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8/10/2019 Mascarenhas, J.M. - Technical Literature From the Enlightenment to the Portland Cement Era Its Contribution to the Knowledge of Masonry
1/15
Technicalliterature frorn the Enlightenrnent to the Portland
cernent era: Its contribution to the knowledge of rnasonry
buildings and the History of Construction
K now ledge of the construction of historical m asonry
buildings is fundamental to their study and to any
d ecis ion m ak in g in the ir co nse rv atio n an d r es tor atio n.
Masonry technology is in turn indispensable to any
d isc ussio n o f th e h is tor y o f co nstru ctio n.
A fu nd am enta l s our ce o f in fo rm atio n ab ou t m aso nry
techniques can be found in the technical literature
published during a particular golden historical
period, from the m id eighteenth century to the close of
the nineteenth century. This period is characterized by
th e co lle ctio n, th e c la ssif ica tio n an d the av ailab ility o f
centuries of knowledge about building practices in
w ritte n fo rmo In th is p er iod , th is kn ow led ge b ecame th e
object of widespread study and of scientific
elaboration, which led to the theorisation, the
standardisation, and the optim isation of traditional
methods and materials. AIso in this period, new
m odern standards of materials and processes started to
em erge and to replace traditional ones. The beginning
o f this p erio d is e sta blish ed c lea rly w ith the p ub lica tio n
of the Encyclopaedia of Diderot and d' A lembert in
1751, the first encyclopaedia which ret1ected the
m odern scientific m ethodology. T he period ends w ith
the dominance of Portland Cement and Steel at the
beginning of the twentieth century. The industry of
Portland Cem ent and Steel brought about a revolution
in the con trol , opt im is at ion and d is tr ibut ion o fbui ld ing
materials. This shift signifies also the decline of
t radi ti onal p ra ct ic es i n mason ry con st ru ct ion.
In my study of the use of the technicalliterature in
the construction of traditional masonry buildings, 1
J oao Mascarenhas Mateus
divided m y discussion into three key areas. These are:
i) the context of the publication; ii) the content of the
literature; iii) its application in conservation. In this
presentation I will summarise these two first areas
and I will begin to develop some ideas, not only about
b uild in g co nse rv atio n, b ut a lso ab ou t th e re latio nsh ip
between traditional masonry knowledge and the
h is to ry of const ruct ion.
THE CONTEXT
The enormous number of works concerning masonry
construction published during the eighteenth and
nineteenth century are the fruit of a process which
started during the Renaissance with the diffusion of
the printing press, and the creation of the first natural
science and drawing academies. The first books on
architecture emerged from the context of these
t ea ch ing ins ti tu ti on s. However , dur ing the s even te en th
century, the teaching of architecture was extended to
the first Engineer' s Corps and the military
academies, the first such academy being the Danish
Ho lste ens ke F ortif ika tio nse tat f ou nd ed in 1 68 4. B y
the end of the eighteenth century, there were m ilitary
and mining schools in every european nation, as
shown in Table l.
The establishment of the discipline of military
architecture led to the production of a specific genre
of books. Dominated first by the Italians and the
Spaniards, and later by the French and the Dutch,
Proceedings of the First International Congress on Construction History, Madrid, 20th-24th January 2003,ed. S. Huerta, Madrid: I. Juan de Herrera, SEdHC, ETSAM, A. E. Benvenuto, COAM, F. Dragados, 2003.
8/10/2019 Mascarenhas, J.M. - Technical Literature From the Enlightenment to the Portland Cement Era Its Contribution to the Knowledge of Masonry
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TABLA 1.
S CH OO LS A ND A CA DEM IES 7
Dates
Ilaly
France
Portugal
Spain
Grcat-Britain
Germany/Austria Amcricas
1700
1706
-
S o el et y R o ya l d es
1701
-
Aeademyof
1716
-
R o ya l ~ 1 il it a r)
1717
-
Genie-Akademie,
Scicnccs de Montpellier Fortificatan of Elvas and School o f Mathematic;, Vicnna
Almeida
Barcelona
1710
-
A e ad e my o f S e lc nc es
171O
-
C u e rp o d e I n ge n ie r os
of the Institute, Bologna de los Exrcitos, Plazas.
Puertos
y
Fronteras
(Verboom)
1713
-
EnginccringCorps.
1716
-
C or ps d es P o nt s e t
1713
-
R o ya l S p a nl sh
1716
-
C o rp s o f E n g in e e rs
1729
-
Ingenieurskorps,
Gcnoa ( Bassignani) Chausses
A e a de m y, M a d ri d
Riehards)
Pruss ia Walrawe)
1734
-
M i li ta r y E n g in e er s
1740
-
eoledesArts,Par is
1730
-
Ingenieur-Corps.
1738
-
Class o the Ten;o
Corps.
