaise with farmers all over the country. The firms also provide advisory and

supervisory services to the dealers. They also organize dealers’ and farmers’ training

programs and to take them to demonstration sites to impart first hand experience of best

practices, besides establishing demonstration farms for farmers, and arranging film

shows, and agricultural exhibitions. Other extension services including pest scouting and

supervised spraying operation of chemicals through the trained and qualified staff are

also undertaken by these companies.

• Rafhan Maize Company Extension

Rafhan is a group of commercial companies involved in processing corn for value

addition. To have adequately raw material available, the company is instrumental in

bringing more acreage under corn cultivation. The company has developed its own

extension network that operates in the corn planting area. For establishing a buy-back

arrangement, the firm enters into forward contracts with the farmers, provides them

inputs such as hybrid seed, fertilizers, insecticides/pesticides, etc; on credit, and offers

technical know how for the corn production and protection technology and purchases

unshelled corn directly from the registered farmers at the guaranteed price at the mill

gate and bears the transportation cost. Rafhan’s closed-focused support to t he corn

growers resulted in about 43 percent higher yield than ordinary growers.

• Sugar Industry Extension

There are 92 sugar mills in Pakistan. All of them have a varying degree of extension

network for increasing the sugarcane plantation in their respective zones. Sugar industry

hiers agricultural graduates to organize interest groups of sugarcane growers and impart

them improved practices through arranging farmers’ field training programs, providing

them written material, visual aids, and taking to the model farms to show best agronomic


practices. The industry also supplies farm inputs at planting time and undertakes

contracts for buying back the produce at the time of harvest. On the average, each sugar

mill has a group 10-15 professional and para-professional staff on their payroll who

carryout the sugarcane advisory services to growers operating in that particular zone.

• Solvent Industry Extension

There are about 30 solvent plants operating in the private sector and are involved in

manufacturing edible oil in Pakistan. Sunflower, Saflower and Canola are the premier

crops who provide raw material to the solvent industry. In order to keep their operations

at maximum level, each solvent plant plans to get maximum number of oilseed growers

on its contract. Employing the extension wing of their industry, they extend technical

information and occasionally provides farm inputs on credit to the growers for enhancing

the oilseed crop productivity enabling the solvent industry to operate at optimal level.

They organize farmers’ field days and distribute leaflets, handouts and show video

programs for generating interest among farm communities to grow more edible crops.

They also organize oilseed growers’ competition and award prizes in the form of farm

machinery equipments and tractors to the highest yield achievers.

� Non-Government Organizations and Civil Society Extension

A large number of non-government organizations are involved in the rural development

effort where development of agriculture constitutes the core activity. Mega organizations

like the Agha Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP), the National Rural Support

Programme, Punjab Rural Support Programme, the Sarhad Rural Support Corporation, and

Balochistan Rural support Programme and many medium and small range NGO’s are

actively involved in undertaking rural development initiatives using the principles of

participatory development and the methodology demonstrated by AKRSP. They all place

emphasis on the participatory approach designed to build on local leadership skills. Their

extension programs aim at increasing the income of the farmers by: (i) imparting training to

representatives of Village Based Organizations (VBOs) in agriculture and livestock

management (ii) facilitating timely arrangement and supply of agricultural inputs (iii)

introducing technological innovation such as inter-cropping, bee keeping, plantation of off-

season vegetables, fruit processing, etc;. (iv) introducing improved farm machinery, and (v)

demonstrating and experimenting high yielding varieties of crops, etc. Myriads international

NGOs such as Oxfam, Plan, GTZ, etc; are in operation in Pakistan but after the devastating

earthquake in 2005 following severe floods, their actions were intensified and hundred more

NGOs moved their operations in Pakistan. After emergency relief, they all are involved in

development of rural livelihood through promoting agriculture.

� Universities of Agriculture Extension

Agricultural Universities in the country make use of their extension departments to translate

the research findings in simple and locally understandable language. The material published

by the universities is widely distributed in the form of pamphlets, books, and through

university journals. The universities also provide extension services to the farming

community in the form of farm seminars, workshops, agricultural fairs and other continuing

education activities. However, there is wide variation in the extension activities of the

agricultural universities. For example, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam has

established a Farmer Advisory Cell, which is responsible for coordination between farmers

374 Pakistan

who need technical help and the scientists of the university make field visits, meet farmers

and listen to their technical problems for finding appropriate solutions. University of

Agriculture, Faisalabad has established the Institute of Applied Research and Technology

Transfer. This Institute provides extension services to the established community

organizations and to the general farmers at two project sites in Faisalabad and Khushab

districts. Khyber Pukhtunkhwa Agriculture University implemented the USAID-Funded

TIPAN project. While TIPAN has strengthened the university in establishing various

teaching departments and facilities, it had upgraded the research base of the university as

well. Another unique element of this project was its “outreach program”. This programme

has provided the university faculty with the resources to reach out the farming communities

in the rural areas and impart them the best farm practices. This was a very useful and

rewarding experience for university faculty to work with farmers in real-life situation and to

develop an understanding of the problems. On the basis of such experience, the faculty

proposed useful interventions for enhancing the farm productivity in the outreach area of the

university. Major cooperation between the extension and outreach programme of the

Pukhtunkhwa Agriculture University is in the areas of Technology Development, the

Integrated Village Demonstration Programme, Communication, Training and Continuing

Education.

The departments of agricultural extension, extension education, and rural sociology of

different Agricultural and Veterinary Universities have a special focus of their teaching

effort wherein they take students who are in the process of specializing in such disciplines to

the farmers fields where they live with the farm families for some time and share with them

the knowledge and skills they acquire in the academic environment.

The variety of foregone extension activities by the academic institutions help the faculty get

sensitized to the problem of the farm communities and propose the remedial measures in

light of the scientific experience.

2.2 Organogram of Agricultural Extension with Major Activities

Agricultural extension in Pakistan is a hierarchically top-down system of administration

where decisions are taken by the top administration without much involvement of other

stakeholders, and implemented by the field staff which does not fit well into the present day

requirements of more progressive, intensive and integrated agricultural. The Agriculture

Extension Department is headed by a Director General at the provincial level and supported

by Directors, Deputy Directors, Extra Assistant Directors, Agricultural officers and field

assistants at the regional, district, tehsil, sub-tehsil (Markaz) and Union Council (a group of

5-8 villages) levels respectively. The extension officers at all levels are supported by other

professional, technical and non-technical staff keeping in view their expected roles and

responsibilities, and are planned to have horizontal and vertical linkages with other operators

of agricultural education and research programs. However, as per Government’s devolution

plan, program planning and implementation responsibilities with appropriate authority

except recruitment of personnel and allocation of funds have been decentralized to the

district level. In other words, the district has become the focal point for all agricultural

extension activities to be planned and carried out with the support of specialists in public

sector agricultural research and education systems.


After Devolution, the following organogram and administrative set up in agricultural

extension is being followed in all the provinces of Pakistan:

EXTENSION SERVICES BEFORE DEVOLUTIONEXTENSION SERVICES BEFORE DEVOLUTION

EXTENSION & FIELD TRG

A.O. (EXT)

(Markaz: 354)

DIRECTOR GENERAL AGRICULTUREDIRECTOR GENERAL AGRICULTURE

(EXTENSION & AR)(EXTENSION & AR)

DDA (EXT)

(District: 34)

H.O. (5)

EADA (EXT)

(Tehsil: 113)

A.H.O. (8)

F.A.

(UC: 2541)

TRAINING

PRINCIPAL (ATIs)

RYK, Sgd, Rwp

DDA (TRG)

( 9 )

Instructor

Demonstrator

( 24 )

Sr Instructor

( 9 )

ADAPTIVE

RESEARCH

DIRECTOR

SSMS

( 32 )

A.R.O.

( 32 )

R.O.

( 8 )

DDA (TRG)

( 8 )

EADA (TRG)

( 34 )

A.O. (TRG)

( 113 )

DIRECTOR

Lhr., Mlt., Rwp., DGK, Bwp

HEADQUARTER

DIRECTOR

DDA (HQR)

DDA (TRG)

DDA (PP)

A.E.

ADMIN. CONTROL

TECH. CONTROL

30

DGA (EXT & AR)

Extension TrainingAdaptive

Research

Dir/Principal

IATIs (3)

Sr Instructor (9)

SSMS (23)

ORGANOGRAM OF EXT. WING OF AGRICULTURE DEPTT. ORGANOGRAM OF EXT. WING OF AGRICULTURE DEPTT. PRESENTPRESENT

DOA (Ext)

Distt. (35)

AO (Ext)

Markaz (354)

FA (Ext) UC. (2541)

Director

RO (8)

ARO(32)Instructor (21)

Demonstrator (7)

Distt. Nazim

EDO

DCO

DDA (Trg)

IATIs (9)DDOA (Ext)Teh. (114)AHO (8)

DDOA (Farms) 4AD (Farms) 4

Horticulture

AD(T) (6)

DIU (6)

AD(SM) (6)

AO (56)

FA (56)

PMCIPMMn

376 Pakistan

2.3 Extension Planning Process

While the Devolution intervention brought extension decision making closer to the farm

communities, it resulted weakening the extension linkages with research and other

institutions that have not been developed. Likewise, the communication and feedback

mechanism of district extension to the provincial extension agency has become very remote.

2.3.1 Problem Identification Process

The extension programs are planned by the top management in the light of the priorities

determined by the federal and provincial governments. However, the system has now

slightly been decentralized in the sense that each district is to prepare seasonal (Rabi-Kharif)

plans with given targets which are mostly aimed at increasing crop production. While

preparing these district plans, agricultural extension personnel consult research scientists and

other stakeholders through the established inter-agencies, intra-agency linkages but with very

little input from small farmers. Primarily the identification of emerging problems and

suggesting solution in response to the technological needs of the farmers is the responsibility

of field officials of extension programs. With the implementation of Devolution Plan, the

district is made a focal point for planning and implementation of extension programs.

There are very active and diverse interest groups and associations of specific commodity

producers such as Cotton Farmers Associations, Mango Farmers Association, Sugarcane

Growers Association and Chambers of Agriculture at various level who leave no stone unturned

in articulating the impediments in production, processing, marketing and export of their

commodities. These farmers associations are also represented at various policy and planning

forums operating under the aegis of agriculture extension system. They play important role in

lobbying for attainment of concessions in the planning process. Likewise, another small group

of resource-rich farmers who are capable of articulating their concerns at the highest echelon

have considerable influence in the extension planning process.

The other perspective in the planning process indicates that a majority (84%) of farmers in

Pakistan are small farmers. This group of farmers is resource poor, with minimal access to

inputs, credit and advice, thus lacks the power and organizational capacity to exert pressure on

the research, extension and other public establishments to get their voices heard and provide

feedback in the planning process and to have farmers’ friendly policies with regard to inputs,

services, marketing, and advisory services.

There exist the district-and provincial-level committees and boards of various commodities

where the representatives of agricultural universities, colleges, institutes, some NGOs and

private/corporate sector organizations, and different commodity-specific group of growers

participate in the planning and implementation of agricultural extension program activities.

2.3.2 Priority Fixation of Extension Activities

The agricultural extension system had a top-down tendancy in its operation, therefore the

decision making and prioritization of extension activities is greatly influenced by the federal and

provincial governments. With the devolution of extension services from provincial governments

to the district governments, extension priority fixation has been handed down to the district

governments. Accordingly, the elected representatives of the district councils bring the feedback

from their areas and extension priorities are set by the district agricultural committees which


have added benefit of better understanding of farmers problems. Given the great diversity in

agro-ecology, commodity focus, and different farming systems in the country, the extension

priorities are also set by the extension management at district, region and then provincial and

federal level. However, the basic focus of most efforts is on enhancement of productivity and

change in quality of life of the majority of farmers.

3. Governance

The terms governance refers to the functioning of the various branches of the government

including executive, judiciary, bureaucracy and agencies involved in revenue collection.

Therefore, the efficient performance of the government depends on the efficient performance of

these state organs.

3.1 Institutional Reforms and Efficiency Enhancement

Extension operates in a dynamic environment where it is influenced by several other state

systems. The shifting emphasis of Pakistan’s agriculture towards diversification,

commercialization, sustainability and efficiency has made it necessary for the extension system

to critically examine the approaches and institute reforms for efficient performance of the

system.

In order to bring efficiency and decentralize the decision making process, the Pakistan

government made a decision in 2001 to devolve various subjects from the provincial to the

district level under an institutional reform of devolution. The district governments were

empowered with command and control decision making authority transferred from the province.

All the decision making authority is with the hand head/Chairman District Council who is the

elected public representative. To enhance efficiency in the public sector, Devolution was

introduced with the following objectives;

� To decentralize powers and bring government system close to the people. � To improve efficiency of the government so as to facilitate quick disposal of its

business for convenience of the people.

� To have close monitoring of the system and improve accountability.

In spite of the recently introduced administrative reforms under the devolution plan under

which the district has been made a focal point for program planning and implementation, the

devolution plan is still in its infancy and the people responsible at the district level for

implementation of this plan are not yet fully conversant with the philosophy, rational and

operational strategies of this system. As a result, the district instead of being a fully

functional focal point for program planning, has become an isolated entity with no linkage

with other districts and organizations even within the same province. Moreover, the feedback

to research and planning has further reduced.

