Metode etnografi

METODE ETNOGRAFI

Sistematika:A. Tujuan

B. SejarahC. Metode

Ethno: people or folk; Graphy: describe somethingIt documents routine daily lives of people (Fetterman,1998)Explores a cultural groupLives with people, or spends a lot of time with themHas a guiding question that evolves during the study (Hall, 2003)Describing and understanding another way of life from the native point of view (Neuman, 2007)

What is an Ethnography?

Cultural AnthropologySociologyBusinessOrganizational Psychology

Where is it Used?

TujuanMenjelaskan (fenomena yang menarik), pada suatu

waktu dan tempat

Memberikan gambaran yang lebih nyata, yang biasanya tidak teramati (Williams, 2000)

Mencoba menjelaskan perilaku/fenomena dari sudut pandang populasi (Viller, 2004, McCleverty, 1997, Fetterman, 1998)

Memahami konteks, komprehensifitas dan proses sosial (Warren, 2004)

Lewis Henry Morgan Lawyer and anthropologistIn 1851 he published an ethnography about Indians in the USA. He didn't gather the information himself- was a “sofa” anthropologist (usually called arm chair anthropologist)

History of Anthropology/Ethnography (USA)

The first ethnographies in Britain were published in 1898-1899. They were built on field research like we know it todayBronislaw MalinowskiConsidered the father of modern anthropologyWrote numerous ethnographies that are well known still today

History of Anthropology (United Kingdom)

Malinowski’s work was done under the best conditions and provided the best possible results at that timeGood theoretical training Stayed with the Trobriands island for a great timeLived as a native among nativesWatched them daily at work and at play Had conversations with them in their own language Derived information from personal observation Statements directly by the nativesCharacteristics of Malinowski’s method (Malinowski, 1922)

Sir James George Frazer about Malinowski’s Methods in “Argonauts of the Western Pacific.”

“I consider that only such ethnographic sources are of unquestionable scientific value, in which we can clearly draw the line between, on the one hand, the results of direct observations and of native statements and interpretations, and on the other hand, the inferences of the author, based on his common sense and psychological insight” (Malinowski, 1922, p. 3)

Malinowski´s Methods

Accurate informationComplex informationObservationSpeaking the native language is importantNo contact with white peopleSeek information naturally, instead of having informantsShould have a strong theoretical backgroundJoin yourself with the nativesTypical ways of thinking and feelingUse the native language as an instrument (Malinowski, 1922)

Malinowski - Important for Ethnographic Work:

Malinowski´s studentDid research among the Azande 1926-19301930 published his ethnography “Witchcraft, oracles, and magic among the Azande”Used informantsNative languageLength of stay 1-2 yearsGet to know natives through the childrenLive like the natives (Evans-Pritchard, 1988)

Evans-Pritchard´s Methodology

Culture based Meaning oriented. Meaning is “a set of culturally constructed and historically specific guides, frames, or models of and for human feeling, intention, and action” (Ortner 1999: 137)Specific to time and place (i.e. cultural relativism)Opposed to power and politics. “[C]ulture is not power, something to which social events, behaviours, institutions, or processes can be causally attributed; it is a context, something within which they can be intelligibly-that is, thickly-described”( Geertz 1973:14)Opposed to the “thin description” of post-positivism

1950s-1980s: Ethnography as “thick description” (Clifford Geertz)

Outline of Process

Identifying problem or topic of interestFieldwork – Data collection and analysisParticipant Observation – Individuals and groupsAnalysis – Holistic Report (Fetterman, 1998)

Methodology

Ethnographer’s Jargon

Emic – inside (Hall, 2003)

Etic – outside (Hall, 2003)

Key informant / key actor – individual of group who closely interacts with ethnographer (Fetterman, 1998)

Culture - beliefs, values, behaviors of a cohesive people (Morse and Richards, 2002)

Methodology

Edward T Hall

TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE Emic – local knowledge: how people

think, perceive, categorize the world; what has meaning in their world-the natives point of view

Etic -- shift focus from the native's point of view to that of the anthropologist

Characteristics of EthnographiesHolisticData collection and analysis occur togetherData collection oscillates between individuals and groups (Fetterman, 1998)

Methodology

Methodology

Fieldwork (Morse and Richards, 2002), (Fetterman, 1998)

StagesNegotiating entry– the Gatekeeper, Key Actors, Key InformantsIntroductory period –routines, roles, relationshipsParticipatory observation– important! (Hall, 2003)

living with people for an extended time to gather data using a variety of field techniques for collecting that data

fieldwork & field techniques developed in the study of smaller scale societies with greater cultural uniformity compared to large-scale industrial societies◦ the concept of holism

Fieldwork

schooling & training language acquisition (at school & in the field) research proposal visa, government bureaucracies & permissions to

do fieldwork changing nature of the rules of fieldwork

Before Fieldwork

Field Equipment

Medicine, money, and… as field equipment

Fieldwork Methods

Selection and samplingParticipant observationInterviewingAutobiographical interviewingQuestionnairesProjective techniquesParticipant’s classificationOutcroppingExisting documented informationProxemics and kinesicsFolktales Notes, notes, notes!!! (Fetterman, 1998)

Methodology

AnalysisEvaluating relevance Looking for patternsConsidering phenomena through the cultural perspective“Thick description” (Morse and Richards, 2002)Classifications, parameters, etic observations Maps, drawings, charts (Fetterman, 1998)

Methodology

A few words on writing…Writing must be good from the field notes to the final productWrite for your audienceWrite for the objective – to make the etic perspective see the emic perspective

Methodology

Disadvantages of Ethnographic

Research

Time Fieldwork often time consuming (and therefore can be

expensive) Data collecting can last months or even years.

For example, Margaret Mead’s spent a year in Samoa conducting

research for her famous work, Coming of Age in Samoa

(Rosenthal 124)

http://www.answers.com/topic/margaret-mead

Financial Some ethnographic methods can be costly

The Focus Group “a group discussion that concentrates on particular issues

or a basic question or problem” Discussion guided by a moderator who is compensated Participants may be compensated

(Rosenthal 167)

Hawthorne Effect“Human subjects behave in special ways because they know they are subjects of an investigation”

Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Co. Cicero, Illinois

Different conditions (dimmed lights, increased rest periods) did not decrease production, actually increased it

“Motivated to increase their output because of their special status as research participants”

(Rosenthal 218)

Interpreter Bias “refers to the systematic errors that occur during the

interpretation-of-data phase of the research process”

Racial Differences in IQ Research - Sherwood/Nataupsky (1968) Studied the effect of investigators’ personal background with

regard to their evaluation of IQ tests given to blacks and whites Conclusion: it was possible, “statistically to discriminate particular

conclusions reached by the investigators studied.”

(Rosenthal 128)

Observer Bias “refers to systematic errors in the observation or recording

phase of research”

“Our assumptions define and limit what we see, i.e. we tend to see things in such a way that they will fit in with our assumptions even if this involves distortions or omissions.” M.L. Johnson, biologist (1953)

(Rosenthal 129)

Confidentiality As anonymity is usually not possible with qualitative

research methods, P.O.s must seek to protect informants by adhering to strict confidentiality standards.

Use of pseudonyms, removing identifying details (SSN etc.) and employing careful record keeping

(Powell 181)