Mapping the Deep Blue Oceans - rgwinther.com · exaggeration, with examples from mapping the deep...

MappingtheDeepBlueOceans

RasmusGrønfeldtWinther

www.rgwinther.com

ForThePhilosophyofGIS(Springer)EditedbyTimothyTambassi

KEYWORDSCartography;GIS;abstraction;simplification;selection;exaggeration;oceanography;bathymetry;scale;mapprojections;MarieTharp;BruceHeezen;Lamont-DohertyEarthObservatory;HeinrichBerann;oceancharts;physiographicdiagrams;panoramamaps;platetectonics;ColdWar;womeninscience;bias;discrimination;workplaceharassment.ABSTRACTTheoceanterrainspanningtheglobeisvastandcomplex–farfromanimmenseflatplainofmud.Tomapthisterrainaccuratelyandwisely,wemustunderstandhowcartographicabstractionandgeneralizationworkbothinanalogcartographyanddigitalGIS.Thischapterexploresabstractionpracticessuchasselectionandexaggerationwithrespecttomappingtheoceans,showingsignificantcontinuityinsuchpracticesacrosscartographyandcontemporaryGIS.Theroleofmeasurementandabstraction—aswellasofpoliticalandeconomicpower,andsexualandpersonalbias—inthesesciencesisillustratedbythebiographiesofMarieTharpandBruceHeezen,whosemappingoftheMid-AtlanticRidgeprecipitatedaparadigmshiftingeology.1.IntroductionThecartographerandgeologistMarieTharprecountsmeetingoceanographerJacquesCousteauinpersononlyonce,sometimebetweenAugust31andSeptember12,1959,inahotelballroominNewYorkCityattheinauguralInternationalOceanographicCongress.Sheattendedthecongressbutdidnotpresentapaper.SheandCousteauspokeafterahistoricalfilmscreening,aconversationTharpsaidsheenjoyed.1Oneimaginestheconversationwasfilledwithmutualadmiration,andpossiblycuriosityabouteachother’seccentricitiesandachievements.

1Felt2013,“enjoyed”,Loc2178.

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AtarecentconferenceinFrance,BruceHeezen,Tharp’slong-termcollaborator,hadgivenCousteauacopyoftheepoch-making1957physiographicdiagramoftheNorthAtlantic’soceanfloor(Fig1)thatTharphaddrawnfromHeezen’sdeep-seasonardata.ThemapdepictedamountainridgeinthemiddleoftheAtlantic.CousteauwasextremelyskepticalthatthisMid-AtlanticRidgeexisted;evenso,hehadhungitupinthemesshallofhisfamedCalypso,sothatheandhiscrewcouldstudyit. OntheCalypso’swaytoNewYorkCityandtheconferenceatwhichheandTharpwouldmeet,CousteaudecidedhewouldproveTharpandHeezenwrongonceandforall.Therecouldnotpossiblybesuchastrangephenomenon,whichseemedtocorroboratethemuch-malignedtheoryofcontinentaldriftandplatetectonics–whichwouldbeatopicofheateddiscussionattheInternationalOceanographicCongress.Kilometersabovethesupposedridge,theCalypsolowereditssubmarinecamera“sled,”theTroika,intodeepAtlanticwaters.Sureenough,ashisfilmprojectedtoalarge,enrapturedaudienceofscientistsatthecongress,theTroika’scamerarecordedahighmountainaheadinthedistance;aclimbupthatmountain;asteepdescent;atripacrossaplainfilledwithyounglava;andaclimbupanothermountain.TheyeventurnedtheCalypsoaroundandredidthewholeexercise.

Tharp’smap,Cousteau’sfilm,andtheAtlanticallagreed:TheAtlanticridgewasreal.Amapbecametheworldthroughafilm. Thischapterisapartialexplorationofhowmappingworks,particularlywithrespecttoabstractionpracticesofmap-making,andwithrespecttothecaseofdeepblueoceans.Theoceansarenotanimmense,flatplainofmud.Tomapthemaccuratelyandwisely,wemustunderstandhowcartographicabstractionandgeneralizationworkbothinanalogcartographyanddigitalGIS.