While the district council Chairman is the elected head who exercise full authority and control

over the district, the District Coordination Officer (DCO) provides the bureaucratic support to

the District Chairman. As is evident, from the organogram, the Executive District Officer

Agriculture (EDOA) is the head of the devolved departments which include Agriculture,

Animal Husbandry, Forestry, poultry, water management soil conservation, etc. All the

departments are technical and their functions are of technical nature. The DOA is the front line

378 Pakistan

district officer who is responsible for Agricultural Extension work. He is supported by a number

of Agricultural Officers and Field Assistants in the conduct of field operations.

3.2 Public-Private-NGO Partnership

To strengthen public-private partnership, government tried to introduce number of

interventions. One of the successful efforts was the Farm Services Center introduced in the

year 1995 in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Agricultural Extension System with the objectives to

provide one-window service to the farmers where agricultural machinery, fertilizers, seed,

pesticides and credit are available at one point. These centers have representation of private

sector who are involved in supply of farm inputs and NGOs that extend credit as well form

farmers groups for providing technical information. This approach showed tremendous

performance during the period 2001 to 2003 in many ways. At present, the “Farm Services

Centers” are working at circle level. Inline with the Agriculture Policy, 2005 guidelines, the

provincial government suggested to constitute a cluster of organizations of Farm Services

Centers at district level with the name as, “Model Farm services Centers” (MFSC). The

Model Farm Services Centers are equipped with the service delivery of the Agriculture

Department including Agriculture Extension, Cooperatives, Water Management, Soil

Conservation, Livestock and Dairy Development and Agricultural Research that would

jointly be working under the one roof through their representatives. The main objectives of

the FSC were as under.

1. Empowering of farming community through policy on introduction of participatory techniques (IPT) participatory technology development (PTD) and Farmers Field

Schools (FFS).

2. Capacity building of extension staff in PTD & FFS. 3. Integrate effort by different agricultural sector departments. 4. The quality inputs such as seed, fertilizers, pesticides credits and fruit plants and

advisory services are made available to farmers closer to their home.

5. The farmers are able to plan their activities through yearly action plan to be integrated with the District Action Plan.

6. Agriculture Statistics Officer based at Farm Services Centre helps in providing crops data and other farm statistics and also serve as Agriculture Information Manager for

the Development of Statistics will be used for the formulation of various plans

rationally.

7. The organizations like Agriculture University, Nuclear Institute for Food and Agriculture, Agriculture Research System, different developmental projects like

Barani Area Development Project, Community Based Resource Management project

(CBRM), Malakand Rural Development project, Zarai Taraqati Bank, Soil

Conservation, Water Management, Agriculture Training Institute, Livestock

Training Institute, Livestock and Dairy Development Department are also

represented and provide inputs and technical services to the Farm Services Centre.

Several public-private sector partnership MoUs have been signed for improved

functioning of transmitting information to the farmers.

3.3 Accountability Hierarchy

Recently, the government has introduced a system of accountability in the public sector

organizations. Like other departments in the public sector, the agriculture extension system has


also been challenged to pay closer attention to accountability. To implement this strategy on the

pilot basis the extension system has developed and implemented an accountability system based

on performance measurement. It developed three issue-oriented goals under accountability

aspect: (i) an agricultural production system i.e. highly competitive in the national economy;

(ii) a safe, secure, food and fiber system; (iii) greater harmony between agriculture extension

and other related departments for enhancing economic opportunity and quality of life.

Accordingly, a strategy was devised to measure the performance-based management using

indicators of inputs, outputs, outcomes, and processes. The indicators in context of extension

system include work assignment for extension personal (input); an extension program

programme’s out-reach to a group of farmers (output); a change in behavior by extension and

information receipants that resulted in an improvement in the their quality of life (outcome); and

measure of the extent to which the views of the stakeholders were solicited in the planning and

evaluation processes (process). In hierarchical accountability the field assistant is accountable to

agriculture officer, agriculture officer accountable to district agriculture officer, district

agriculture officer accountable to executive agriculture officer, executive agriculture officer

accountable to district coordinating officer at the district level and director general agricultural

extension accountable to secretary agriculture and livestock at provincial level.

3.4 Management Information System

The continuing rapid development of telecommunications and computer-based information

technology (IT) is probably the biggest factor for change in extension, one which will

facilitate and reinforce other changes. There are many possibilities for the potential

applications of the technology in agricultural extension (FAO, 1993; Zijp, 1994). IT will

bring new information services to rural areas over which farmers, as users, will have much

greater control than over current information channels. Although the Agricultural Extension

System (AES) is using the MIS, its fall potential has not been adequately realized. The

district and below-level extension staff used to gear up to harness the full potential of this

technology and preserving field information and employing it in diffusing information to

farmers. Even if every farmer does not have a computer terminal, these could become readily

available at local information resource centres. In some districts at pilot basis government

has introduced the computer-based interactive extension-community communications on

specific farm issues. On the basis of this experience, gradually, this effort will be expanded.

4. Human Resource Development and Capacity Building

The human resource development is an important component for an efficient extension

system. Unless the extension personnel adequately trained in the latest technology transfer

methodologies, the extension system cannot operate on efficient lines. Occasionally, the

extension personnel get an opportunity to go back to the academic institutions to obtain

higher academic degrees and there are several in-service training institutes where the

extension professionals are sent to upgrade their knowledge and skills with the latest

developments in the arena of agricultural extension. This is an ongoing process of human

resource development and capacity building. It is a proven fact that without refurbishing the

field functionaries with fresh knowledge and latest developments, they start getting into a

state of inertia.

380 Pakistan

Seemingly, the human resource development aspect in extension system is neither regular

not adequate. The Agricultural Training Institutes (ATIs) established in 1957, in-service

training institutes need lot of improvement in teaching contents, methodology, environment

and facilities.

The objectives of establishing the training institute was to get trained Field Assistants for

Agriculture Department to serve as front-line workers in the rural areas as well as at the research

stations. The ATI is headed by Principal who is the overall in-charge of the institute but his

budget is controlled by D.G. extension. He is assisted by instructors. The mandate of the

Institute includes the following functions:

� Pre-service training course of 2 years duration each for Field Assistants and for Stock Assistants.

� In-service short training courses for agricultural officers and field assistants of agriculture department.

� One-week training courses for farmers. � Farmers exchange visits to other provinces. � Special training courses for NGO's and different organizations.

There is a need to upgrade the degree-level curricular for extension graduate in the university.

Similarly, the curricular of the ATIs need massive updating to include the new teaching areas

enabling the extension trainees to comfortably handle the emerging field issues.

4.1. Involvement of Academic and Research Institution for HRD through

Curriculum Development and Implementation Support

In order to keep abreast their professionals and field functionaries with latest developments

in the field of agriculture, each provincial extension system organizes various short-term and

long-term training programs in collaboration with academic and research institutions. The

curricula for pre- and in-service education and training being used by different agricultural

universities and training institutes are theoretical in nature with very marginal practical

exposure. As a result, the graduates from these educational institutes lack skills required for

a good extension worker who can interact with the farmers who in general are well

experienced and aware of their needs and problems. Besides several other functions, the

Higher Education Commission of Pakistan after every 5 years undertakes curricular revision

exercise such as effort is useful in light of Curricular Revision Committee’s (CRS)

recommendations, the university-level curricula kept on updated. The CRC represents all

stakeholders - - researchers, extensionists, and academia involved in extension and adaptive

research.

4.1.1 Areas of Skill and Capacity Development

All extension staff needs to be made aware of participatory extension systems such as the

farmer’s field school approach. They must also be exposed to the successful experience as well

as the limitations of NGO processes. Field Assistant level staff require training in interpersonal

communication skills, utilization of audio-visual aids for training, methods of audience analysis,

methods of group formation and facilitation of community planning. There close working with

NGOs in development of village-based community organization will expose them to these

skills.


Sound management of environment, including biological resources (trees, crops, livestock, fish,

etc.) and natural resources (soil, water, etc.) ensure sustainable agricultural production systems.

Thus, it is recognized that the potential use and limitations of these resources are intimately

linked to the availability and advancement of knowledge and the growing needs for agricultural

development. This would be attained only through integrating training-learning technology and

knowledge generation, and rural institutions’ formation in an holistic approach to available

natural and human resources utilization and new methods for determining training needs,

innovative forms of training programs including agricultural extension.

Adequate training of the extension personnel of all categories is essential in farm

management techniques and business analysis for the sustainable and profitable development

of agriculture in Pakistan. Pre-service training of field assistants is imparted at the

agriculture training institutes. One of the main constraints in improving the standard of

teaching of Agricultural Training Institute is the lack of adequately trained and experienced

teaching staff who can give them exposure to the emerging issues such as international trade,

food safety environmental degradation, etc.

4.2 Training of Extension workers and Farmers through Public, NGO and

Private Initiatives

Trained manpower shortage both in quality and quantity is often a critical impediment to the

successful programs of agricultural development, including transfer of technology to the

farming community. Limited knowledge of farmers on appropriate utilization of land, soil,

water and technology is a major problem faced in increasing farm productivity and the

conservation of natural resources.

Sustainable agricultural and rural development requires the training and retraining of vast

numbers of trainers, including professionals, field workers and farmers. The more extension

workers and farmers are education and trained the more development becomes dynamic and

evolutionary.

Given that the human resources are the most valuable asset of the agriculture extension, due

considerations is given to the establishment/strengthening of agricultural extension institutes

such as Agriculture Training Institutes to cater for such needs. The ATIs and Agricultural

Research System also provide training to the agricultural extension agents, NGOs and farmers

and also organize special courses for private sector professionals.

Likewise, the joint-short-training program are also organized by the extension system where

representatives drawn from extension, NGOs, private sector, and farm communities are invited

to participate.

5 Research-Education-Farmers present emerging trend linkages

Extension workers need new technological innovations to help the farming community to inject

the innovations into the crop production skills of farmers their for enhanced productivity and

improved quality products. Therefore, the institutional links between research and extension are

critically vital. Such links between research and both sets of clients, extension and farmers are

also complementary. One cannot substitute for the other. If these links between either of the

partner are weak or missing the entire process get effected.

382 Pakistan

In Pakistan linkages between research, extension and education are quite loose. The

university faculty and researchers in the research system are prone to writing of scientific

papers or articles without considering the relevance or applicability of their research

findings in the field. The researchers operate mostly isolation and therefore, their contact

with other organizations is quite limited. They seldom take part or encouraged in extending

their research findings in the farmers field. They seldom get opportunities to formally meet

the extension workers particularly at below district level. Same is true for linkages between

the extension and academic institutions.

Agricultural universities at present are also performing only a teaching role whereas the

other two roles, namely research and extension have suffered a severe setback because of

lack of funds and inappropriate linkages with research stations/centers and agriculture

extension programs under the administrative control of agriculture departments and

corporate sector.

Even the communication or interface within and among the research organizations is tenuous

resulting in duplication of research efforts and uncoordinated research programs which are

not aligned with the national needs and priorities. Such an environment points toward the

poor communications between the farm research, extension, education and farmers. The

linkage mechanism has further been exacerbated with the introduction of extension

devolution plan in Pakistan as the district governments have emphasis on physical

infrastructure and are least concerned with agricultural developments. Thus, the extension

staff are not encouraged for out-of-district communications.

While effective linkage mechanism is vital for successful technology development and its

efficient delivery. It allows two-way flow of information and keeps the technology

generation organization’s focus aligned to the needs of end –users there is no single formula

for instituting effective links between all the entities involved in the process of agricultural

knowledge generation, diffusion, and utilization. To establish effective and sustainable

linkages among them, there is a need for a careful analysis of the constraints and

opportunities present in their particular situation and providing ample funds required in

institution-effective linkages and promoting technical meetings and reciprocal visits by all

stakeholders to each others’ institutions and field sites.


Rewards and reprimands act as motivational force in human behavior. If a person in a system

gets a reasonable compensation package, his urge for better performance keeps on increasing

and becomes an asset for the organization.

6.1 Incentive Structure: Present and Future Outlook

Generally, there exists no system of incentives and career advancement for good extension

workers. The field assistant, who is the front line worker, is recruited at a low level of pay scale

with two-year practical training course at an Agricultural Training Institute, after high school

certificate and generally retires in the same grade. Similarly, the chances of promotion for

agricultural officers who posses Masters’ Degree in Agriculture are also limited. They generally

get promotion one step above the initial scale of recruitment.


6.2 Career Advancement Scheme

While looking at the entire spectrum of problems faced by the agriculture extension system

which adversely affects its performance, inadequate financial support and low morale of the

functionaries figure significantly which are attributable to:

� Inadequate opportunities for skills and qualification up-gradation through in-service training in country and abroad.

� Insufficient chances and lack of criteria for regular promotion based on merit and output.

� Poor working conditions which includes lack of residences, office accommodation, transport and health insurance.

� Seriously low funding level for extension field operations.