V e ni ec : 1 73 9 - (Blandeli Saxony a n d C l as s o f t h e A r ti ll e ry
E n g in e er s C o rp s , S a r di n ia
R e gi me nL R io d e J a n ei ro
(A/paim)
1739
-
Reali Seuole teoriehe 1744
-
Bureau des 1744 -Real Academia de las
1731
-
Ingenieur-Corps,
e pratiche d'ar tig lcr ia ,
Dessinatcurs d e Pars Tres Noblcs A rtes de San
Braunschwcig
Picmontc
Fernando. Madr id
1742
-
Military Engineers 1747
-
e ol e d es P o nt s e t
1747
-
8/10/2019 Mascarenhas, J.M. - Technical Literature From the Enlightenment to the Portland Cement Era Its Contribution to the Knowledge of Masonry
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1800
1 8 03 ~ S ch o ol of 1 80 3 ~ A ca d m le d e s
1 8m ~ Ro ya l ~ av ala nd
1 8 0 2 ~ E sc u el ad e
c . 1 8 00 ~ T it le 0 1 E n g in cc r
1 8 02 ~ M il lt al Y A c ad c l1 1 Y o f
E n g in e er i ng , P a v ia
B e a ux - Ar ts , P a ri s
C o m me r cc A c ad c m y,
Ingenieros de C aminos, al the University of
V,. 'cstPoiot
Opono Canales
y
Puer tos . Madr id
Edinburgh
1 8 1 0~ 1 8 12 ~ A ca d e mi c
1 8 0 7 ~ P o ly te c hn i c
1 8 0 4 ~ U n iv e rs it y o l Oh i o.
S c ho o ls o ' R o m c .
A ca de m y o f O p or to
USA
,,.
Sciem:es.
A n s a n d C f a ft s.
Berln Ro de Janciro
1 81 7 ~ S ch oo lo f
1 8 1 9 ~ co i ed e s B e a u . x~
1 81 8 ~ In st il ut io n o f C iv il
1821
-
Gcv. 'erbeakadernie>i,
1 81 7 ~ Ne wY or k A ea de my
Engineering. Rome Arts. Pars
Engineers (Thomas Tel jrd)
Bcrlin
o f S c ic n ce s
1 8 29 ~ c o 1c C e n tr a l e d e s
1 8 27 ~ C ou rs eo f C iv il
1 8 2 5 ~ P o ly te c hn i c S e h o o l
1 82 0 ~ R oy ul A ca d em y a l
P o n ts e t C h a us s e s . P a r s
Enginecring at he L ondon of Karlsruhe
P a in t in g , S c u lp t ur e a n d
U n iv e rs it y C o ll c ge
C iv il A rc hi te ct ur c. R io d e
7Janeiro
1 8 3 8 ~ T e ch n ic a l S c ho o ls .
1 8 36 ~ R oy al A ea de m y a l
1 83 8 ~ S eh o olo f 1 8 27 ~ P o ly te c hn i c S e h o o l
M il an a n d V e n i ce
F in e A rt s, L is bo n a nd
E n g in e cr i ng , K i ng
's
o f M u ni eh
Oporto I
C o l eg e , L o nd o n
1 8 3 7 ~ P o ly le e h ni c
1 8 34 ~ R oy al ln st it ut e a l
A ca d em y o f O p or to , ( Pa ss os
B r it is h A r ch i te c ts . R . I. B A
M a nu el a nd S d a B a nd ei ra )
1 83 7 ~ S ch oo l0 1 t h e Army,
1 8 45 ~ E s cu e la E sp e ci a l d e
1 84 0 ~ S ch o ol of
1 8 4 0 ~ P o ly te c hn i c S e h o ol
Lisbon
B e ll a s A r te s , M a d ri d
Engineer ing, Glasgo\ \ '
01 Stut tgar t
1851
-
A d mi ss io n o f
1 8 5 2 ~ , dn d u st ri a l a n d
1 8 5 0 ~ R o ya l ln d a st ri a l
1 8 49 ~ Re n ss el ae r
e n g in ~ er s n o t p u b li c o f fi cc r s
C01111llercia l Ins t it u le of
Ins li t ute. Madr id
Poly technic Ins ti t u tc , Tmy,
alEco e Polytechniquc
L i sb o n a n d I n du s tr ia l
N ew Y or k
S ch o ol o f O p ar to F on lc s
P e re i ra d e M e lo
1 85 9 ~ Se uo la
1 8 64 ~1 8 68 ~ Ci vi l
1 85 7 ~ C en tr al S ch oo l a l
1 8 52 ~ A me ri ca n S o c ie ty o f
d ' Ap p li ca z io n e d e g li
E n g in e e rs C o rp s 0 1 ' th e
I n du s tr ia l E n g in e e rs , M a d ri d
C i vi l E n g in c er s . R e st o n,
Ingcgner i, Tur in M in is lr y o f P u bl ic W o rk s. Virginia
C o m me r ce a n d I n du s tr y
1860
-
Regio lstituto 1869
-
Portugucsc
1 8 5 6 ~ V e re i n D e ut sc h cr
J856
-
Amer ican Ins ti t u ll '
T e cn i co S u p er io r e, M i la n :
A s so c ia t io n o f C i vi l
In ge ni cu re , D us se ld or f o f A rc hi te cts , W as hi ng to n
1861 ~Col legeof Bui lders .
Enginccrs (lOr10 CrisrJstomo
Milan
d 'A b re u e S O l/ sa )
1 86 5 ~ S pe ci al S eh oo l f or
1 86 6 ~ Ro ya ll ns ti tu lc o f
1 8 6 3 ~ N a ti o na l A c a d em y
C i vi l A r ch i tc c ts , B r er a
British Architects 01'Scienccs, Washington
1 8 7 6 ~ S e ho o lf o r E n g in e e rs .