IseesignificantcontinuitybetweenclassiccartographyandGIS.TheemergenceofGIS,inmyview,signalsnottheclassicmap’snostalgicswansongortragicfuneral,butratheraretoolingandenrichmentofpossibilitiesforvisualgeographicpractices.Differentlyput,amap-basedscienceofdatacollection,management,andabstractionshiftedtoacomputer-basedscienceofdatabasemanagement,spatialanalysisandstatistics,expertsystems,andmodeling.2Inthisshift,thepowerofthemapwasneitherlostnorforgotten,ascanbeseenbelowwitheffortsofoceanfloormappingviasatellitealtimetryremotesensing.3 Finally,andperhapsmostconcretely,theintertwinedbiographiesofMarieTharpandBruceHeezencapturemanyempiricalandconceptual–aswellassocial

2Onbroadeningtheconcept,methods,andpurposesofcartographicgeneralisation,seee.g.,Abler1987;SheaandMcMaster1989;Couclelis1992;Goodchild1992;Schuurman2004;Lüscheretal.2009.3SmithandSandwell1997.

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andpolitical–themesassociatedwithmapping.Byinterweavinghistoryandphilosophy,Ihopetointerestyouinhowandwhymapsoftheoceansaredrawn;whatimportancethishasforquestionsaboutpower,values,andbiasinscience;andtherelevancethatmappinghasforthefutureoftheoceans,especiallyinatimeofforebodingclimatechange.2.AbstractioninCartographyandGISTocreateananalogyforhowmapsgeneralizeandabstractfromtheworld,imagineyourselfsittingonanairplaneasitleavestheterminal.Youstareoutthewindowandseetherunway.Astheplaneaccelerates,youfeelthemovementinyourlimbsandyourgut.Buildings,cars,andhillswhizby,fasterandfaster.Theplaneclimbs.Thelevelofmagnificationchanges.Treesandcarsdisappear.Riversandhighwaysbecomegeneralizedcurves.Aquiltofgreens,blues,andbrownsemerges. Soonyouareaboveitall,lookingdownwithsweepingvision.Theteemingworldonthegroundhasbecomesimplerandmoreabstract–thegeneralfeaturesofamap.Wheneverwecompareamaptoitsterritory,wefindthisflipfromeveryday,human-scaleperceptiontoageneralizedabstraction. Mapsareproducedbypracticesofabstraction,tosomewhatsimilareffect.Oncedatahavebeencollected–size,direction,boundaries,landscapefeatures–abstractionmustbeperformedinordertoproducemaps,someofwhicharehighlydynamicandcomplex.Cartographicabstractionisakintoscientifictheorizing.Whetheramapismadeviaclassicanalogcartographyorageographicinformationsystem(GIS),astandard,classicsetofabstractionprotocolsisused,includingselection,classification,simplification,symbolization,andexaggeration–towhichIaddperspectivizingandpartitioninginChapter3ofmyforthcomingWhenMapsBecometheWorld(2019).HereIwillfocusonselection,simplification,andexaggeration,withexamplesfrommappingthedeepblueoceans. Cartographyisthestudyofprinciplesandrulesofmapmakingandmapuse.Iwouldargue,somewhatcontroversially,thatcartographyisroughlyatwentieth-centurydevelopment(Wolter1975;Winther2019).Animportantquestionshapingthisdisciplinewashowtoengageinabstractionandgeneralization,andwhy,whencreatingmaps.4ThesepracticesaresimilaracrossbothclassicanalogcartographyanddigitalGIS.5Eveninthedigital,computationalage,mapabstractionremains

4Iprefertheterm“abstraction”fortheprocessofinferringgeneralfeaturesfromtheparticularsoftheworldorourexperience.Althoughcartographersprefertouse“generalization,”“abstraction”isthemoreappropriate,flexible,andgeneralterm.Onmypragmaticaccountofabstractionanditsshadowside,perniciousreification,seeWinther2014.Cartographicabstractionisstructurallyandsubstantivelyrelatedtoscientificabstraction,Iargue(seeWinther2019,Chapter3).5Thecartographicframework,anditstakeonabstraction,canbegleanedfromclosestudyofworksuchasWright1942;Koláčný1969;Muehrcke1969,1972,1974a,b;RobinsonandPetchenik1976;Wood1992;MacEachren1995;Harley2001;Montello2002.SeealsoWinther2019.

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verymuchthatswitchfromhuman-scaleperceptionandnavigationtographicrepresentationsatextremescales.