6.3 Performance Based Promotion System (PBPS)

The existing service structure is based on seniority system and is vacancy oriented. The staff

often wait for their turn of promotion till their retirement. There are many cases where a staff

member retired in the same grade in which he was recruited. This has resulted in frustration, low

morale and ultimately, brain drain from the system. A proposal is under consideration to

introduce performance-based promotion for extension professionals on the pattern of PARC.

An incentive system needs to be worked out where those who performed better than the

majority of extension staff, may be granted extra incentives.


While there exist weak linkages mechanism in agricultural extension in Pakistan, rigorous,

robust, and scientifically conceived monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment

mechanism also needs to be in place.

7.1 Monitoring and Evaluation Committees

According to section 37 of devolution plan, the monitoring committees are elected by the

District Council. The composition of District Council includes Chairman, Deputy Chairman

district council peasant and women representatives and representatives of minority. Most of the

members of such dispositions are neither qualified nor competent enough to undertake such a

technical task. Therefore, it becomes very difficult for the members of the district councils to

monitor and evaluate the performance the technical staff. Therefore, the evaluation by such

committees mostly does not occur and in some cases it turns out to be unfair and biased. Such

evaluation also has a political bend.

Under section 138, there is a special mention of a few committees which have been empowered

to conduct monitoring of functionaries of the whole range of district government including

agricultural extension. This again will involve staff performance. The committees are supposed

to prepare evaluation report of the staff of each office on a prescribed proforma in relation to the

following;

� Achievements of its target. � Responsiveness to citizen difficulties.

384 Pakistan

� Efficiency in the delivery services and � Transparent function.

While evaluation is a constant and ongoing specialized activity which is difficult to be

undertaken by inexperienced and non-technical peoples. Although the province of Punjab is still

struggling to establish the standards of evaluation of all the line-departments of district

governments, the district governments in Kyber Pakhtunkhwa province have not started any

activity in this regard.







8. Conclusion and Recommendations

The reform measures described in this country report are based on a menu of options that

challenge the country's agriculture.

Present agricultural extension service is placing emphasis on the major crops grown in the

various farming systems. These include wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, maize, gram, and

oilseeds. Very little emphasis is placed on fruits, vegetables and fodders. Extension staff

needs to be apprized of the value addition aspects of farm products. They also need to be

made aware of the impact of globalization and market liberalization on national agriculture.

It is widely acknowledged that the government extension system is limited by lack of

technical competence and should be strengthened. It is also acknowledged that where private

sector organizations or NGOs are willing to extend their services to farmers, those non-

governmental initiatives should be encouraged and public sector extension system should

extend full cooperation. Rather extension staff be trained through NGOs in participatory

methods and village organization building skills

Monitoring and evaluation is very important to keep aptly aligned the focus of extension

efforts. It is noticed that this aspect is weak. Besides, having a rigorous monitoring system,

there is also a deficiency in capacity to evaluate, it is therefore recommended to phase in a

strong monitoring and evaluation component manned by the professional evaluators each

district government.

Farmer organizations are critical to coordinating the complex elements of farming systems at

the farm level. Such organizations are essential for credit delivery, diagnosing and meeting

specific needs of the production system, meeting increasingly high quantity and quality

requirements, and many other rapidly changing needs. Thus, community organization is a

major component that serves as an extension arm of extension system. It is proposed to build

upon the sizeable institutional capacity already in place.

The private sector is central to effective extension system and is instrumental in provision of

the key public goods to farmers. Public sector extension needs to capitalize on this

opportunity and vigorously pursue public-private-sector partnerships in dissemination of

scientific knowledge in a coordinated and re-enforcing mode.


Extension also needs to put in place an incentive structure that would encourage the private

sector to enter into contractual arrangements with farmer organizations and link delivery of

public services to marketing and agribusiness development. This initiative will facilitate and

speed up transfer of farm information and level of adoption.

Farmers are the dominant private sector operatives in agriculture, but they are served by

myriad private sector institutions ranging from an ordinary middleman who sells the farm

inputs on credit and buy-back their produce to a large-scale mega integrated commodity

processing plants/industry. Therefore, the improvement of services to small-scale entities is

recommended so they can expand their operations and increase their productivity. The large-

scale private sector institutions will have an important role in developing new approaches in

support of small farm operators.

In order to coordinate the wide range of activities at the village level, it is recommended to

strengthen the capacity of civil society institutions particularly the NRSP and the PRSP - -

two institutions with a long history and successful record in organizing the farm groups and

mobilizing rural resources for productivity enhancement and improved quality of life.

Because of the location specificity of farm practices, strengthening of national extension

system is necessary to raise capacity to handle such situations. The emphasis needs to be

placed on strengthening the linkages mechanism between research, education, extension, and

farmers to fasten up the application of research knowledge at the farm level. The extension

systems’ focus needs to be shifted from traditional means of communication and from

traditional crops to the modern means of communication and on high value crops and

commodities.

References

Abbas, M., Muhammad, S., Nabi, I. and Kashif, M. 2003. Farmers’ information sources,

their awareness and adoption of recommended sugarcane production technologies in

Central Punjab. Pak. J. Agri. Sci. 40(3-4), 202-206.

Axinn, G.H. 1988. Guide on Alternative Extension Approaches. FAO, Rome, Italy.

Baier, E.G. 1994. Gender, Environment, Population Education, and Sustainable

Development Themes in Agricultural Education. FAO, Rome, Italy.

Davidson, A. P. 2003. Privatization and the crisis of Agri. Extension in Pakistan: Caveut

Emptor. Agriculture and Rural Development, School of Sociology. University of

New South Wales, Sydney, NFW 2052, Australia.

Downswell, C.R. Cleaver, K.M. and Russell, N.C (ed.). 1993. Making agricultural extension

work in Africa. Policy Options for Agricultural Development in Sub-Saharan Africa.

FAO. 1990. Report on Global Consultation in Agricultural Extension. Rome, Italy.

Govt. of the Punjab, 1999. Farmer training programme for enhancement of wheat

production. Notified No. 187-D/Ps. Ext. Agri./99, Agriculture Department, Lahore,

Pakistan.

Hayward, J. 1989. International seminar on rural extension policies, 26-30 June, Agricultural

Extension Policy Proposal. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.

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Israel, G.D. and Hague, G.W. 2002. A recruiting challenge for extension education: a

comparison of non-participants and participants in homeowner landscaping

programmes. J. Agri. Edu. 43(4). pp. 76-87

Khan, M.J. Sharif, M. and Sarwar, M. 1984. Monitoring and evaluation of T and V system of

agricultural extension in the Punjab, Pakistan. Punjab Economic Research Institute,

Lahore.

Khan, C.M.A. 1990. Forward, farming systems research in Pakistan. Mart Project. Pakistan

Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad.

King, R.N. and Rollins, T.J. 1999. An Evaluation of an Agricultural Innovation: justification

for participatory assistance. J. Ex.37(4). [Online]

Lodhi, T.E. 2003. Need for paradigm shift from top-down to participatory extension in the

Punjab, Pakistan. Perceptions of farmers, change agents and their supervisory staff.

Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Dept. of Agri., Ext., Univ., of Agri., Faisalabad,

Pakistan.

Manning, N., Porter, D. Charlton, J. Cyan, M. and Hussain, Z. 2003. Devolution in Pakistan-

preparing for service delivery improvement: A working paper prepared for the

Forum on Intergovernmental Relations and Service Delivery in Pakistan 27 –29

June.

Maunder, A.H. 1973. Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual. FAO, Rome.

Muhammad, S. 2001. Agricultural Extension: Strategies and Skills. Unitech.

Communications, Faisalabad, Pakistan.

Nagel, U.J. 1997. Alternative Approaches to Organizing Extension: A reference manual In:

Burtin, E and Swanson, P. (eds.) FAO, Rome Italy,

Pickering, D.C. 1989. Farmer-extension-research: a two way continuum for agricultural and

rural development. J. Ext. Sys. 5(1): [Online]

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Reform. Resource paper presented at the International Seminar on Enhancement of

Extension System in Agriculture. Organized by the APO, Tokyo, in Faisalabad,

Pakistan 15-20 December, 2003.

Rivera, W. M. 1990. Future of extension worldwide. J. Ext. 28(3). [Online]

Robert, N. 1989. Agricultural Extension in Africa. Washington, DC, World Bank.

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Rohs, F. R. 1988.Our task is clear. J. Ext. 26(3). [Online]

Simpson, G. 1998. Extension is not just service, but service learning is important to

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Stevenson G. W. and Klemme, R.M. 1992. Advisory/oversight councils: an alternative

approach to farmer/citizen participation in agenda setting at land-grant universities.

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Agricultural Economics and Policy Research, Indian Council of Agricultural

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Thompson, O.E and Gwynn, D. 1989. Thompson improving extension: views from

agricultural deans. J. Ext. 27(1). [Online]

Warner, M.E., Hinrichs, C., Schneyer, J. and Joyee, L. 1998. From knowledge extended to

knowledge created: Challenges for a New Extension Paradigm. J. Ext. Aug. 36 (4).

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388 Pakistan


Sri Lanka

Mrs. Rose RupasingheEx-Deputy Director (Extension)

Department of Agriculture, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka


Cell: 0094-0812387405

390 Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is a small island in the Indian Ocean, situated to the south-east of India. It has total

land area of sixty four thousand square kilometers and a population of 19.5 million people

(Annual report of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2010)

Sri Lanka has traditionally been an agricultural country, as such its economic situation

depends heavily on the trends and the growth in the agriculture sector. Of the total cultivable

land ( 2.9 mn ha), 65%(1.9 mn ha )is cultivated with agricultural crops. Paddy the staple,

occupies 40%, coconut 20%, tea 12%, rubber 7% and the remainder 21% is accounted for all

other crops (other field crops, horticultural crops and other export crops).

Table 01: Gross National Product by Origin at constant (2002) Prices of Major

Economic Activities 2005-2010

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009a 2010b

Tea Rubber Coconut

Minor export crops Paddy Livestock

Other Agriculture Crops Plantation Development

Source: Report of Central Bank of Sri Lanka ( 2010 )

Agriculture continues to be an important sector of the Sri Lankan economy in terms of

contribution to GDP, employment and income. Presently agriculture contributes 12 % to the

country’s GDP. 33% of the work force is employed in agriculture sector. In the Sri Lankan

rural sector 60% of its population depends on agriculture for their livelihood. The production

of food crops like paddy the staple diet, the other field crops has been extremely important in

terms of both employment and income of the rural population. The export oriented plantation

crops tea , coconut and rubber are the other important crops in the country’s economy.

Spices, sugarcane, cashew and floriculture at present play a significant role and have been

recognized as crops of great future potential. Animal husbandry and livestock production and

inland fisheries are two important sectors in agriculture of Sri Lanka. Mahaweli river

development programme commenced in 1976 contributed to the expansion of cultivated land

extent.( Annual report of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2010, Sri Lanka State of the

Economy 2011, Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka, September 2011)


Organizational Structure

The extension activities of each unit is presented in detail in the annexure. Although

extension units are established in different ministries, there is uniformity in the

organizational structure of the units. Each structure is headed by a Director General. There

are directors within the structure (technical and non technical). Each director is supported by

deputy directors and assistant directors handling different technical subject matter. Based on

the requirement of the profession some managerial level personnel are stationed in different

geographical locations. They monitor the extension activities of each location and

responsible for the mother organization. There exist one or more layers of officials at ground

level under one command of guidance. In all the extension units ground level technical staff

is directly linked with the farming communities in implementing extension activities. They

also bridge the farming community with the mother organization. Each mother organization

maintains formal and informal linkages and networks with relevant stakeholders to

strengthen their services to the targeted audience. It is an area to be further strengthened to

expand sustainable partnerships locally and globally.

Each structure has its own monitoring and evaluation mechanism in its unique way based on

the expected output of the organization. Monitoring and evaluation mechanisms are another

area to be well defined and focused for each stratum. Establishment of a transparent,

systematic, proportionate, rewarding system for each stratum of the organizational structure

specially for those who work at grass root level was a vision of many as an annual evaluation

mechanism.

Method of recruitment of the staff and the educational qualifications required for recruitment

are inline with the national policies. Direct recruitment for managerial level positions

command a recognized university degree and the middle level technical officers require a

two year diploma in the identified fields by the mother organization. Applicants who fulfill

the basic educational qualifications are to sit for a written examination conducted by an

independent body, the department of examination of Sri Lanka. The successful candidates

are to face an interview. Within each mother organization promotion schemes are been

regularised with timely adjustments approved by the government of Sri Lanka.

Common features of Extension Approaches

Sri Lanka’s current development efforts initiated by the state towards agriculture sector to

solve the food security problem is a positive sign. All the stakeholders who contribute to

production of food is proposed to work as a team to this newly introduced national

programme of making the homestead an economic unit. The present drive to improve rural

road network although not a direct input to agriculture, national level home garden

programme, promotion of animal husbandary at cottage level and assistance to commence

home based enterprises hold a significant potential to promote rural agricultural growth.

Agricultural research and extension which were ignored for sometime have to be revived

with the dual objectives of enhancing domestic food production ( to substitute food imports

and attain self sufficiency ) and developing an export-oriented agriculture sector. ( Sri Lanka,

The emerging wonder of Asia, Ministry of Finance and Planning, 2011, Institute of Policy

Studies, September, 2011)

392 Sri Lanka

Farmer group approach is widely used as the most effective tool of extension at present.