1 8 7 8 ~ P o ly te c hn i c S c h o ol
1 8 8 2 ~ T he Po l yt ce h n ie .
Padua
o f L i sb o n
R e g en t S t re e t. L o n do n
1 8 85 ~ S e ho o l0 1 ' th e A r m y.
1 89 0 ~ W oo lw ie h
1 8 98 ~ A m cr ic a n S o c ie t y
Lisbon
Courses 1 ' Ci vi l a n d
Poly technie (Univ.of
f o r T e st in g a n d M a te r ia l s,
M i ni n g E n g in e e ri n g
GreenlA'ich)
US
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8/10/2019 Mascarenhas, J.M. - Technical Literature From the Enlightenment to the Portland Cement Era Its Contribution to the Knowledge of Masonry
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TABLA 2.
(1700-1800)
Dates
Spain
Italy Portugal
France
Great-Britain
Germany
[700
1707-94
-
To>ca,
1693-1798
-
POllO, Pmpectiva
17I2-Bluteau,
1691-1756
-
Aviler,
Co u r. ' d 'A rch il e c tl l re :
7
C o mp en d io M a th em a ti co
piclOrum
V()C{/ JlIlario
1 69 1- 1 B 2 6, B u l et . L ' a rc h it ec t ur e p ra ti qu e :
Portu[?ue:.. Arc/iletfonico
J694-1732
-
CornciJIe. DictiOl/llare
]
711
-
G a J Ii d i B i bi e na . L 'archirefluf({
1716
-
Pomcy. lndicu o
1 7 06 -1 4 C o rd em o y,
A'ollt'eau
{mir; 1712
-
La 1725
-
Halfpcuy, T h e a r/ uf
1717-99
-
Eiselen, Dell'ar/e
cirife
universal
Hire, S ur la c on sl ru c. d es 1 '0 0 te s: 1713
-
......un..,u.., 1727-56
-
d i c uo ce re i f f/ at fo ni (DJ(I)
Parcnt, t-,\ sais.
el
LangJcy. The bui der 'sjeorvel
Phnique: 1714-Leclerc, r al le a a re o ue er ur e
1728-29
-
F ort es , O
17 6-65
-
Gautier. Traifs
des pOllt . \'
,
1721-52 1727-70
-
Salmon, The
F .n g en he ir o P o rt u gu s
- B io n. T ra it d 'a rc hi re ct ur e, 1 72 8
- C Ot ln lJ Y' s h ui /d a e s/ im at or ;
C ou rt on ne , A rc hi te ct ur e m od er ne ; 1728-jBS8
-
]
728
-
Chambers.
L a R ue , T ra it d e c ou pc d es p ie rrc s Crelopaedia: 1 73 4 - 73
-
Salmon, P a ll ad io L on d ie n si s:
1734
-
92
-
Masustcgui,
1737
-
Guarini, A rc hi te lt ur a ( iv il e: 1739
-
Oliveira,
1737-1
g58
-Bclidor. Ar eh . h wlm ul i ql l i'
1734
-
Hawksmoor, The
A rte de C ons truc cin : 1 734
1743-1824
-
Zabaglia, C a s/ e ll i e p O I1 /i :
Adretlncias (lOS
modemo.\
(F)(D)(P)(I)(E):
1737-63
-
Frelicr. L a tha . el
b ui /d er 's d ic t io nn ar y :
]
734-59
- 1 R 4
-
Montn, S ec re to s d e
[748
-
Borra, T ra ll at o. . . d e ll e
p ra t, ( ou pe p ie rr es : 1 74 2- 43 - Le
-
Morris, ,e cf Ur es 0 11
A r te s L ib e ra le s
( E) (P )
resisfenze; 1748
-
Poleni, Memorie
Scur Jacquier,Boskovic, Pa r e r e .. S .P ie tr o
I1rehilectllrc; [742-1807-
i .\ f o ri ch e .. .c l lp o la v a ti ca n o
L an gl ey a nd L an gl ey , Ancienl
Archifectllre
1738-1805
-
Briguz
y
Bru,
1751-1878
-
D i dc ro t. d 'A l em b er t,
I73g-50
-
Langley, The
E s cu el a d e A r qu it ec t ur a
fncyc1opMie: 1751-56
-
Macqucr, le me llt s d e
h u il de r' s a s ,\ .i s ta nt ; 1748-56
-
dlimie:
]
7 5 2- 5 4- L a co m b e, Dictionnare; 1753
Langley. The
-
Laugier, Essa i su r / ' (l r ch i te c tur e
(UK) (O)
LOIldol1...hricklll\'ers
1747
-
Garcia Berruguilla, 1757
-
Alberti, T ra ll a/ o d el la m is ll ra 754
-
Espie, \1 a ni er e. re n dr e M I j.