Asanemergingdiscipline,animportantphaseforGISintheearly1990swas,

asNadineSchuurmanplausiblysuggested,a“switch”from“amaptomodel-orientedapproachtogeneralization”(1999,83).InNorthAmerica,the“cultureofcartography”wasdominant;themapassuchwasthefocus.Conversely,“Europeanshaddevelopedalandscapemodel[thedatabase]thatisbasedonderiveddata”(ibid).Thekeyshiftwasfrom“workingwithmentalmodelsofmaps”tocommittingto“thedatabase”asgenerativeof“mapobjects”(2004,48-49).SchuurmanhighlightedKurtBrasselandRobertWeibel’s1988articleonautomatedmapgeneralizationasinstrumentaltothisshift.HereBrasselandWeibelcharacterizedgeneralization“asanintellectualprocess,[which]structuresexperiencedrealityintoanumberofindividualentities,thenselectsimportantentitiesandrepresentstheminanewform”(1988,230-1).Theauthorsthendistinguishedtwokindsof“objectivesforspatialmodeling,”correspondingtotwokindsofgeneralization:“spatialmodelingforpurposesofdatacompaction,spatialanalysisandthelike[i.e.,]statisticalgeneralization”and“cartographicgeneralization,”which,“incontrast,aimstomodifylocalstructureandisnon-statistical”(232).Byidentifyingabroadersetofmodelingstrategiesandpurposes–beyondvisualdisplayandmap-making–BrasselandWeibelpromptedtheemergingGIScommunityto,Ibelieve,transformcartographyandthemap.Yet,themapremains. Letusnowturntospecificpracticesofmapabstraction.2.1.Selection:ScaleSelectionincartographyistheintentionalreductionofcontent,particularlyasaconsequenceofchoosingmapscaleandmapprojection.Scalesetsamap’srepresentationalscopeandgranularityofdetail,6whileamapprojectionisaflat,two-dimensionalgeometricrepresentationofacurved,three-dimensionalglobesurface,ellipsoid,orgeoid.Thesearepracticesofabstractionbecausetheyinvolvethedetachmentofcertaininformationfromitscontext,generallyemphasizingsomefeaturesattheexpenseofothers.Theselectionofscaleandprojectionarealsosignificantinthattheyconstrainmyriadotherrepresentationalfeaturesofthemap.Scaleisaratioorproportionbetweenfeaturesoftherepresentationandpropertiesoftheworlddepicted.Dependingonthemapormodel,thescalemightbegivenintermsoftimepassage,intensityoffeatures,distancesandsizes,orotherparameters.Mapscalecanbeshownvisually(forexample,withagradatedline

6Thesciencesaredistinguishedbydifferencesofscale.Theboundariesofparticlephysics,biochemistry,neuroscience,anthropology,orcosmology,etc.,areset(ifpermeably)bytheminimumormaximumspatialscaleoftheobjectsandprocessesofitsdomain,fromthetinytotheenormous.Temporalscalesalsovaryacrossthesciences.Forinstance,quantummechanicsandquantumchemistrytradeinextremelyshorttimescales,developmentalbiologyindays,weeks,andmonths,geologyinmillenniaandmillionsofyears,cosmologyinbillionsofyears.

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representing10kilometers),quantitatively(forexample,1:10,000,000),orinwords.Scaleaffectsallotherabstractionpractices.7Scaleshouldbeselectedbasedonhowmuchareaonedesirestocover(extent),andatwhatlevelofdetail(grain),whiletakingpresentationconstraintsintoaccount(forexample,abook,aposter,orascreenwithzoomingcapacities).Thelargerthescale,themorefine-grained,detailed,andconcretethemapcanbe.Atonelogicallimitisthefamedone-to-onemapoftheworld,aconceptthatispoeticallyandhumorouslyexplodedbyauthorssuchasLewisCarroll,MarkTwain,andJorgeLuisBorges.8

[InsertFigure1here]Someauthorsclassifymapsaccordingtoscale.9Worldmapsaresmall-scale;amapfittingontwoleavesofanatlascouldhaveascaleof1to60million(1:60,000,000).10Incontrast,citymapshavealargerscale,typicallyvaryingbetween1:10,000and1:25,000.11TharpandHeezen’smaps(figures1and2)representatdifferentscales–1:5,000,000and1:30,412,800(480miles:1inch)respectively.