Mother organizations develop constitutions to register farmer groups who fulfill the

constitutional requirements within their organizations. In this approach many strategies are

adopted to obtain expected results by each extension unit. The fertilizers are given at a

subsidized rate for all the crops. The highest subsidy rate is given, for paddy the staple. The

plantation crop ( tea, coconut and rubber ) sector, cashew and spices implement subsidy

schemes to expand the production and improve productivity. These subsidy schemes are

revised and readjusted by the relevant mother organisations (Please see the annexed reports )

Conclusion

The agricultural extensionists are not merely transferring technology to the farming

community but on behalf of their clientele they coordinate with multiple, diversed groups of

stakeholders who have their own agendas but are involved in agricultural development.

In Sri Lankan context the agricultural extension worker is challenged by the increasing

population ( 1.1% annual growth ) who demands for food and nutrition security, the state

policies on food imports and exports and frequently changing agricultural technologies and

markets. Therefore the vision of the extensionist has to be in line with the global scenario in

agriculture to meet the present and the future challenges successfully.

The following are recognized as prime constraints in Sri Lankan extension.

1. The absence of a national policy on agricultural extension is a constraint to make

this service duly recognized.

2. The extensionists have to communicate effectively and efficiently with a wide

spectrum of audience in his/her carrier. Therefore a school to train agricultural

extensionists ( induction and in-service ) seems to be a prime necessity.

3. This school also should be used to conduct research on agricultural extension

continuously for the sustainability of this service.

4. At present in Sri Lanka all the prime state development programmes are focused on

the family unit or homestead to make it an economic unit. Therefore it is a worthy

cause to annalyse to obtain true hard data to be convinced whether building of one

extension department excluding the plantation and sugar cane sectors is the most

beneficial to the farming community of Sri Lanka, assuming that linking with one

extension worker at grass root level for multitude of crops and services could be

easier and simple for the farmer

References

All the annexed reports of agricultural extension units of Sri Lanka, 2011

Ag-stat (2010), Scio-economic and Planning Centre, Department of Agriculture, Peradeniya,

Sri Lanka

Annual Report ( 2010 ), Central Bank of Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka, State of the Economy 2011 (2011), Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka: pp 84-96

Sri Lanka, The Emerging Wonder of Asia (2011), The Development Policy Framework,

Government of Sri Lanka, Department of National planning, Ministry of Finance

and Planning.


1. Introduction

(i) Historical background with chronological development of agricultural

extension activities in the country

History reveals the presence of well managed irrigation schemes and flourishing peasant

agriculture in Sri Lanka during the periods of ancient Kings. 8 The King Parackramabahu

around the period of 1150s was the first to emphasize the productivity improvement per unit

of water and land which were the limited resources for agriculture at that time. A vey recent

revelation suggests that King Mahasen contributed significantly to Sri Lankan agriculture

even during the third century.9

Agricultural extension is reported to have started in Sri Lanka during the colonial regime of

the Dutch in the 17th Century. Extension started with Cinnamon crop for export.

10 During the

18th and 19

th Century, the British colonial rulers developed the system further.

With the breakdown of vibrant agricultural economy, after series of foreign invasions

starting from 1640 to 1812, the earliest attempt to build up the peasant agriculture

commenced after 1880s by the British.11

Historical records reveal that from about 1880, agricultural instructors with two year training

in agriculture were posted to work on agriculture under the government agents who were

responsible for agricultural extension. In 1904 the Ceylon Agricultural Society (CAS) was

established by the wealthier planters, land owners and agriculturists with the objective of

helping the native farmers. It was a private organization. The extension work was carried out

by the CAS in collaboration with the heads of districts.

The British introduced the Botanical Gardens in Paradeniya and Gampaha with aim of

spreading out Tea, Coffee and Rubber cultivation. This eventually developed into the

Department of Agriculture (DOA) in 1912, mainly to cater the plantation sector. In early

1920s the agricultural extension service was developed as a part of the DOA.12

In 1919, based on the 9 provinces of the country, 9 agricultural divisions were formed and

agricultural officers were appointed to each province. In 1921 the staff of Ceylon

Agricultural Society (CAS) was absorbed into DOA. In 1922 the functions of DOA was

defined as research, extension and education when the country faced severe food shortage as

an aftermath of the First World War.

During this period the agriculture officers were in charge of divisions while Agriculture

Instructors (AIs) were in charge of ranges delivering the services of research,

8 Hathurusinghe, L.K. 2010. Agriculture Extension in Sri Lanka, A paper presented at the Workshop on Rural Development

for High Level Officers of AFACI Member Countries., Suwon, Korea, 7-14 Auguat 2010. http://www.moaf.gov.bt/moaf/?wpfb_dl=455

9 The Daily Star, May, 2013. 10 Hathurusinghe, L.K. 2010 Loc. cit. 11 Samuel, R. P. Extension Services of the Food Crop Sector. Department of Agricultlure, Sri Lanka; Historical Development,

Current Position And Future Directions. http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=69157 12 Mahaliyanaarachchi, R.P.2002. Agriculture Extension Service in Sri Lanka. BeraterInnen.News 2/2002.

http://www.agridea-international.ch/fileadmin/10_International/PDF/RDN/RDN_2002/Agricultural_extension_service_in_

Sri_Lanka.pdf

394 Sri Lanka

experimentation, management of agricultural farms, animal husbandry development and

veterinary services, and also advisory services to the planters and farmers.

In 1932 the Director of Agriculture stated in the administration report that the main task of

his extension staff was to have full contact with the village farmers, to link research to draw

and deliver new information and technology, and to supply seeds and planting materials to

the farming community. Also in 1932 a propaganda unit was established in DOA with

cinema vans. In 1939, there were 09 agricultural divisions headed by agricultural officers

(DAO) and 37 agricultural instructors (AI), as mentioned above, served as the field level

extension workers who came in direct contact with farmers.

Research institutes were developed for Tea, Rubber and Coconut. The research institutes

conducted research and impart the research findings to the planters or plantation companies.

At a later stage, Sugarcane and Cashew were included in the programmes. In order to cater

for the requirements of farmers, extension arms such as Tea Smallholding Authority, Rubber

Controllers Department, Coconut Cultivation Board, Coconut Development Authority were

added.

Post Independence Period (After 1948 )

After the independence in 1948, greater attention was paid by the government on the

production of rice13. More and more irrigation schemes were renovated, peasant farmers

were settled in colonization schemes and more pressure were exerted to the DOA for

technology improvement and transferring to farmers. Apart from the small increase in the

number of AIs, 70 field demonstrators were appointed in mid 1950s to assist AIs in

organizing field days, cinema shows but they were not utilized for advisory work with

farmers. In 1952 a few female demonstrators were appointed to work with farm women on

food preparation, food preservation, needle work and handicrafts. The farm women

extension work terminated in 1964 and re-established in 1970 with the assistance of Food

and Agriculture Organization (FAO). In 1952 Department of Food Production (DFP) was

created in the Ministry of Agriculture as food production was considered a high priority. The

DFP was responsible for coordinating the activities of all departments connected with

production of food thereby weakening the extension and advisory efforts of DOA in

increasing food production.

The AI continued to have direct contact with farmers for extension activities. Divisional

Agriculture Officers were involved in planning and execution of extension activities such as

popularization of pure line seed paddy, introduction of practices like row seeding and row

planting, and sporadic drive to expand the cultivation of subsidiary crops like chilies and

onions. Extension system was still weak and characterized by lack of national level planning

and coordination, a small number of AIs and weak contact with farmers, weak research-

extension linkages, lack of training to extension workers and heavy load of non-extension

activities.

The Department of Food Production was dissolved in 1957 and about 500 food production

overseers came to the DOA. They were later changed to Krusikarma Vyapthi Sevaka

(Grassroots level agricultural extension worker). Subsequently more KVSs were recruited

13 Mahaliyanaarachchi, R.P.2002. Agriculture Extension Service in Sri Lanka. BeraterInnen.News 2/2002. http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=69157


from those with one year training in practical farm schools. With these KVSs, a new cadre

below the AI was created for extension activities.

In 1951 Young Farmers Club (concept of 4H clubs in America) was brought to the country

and one club was started in a school and in 1958 it was extended to villages as voluntary

organizations. In 1955 a few changes occurred in the field of extension such as introduction

of more objectively designed results and method demonstrations and farmer group

discussions, building up research–extension linkages and conducting experiments in the

farmer’s fields. In 1957 a new approach to rice production was established with the

introduction of yaya (tract) scheme for seed paddy production which was earlier

implemented in scattered farmer’s fields.

In 1957 the Divisional Agricultural officer cadre was abolished and their functions were

taken over by newly appointed 22 District Agriculture Extension Officers (DAEO). They

continued to manage smaller farms, tractor units and farm schools in addition to extension

programmes until 1963. The Plant Protection Service was also formed in 1957 to combat the

epidemic outbreaks of pests and diseases.

Establishment of Technical Divisions

Only in 1963 the post of separate Deputy Directors were created to coordinate the extension

work in rice and subsidiary food crops and horticulture. In 1969 the concept of testing

varieties (varietal adoptability trials – VAT) and other technologies (field extension trials –

FET) in farmer’s fields were implemented by the extension staff. In late ‘60s the Agriculture

Extension Centers were established with the objective of providing latest information and

publications, and inputs required for cultivations such as seeds, fertilizer and agrochemicals.

In 1970 these centers were further strengthened by establishing the Agrarian Service Centers

(ASC) and housing all related agencies under one roof. There are about 550 such centers

established in all agro-ecological regions of the country. The first In-Service Training

Institute was established in 1967 to train extension officers of the DOA and other

departments on crops and related disciplines. In 1965, annual national planning of the

agricultural extension and production program was initiated. The administrative head of each

district was appointed to coordinate the district agricultural committees with the preparation

of district agricultural extension programmes which formed the basis for annual national

agricultural implementation programme.

Because of the importance of conservation of forests, the Department of Forest and Wildlife

was established during the British era. The department was later bifurcated into Department

of Forest and Department of Wildlife Protection.

The Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources holds the responsibility of extension

activities in the fisheries sector. National Aquatic Research Authority (NARA) and National

Aquatic Development Authority (NADA) also support research and extension in the fisheries

sector.

Another important development was the Mahawal Development Authority of Sri Lanka

(MASL) in the 1970s under the Mahawal River Development Scheme. All agricultural

activities, including extension, of the Mahawal Development Area came under the

jurisdiction of MASL.

396 Sri Lanka

In the early parts of the 20th Century the Department of Agriculture (DOA) was responsible

for research and extension in both the crops and the livestock sector. Later a separate

department, Animal Production and Health, was established as also the Department of

Export Agriculture, for crops including spices and beverage crops. The DOA currently deals

with rice, pulses, grains, yams, fruits and vegetables.

(ii) Establishment of Extension Institutes14

In addition to the Department of Agriculture (DOA), the Department of Forest and Wildlife

(DOFW), the Department of Animal Production and Health, the Royal Botanical Gardens

were established by the British rulers, the last especially for floriculture. Presently these

Departments continue research and extension for crops and livestock. In addition, the

extension institutes of plantation crops (Tea, Coconut, Rubber, Cashew and also sugarcane),

each of which occupies a special place in Sri Lankan Agriculture, were established:

Tea Research and Extension

Tea Research Institute (TRI) founded in 1925 as a private outfit to cater to the demand

created by the tea industry, became a government institution in 1957 and faced many

changes over the years. It is mandated to research into tea production and manufacture and to

disseminate information. Advisory and Extension Division of the TRI is responsible for the

dissemination of current scientific ideas, findings and innovations to tea plantations managed

by Regional Plantation Companies (RPCs), state owned tea estates and privately owned

estates. Such information is provided to tea smallholders through the Tea Small Holding

Development Authority (TSHDA).

The Advisory and Extension Division, housed at the TRI Talawakelle was established in

1959 and other six Regional Centers at Passara (1963), Rathnapura (1964), Hantana (1966),

Kottawa (1980) Deniyaya (1984) and Kalutara (2010), to handle growers’ requests for

advisory matters. The extension activities of the TRI could be broadly categorized into

individual extension, problem solving, information dissemination, education and training,

public and mass media extension, extension and social research, production and distribution

of teaching materials and coordinating the supply of planting materials.