1756-68
-
Warc, A e a mp le le
Verdadera prctica de las delle fabbriebe iocombllslibles i F) (l K )( E) (I i: 1 75 5 - Be li do r.
b o d y o f A r cl fe c fu r e: 1757
-
r es ol . d e l a G eo me tr ia
diclioll/w[rc;]56
-
rvfcnalld, L ' r r d e
T h e l I lo d e m
{'apparei/
a.\ Sistant
]
763-65
-
Rieger, ElementOs
1760-77
-
Vittone, Istrllzioni
1761-83
-
Ginet- T oi s g n er ol d u b t im en l:
1758-93
-
Pain. T h e b U ll da
d e t od a l a A rc hit ec tu ra C iv il
elementari: 1765
-
Sanviata c. Elementi
76]
-
F o u rc r oy d e R a m c co u rt . L ' a rl d u
companion: 1759-1862
-
d i a rc hi te tt ur a c iv il e
chaufurnier; 1761
-
D uh am c l d u M on ce au .
Chambers. A l real ise mi 01'[/
L'ar{ du fuilier Archilecture
1767-1856
-
Pl
Y
Camin,
1767-71
-
Gallaccin . Viscntin . 1764
-
J om hc rl . L 'a re hi te ct ur e m od ern e: 1 76 6-
E l a rq ui le cf {) p ra li co
T ra ff {/ fO s op ra g li e rr or i d eg li a rc hi te tt i
D uh am el d u r vl on ce au . A rr d u C O ll rr eu r:
7h7
-
(I)(UK)
Jars. L 'a rt d Ului l ie r .. .hr i qu e
1776-1
g05
-
Bails,
1772-80
-
Carktti.lstitl l ;)oni
]
770
-
Anon. . S el ldoa mi
1770~7I
-
R ol an d d e V ir lo ys . DIionna[rc:
]
775
-
Columban.
A
nflr hook
F J cm e nt os d e M a lc lI 1 ur ic u s.
d 'a rc hi te lt ur a c i1 'i le
( P ) ( L: K )
1771-77
-
Blande . CO/lrs: 1771
-
Gauthe),
o f o r na m e nl . \
D in 17 mi m e E SW li co
M /Jo ir e . . .m ca l1 iqw: 1772
-
Bossut.
T ra it . . .m ca l1 i1 ju e s W j ll e
1776-98
-
Terreros
y
Dando,
[773
-
L am be rt i, V ol ti me tri a: 1 77 5-
1 77 1- C ou lo mb , Essai../Iwximis..lllinimis:
1 77 3 - 84
-
liZo,
D ic ci on ar io c as fe ll an o c on Griselini, D bonario delle arte e
177) - Waltn,
Can d/ll'eilllre:
774-76 -
A/ fngsgrunde
da
{as
1 'o ce s d e c ie nc ia .\ ' e a rt es
de 'mest ia i : 1777
-
Amonini, ;1,1(/11110/('
Loriot, M m oi re s ur l /l Ie d c o/ lr er le
( F) ( GK )
l m rg u li c he n B a uk u l1 s l
d i r ar i o f l /a me nt i
(D)(E)(i)
'vJ
-D
IV
'-
:T
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7
1778-1806
-
Bolognmi, 11muralore
1777
-
E~a, Pm blem a de
1778-80
-
F au ja s d e S . F on d, R ec he rc be s s ur la
1 7 8 0 - Higg ins ,
i laliano:
1780
Prcti
Element d i
a rc hi le ll ur a c ir i
pOlcolane; 1 7 83 -9 1 - L a co m bc ,
Expe r iments . cemems.qu ick
archifettura:
1781
Lambcrti.
Staliea
Enc.-vclopdie...arts et mtiers lime
d e gl i e d if ic i
1785
-
Diez.
A rl e d e h ac er
1781-1853-Milizia,Principi
1 7 8 6- 1 85 1 - Mon g e ,T r a il le m ea l. d e s l al iq u e
1781-87-Pain, T h e h u il d e rs
1788-99
-
V o n C a nc r in .
e l e s tu c o
d'architeffura civile (1)(0);
1785
-
( F)( UK) ;
1785
-
~onroy, Teail d'lIrchileclure
g o {d e n r u le
K le in T ec hn ol og is ch e \ Ve rk
Mascheroni N I /o v e r ic e rc h e
cirile
s ul l e qu il ib ri o d el le m ir e
1788
-
RejndeSilva.
1 78 6 - Lo do li , M em mo , E/emeali
1786 93 -Sguin, Manuel d a rchi t ec rure : 1787
D ic ci on ar io d e l as N ob le s
d'architeffllra; 1787
-
Salimbeni, Degli
-
Chaptal
Obserrations..pouzzolanes
Arte.I
a rc hi e d el le v ol te
1788
-
Masi,Teor a e praliea
1 7 88 - 18 2 1
-
Q ua tr cm c re d e Q ui nc y,
d e ll a r ch i te tt u ra c i vi / e
Encvclopdie; 1788-1832
-
Q ua tr em er e d e
Quincy D i ct io l 1n a ir e h i st o ri q ue
1789
-
Ruffo, S ag gi o ra gg io na lo n el
179/
-
Portugal, S obre a
1792
95
Simonin T r ai t . .c o up e d e s pierre~'
179]
-93
-
SmealOn,
A
1791-92
-
Von
Cancr in,
o r ig i ne e d e s ss e nza d e ll a r ch i te tt ur a
u li li da de d a
(F)(E);
1793
-
Lagardette, L ' ar l d u p lo mb ie r;
n ar ra li ve o f I he b ui ld in g Einzelne Bauschr ( ft en
civile
Chymica..edijicios
1797
-
Rondelet, M m oire sur le dm e du
Pantho l
1792
-
Valzania,
1797
-
Milizia, D iz io na ri o d el le b el le
1798-1825
-
Viterbo,
1798
Gauthey Di .D CTtat ioJ1 . . dbme ..