[InsertFigure2here]Ingeneral,manyofthesameconsiderationsaboutthepurpose-dependencyandlimitsofscalefromanalogcartographypertaintodigitalmaps.Selectingmapscaleisasnecessaryfordigitalmapsasitisforanalogmaps.DigitalmapssuchasGoogleMapsareoftenzoomable12,butthegraincanthusincreaseonlybecausethesystemaddsnewinformationasweincreasethescale–orelseitwouldbelikevisuallyblowingupaphotographtorevealitsbasicpixels.2.2.Selection:ProjectionAsforprojections,theMercatorprojectionremainsfavoredinthemappingoftheoceans,includingbyTharpandHeezenandandoceanmappersandcoauthorsWalterSmith(oftheNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration)andDavid

7Forarigorous,mathematicaltreatmentofmapscales,seeBugayevskiyandSnyder1995,17-20.8Carroll(1893)2010,162–163;Twain1894,Chapter3,57;Borges([1935]1975),325.Withhumorandirony,Eco([1992]1994)playfullydeconstructstheveryconceptofaone-to-onemap.9Greenhood1964,48;MuehrckeandMuehrcke1998,13;Kimerlingetal.2009,22-33;andKrygierandWood2011,94-95.10ESRI(n.d.)providesalistofcommonmapscales.11Someauthorsclassifymapsaccordingtoscale:Greenhood1964,48;MuehrckeandMuehrcke1998,13;Kimerlingetal.2009,22-33;andKrygierandWood2011,94-95.

12Since2009,GoogleEarthshowstheoceansbasedon,amongotherdatasources,MarieTharpaswellasSmithandSandwell,andcollaborator’smapsanddata.SeeJha2009.

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Sandwell(oftheScrippsInstitutionofOceanography).13Well-knownforitsuseinmarinecharts,theMercatorprojectionprojectstheworldontoacylindersuchthatlinesofconstantbearingonEarth(i.e.,rhumblines)aretransformedtostraightlinesonthemap.Whilestilltaught,thestudyofmapprojections,whichfilledgeographyandcartographyclassesandtextbooksbeforetheriseofGIS,hasmassivelydeclinedinimportance.AsIshowinChapter4ofWhenMapsBecometheWorld,partofthereasonliesinthebiographyoftheMercatorprojection,initsvariousguises,includingJohannHeinrichLambert’s1772“transverseMercator”,inwhichthecylindricaldevelopablesurfaceisorientednotaroundtheequator,butalongameridian.Incartographicargot,thisprojectionhasatransverseratherthananequatorialaspect(orientation).ThetransverseMercatorbecamecentraltotheellipsoiddatum’scoordinatesystem(i.e.,WGS84)inthemid-twentiethcentury.14Furthermore,forvariouscognitiveandsocialreasons,suchasfamiliarityandhistoricalinertia,GISandonlinemappingservicessuchasGoogleMaps,BingMaps,andArcGISOnlineemploya“WebMercator”.TheseequationsrenderEarthinanear-conformal,cylindricalprojection.15PerhapsWebMercatorhasbecometheonlineanddigitalcartographicrepresentationstandardbecause“northisalwaysthesamedirection”;itsimply“look[s]right”;it“allowsforsimpler(andthereforequicker)calculations...[and]continuouspanningandzoomingatanyarea,atanylocation,andatanyscale”;andit“allowsclose-ups(streetlevel)toappearmorelikereality.”16ButthesearenotsufficientexplanationsforWebMercator’sdominance,sincecomputerscouldalwaysretranslateprojections,dependingondifferentpartsoftheworldonewishestoshow.

Tobefair,mapprojectiondistortionsbecomelessimportantasscaleincreases–afterall,alarge-scalemapshowsaroughlyflatarea,withjustalittlebitofcurvature.However,thereisnoreasonnottobeabletocomparemapprojectionsforsmall-scalemaps.ConsidermapaficionadoTobiasJung’sCompareMapProjectionswebsite.17WhileMercator’sprojectionisusefulfornavigationalpurposesandalsothestandardprojectionMarieTharpandBruceHeezenused,thereisnothingtostopitfrombeingjustoneamongmultipleprojectionsina

13Heezen,Tharp,andEwing1959,3;SmithandSandwell1997,1961;Sandwelletal.2014,66.Themathematics,visualizations,andquandariesinvolvedinandwithmapprojectionsarediscussedextensivelyelsewhere(e.g.,Snyder1993;Winther2019),soIshallsetitasidehere.