The extension approach of the institute mainly remains as the commodity-based extension

approach. The advisory and extension works were mainly confined to on–call problems

solving estate visits with the involvement of scientists as subject-matter specialists, when

required. The Para Extension Approach (PEA) was introduced recently to bridge the

knowledge gap in the supervisory and worker level employees of corporate sector tea estates

Institute has a strong feedback mechanism which helps for decision making on research and


Coconut Research and Extension

Coconut cultivation in this country as a plantation crop commenced in the middle of the 19th

century. The Coconut Research Institute (CRI) established in 1929 was responsible for the

14 Hathurusinghe, L.K. 2010. Agriculture Extension in Sri Lanka, A paper presented at the Workshop on Rural Development for

High Level Officers of AFACI Member Countries., Suwon, Korea, 7-14 Auguat 2010. http://www.moaf.gov.bt/moaf/?wpfb_dl=455


development of the coconut sector. The development of technologies through research in

various disciplines and extension activities in the sector were the major activities of the

Institute. With the establishment of a new organization, the Coconut Cultivation Board

(CCB) in 1971 to implement the subsidy program introduced by the government to

rehabilitate the coconut sector, research and extension activities came under two separate

organizations. The sequential processes of research and extension interface in sustainable

technology development and transfer should be realized by both organizations. Due to a lack

of coordination and cooperation among the activities of these organizations, it has become

difficult to achieve the major roles in the generation, development and transfer of sustainable

technologies in the sector. The CRI is responsible to provide a two way channel to

disseminate coconut cultivation and processing technologies and information, to extension

personnel and stakeholders and acquire information about technology needs and production

problems. The CRI is also responsible to evaluate the relevance, effectiveness, impact and

affordability of technologies disseminated. Strengthening of functional linkages among the

institutions and sub sectors are vital for enhancing the overall improvement of the sector.

Rubber Research and Extension

The rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) provides nature rubber (NR), an essential commodity in

the international market. The NR sector is important in the Sri Lankan economy in terms of

export earnings and employment generation. The NR plantation sector comprises of public

and private sectors. Nearly 57% is occupied by the private sector comprises of small and

medium estates, while the rest is owned by the private sector large estates, The Rubber

Research Institute of Sri Lanka (RRISL) is the nodal agency in Sri Lanka for research and

development on all aspects of rubber cultivation and processing for the benefit of rubber

industry. The institute is committed toward technology transfer activities and training of

extension offices and stakeholders. Increasing the productivity and income levels of rubber

growers through transfer of technologies by extension and advisory services were undertaken

at national and regional level to achieve the objectives of the ASD. Four major activities, i.e.

exhibitions, farmer training programmes, seminars on current challenges and skill

development training classes were conducted at several locations under the theme of

“Isurubara Hetak Sandaha Asrimath Gsak Samaga” (For a Prosperous Future from a

Prosperous Tree) to mark the centennial calibrations of Rubber Research institute. Advisory

and extension support services were provided to rehabilitate 426 substandard rubber holding.

Forty awareness programmes were conducted successfully to educate nearly two thousand

rubber small holders on recommended agronomic and recommended agronomic and

processing practices.

Cashew

Sri Lanka Cashew Corporation (SLCC) was established in 1973 under the State Agricultural

Corporation Act No 11 of 1972. Since the establishment, the corporation is functioning as a

Public Enterprise, mainly providing services to the industry while implementing commercial

activities at a profitable level.

The activities of SLCC are to implement a well planned programme of actions to achieve

it’s objectives to enhance the income of growers and processors, to expand the cashew

growing area using superior quality new varieties, to enhance the efficiency and increase the

profitability of commercial activities, while preventing environmental degradations.

398 Sri Lanka

Cashew is cultivated in almost all districts in Sri Lanka the extents are substantial in the high

potential dry zone districts specially in Puttalam, Kurunagala. Monaragala,

Anuradhapura,Polonnaruwa,Mathale,Hambantota,Ampara,Batticaloa,Vauniya,Kilinochchi,a

nd Trincomalee. Statistics show a slow and steady increase in production over the last few

years.

The extension arm plays a vital role in achieving the objectives of SLCC. The extension

activities are coordinated by 09 regional offices of Sri Lanka. The cashew development

officers (CDO) who are two year agriculture diploma holders, attached to the regional

offices, conduct the extension activities with the guidance and supervision of the respective

regional managers.

Individual visits, training workshop sand printed matter are employed in extension activities

to impart the knowledge and skill to cashew growers. The training (technical know how) is

given by the CDO based on the needs of their clients. Farmer societies are established by the

CDO. The cashew farmer societies are registered with the SLCC based on a constitution

developed by the SLCC. At present there are seventy four (74) cashew farmer societies in the

country.

Sugarcane

The extension service of the sugar sector was initiated with the establishment of the Sri

Lanka Sugar Corporation (SLSC) under the State Corporation Act No 37 of 1957. Later

SLSC developed its organized extension service using an approach similar to the commodity

development.

The research needs are met by the Sugarcane Research Institute (SRI) while the extension

activities and input service provision are carried out by the extension staffs of sugar

industries. After privatization of sugar industries in 1990s, extension staffs were gradually

confined to activities such as monitoring farmer performance, managing input service and

purchasing cane. This narrow extension perspective within the industry weakened

relationship between extension officers and the farming community. This demands focus on

skills development and incentives schemes for extension staffs using a joint private- public

sector approach. Currently farmers and the industries operate with marginal profitability.

There is the need to find solutions to pressing economical and technical problems affecting

the industry and the sugarcane farmers. It is important to empower the farmer with

entrepreneurial assistance.

(iii) Reforms and Development8

In Sri Lanka four major agricultural extension reforms were undertaken in the peasant

agricultural sector since independence of the country in 1948. In 1957, District Agricultural

Extension Officers and village level extension offices (KVSs) were appointed. This is the

first significant attempt taken to widen the accessibility of the extension services to the

peasant farming community.

The second major reform was the introduction of T&V system in 1979. This system became

a failure due to number of reasons such as financial scarcity, lack of research linkage, social

problems and administrative difficulties.

8 Mahaliyanaarachchi, R.P.2002. Agriculture Extension Service in Sri Lanka. BeraterInnen.News 2/2002.


The third reform was absorbing of the village level agricultural extension offices (KVSs)

from agricultural service to administrative service as village offices in 1989. However,

village officers are the grass roots level administrative officers of the state service have

nothing to do with agriculture. This political decision taken to abolish the field level

extension layer has given long-term negative consequences to the development of the

agricultural sector in the country.

The forth one was the implementation of Integrated Agricultural Extension Service in 1993.

The main objectives of the programme were to strengthen the different agricultural extension

services in the country by integrating their functions. Currently extension service of DOA is

accused for not doing enough. This should be considered seriously by the policy makers

while the majority of the farmers are small holders and economically vulnerable. They are

not economically strong enough to pay for extension yet.

As mentioned earlier, there are several commodity specialized extension services provided in

tea, rubber, coconut and cashew sectors.

The public sector (Government and semi government) extension services are mainly targeted

on small and resource less farmers. These services are free of charge.

There are few NGOs and private sector companies who provide agricultural extension

services to the limited number of farmers. Public sector dominates extension services still.

But due to different factors such as a failure to adopt a demand driven approach, a lack of

appropriate technology, increasing cost of production, decreasing soil fertility, the

uneconomic size of small holdings due to the continued fragmentation of the land, and

financial and marketing constraints, they are unable to improve the productivity and

profitability of farming since 20 years.

Presently, extension approaches being followed are top-down and commodity driven with

little involvement of farmers in program planning. The number of farmers to be covered by

each Agriculture Instructor varies from 1,000 to 7,000 depending on the geographical

location. With hardly any physical facilities and low salaries, the extension staff finds it

more tempting to serve the government-subsidized estate crops growers rather than the

majority of small farmers, livestock owners and in-land fishermen.

Following the tsunami disaster and after the end of a lengthy civil war in the country, many

bi-lateral and multi-lateral (World Bank, Asian Development Bank, IFAD, UNDP, Japan,

Russia, AusAid, CIDA, China, Iran and The Netherlands have been active in providing

various types of support15.

(iv) Establishment of NAES

Conventional extension approach



both crops and livestock under the conventional agricultural extension approach prevailed till

late 1970s.

15 http://www.g-fras.org/en/knowledge/world-wide-extension-study/92-world-wide-extension-study/asia/southern-asia/319-sri-lanka (viewed on 11 June 2013).

400 Sri Lanka

Each DAEO had 6-17 AIs, 20 to 138 KVSs depending on the size and agricultural

importance of the district. There were 22 districts and 202 AI ranges in the country. In each

AI range, there were about 3000 ha of paddy lands and 3000 to 6000 farm families. Each AI

range was subdivided to 4-12 KVS ranges thus KVS had about 1000-1500—farm families to

serve and there were a total of 1090 KVSs in the field.







both crops and livestock under the conventional agricultural extension approach prevailed till

late 1970s.





Training and visit system of extension

As a remedy for these weaknesses, new and systematic extension approach, Training and

Visit (T&V) system of agricultural extension, was introduced with the assistance from the

World Bank and implemented form 1979 to 1987. This extension system created a unified

extension system covering all food crops with a single line of command from the national to

field level. It provided regular and fortnightly training to extension staff, scheduled visit to

farmers with relevant information important to that fortnight and conducting Regional

Technical Working Group meeting for preparation of regional extension and research plan

and for bridging the research-extension linkage. Non-extension activities that had been

carried out by the extension workers such as sale of inputs, production of seeds were relived

from extension officers. Eight regional research stations were established in different agro-

climatic zones of the country. Four special research stations and 18 sub (adaptive) research

stations were functional during this period. Eight In-Service Training Institutes were also

established and became operational by 1983 to provide the required training for extension

staff.

The extension division of the DOA employed extension officers at district, segments, ranges

and field levels. By that time there were 24 administrative districts and the designation of

DAEO was changed to Assistant Director of Agriculture. A new post of segment agriculture

officer was created and posted to guide and supervise 20-30 field extension personnel. Farm

families and ranges served by KVS (750 on an average) were divided into six clusters and 6

contact farmers were identified in each cluster. Each contact farmer was visited regularly

fortnightly and it was expected that contact farmer delivered the messages to the other

farmers. This system of extension could not be continued due to drastic administrative

changes and removal of KVSs from agriculture extension in 1987.


Second Agricultural Extension Project (SAEP)

As an alternative strategy to fulfill the vacuum created due to elimination of T &V system,

the Second Agricultural Extension Project (SAEP) was implemented in 1993 with the

financial assistance from the World Bank. This project made some attempt to establish

farmer participatory and integrated extension approach for food crops, minor export crops,

livestock and coconut sectors in Sri Lanka and the project came to an end in 1998, with little

results. However, lack of successful integration among line agencies and lack of effective

coordination between the project and provincial councils in particular were major hindrance

to achieve expected results. Project evaluation report revealed that, due to weaknesses

observed in implementation of Integrated Agricultural Extension System, the achievement of

objectives of increasing farm incomes and agricultural production was partial and not very

satisfactory.

Problems experienced

There was a drastic administrative structural change in 1987 with the devolution of powers

to the provincial councils. The unified extension system was dismantled and extension staff

was assigned to eight provincial councils creating 8 independent extension agencies. The

field level extension services (KVSs) were removed from the DOA and were attached as

village level administrative officers (GSN). Six inter-provincial areas under the central

government control were established in accordance with the section II and 9th paragraph of

the 8th schedule of the 13

th amendment to the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Sri

Lanka. The linkage with the national extension and research system was left only to informal

avenues, destroying all formal linkages. During the period starting from 1983, especially the

north and eastern provinces and adjoining areas were severely affected with the civil war and

agricultural extension activities in those areas were disrupted and limited only to a few safe

areas.

After 1988 there were 10 agencies managing extension of food crops in the state sector,

namely 8 provincial councils, central government extension in 6 inter-provincial areas, and

extension systems in irrigations and colonization schemes in Mahaweli Authority of Sri

Lanka. Up to 1993 the DOA was headed by Director of Agriculture and had 7 divisions

namely, Research, Education and Training, Seeds and Farms, Socio-Economic and

Planning, Botanic Gardens, Engineering, Finance, and Administration and each division was

headed by a Deputy Director.

In 1993 the Department underwent an organizational restructuring process and Director

General Post was created for the Head and 11 Director Posts were created. Three crop

research and development Institutes were formed for rice system created a unified extension

system covering all food crops with a single line of command from the national to field level.

It provided regular and fortnightly training to extension staff, scheduled visit to farmers with

relevant information important to that fortnight and conducting Regional Technical Working

Group Meeting for preparation of regional extension and research plan and for bridging the

research-extension linkage.

This system of extension could not be continued due to drastic administrative changes and

removal of KVSs from agriculture extension.

402 Sri Lanka

2. Organization of National Agricultural Extension Systems (NAES)16

In Sri Lanka agricultural extension services are provided mainly by the government sector

organizations. The major state sector institutions involved in agricultural extension are

Department of Agriculture, Department of Animal Production and Health, Department of

Export Agriculture, Coconut Cultivation Board, Tea Smallholdings Development Authority,

Rubber Development Department, Tea Research Institute, Rubber Research Institute,

Coconut Research Institute and Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka. Cashew Corporation, Silk

and Allied Authority, Sugar Research Institute, Forest Department, Livestock Development

Board and Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources also have their own extension

services. There are a few Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and private sector input

supplying companies who deliver extension services to the selected farming communities.

(i) Agencies involved in the extension system (GO17 and NGO)

Department of Agriculture (DOA)18

The Department of Agriculture was established in 1912. It is the prime organization

responsible for agricultural research and extension. The mandated crops of the DOA are

paddy, other field crops such as pulses, oilseeds, condiments, roots and tubers, vegetables

and fruits. The extension service of the DOA comes under two administrations: central

government and provincial councils. There is a Director (Extension) in the central

government authority. The provincial Deputy Directors (Extension) are responsible to the

respective provincial authorities. Because of this dual structure, there are conflicts between

extension service of the central government and provincial councils. There is no clear line of

command. The designation of the Director (Extension) was changed at several occasions in

Director (Technology Transfer) and Director (Communication).