Instituciones de arti
Elucidario Panlhon; 1798
-
Girard,
Teail
Arquitectura
analytique..rsistance;
1798
Prony,Rsultats..
e xp r ie nc es . P an th o n
-3
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1394
]
o ao M asca re nh as M ateu s
these military treatises presented not only the latest
and m ost advanced defensive and offensive systems,
but also a w ealth of practical information concerning
the rules of masonry construction. These rules were
fundamental to the fast and efficient construction of
temporary and permanent military posts within war
campaigns. Table 2, which refers to the works
published in the eighteenth century, gives the sense of
the enorm ous potential for cultural exchange via this
literature at an international level with regard to
m il it ar y and c iv il a rchi te ctur e.
If
this cultural exchange of information,
concerning military architecture, was determined
mainly by geo-political goals, in the field of civil
architecture in contrast, the production of books
reflects above all the diffusion of the French
pedagogical model of the Acadm ie des Beaux-Arts
and the cole d' Architecture. This context produced
a new genre of books -text books used directly in
the courses of education in these new institutions.
W hile they were addressed to very different readers
and distinctively motivated, both civil and military
architecture books offered very much the same level
of information regarding building techniques,
tog eth er w ith the r ud im ents o f g eometry , p ersp ec tive ,
mea su ri ng and e st imat ion.
The search towards a never absolute truth which
characterised the Enlightenment, brought with it the
clarific atio n of th e d istin ctio ns b etw een th e d iffere nt
sciences: chemistry, physics, mathematics,
mechanics. This rationalist impulse inspired the
publication of new books dedicated not only to pure
sciences but eventually also to their application in
field of construction. This distinction and
classification of different scientific fields and the
d if fe rent i ns ti tU ti ona] is at ion o f the f igur es o f eng in ee r
and architect, were at the origin of an increasing
volume of new books. Those dedicated to geometry
and stereotomy, were con cerned with the theory of
stone cutting. See Tosca (1707), La Rue (1728),
Frzier (1737) and Simonin (1792). New texts
explained the chemical aspects of lim es and mortars,
others presented the latest improvements in brick
production. See Macquer (1751), Loriot (1774),
Faujas de S.Fond (1778), Higgins (1787), Cancrin
(1 78 8) an d Smea ton (17 91).
The mechanical behaviour of arches and vaults
along with the latest mathematical models were
discussed in specialised books and illustrated with
key examples. A particular issue of discussion was
the stability of important domes, such as that of S.
Pietro of the Vatican, and that of the Cathedral of
M ilan, or that of the Church of S. Genevieve (later the
Pan th eon) in Par is . P ra ct ic al a sp ec ts o f o rn amen ta ti on
were described in manuals specialising in coatings,
renderings and paintings. Besides the creation of new
classes of books, general treatises of architecture
were expanded to include a larger number of
chapters, which reflected the new categorisation and
theorisation of the minor crafts. The craft of the
fountain builder, for example, was granted an
independent chapter for the first time and applied to
the design of more rational sewerage systems.
Moreover, new technical encyclopaedias and
specialised dictionaries in Architecture and
Engineering helped the establishment of common
procedures and termino logies .
Following the scientific bases established in the
Enlightenment, the nineteenth century gradually
retlected the application and adoption of the new
poly tech nic e ng in eerin g te ac hin g sy stem, o rg an ized
around the practical and systematic application of the
pure sciences.
In
the field of the construction there
was a marked improvement in the mathematical
mode]s, based on collapse mechanisms, used in the
graphical calculation of thrusts of arches and vaults.
These models were applied not only to building s but
also to masonry bridge s w ith ever wider spans. These
publications w ith the latest achievem ents in the field
of applied m athematics to arches and vaults inform ed
also the new discipline of Resistance of (Elastic)
Materials. See Girard (1798), Navier (1821),
Redtenbacher (1852), Rankine (1858) and Curioni
(1864). Similarly, the new discipline of M aterials of
C onstruction relied upon the application of theories
of physics and chemistry to the production of
traditional materials (limes, mortars, bricks and
stone). Parallel to this development, the theories of
hydraulic hardening were emphasised, as were the
production technologies of hydraulic limes, cements
and metal li c p ro fi le s.
In
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the
invention of the disciplines of the history of
architecture and archaeology worked gradually to
demystify the understanding of the architecture of
antiquity and the middle-ages. Schematic models
p rop os ed sin ce th e R en ais san ce in e ve ry a rch itectu ral
treatise, w ere replaced by m ore accurate and realistic
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Tech nic allite ra tu re f ram th e Enlig hte nm en t to th e Por tla nd c em en t e ra
1395
ones, based on actual surveys and detailed scientific
evaluation. See, for exam ple, Q uatrem ere de Q uincy
(1788), Uggeri (1802), Hittorf (1835), Lassaulx
(1840), Choisy (1873), V ollet-Ie-D uc (1875), D urm
(1881), Ungew itter (1890) and B lm ner (1897).