14SeeRankin2016.15E.g.,Brotton2012,Chapter12;Strebe2012;Battersbyetal.2014.16FirsttwoquotesfromStrebe2012;thirdquotefromBattersbyetal.2014,88-9;lastquotefromGooglerepresentativeJoelH.,August4,2009.https://productforums.google.com/forum/#!topic/maps/A2ygEJ5eG-o

17https://map-projections.net/index.php

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flexible,GISintegrationplatform,wherethecontext-dependencyandadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeachmapprojectionareindicatedanddiscussed,asperJung’swebsite.2.3.SimplificationSimplificationistheomissionandstreamliningofinformationsuchthatgeneralfeaturesofapatternorprocessarerepresentedonthemap,butunnecessarydetailisabstractedaway.Wecanabstractoutanynumberofpatternsfromarichdataset,representingonlysomeaspectsofthedata.Forinstance,housesandroadscanberemoved,ameanderingriverstraightenedout,oralargenumberoftreesaggregatedintoasmallsimplepatchofgreen.18Andthereismuchthatcannotberepresentedonamap.Themoresimplifiedamapis,themoreabstractitis(evenifabstractioninvolvesmuchmorethansimplification).Wemightalsosimplifybecauseweareprivytoonlylimiteddata,duetolimitedtechnologiesorimperfectsurveyingopportunities,orevenbecauseamapwas“bornclassified,”19allofwhichwerethecasewithTharpandHeezen’smaps.20Insuchconditions,wewouldwishonlytoperformtheminimalamountofinterpolationwithin,andextrapolationacross,theavailabledata.AsHaliFeltquotesMarieTharpinhercreativebiographyoftheoceanographiccartographer,“Deepseasoundingsobtainedalongaship’strackwereasaribbonoflightwhereallwasdarknessoneitherside.”21

[InsertFigure3here]AnearlyprotocolofautomatedlinesimplificationistheRamer-Douglas-Peuckeralgorithm,whichoutputsasimplifiedzigzaglinefromacomplexreal-worldline,whilepreservingthelatter’sbasicproperties.22Theprogramfirstconnectstothetwoendsofthecomplex,real-worldlineandfindsthereal-linebendpointfarthestfromthatconnectingline.Releasingthefirstconnection,itconnectsbetweenthefirstendpointandthatfarthestpoint,anddeletesthebendpointthatliesbetweenthem.Itdoesthisrecursively(Figure3).Therecursionends,overall,whenevery

18AninterestingmaterialsimplificationstrategyisdescribedinHammond’sCompactPetersWorldAtlas:“Cartographershavestruggledwiththebestwaytocreatehillshadingforhundredsofyears.Inthisatlasthe3-Dreliefcomesfromphotographingspeciallymadeplasterreliefmodelsandblendingthesephotoswithhand-renderedcoloring”(Hardaker2002,7).

19Tharpspokethus:“Thedisplacementofpeaksandothertopographicfeatures[inphysiographicdiagrams]duetotheverticalexaggerationblurredtheiractualpositionsasdemandedbyaclassificationregulation.”(Felt2013,Loc1779)

20Doeletal.2006,p.605.

21Felt2012,Loc1720.

22Ramer1972;DouglasandPeucker1973.

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farthestpointiswithinasetmaximumtolerancedistance.23Thisalgorithmmarksanimportantmilestoneinthedevelopmentofthedigital,computationalmap.2.4.ExaggerationExaggerationisthedisproportionateandtechnicallyinaccurateadjustmentorreproportioningofthesizeandplacementofmapelements.Thepurposeofexaggerationistoincreaselegibility,comprehensibility,andcommunicativepower.Anexampleisexpandingthewidthofstreamsorhighwaysonamaptomakethemvisibleratherthanrazor-thin.Moredramatically,HarryBeck’sclassicLondonTubemapsacrificesgeographicallyaccuratelocationofstationsbyexaggeratingtheirrelativelocation,fixingtheirplacementsintotopologicallyaccurate,user-friendlystraightlines.24Tharpexaggeratedverticalcross-sectionprofilesofmountainridges:“Withafewexceptionsallprofilesarerepresentedwitha40:1verticalexaggeration.”25(Fig.5)ShehadtodothisinordertoshowtheMid-AtlanticRidgeprofileinameaningfulandmemorableway.Otherwise,theprofilewouldhavenearlydisappearedintoasolidlinebarelycrawlingalongtheoceanbottom.Theoceanissowidethateventoweringmountainslooksmallbycomparison.Mapelementsbecomeexaggeratedinvariousways.WhengeographicfeatureshavetobeshownatdifferentscalesofaGISmap,thenthemapelementsoftenhavetobeexaggeratedindistinctratios.Forinstance,aswezoomin,thatriverneednotbecomethickerinproportiontothescale.Itcouldremainrelativelythinandstillbevisuallyrecognizable.However,thesoftwareplatformwillprobablyupdatethesnakinessoftheriver,recalculatingperhapswiththeRamer-Douglas-Peuckeralgorithm. Adigitalmapcapturestoomuchdataandinterpretationtorepresentinanysplit-secondvisualizationonascreenoronpaper.SoftwarepackagesbyEsri,forinstance,storeandsometimescompressdata.GoogleMapsstoresdataelsewhere,farfromusers’computers.Thedigitalmapismorelikeanextendednetwork,where