The DOA has both staff grade extension officers and field level extension officers. Directors,

Deputy Directors and Assistant Directors are considered as staff grade extension officers.

Agricultural Officers (AOs) and Agricultural Instructors (AIs) are the field level extension

fficers. Before 1990, there was 2400 grassroots level extension workers named as “Krushi

Viapthi Sevaka”. But due to political reasons they were transferred to the Ministry of Public

Administration as village officers (Grama Niladhari). So currently there is no grassroots

level extension staff in DOA. The responsible authorities such as Ministry of Agriculture did

not take any effective measure to fill this vacuum and the extension service of the DOA is

not efficient as in early days.

Department of Animal Production and Health (DAPH)

The DAPH was a part of the DOA until 1972. In 1972 livestock production division

including animal health was organized as the Department of Animal Production and Health.

Unfortunately since 1977 up to 2002 DOA and DAPH were under different ministries. So

there was no sufficient coordination between crop and livestock sectors, which is essential

16 Ibid. 17 Samuel, R. P. http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=69157 18 BeraterInnen News 2/2002 http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=69157


for the development of the agriculture of the country. The field level extension officers of the

livestock sector are Livestock Development Instructors (LDI).

Department of Export Agriculture ( DEA)

The DEA was established in 1972. The crops mandated to this department are coffee, cocoa,

cardamom, cinnamon, cloves, betel, areca nut, oil palm, vanilla, and lemon grass. All these

crops are mainly export oriented ones. The DEA has its own extension service and the field

level extension officer is called Extension Officer (EO). They are two years agricultural

diploma holders.

Coconut Cultivation Board (CCB)

The CCB is a semi government institution, which involves in extension services to coconut

small holders in the country. Coconut Development Officers (CDOs) are the field level

extension officers in this institution.

Integrated Agricultural Extension Service (IAES)

The IAES is being implemented from 1993 with participation of the above described four

institutions namely, DAO, DAPH, DEA and CCB. The major reasons to introduce this

approach were cost effectiveness, disruption in the technical line of command, insufficiency

of grassroots level extension workers and the need to practice farming system approach

(Sivayoganathan, 1999).

The IAES is an integration of the extension efforts of four institutions. The extension

programs for the area is planned and implemented at the field level by Field Extension Team

(FET) comprising of the field extension officers of the four institutions. These officers are

Agricultural Instructors (AIs) of the DOA, Livestock Development Instructors (LDIs) of the

DAPH, Extension Officers (EOs) of the DEA, and Coconut Development Officers (CDOs)

of the CCB. These officers serve as general practitioners in addressing farm problems, which

are more general, and leaving community specialized ones to the respective line institutions.

The FET members are guided and logistically assisted and supported by the Guide Extension

Team (GET) at the District level and at the Provincial Extension Team (PET) at the

provincial level (Sivayoganathan, 1999; Sivayoganathan and Kotagama, 1999).

Tea Small Holdings Development Authority (TSHDA)

The TSHDA is the organization responsible for providing extension services to the tea

smallholdings sector. The field level extension officers of the TSHDA are Tea Inspector/

Extension Officers (TI/ EOs). They are involved in providing extension service to the tea

smallholders as well as in the supply of other agricultural support services. The extension

service of the TSHDA is under the supervision of the Deputy General Manager (Extension)

who is operating from Colombo.

Tea small holders are taxed indirectly for the extension services provided to them through

the Tea Small Holdings Development Authority. Sixty percent of the island’s tea production

comes from the smallholder sector. Government takes 1.50 Sri Lanka Rupees from each and

every exporting tea kilogram as an exporting tax. But this money is reinvested in the tea

sector. All the tea sector institutions such as Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka Tea Board,

404 Sri Lanka

and Tea Small Development Authority are funded by this money, not by the treasury funds

(Mahaliyanaarachchi, 1996).

The Tea Small Holdings Development Authority is totally responsible for the extension

delivery to the tea small holders in the country that is approximately two hundred and thirty

thousand farmers. There is nearly 200 field level extension workers, and around 30

supervisory level extension officers. All these officers are paid by the tax money collected at

the exporting end.

Here farmers pay indirectly for the extension services, which they obtain though they have

no idea about it.

Rubber Development Department ( RDD)

The RDD was established in 1994 by the amalgamation of the Rubber Control Department

(which was totally responsible for disbursement of subsidies) and the Advisory Services

Department (which was totally responsible for the extension service). Currently the RDD is

responsible for providing extension service to the rubber small holders and disbursement of

subsidies and other input facilities such as fertilizer, planting material, etc. The field level

extension officers are designated as Rubber Development Officers (RDO). The extension

activities in the RDD are decentralized, covering 12 districts of rubber growing areas under

the supervision of the Assistant Directors.

Private Sector Extension Service

There is no highly specialized private sector extension service in Sri Lanka yet. There are

some NGOs namely Care International, Red Bana, and Sarvodaya involved in agricultural

extension work mostly as part of their overall community development programs. Also

private sector input supplying companies such as Hechem, Ceylon Tobacco Company, Baurs

Ltd, provide limited advisory services to their clients. These private sector companies

recover their costs through the margin on the product they are either selling or buying. They

do not make any direct charge to the extension services provided. It was found that there is a

potential to privatize extension services especially in the horticultural sector, export

agricultural crops, and livestock enterprises (Malkanthi and Mahaliyanaarachchi, 2001;

Sivayoganathan, 1999).


(ii) Organogram of NAES with major roles of each position of the organogram

Agriculture Of

Sri Lanka

Crops Livestock

Food Crops Plantation

Crops

Ministry of

Livestock and

community

Development

Ministry of

Fisheries

Ministry of

Agriculture &

Ministry of

Irrigation & Water

resource

Mgt

Department of

Agriculture

&

Mahaweli

Authority of

Sri Lanka

Tea

Rubber

Coconut

Ministry of

Plantation

Industry

Tea Research

Institute

Ministry of

Plantation

Industry

Rubber

Research

Institute

Ministry of

Coconut

development

and Janatha

Estate

Development

Coconut

Research

Institute

Export Crops

Cashew

Spices

Floriculture

Sugar

Ministry of

Export Crop

Promotion

Sri lanka

Cashew

Corporation

Ministry of

Export Crop

Promotion

Department of Export

Agriculture

Ministry of

Economic

Development

Royal

Botanical

Garden

Ministry of

Export Crop

Promotion

Sugar cane Research

Institute

Fisheries and

Aquatic

research

Department of

Animal

Production and

Heath

405

406 Sri Lanka

(iii) Extension planning process

For plantation crops there are respective research institutes/boards which are also carry out

technology transfer activities. Apparently there is not much problems in planning and

coordination.

However, in livestock sector, the government research and extension agencies are actively

involved in farmer problems in production, processing, marketing and social problems.

Therefore, three themes were considered in agriculture extension policy planning:

a. Farming community participation in the planning process, assuring the sustainable

development of the wellbeing of the farmers.

b. Contribution and responsiveness of the private sector service institutions for farmer

needs, and relieve the government from financial burden in servicing the farmers.

c. The state role as to take the leadership standing as a focal point who would set

policy, public resources allocation, rather than a as a provider of all services.

(Based mostly on livestock extension)


Farmer need identification, for example in the livestock sector, is facilitated by self managed

farmer societies which have been established. Strengths of these societies are at different

levels. Dairy Villages, All Island Poultry Association, All Island Pig Association, Milco

Farmer Societies and Mahaweli Farmer societies are some other livestock industrial

stakeholder managed societies. These societies can be identified as sources of current

problem identification. NGOs have a role in assisting them. Further, industrial

developmental issues, animal breeding straggles, diseases prevention and control, feed

resources development, production and processing, marketing, institutional and man power

development issues are identified at various workshops, seminars and also at state officials

progress review meetings.

b. Priority fixation of action activities

Technology transfer, facilitation for empowerment, and advisory are prioritized extension

activities.

It would thus appear that some kind of bottom-up planning is already is at work in Sri lanka.

3. Governance

(i) Institutional reforms

Conducting of necessary training programs for farmers to update their knowledge and assist

them to acquire required skills have been incorporated in most of the extension programmes.

(ii) Public-private-NGO partnership




Commodity specialized approach is mainly used by private sector institutions for their

forward contract programs, contract growing schemes, buy back operations and purchasing

programs. For example, livestock extension needs of the most of the broiler farmers and

considerable number of the layer farmers in the poultry sub sector are being looked after by

these institutions through their service package consisting of delivering necessary external

inputs, organizing and some times providing necessary services including livestock

extension and buying back their productions from farm or field levels at a guaranteed or pre

agreed price. Commodity approach is also in vogue in Tea, Rubber, Coconut and Cashew.

Projects funded by various governmental, non governmental and private sector institutions

are in operation all over the country with varying capacities. Extension is a built in

component of projects and they are specially tried to achieve pre-identified set of results in a

selected area. The projects try to improve the delivery of necessary technical services, ensure

livelihood opportunities, improve marketing facilities, and promote value addition activities

etc by utilizing appropriate technologies at field level.

(iii) Accountability hierarchy

Director (Agriculture) Deputy Director (Extension) District Agricultural Extension

Officer (DAEO) Agriculture Instructod (AI) Krushhi Viapthi Sevaka (KVS).

(iv) Leadership development

The necessity of empowering farmers socio-economically, technically and otherwise for

their decision making has been recognized strongly. As a result various kinds of farmer

organizations now play a significant role in production, marketing chain, for example, in the

livestock sector.

The absolute necessity of active farmer involvement in decision making process of the entire

marketing chain covering all aspects involved including policy making, allocating of scarce

resources, planning , implementing, monitoring and evaluation of projects and programs has

been emphasized in many of the programs. As a result various types of farmer organizations

have emerged. For example half of the milk collected in the formal market of Sri Lanka is

being handled by farmer organizations at present.

(v) Management information system

The use of electronic media in agricultural extension management has already made progress

in Sri Lanka. The Department of Agriculture in Sri Lanka has started to use an IT application

(CD-ROM) to disseminate agricultural innovations to farmers. A survey12 revealed that

websites were the fifth most used channel, together with written material (booklets, leaflets,

pamphlets, posters), but behind the extension network, bulletins, technical manuals and

software in agricultural innovation dissemination. Ninety-seven per cent of respondent

websites indicated that they maintain an official website but farm businesses were not their

12Arumapperuma, S. 2008. The Role of Information Technology In Disseminating Innovations In Agribusiness: A Comparative

Study of Australia And Sri Lanka. http://vuir.vu.edu.au/1416/1/arumapperuma.pdf

408 Sri Lanka

currently main target audience, because the majority of Sri Lankan farmers do not have

access to computers.

Using information technology, such as websites, were effective and efficient means of

diffusion. Sri Lankan survey respondents did not see websites as a low cost method, in terms

of low overhead and establishment, employee training and maintenance. However, the

importance of IT as a dissemination tool will increase with time in Sri Lanka. Except for

farmers in the large plantation sector, the majority of Sri Lankan farmers need assistance

(e.g. extension worker or telecentre worker) to use the IT facilities provided by the central

government and NGOs.

Electronic mediated Animal Disease Information System and a Dairy Reproduction

Information system has been established at the Head quarters of DAPH. A 24 hr serving hot

line enables the clients clarify with professional guidance. The IT Centers have been

established at the Veterinary Research Institute and at the Institute of Continuing Education

(ICEAPH) at Gannoruwa.

4. Human Resources Development and Capacity Building

There are seven agricultural faculties and ten agricultural schools in the country. So around

500 agricultural graduates and 800 agricultural diploma holders come out from these

institutes annually. This large work force could and should be used to enhance the quality of

the extension service.

After nearly 30 years of the internal conflict in Sri Lanka, it came to an end in May 2009.

Growing internal demand as well as the increase in foreign tourists is driving growth,

resulting in a sustained high GDP rate at around eight percent. Sri Lanka aims to double its

income and become an upper-middle income country by 2016, and taking the country's

needs into account, the government is promoting private investment, and actively stimulating

farming and fishing villages. (http://www.jica.go.jp/srilanka/english/index.html).

(i) Involvement of academic and research institutes for HRD through

curriculum de development and implementation support

(ii) Training extension workers and farmers through public. GO and private

initiatives

As stated earlier, Institutional set up has been established and public-private joint programs

have been organized for training programs (for example in the livestock sector).

5. Research-Education-Extension-Farmer Linkages

One of the constraints at present in farmer- research-extension linkage is ’One Grower –

Many Advisory Services’ while there is the need for more ground level extension workers as

well as stronger research-extension linkages.13

13 Samuel, R.R. 2011.Country Profile: Sri Lanka National Agricultural Extension System. Presentation ‘ Country Profile: Sri

Lanka National Agricultural Extension System. Workshop on’ National Agricultural Research System – An Analysis of the System Diversity’ organized by SAC, November 23-24, 2011, Thimpu, Bhutan.