At the close of what I consider to be this golden
period of the culture of traditional m asonry, at the end
of the nineteenth century, we have a picture of a
complex and complete science for this important
aspect of construction. To give a synthesis ofthe m ost
important titles on genera] treatises, courses,
stereotomy, mechanics and materials published
during the nineteenth century, I have created the
Tables 3 and 4. On each table, in order to indicate the
period in which a publication achieved its maximum
circulation and influence, the dates of the first and last
edition can be found preceding the author's name.
W hen texts were translated and published in foreign
la ng uag es, th es e lan gu ag es ar e ind ic ate d in b rac ke ts.
THE CONTENT
Once one recognises the production context of a
particular text, it is possible to better understand its
content. Technical literature must be understood
within its historical context which includes a
recognition of the intellectual and scientific
development of the periodo With an awareness of
historical complexity, the content of the technical
literature can be read, critically analysed and
translated into a contemporary terminology
sci en ti fi ca ll y a ccep ted today .
Masonry building construction can be studied
following the four main steps of a complete process:
1) the design of the architectural project and the
definition of the dimensions of each structural
element; 2) the phase of the production and
m anipulation of the m aterials (blocks and m ortars); 3)
the phase of assemblage, and 4) the phase of the
protection, the m aintenance and the reinforcem ent of
the building in order to guarantee its durability.
1) The definition of the project of a masonry
building is concerned with the establishment of
the masonry typologies planned to be used in
each s truc tu ra l e lement or zone of the bui ld ing.
These typologies relate to the methods of block
bonding (using cut stone, ashlars, coursed or
uncoursed rubble, rubble filling etc.) and
assembling them with mortar. In the case of
vaulted structures, for example, the choice of
the best designs in the plan and the sections, was
m ade in d ire ct re latio n to th e p refe rre d ty polo gy
of masonry. Each one of these typologies
corresponds to a limited number of ways of
directing mass weight from the top of the
building to its foundations. The distribution of
weight was fundamental to the definition of the
openings in the facade and to the positioning of
vertical elements such as pillars and load
bearing walls. At the same time these vertical
elements were placed to correspond to both the
arch and vault imposts and to the positioning of
the mass foundations. These main technical
aspects of the project were directly related to
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1400
J08.0 Masca renhas Mateus
o th er b etter kn own criteria, such as distribu tio n
and function of internal spaces of the building,
the project of the facade, the chosen style, the
taste, the background of the designer, the
eco nomy o f means.
The definition of the load bearing sections of
horizo ntal a nd vertical stru ctu ral elem ents w as, until
t he e ig ht ee nt h c en tu ry , o bta in ed u sin g b as ic emp ir ic al
rules. T hese rules w ere based on m asonry typologies
and the geom etry of arches and vaults, piers, colum ns
and load bearing w alls. In general these rules tended
to overestim ate the necessary dim ensions of the load
bearing sections, in com parison to how we determ ine
them today. During the eighteenth century, newly
deve lo ped algarithm s simplifying the most a dvan ced
meth ods, and were in tro duc ed in p ra ctica l ca lc ulatio n
of arches. These advanced methods were based on
typical coJIapse mechanisms far circular arches
which calculated the width of arch abutments (La
Hire, 1712; Belidor, 1729). Other methods were
developed in arder to determine the size of the
voussoirs (Couplet, 1729) or even the best figure of
vaults (Bossut, 1770). The eighteenth century
methods were improved by the introduction of a new
graphical method based on the funicular polygon of
force s used to determine the lines of pressure.
F ollow ing the first th eoretical and expe rim en ta l w ork
by authors such as Poleni (1748), Coulomb (1776),
Mascheroni (1785), Venturoli (1806) and Navier
(1826), this new method was developed by Lam and
Clayperon (1823), Gerstner (1831) and Moseley
(1833) and further refined by M ry (1840), Scheffler
(1857) and C ulm ann (1874) (see Benvehuto 1991,2:
428-37). At the end of the nineteenth century, the
calculation m ethods for m asonry structures w ere the
result of a w el balanced association of em pirical and
th eoretical m ethod s b ased o n appro xim ated static and
elastic p rin cipIes which p erm itted o ptim isa tion o f th e
resistant sections. T hese latest m ethods were m ainly
applied in bridges and important buildings. For the
common buildings much of the calculation was still
being done with the most traditional empirical
m ethods and presented in w idely circulated treatises
such as the one of Rondelet (1802) or Breymann
(1849).
1) The rules and processes relating to the
p reparation an d manipu la tion o f m ate rial s, deal
with elementary stone or ceramic blocks, lim e
m ortars and lim e concrete. T he w ork w ith stone
blocks included, according to the particular
nature of the slOne, the extraction, the first
q uarry sortin g, the cleava ge o bserva tion and th e
respect for the natural bedding plans. This was
followed by the preliminary dressing of the
surfaces, the different phases used on m illing to
obtain the desired shape, the finishing
operations, the transportation and storage. For
ceram ic block s, techn ical literatu re gav e a l the
information concerning the choice and
extraction of the clay, its manipulation and
puddling, the description of the different pug
mili types, the advantages and limitations of
each firing method in relatio n w ith th e ev o]ution
of the kiln, the use of additives and the
traditional quality control criteria. This
literature a lso evaluate a l the p rocesses used in
the preparation ofthe basic m aterial s needed for
m ortars: the different types of lim e, pozzolan,
crushed brick, ashes, gypsum, water and sand.