23Moreconcretely,Ramer’scodeselectseveryanchoringpointofwhatbecomesanirregularpolygonconstructedfromthetargetline.[Ananchoringpointwasafurthestorthogonalpointorvertex,inthepriorstep(N-1).]Verticesexceedingmaximumdistance(see:lower-lefthandcolumnbox)“open”thepolygonateachstep,andarelabeledassuchintheprogramstack.Thepolygonbecomes“closed”whenthetwonewlinesegmentsfromthatpointtotheoriginalanchoringpointsareconstructed.Thisautomatedprocedureisrepeated,untilnofurthervertices(orthogonalpoints)aregreaterthandm(themaximumdistance)andthepolygonbecomesfullyclosed.ForadynamicrenditionoftheRamer-Douglas-Peuckeralgorithm,see:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramer%E2%80%93Douglas%E2%80%93Peucker_algorithm#/media/File:Douglas-Peucker_animated.gif24Seethe“HarryBeck’sTubemap”postonthewebsiteofLondon’stransitagency,tfl.gov.uk.

25Heezenetal.1959,15.

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thevisualizationisatip-of-the-iceberg,ahyperlocalmapping-as-you-go,ratherthansomethingyoucanhangonawall.3.Tharp-HeezenMapsAsaprolegomenontoafullerstoryofabstractionincartographyandGIS,considerthecaseofMarieTharp’smapsofthedeep.26ThesemapschangedthefaceoftheEarthSciences:“Thisphysiographicmap‘isinsomewaystheoceanfloor’,formerHeezengraduateWilliamRyanlatermused:‘It’souronlymulti-dimensionalpictureofit…thatmapandeverysubsequentrevisiontoit’.”27ThroughherMid-AtlanticRidgeprofiles,herphysiographicdiagramsreminiscentofgeographerArminLobeck’s28,andherlong-termcollaborationwithBruceHeezen(and,toalesserextent,HeinrichBerann)onperspectiveandpanoramamaps,MarieTharpgaveustheoceanfloor.Tharp’srepresentationsalsosuggestedamechanismforexplainingtheoceanfloor’sfeatures.Tharp’smapsbecametheworld.

Tharpshowstheimportanceofcharacterizingasystemassuch,notmerelyasanaggregationofparts.MyargumenthereresonateswithEvelynFoxKeller’sanalysisofNobelPrizewinningcorngeneticistBarbaraMcClintockinherAFeelingfortheOrganism(1984).Thereareclearindicationsthat,justlikeMcClintock,MarieTharppossessedpowerfulcapacitiestoseeallthepartsofasysteminaholisticanddynamicmanner.Sheeschewedatomismandreductionism.Shewasalsoabletointuithypotheticalpatternsviascientificinterpolationandextrapolation.SheactuallyintegratedtheoceansinherphysiographicdiagramsandinhercoachingofAustrianpainterHeinrichBerann’spanoramas.

BothMcClintockandTharphadaperhapsmoretraditionallyfeminine(only

weaklyandstatisticallyassociatedwithactualgender)capacitytoapproachasetofcomplexbiologicalorgeologicalprocesses–geneticinheritanceandoceanfloorbottoms,respectively–withabroadvision.Theyinvestigateimportantscientificphenomenawiththeirall-inclusive,embodiedGefühl.29Suchafloodlightvisioncomplementsthesharp-cutting,analyticspotlightvisiontypicallypermeatingscience.Effectiveresearchatthecommunitylevelrequiresacommitmenttoa

26IexplorethemesofcontemporarymappingthedeepblueoceansfurtherinWinther(forthcoming).

27Doeletal.2006,620.28LobeckwashiredasafullprofessorinGeologyatColumbiaUniversity,homeofLamont,in1948.Tharphad“devoured”his1924BlockDiagramsbook(Felt2013,Loc1715).Lobeckdevelopedthephysiographicdiagram,andwasinvolvedwiththeUSmilitary,especiallyduringthetwoworldwars.His“PhysiographicDiagramoftheUnitedStates”(1948)wasinfluential.Forabriefbiography,seeSmith1959.

29Forearlyworkontheepistemologyofgender,sex,andscience,seeHarding1986;KellerandLongino1996.