(i) Present linkages14


recognized in the country. As a result several formal measures have been introduced.


Originally introduced to support the T&V system in early 1980s, the forum paves the way

for officers engaged in different disciplines to interact with each other and come to an

agreement with regard to sharing responsibilities for production programmes to be

implemented during the coming season. The provincial Director of Agriculture Extension

and Deputy Director (Research) of the Regional Research Institute act as “Co-Chair” and the

head of the Regional In-service Training Institute performs as the Secretary. The PTWGs

meet before the commencement of each cultivation season and priorities for the on-coming

seasons are agreed upon.


The forums are organized during the season to analyze and discuss important fied problems

and to observe to what extent certain technologies can be adopted under different situations.

The sessions are normally organized as a scheduled field tours followed by technical

discussion based on field observations. This strategy was also introduced by the T&V system

to strengthen linkages between research and extension.

• Crop clinics

During the cropping season when farmers face multitude of problems related to dffeent

disciplines, relevant researchers are to a pre-arranged location in the field by the extension

autrhorities in the area to interact with farmersFarmers are expected to carry fresh specimens

to enable researchers to make appropriate recommendations. Such sessions help to solve a

large number of problems and extend the benefit of research-extension linkage to the farmer

level. In order to [rovide better service during these clinics, arrangements are made to sell

seeds, planting materials, technical publications and also video programmes are also shown

to the public.

• Field days

Although field days are organized as a normal extension function, researchers are invited to

some filed days, when some noteworthy event occurs in the field. This gives them an

opportunity to interact with farmers and understand different farming environments and

share experiences with farmers and extensionists. Also field days organized by Research

Institute to show new technologies. This provides an opportunity to develop dialogue



In order to strengthen programme of DOA the Audio Visual Centre of the the DOA has been

equipped with resources to produce several technical television programmes per week for the

14 Mankotte, K.N. 2006. Agricuktural extenson in Sri Lana and different mechanisms available to strengthen research-extension

linkages. Proc. Regional Workshop on Research-Extension Linkages for Effective Delivery of Agricultural Technologies in

SAARC Countries.SAIC, 20-22 November 2006 held at NAARM, Hyderabad, India. SAIC,BARC Complex, Farmgate, Dhaka

410 Sri Lanka

National Television Service “Rupavahini”. Also several radio programmes are broadcast

weekly by Farm Broadcast Service in Colombo and its regional units. The printing press

fulfills the need of producing technical print media materials for farmers. Opportunities are

given to relevant researchers and extensionists to serve as resource persons in the production

of both electronic and print media materials.


All senior technical officers of DOA are invited to the symposium and are given

opportunities to present their findings of research outcomes, experiences gained in extension

activities and socio-economic studies. The event has helped develop a better understanding

among officers of different disciplines throughout the country.


This is a recently introduced innovative ICT to reach the farmer. In order to support the

present agricultural extension system which suffers from lack of sufficient extension officers

in the field and the delay in getting messages to farmers, the Ministry of Agricultural

Development has taken the initiative to provide a toll free extension service to the DOA.

Any one can call the agricultural knowledge repository “call centre” through a telephone

where agriculturists of DOA as well as any one from other departments are assigned to

answer the calls. In cases where an extension officer is unable to provide a satisfactory

answer, the caller is directed to relevant officers, including research officers.


This concept of quick information dissemination mechanism was introduced recently and

two such parks have been established in an aesthetically pleasant environment. This is a

place to see live demonstration of some of the latest technical recommendations of food

crops with self explanatory digital posters. For visitors who need further clarifications,

agricultural instructors are assigned to each section of the park to assist them. Researchers

assist in establishing demonstrations and in deciding the technical content of the posters. The

technology serves as a “live agricultural university” for those interested. It also serves as a

place for discovery learning for students and demonstration site for traditional agriculture in

Sri Lanka. The Technology Park has become popular as a place for agro tourism. Its long

term sustainability requires close working relationship between researchers and

extensionists.


As an ICT initiative, Cyber agricultural extension has been implemented in Sri Lanka since

2004. This is an information exchange mechanism over cyber spaces. It utilizes the power of

on-line networks computer communications and interactive multimedia to facilitate effective

information exchange.

In view of the limitations of the original on-line cyber extension, digital extension

mechanism (wireless cyber extension) was introduced in a pilot project. Up until December

2006, 45 cyber units were established as Agrarian Service Centre. The use of interactive CD

ROMS is the key feature of the digital extension mechanism. Technical contents of these

CD-ROMS are obtained from research institutes who extend their support during the

production process as well. After continuous monitoring and evaluation over two years

necessary steps have been taken to implement the on-line cyber extension since 2006.Code


Division Multiple Access (CDMA) facility and internal connection were provided by the

cyber units.

The mechanism has improved the generation and collaborative use of agricultural

knowledge. Two-way communications through e-mail and internet between Agrarian Service

Centres, Research Stations, wextension agents and other private sector organization have

been implemented. Researchers in national research stations and extension workers in rural

villages can communicate with colleagues and experts with a click of the mouse. Farmers

with the assistance from the agricultural instructor can communicate with agriculturists

through e-mail. If farmers need to send visuals of their field problems, either they can use

scanned image or digital still photograph. By using the web-camera and microphone,

teleconference is also possible. Researchers and farmers will now be able to agricultural

problems face –to face in the cyber space through internet. Similarly researchers can also

discuss problems with other colleagues and also extensionists via e-mail to find out more

information about a problem.


It is common practice to get the assistance of researchers as resource persons in training

programmes. This creates an opportunity for the extension officers to discuss their field

experiences and give a feedback on the technical recommendation given by the researchers,

enabling them to understand each other better.


Research officers often conduct adaptive trials in farmers’ fields. Extension workers are

expected to assist in site selection, establishing and maintaining such trials. Success of such a

programme always depends on mutual understanding respect for each other.


Research officers of a specific discipline of the country get together before the

commencement of each season. They discuss problems and set priorities. Scientists from

both Central and Provincial research institutes are invited to give them an opportunity to

contribute towards deciding research priorities. Representatives from the extension service

are also invited. This is also an opportunity to bring research and extension together.


In order to develop backward villages, the DOA has launched crop zoning programme

Although the programme was initiated by the Research Division, officers involved in

extension, seed and planting material production also support the programme peforming

their respective roles.

Sri Lanks seem to have gathered the courage to challenge the weak linkage between research

and extension, although further strengthening are possible. The level of success with rice

production is taken as an example which would not have been possible without a strong

linkage between research and extension. Similar examples can be cited for banana and

pawpaw where research and extension have worked in “perfect harmony”15

15 Mankotte, K.N. 2006. Agricultural extension in Sri Lanka and different mechanisms available to strengthen

research-extension linkages. Proc. Regional Workshop on Research-Extension Lib\nkages for Effective

412 Sri Lanka

• Institutional reforms for strengthening linkages


recognized in the country. As a result several formal measures have been introduced. These

include:



• Crop clinics

• Field days









Sri Lanka appears to have gathered the courage to challenge the weak linkage between

research and extension, although further strengthening are possible.16

6. Incentive structure

(i) Incentive structure: Present status and future outlook

(ii) Career advancement scheme

(iii) Prize and reward system

(iv) HR management

7. Monitoring and evaluation

(i) Institutional review and programme review

(ii) Monitoring of extension programme

An effective monitoring and evaluation was identified with Participatory Technology

Development Program in Sri Lanka.17

Step 1: First seasonal meeting of village interest group on upland farming: Village

members and agricultural field staff analyze the situation in upland farming and discuss

Delivery of Agricultural Technologies in SAARC Countries. SAARC Agricultural Incformation Centre, Dhaka and National

Academy Agricultural Research Management, Hyderabad. 16 Mankotte, K.N. 2006. Agricultural extension in Sri Lanka and different mechanisms available to strengthen research-

extension linkages. Proc. Regional Workshop on Research-Extension Lib\nkages for Effective Delivery of Agricultural

Technologies in SAARC Countries. SAARC Agricultural Incformation Centre, Dhaka and National Academy Agricultural

Research Management, Hyderabad. 17 Wadduwage, P.2006. Enhancement of Extension Systems in Agriculture. Sri Lanka.

Report of the APO Seminar on Enhancement of Extension Systems in Agriculture

held in Pakistan, 15-20 December 2003 Edited by Dr. V.P. Sharma, Published by the Asian Productivity Organization 1-2-10

Hirakawacho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0093, Japan. http://www.apo-tokyo.org/publications/files/agr-16-ees.pdf


possible solutions. The members decide which innovation to test and establish a seasonal

work plan for the activities agreed upon.

Step 2: Inter-village Visit: Interest group members conduct a trip to another village, where

similar problems have been identified and where farmers have started the testing of

promising solutions.

Step 3: Second Meeting Of Village Interest Group: The tests agreed upon in the first

meeting are discussed in detail and a work plan for each test will be prepared.

Step 4: Monitoring Visits: The interest group and the agricultural field officers meet

regularly throughout the cultivation season; walking field to field they observe and discuss

the tests implemented.

Step 5: Evaluation Meeting: After the harvest, the interest group meets to analyze and

evaluate the results of the season and to draw conclusions for the continuation of activities in

the next meeting.

As an effective approach application of PTD in 500 project villages has shown very positive

results. By conducting extension programs along in the field, it provided an opportunity for

extension workers to concentrate their efforts towards a more sustainable rural development

program. The project training component was very effective and training programs were

conducted to improve extension workers’ knowledge and skills on application of PRA tools

in the field. It has further improved their skills on group facilitation, communication,

planning, monitoring and evaluation of extension programs.

414 Sri Lanka

Special Papers from Bhutan

on

Agricultural Extension System

Agricultural Extension Services in BhutanPresent Status and Suggested Reforms

Dr. Toyanath AcharyaHead, Technology Screening & Monitoring Division

Council for RNR Research of Bhutan

416 Special Paper

Introduction

Owing to its location in the eastern Himalaya, and land elevation ranging from 100 masl in

the south to over 7,500 masl in the north, Bhutan’s physical features are characterized by

high mountains, steep slopes, narrow plateau & valleys, crisscrossed by fast flowing rivers.

The terrain is therefore difficult for farming as well as for the development of associated

infrastructure.

With a geographic area of 38,394 km2 the country is almost entirely mountainous. The flatty

spaces are therefore limited to valleys alongside rivers and basins. It is sparsely populated

and more than 70% live in rural areas. A substantial population is still lives below poverty

line, which is a rural phenomenon in Bhutan.

Agriculture (referred as Renewable Natural Resources [RNR], encompasses agriculture,

livestock and forestry sectors) is the mainstay of the rural populace and therefore of the

country’s economy, with GDP contribution of more than 18%. The farm sizes are very small

often making it difficult for any meaningful commercial operation. The farming system is

therefore mixed with small scale operation of cereal, horticulture, livestock and agro forestry

at every household.

The extension services and skills required are therefore complex and resource demanding.

Formal introduction of extension system

Although extension service in Bhutan started with implementation of the very first

development plan in 1961, organized service provision seems to have started from the 5th

plan [1981-87]. The concept and development of service provision have grown in tandem

with technology generation from research systems, govt farms and associated central

programs. However, the present day extension has evolved after going through the rigour of

transition from centrally directed system to the current decentralized Dzongkhag (District)

and Geog (block) operated one.

Policy & Organizational structure of extension system

The agriculture extension system has been totally decentralized, with technical departments

[Departments of agriculture, forest & park services, livestock and agricultural marketing &

cooperatives] under the Ministry of agriculture having only technical control. The central

programs under the departments provide inputs and required technical guidance to the

extension officials in the districts.

There are over 500 extension staffs engaged in livestock, agriculture, forestry and marketing

related extension work in the 20 dzongkhags and 205 geogs. Typically each RNR extension

centre [EC] is manned by a livestock, agriculture and forestry extension staff. Each sector

has a district officer, to supervise them from the district. The livestock sector has additional

staff manning veterinary hospital, artificial insemination and fishery activities as the case

may be.


Figure 1: Organization structure of extension service

Field observation:

• So much material or knowledge is available with the MoAF, research stations or at

central program. Somehow there is no percolation effect. Things are not getting to

the ground.

• Our extension system is manned by lowly qualified staff. It began by recruiting class

VIII or X passed candidates trained them for 6 months in Bhur Farm, Vet

laboratories /livestock farms and Bhutan Forest Institute. Later, extension staff were

trained at Royal Vet Institute (RVI), National Agriculture Training Institute (NATI),

Ugyen Wangchuk Institute of Conservation & Environment (UWICE) and National

Resources Training Institute (NRTI). Now the CNR [the erstwhile NRTI] has started

degree level courses and the extension staffs in the field are going to be a mix of

diploma and degree.

• The Ministry of Agriculture [ and its technical departments ] do not have direct

control over the extension staff. Often the technical advice or the directive has to

travel a long route to reach to them. The extension services are fully decentralized,

with all key decision-making including financial aspects carried out at district or

geog level.

• No specialized agency for extension - so many organizations controlling. So many

bosses: The district administrator and Directors of the ministry. Departments do not

have direct authority. So many miscellaneous works.