In particular the methods of lime burning,
slaking, practical m ethods to obtain hydraulic
mortars and the evolution of the theories of
aeria] and hydraulic limes hardening, were
clo sely ad dressed. In addition to the d escrip tio n
of the production of basic material s, all the
procedures to mix them are detailed: the
proportioning, the batching and the mixing of
co ncrete, lay in g a nd rend erin g morta rs, stucco s
and mast ic s.
2) The methods to assemble blocks and mortars
depended on the typology of the block s used.
D ifferent rules w ere used to create the m asses in
foundation, the vertical elem ents in elevation
and finally the arches and vaults. For walls and
piers every bonding method was designed to
optim ise strength and stability in relation to the
required width, guaranteeing the best
im brication of blocks and the highest adhesion
betw een blocks and m ortars. Bonding m ethods
were al so important for projecting layers or
overhanging m asonry elem ents. For arches and
vaults specific bonding methods depended on
the dimension of blocks, the geometry of the
intradors and extradors, and the particular form
of falsework structures to ay up the blocks.
These methods referred lO the laying of blocks
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Technicalliterature frorn the Enlightenrnent to the Portland cernent era
1401
both on their edge and bed. R esides the question
o f b on din g, th e te ch no log y of va ult co nstru ctio n
considered many more important factors:
centering, laying and decentering techniques,
and the times required between laying and
decentering. General treatises and specialised
works gave enormous attention to the
differentiation of the methods of raising vaults,
depending on the experience of each author.
D'Espie (1754), for example, detailed the
construction of vaults using blocks laid on bed
with the aim of creating modem fire proof
buildings. Once the skeleton was executed, the
masonry skin was applied. For this phase,
special procedures and tools were developed to
g iv e di ffer en t le ve ls o f su rfa ce fin is hin g to s ton e
or brick. Another class of techniques dealt with
th e (v er tica l) fac in g (i.e. ren de rin gs , stu cco s an d
paint) and the (horizontal) revetment of
pavements. In this later case, the maximum
compaction of the foundation layers was
obtained by repeated cycles of tam ping, resting
and watering. This procedure of compaction
was considered finished when a required
reduction of the original depth had been
obtained.
3) Once the skeleton and the skin of the building
had been completed, new techniques and
detailing w ere used to protect and guarantee the
durability of the work. Although not using a
co ntempo rar y term in olo gy , trad itio nal bu ild ers
were aw are of the m ain deterioration processes
that w e know of today. In the nineteenth century
there was already an awareness of atm ospheric
polJution due to coal combustion in the big
industrial cities. In order to prevent the water
infiltration intrinsic to every deterioration
process, several methods were developed to
protect masonry from rain water infiltration
from above, the lateral incidence of the rain and
from rising damp. This masonry protection was
guaranteed by different techniques such as
capping and roofing, drainage systems, facing
a gain st e ro sio n an d sp las hing , the co nstr uc tio n
of cavity walls and ventilated periphery
chambers in the ground. All these protective
elements required maintenance which was
anticipated from the early planning stages of the
project. Besides the protection and the
maintenance of masonry building s they were,
w hen needed, also reinforced and consolidated
using many of the same techniques as used in
the original construction. Exam ples of this kind
o f in te rv en tio n inc lu de th e lo cal re co nstr uc tio n
of deteriorated structural elem ents (eg. settled
foundations, deformed piers and arches), and
the introduction of additional reinforcing
e lem ents s uc h a s tie ro ds an d c ou nte rfo rts .
This synthesis of the four key steps of traditional
m asonry building science, that 1 h ave proposed, these
being, the design, the material s production, the
assemblage and the protection, can constitute a
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Figure 2
Exarnple of a typical rnasonry reinforcernent operation
presented by Cattaneo in 1889. This systern of provisional
c onsolida tion c an be a lready fo und in the treaty of S carnoz zi
published in 1788 and frequently repeated by other authors
as Valad ie r, in
1828
8/10/2019 Mascarenhas, J.M. - Technical Literature From the Enlightenment to the Portland Cement Era Its Contribution to the Knowledge of Masonry
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1402 Joao Mascarenhas Mateus
fram ew ork within which to categorise and analyse the
content of technicalliterature.
T RA DlT IO NA L M AS ON RY B UlL DlN GS A ND T HE
HISTORY OF CONST RUCT ION
The study of the traditional construction of masonry
bu ildin g, th at is co nstruc tion be fo re sta nd ard isatio n o f
reinforced and non reinforced masonry in the
twentieth century, has been my personal pretext to
read all this technical literature in its complexity of
aims, and cultural and scientific contexts. M y study
has had a very precise and immediate practical
application, this being the use of the information in
the different phases of a contemporary process of
architectural conservation. This includes the study
and the survey of a historical building, the decision
making phase, and finally, the intervention itself
(Mateus, 2002). As a general consideration it is
important to remember that technical literature
constitutes an indispensable source of study, but it is
not the only one. M any other inputs can and should be
o btain ed th rou gh arc ha eo log y, ic on ogra ph y, ar ch iv e
research, etc. From my research on m asonry building
and its conservation, 1 have been able to outline new
fields of research, using and filtering the content of
the technical literature of the eighteenth and
nineteenth century. These fields of research can be
put at the service of the new history of the
c on stru ctio n, the a im of the p rese nt c on gress .