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panoplyofdistinctresearchstyles,eachexpressedbychangingconstellationsofindividualresearchersandresearchgroups.30

Theroleofpoliticalandeconomicpowerandofpersonalbiasin

contemporaryGISisillustratedbyTharp’sandHeezen’sbiographies.3.1.Tharp-HeezenTimeline1947.WhileanundergraduategeologystudentatIowaStateUniversity,BruceHeezenheardalecturebyMaurice“Doc”Ewing,andwasenraptured.EwinginvitedhimtojoinanexpeditionoftheMid-AtlanticRidgeontheAtlantisI.Heezenaccepted,andeventuallybecameagraduatestudentatColumbia,receivinghisdoctorateunderEwingin1955.311948.MarieTharphadcompletedabachelor’sinEnglishliteratureandmusicatOhioUniversity,amaster’sdegreeingeologyattheUniversityofMichigan,andabachelor’sinmathematicsatUniversityofTulsainOklahoma.32In1948shewashiredbyEwingasaresearchassociate.Afterafewyears,shewasworkingalmostexclusivelywithHeezenontheirsharedinterestsinoceanmapping(Fig4).

[InsertFigure4here]1949.TheLamontGeologicalObservatorywasofficiallyestablishedinPalisades,NY,associatedwithColumbiaUniversity.Ewingwasitsfounderandsourceofenergy.33WhileEwingandHeezenhadacloseandproductivecollaborativeeffortinthefirstyearsofthisinstitution,theirrelationshipwouldsour.HeezenwasassociatedwithLamontfortheremainderofhislife,evenwithamuch-diminishedrole,startingin1966.TharpwastreatedunjustlybyLamontafterHeezen’sdeath.1952.TharpcompletedsixprofiledrawingsoftheMid-AtlanticRidge(Fig5)primarilyusingLamontsurveydata,muchofitcollectedbyHeezenonAtlantisI,butalsowithsomedatafromtheGermanshipMeteorandothersources.Theseprofileswerebasedonsonarsoundingdata,asshipscrossedwhatturnedouttobetheMid-AtlanticRidgeatdifferentlatitudes.Particularlystrikingaboutthesedrawings–andwhattookTharpinitiallybysurprise,andthenapproximatelyayeartoconvinceHeezenof–wasthevalleydepictedinsidetheridge.Thissmelledofcontinentaldrift,becauseitmeanttheplateswerecomingapart,withlavaoozingoutfromthewound.(Heezendefendedanalternativetheory:anexpandingEarthcomingapartatitsseams.)30Longino2001;Winther2012,2019.

31FrankelandTharp1986,3.32FrankelandTharp1986,2-3;Barton2002,216-217.SeeLanda2010fordiscussionofTharp’searlybiography,andher“ties”toherfather,asoilsurveyor.33ConsultLamont-DohertyEarthObservatory(n.d.).

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[InsertFigure5here]1953.Giventheprofiledrawingsandfurthersoundingdata,Tharpstartedherfirstsketchesofphysiographicdiagrams.HerdiagramoftheNorthAtlanticwascompletedin195634,officiallypublishedin195735,andpresentedasamapinsettoHeezenetal.1959(figures1and4).ToaidintheseeffortsLamontsecuredtheresearchshipVema,whichbecameoneofthemostinfluentialoceanographicresearchshipsduringinitialoceanographicmapping,withover1millionkilometersoftotalsailingduringitslifetimeasaresearchvessel.1954.TharpandindirectcollaboratorHowardFoster,aPhDstudentwhowasdrawingmapsofearthquakedataonmapsofthesamescaleontheadjacenttable,madeanimportantdiscovery.Heezenhadinsistedthattheydrawtheirmapsonthesamescale.36Whiletheexactdateandcircumstancesareunclear,one(orboth)ofthem,havingsuperimposedtheearthquakedatamapontheMid-AtlanticRidgevalleymap,noticedastrongconcentrationofearthquakesinthevalleysandveryfewearthquakesbeyondtheridge.Thiswasofcoursefurtherevidenceforsomekindofmovementoftheoceanfloor.ThisdatafromGutenbergandRichter1954andtheUSGSwasshownasPlate29ofHeezen,Tharp,andEwing1957.1957.OnMarch26,1957,HeezengaveatalkontheriftintheMid-AtlanticRidgetothePrincetonGeologyDepartment,attheendofwhichtheinfluentialgeologistHarryHessrosetohisfeetanddeclared,“Thankyou,Bruce,foralecturethatshakesgeologytoitsveryfoundations.”37Someyearsprior,HesshadrejectedapaperbyHeezenontheverytopicoftheMid-AtlanticRidge,anditsrift.Hesswouldbecomeoneofthekeydevelopersofmodernplatetectonics.1959.PublicationofthemonographTheFloorsoftheOcean:1.TheNorthAtlanticbyHeezen,Tharp,andEwing.Choicepassagesaboutmapabstractionincludeonewheretheydiscussthedifferencebetweenpreparingaterrestrialandamarinephysiographicdiagram:“Intheformerthemajorproblemistoselectfrommore-detailedmapsthefeaturestoberepresented.[…]Incontrast,thepreparationofamarinephysiographicdiagramrequirestheauthortopostulatethepatternsandtrendsofthereliefonthebasisofcrosssectionsandthentoportraythisinterpretationinthediagram.“38