• There is an inter-disciplinary committee, the Extension Coordination Committee

[ECC] at the national level, which is responsible for overall coordination, policy

advice, and monitoring and evaluation of extension activities. However decisions are

often diluted or changed before reaching the field. Often the mechanism to deliver

the decision is not working.

Technical

departments &

central

programs

providing

advisory,

technical

backstopping

Dzongkhags [ in-charge of

administration ] - 20

- Sector heads [district

officers

- Plan, implement or

supervise extension

activities

- Provide guidance to

GYT /DYT in drawing

up RNR plan

- Implement promotional

activities

- Coordinate demos &

trials

- Conduct farmers

training, data collection

- Monitor & report the

progress

- Conduct field

assessment / feasibility

Geogs [ in-charge of geog

administration ] - 205

- Gups [Geog head]

Extension staff of 3 sectors –

over 500

418 Special Paper

• The country does have a guideline or handbook on extension. However there are

many adhoc activities, mostly coming from central departments, which hinder the

implementation of regular activities. The copies have not reached the remote geog.

• Basics of extension is basically imparting education [ or continuing education] to

farmers, with or without formal education, but with years of practical experience in

decision-making in their daily life. Most of our extension centres do not have

adequate extension equipment / material [audio visuals / brochures] which are the

ingredients or pre-requisites to impart training. However, because of low or no

adoption of technology, poor farmers are wrongly blamed as change-resistant. We

have the overarching policy of MAP [marketing, accessibility & production].

However there is no extension staff assigned for market related works. It is expected

of the extension staff in the field to do this work as well. However, extension cannot

be effectively productive if it works alone, in isolation from the farm-to-market-

chain-links (FMCL) actors and institutions.

• Because of the very complex physiographic condition and diverse faming system,

Bhutan’s extension system has to evolve suitable organizational structures, human

expertise, strategies, approaches and methodologies; which should be location

specific.

• Extension service seem to benefit influential / big farmers

• Formal Job descriptions vs actual field situation / function

• Terrain & coverage area: Because of the vey sparse population it is very difficult for

one extension staff to cover the entire geog.

• HRD: districts hardly have any comprehensive HRD plan for extension staff. The

support is therefore at the mercy and behest of the centrally operated projects to

them.

• Very minimal Financial support

Likely reform in extension services

• There should be a reformation of the policy, which should encourage non-public

institutions, NGOs, the private sector and farmers’ organizations to become involved

in the delivery of extension services, in addition to those delivered by the

government department of extension.

• The earlier reward system should be revived, based on the performance of extension

staff.

• The extension professional staff must enjoy the same level of benefits, career

development [ in-country / overseas studies and training] like that of staff placed in

central or headquarters There should be adequate provision of operational budget

and physical facilities such as proper housing, availability of transport, etc. as

enjoyed by the professional staff of other disciplines, notably of researchers.


• The pre-service academic programmes in agricultural extension should be reviewed

timely, in order to incorporate latest trends like poverty, food security, climate

change.

• Monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment of extension programmes should be

carried out on a regular basis.

• Training & Visit system or Farmer Field School may be introduced suiting different

micro-climate zones of the country

• The extension services must apply modern information technology

• Globalization and market liberalization

The communities, must be educated and prepared to modify their agricultural

operations within the context of globalization, a responsibility which, by and large,

the national agricultural extension systems will have to bear, and they must prepare

themselves in time to meet the challenge.

• Privatization

Many services that were managed in the past by governments are now being

managed and delivered by the private sector, especially in developed countries.

Many developing countries are following the suit. The underlying reason is

dwindling budgets of public institutions, which makes them relatively inefficient and

less productive, causing not only financial loss to the government but also creating

discontent among people. The private sector, on the other hand, has generally more

resources, innovative ideas, and a motive for profit and is thus keen to offer efficient

and better services to its clientele.

• Pluralism

The modality of using more than one organization, whether public or non-public, for

delivering extension services to farming communities, is gaining popularity. The

obvious rationale is the pooling of all available resources in order to alleviate

pressure from low budgets and staff in the ministries of agriculture, as well as to let

the farmers benefit from a variety of sources

420 Special Paper

The OGTP Model-An Approach to Agriculture Growth in Bhutan

Badrinath (BN) Bhattarai1

Summary

A suitable extension methodology is a code to the increased awareness on sustainable

farming practices leading to improved rural livelihoods. The transformation of extension

methodology is to the change desired by the communities and policy decision. The changing

needs and aspirations of rural masses call for revisit and adjust working modalities in much

needed extension service delivery.

The One Gewog Three Products (OGTP) model therefore was conceptualized and pioneered

by Dr. Pema Gyamtsho, Honorable Minister for Agriculture & Forests, Bhutan, during

Bhutan’s 10th FYP. The objective of the OGTP was to make best use of available resources

and existing expertise for development of potential commodities and products in accordance

to agro-ecological domain and priorities of the farmers. This very model was planned and

implemented in almost 205 Gewogs (Local administrative unit) in 20 Dzongkhags (Districts)

to transform potency of extension service through appropriate technical interventions with

focus to market oriented productions and value additions. The OGTP based approach

strengthened the common platform for extensionists, farmers and researchers to provide a

holistic support for products development and production increase leading to marketable

surpluses and commercialization of selected agriculture produce in Bhutan. The

implementation of OGTP at real field situation therefore was necessary to match with

emerging rural development needs within the socio-economic paradigm and resources

endowment.

The OGTP extension approach is a simple but holistic tool for dynamic pro-farming

extension service. The approach directs more towards technical aspects on the commodity

per se on priority basis in collaboration with, and participation of all relevant stakeholders

and institutions within technical and materials resources base.The initial major challenge of

the OGTP has been lack of strategy for implementation and prerequisite technical data for

interventions of prioritized crops/products development besides technical know-how and

additional requirement of resources. This emerging OGTP approach centred to market

oriented production and products development in accordance to technical and agro-

ecological potentials against various other implementation constraints of numerous

commodities and products in cultivation or development under difficult terrains

encompassed with varied agro-ecologies and remoteness, being mandated to one extension

officer who generally looks after 150-450 h/holds.

The OGTP based Extension has now been becoming a model for Bhutanese agricultural

development despite of the challenges being faced for implementation. The adoption of

OGTP as a model is to harness location specific potentials and address productions

constraints to augment households’ income and food security through effective extension

methodology and services delivery. Invariably, periodical review of development

approaches, policies and strategies are indispensable in keeping with shifting agro-ecological

stadium and social wants for increased crops productions and product diversifications within

1 Principal Extension Officer/Head Extension & Information Management (EIM), Department of Agriculture, MOAF, Thimphu


sustainable development framework. This presentation will concisely discuss on OGTP

approach and its relevance in Bhutanese extension system for agriculture development.

The OGTP model-an approach for agriculture growth in Bhutan

The Commodity based development was advocated in the Bhutanese extension system to

excel production of crops during Bhutan’s 9th FYP (2002-2007). The key to the progression

of the commodity based development was required to understand agro-ecology, potentials

and constraints of the commodities planned for development. The most suitable agro-

ecological production pockets in this context were being identified and technically mapped

for planning and implementation. The technical interventions within the extension quorum

however have been focused for production of crops with limited emphasis on post harvest

and product development. Further, the commodity priority for development were numerous

with extension interventions by and large continued unbothered despite of strategic change

in the plan development and expected outputs. The prescribed geographical boundary and

the households within it included the activity areas and the extension approach linked to

coverage and physical target achievement.

The OGTP extension was therefore an attempt to improve delivery of need based extension

services and brings-in differences of better livelihoods of the farmers. The OGTP has been

conceptualized during the 10th FYP by Dr. Pema Gyamtsho, Honourable Minister of the

MoAF, Bhutan, that the commodity per se must be assessed and analyse for its potentials at

each locations. The commodity having no technical potentials must not be wasted with

efforts and resources but at the same time it should not be ignored or discouraged for

development. The OGTP has been holistic in approach for driving extension services more

professionally having a definite goal with focus on the activities that are technically potential

for upward movement. It is to address agriculture development issues at the grassroots

focused principally on potential crops and products for development.

This paper is expected to serve as an OGTP framework to support subsistence farming and to

promote commercial agriculture. The theme of OGTP extension is achieved through

assessment of field data on production potentials & constraints: soil fertility, aspects,

sunshine slopes, crop variety, inputs, agronomy, farmers’ preference and marketing

opportunities. The OGTP is a situation-based farming right of way targeted to cater to derive

economic benefits and happiness to both producers and consumers through investment into

the most potential commodities and product development in all potential production aspects

for increased production and access to markets.

The role of the extension personnel is to plan appropriate activities in collaboration with

relevant partners that have direct bearing of socio-economic benefits to the farmers that leads

to sustainable production system. The extension personnel facilitate and coordinate with all

relevant stakeholders to address issues in the course of planning & implementation. The

implementation of OGTP activities require combination of information devising production

potentials and applying selective technical intervention based on priority in respect to use of

judicious resources resulting maximization of food production and products for home

consumption and sale.

422 Special Paper

OGTP-development objectives

1. Income enhanced through surplus production and product development

2. Safeguard national & h/holds food security

3. Improve nutritional standards

4. Generate on-farm employment

5. Promote labor saving technologies

6. Support sustainable land use system

Outputs

1. Increased surplus production & products

2. Increased yield per unit area

3. Increased area under cultivation

4. Enhanced farmers professional capacities (farmers as resource persons for farmers)

5. Farmers organized for improved farming practices

6. Addressed farm labor shortage

Strategies-approaches

Potential products/commodities align with agro-ecologies and local priorities are the guiding

principle in the design and applications of OGTP approach. The key to the approach is to

emphasize packaging of modern ideas with the indigenous knowledge and inculcating

voluntary participation of stakeholders. Thus the important considerations are:

1. Identification/mapping of potential production pockets based on commodity priority

2. Assess & analyze potentials & constraints

3. Resources, inputs availability/affordability

4. Plan development for intervention strategies

5. Assess & develop capacity of the extension personnel

6. Expansion of production areas (potential fallow lands under cultivation)

7. Explore crop diversification based on agro-ecological potentials

8. Development of ownership, partnership & voluntary participation of stakeholders

Recommendations

1. Lead Agency (Geogs and Dzongkhags) should initiate OGTP planning and management

in collaboration with the local communities & relevant experts

2. Develop and maintain location specific data-base on production areas, crops and

products

3. Extension personnel’s understanding on OGTP should be built-in

4. Required resources should be supported with subsidy on essential inputs & equipments

5. Extension interventions must be directed to address potentials and constraints

6. Formation of farmers groups on OGTP should be encouraged

7. All non-OGTP farming activities & communities should be supported at promotional

and advisory level

423

Participants in the Consultative Workshop

on

National Agricultural Extension Systems An Analysis of the System Diversity

Thimphu, Bhutan

23-24 November 2011

Sl.

No.

Name & Address E-mail

1. Dr. Tashi Samdup

CORRB

[email protected]

2. Prof. Dr. Ramesh Chand

National Centre for Ag. Economic and Policy

Research (NCAP), ICAR, India

[email protected]

3. Ms. Nasrin Akter

SAC, Dhaka, Bangladesh

[email protected]

4. Md. Md. Matiar Rahman

Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE)

Bangladesh

[email protected]

5. Dr. Nil Kanta Sharma

Nepal Economic Agriculture and Trade

Activities, Kathmandu, Nepal

[email protected]

6. Dr. Manzoor Hussain Dar

IRRI (STRASA) New Delhi, India

[email protected]

7. Ms. Rose Rupasinghe

Extension Division, Department of Agriculture

Sri Lanka

[email protected]

8. Dr. Waqar Hussain Malik

Ex-Member, Social Science Division

PARC, Pakistan

[email protected]

9. Dr. Mohammad Nurul Alam

SAC, Dhaka, Bangladesh

[email protected]

10. Mr. Bindu M Tamang

PPD, MOAF, Thimphu, Bhutan

[email protected]

11. Mr. Rinzin Tshomo

BAFRA, MOAF, Thimphu, Bhutan

[email protected]

424 Participants in the Consultative Workshop

Sl.

No.

Name & Address E-mail

12. Gem Tshering

DOFPS, Bhutan

[email protected]

13. Mr. Tashi Wangchu

DOFPS, Bhutan

[email protected]

14. Bhakta Shangshon

CNR , Lobeysa, Bhutan

[email protected]

15. Dr. Samdrup Rigyal

CNR, Lobeysa, Bhutan

[email protected]

16. Chencho Norbu

DoA, MoAF, Thimphu, Bhutan

[email protected]

17. Leki Tenzin

DAMC, Thimphu, Bhutan

[email protected]

18. Naiten Wangchuk

DoL, Bhutan

[email protected]

19. Singye Wangmo

ICS, Bhutan

[email protected]

20. Kunzang Choden

CORRB, Bhutan

[email protected]

21. Ugyen Tshering

ICS, Bhutan

[email protected]

22. Badrinath Bhattarai

DoA, Bhutan

[email protected]

23. Dr. Toyanath Acharya

CORRB, Bhutan

[email protected]

24. Wang Tshering

NBC, Bhutan

[email protected]

25. Dr. Kailash Pradhan

CoRRB, MoAF

[email protected]

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