History of construction should consist of the study
of: 1) the material s; 2) the techniques; 3) ideological
factors; 4) economic factors; and 5) sociological
factors.
Materials: With regard to the study of materials
and the concerns of masonry construction, new
critical analysis can be undertaken from the
perspective of the study of the characteristics of local
natural resources available in a limited historical
periodo This analysis should also be related to factors
such as trade and transportation which impact upon
the circulation and availability of materials. The
availability of specific materia]s contributed also to
the local interpretation of an architectura] style. This
methodology, applied to masonry buildings, could be
rea dily ex pan de d to o th er ty pe s o f m as on ry stru ctu res
(bridges, aqueducts, mari time works, for example)
and to other material s and structures such as
structures in wood, wood and masonry, steel and
masonry. Naturally, these new aims would require the
expan sion o f the g iv en b ib li og raphy.
Techniques:
The s tud y o f tec hn iq ue s, via tec hn ica l
literature, has already be e n undertaken in the field of
structural mechanics by authors including
Timoshenko, Heyman, Benvenuto, Giuffr, and Di
Pasquale. The other field of major development has
been in the study of graphical representation m ethods
by authors including Sakarovitch and Palacios. M ore
work needs to be done in the areas of the terminology
and the evolution of the tools used in different
construction processes, and in the adaptation of
general technology to local materials and traditions.
Other fields of interest may vary from the evolution
of the techniques of ornamentation and decoration,
the wooden stereotomy, the traditional design of
wood structures, to the different patents on steel
construction during the second half of the nineteenth
century.
ldeological factors: The influence of the
ideological factors can be studied using technical
literature as an im portant source. The evolution of the
theorisation of styles, tastes and the political and
cultural intentions of the commissioners, the
designers and the builders, are well presented in the
texts and illustrations of the main treatises and essays
o n arch itec ture . Man y of th e trad ition al co nstru ction
rules and m ethods were continually adapted to obtain
a certain contemporary image of architecture. The
question of the evolution and the interpretation of the
models of antiquity and their influence on new
arc hite ctu ral sty les is b y n o m ean s ex ha us ted .
Economic fac tors : The ev olu tion o f co nstru ction
was naturally also guided by economical factors.
M odern methods of construction proposed by the
literature of this period were presented as more
economically viable in comparison with former
methods and m aterials. This economic optim isation
of processes and techniques was the key factor that
determined the decline of traditional methods of
construction in favour of concrete and steel.
Soc io logica l fac tors : Finally, construction is the
result of the integration of many different human
activities. Comm issioners, designers (architects and
engineers) and builders were always conditioned by
their own cultural background and experience in the
field. Associated with these m ain protagonists were a
huge number of professional classes of craftsmen
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Techn ic a1 lite ra tu re fr om th e Enlig hte nm en t to th e Portla nd c em en t e ra
responsible for each phase of the complex process of
construction.
In
th e stu died tec hnic allitera tu re , m uch
can be discovered about the stone carvers, the
masons, the carpenters and the iron workers. The
h isto ry o f th e p ro fes sio nal a nd s ocio lo gica l c ond itio n
of al these actors who contributed anonymously to
this long path of experiments, failures and
achievements, much also form an important chapter
o f th e h is tor y o f c ons tru ct ion .
REFERENCE LIST
Ben venu to , E do ard o. 1 99 1.
An Introdu ction to th e H istory of
Structural Mechanics, Part ll- Vaulted Structures and
Elast ic Sys tems. New Yor k/B er lin -H eid elb er g: Spr in ge r,
Verlag.
1403
Carbona ra , G iovann i (di r. ). 1996-2001 . Tra tt at o d i r es tauro
architettonico.
Tor in o: Unio ne T ip og ra fic o-Ed itri ce
Torinese.
Di Pasquale, Salvatore. 1996.
L' arte del costruire: tra
Ol loscenza e scienza
Venezia: Mars il io .
G iuffre. A ntonino. 1987 .
L a Mec ca nic a n ell'A r ch ite ttu ra .
Roma: Nuova I ta li a Sci en ti fi ca .
Heyman, Jacques. 1995. The S tone Sk eleto n: S truc tural
Engineering of M asonry Architecture. Cambridge:
C ambr id ge Univ er sity P re ss .
M ateus, Joa o M ascare nhas. 200 2. T cnic as tra dic io na is d e
constru~'ao de alvenarias: a literatura tcnica de 1750 a
1900 e o seu contributo para a conservarao de edificios
histricos. Lisboa: L iv ro s Hor izon te .
Sakarovitch, JoeJ. 1997.
De la reprsentation a la
r alisation, un ex em ple tir de la stroto mie. I/ dise gno
di proge tto da lle origini al X VIII se colo.
Roma: Gangemi
Editore.
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