34Felt2013,“bytheendof1956”Loc1880.

35ItappearedasanaddendumtoElmendorfandHeezen1957.Intheacknowledgmentsofthatpaper,MarieTharpisthankedfirstandthelastsentencereads“TheencouragementandguidanceofDr.MauriceEwinghasbeenofgreatvalue”(1093).

36Felt2013,“samescale”Loc1737.

37Meritt1979,273.

38Heezenetal.1959,3.

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1966.Thelong-termepisodeTharpandHeezencalled“theharassment,”whichhadalreadystartedtorumbleduetotheir1965triptoIndia,Thailand,Taiwan,andAustralia,ifnotbefore,intensifiedandcametoaheadforallinvolvedpartiesasaconsequenceofapressconferenceatthe19662ndInternationalOceanographicCongressinMoscow.HeezenandTharpsharedinformationatthecongressthattheyhadnotstrictlybeenauthorizedbyEwing,andLamontmoregenerally,tocirculate.Furthermore,apaperHeezenhadco-authoredwithother“Lamonters”(butnotEwing)wasinitiallyrejectedbyScience,butthenacceptedbyNature.EwingwasupsetbecauseLamontpolicywastohavetwoseniorscientistsapproveeverypaperbeforetheseweresubmittedtoconferences,conferenceproceedings,orspecialistjournals.ThisprotocolhadnotbeenfollowedwhenHeezenandco-author’spaperwassenttoNature.39Ofvariousdescriptionsavailable,MarieTharpputsitmostdirectlyandauthoritatively:

WehadplannedtostudytheMediterraneanSeanext,butweweredivertedinsteadtotheIndianOcean[Fig6],becauseadiagramofitwasurgentlyneededtohelpplantheInternationalIndianOceanExpedition.Nowoureffortswere[eventually]thwartedbyalong-lastingfallingoutbetweenBruceandDoc.Therearetwosidestothatstory,buttheresultwasthatDocbannedBrucefromLamontshipsanddeniedBruceaccesstoLamontdata.HetriedunsuccessfullytofireBruce,whohadatenuredfacultypositionatColumbia,buthedidfireme.Fromthenon,IwaspaidthroughresearchgrantsthatBrucereceivedfromtheNavy,andIcontinuedthemappingworkingathome.40

1967.Firstangledpanoramamap(Fig6)producedbyTharp,Heezen,andBerann.TharpandHeezenwould,onseveraloccasionsovertheyears,stayatBerann’shousenearInnsbruck,Austria,forlongperiodsoftime.AccordingtoFelt“ThestoryofhowtheIndianOceanmapcameintoexistenceunfoldsratherliketheplotofaMission:Impossibleepisode,”andtheinterestedreaderisinvitedtoconsultChapter17ofherbookforbackgroundonFigure6.411968.Firstabsolutepanoramamap(Fig2)byTharp,HeezenandBerann.Moreover,figures1and7ofW.Jason’sMorgan’sinfluentialandclassic1968JournalofGeophysicalResearcharticle“Rises,Trenches,GreatFaults,andCrustalBlocks”werebasedonHeezenandTharpmaps.

[InsertFigure6here]

39Felt2013,“seniorresearchscientists,”Loc2900.

40Tharp1999.

41Felt2013,Loc2451.

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1977.HeezendiesaboardtheBritishresearchvesselDiscoveryoffthecoastofIceland.“OnJune21,1977,BruceHeezendiedsuddenlyofaheartattackinasubmarine[NR-1]neartheReyjkjanesRidge.IwasontheresearchshipDiscoverystudyingtheRidgefromabove.Wehadrecentlycompletedworkonourworldoceanfloorpanoramaandeachhadproofswithusonourrespectiveboats.”42TheNewYorkTimespublishedanobituarytwodaysafterHeezen’sdeath,whichincludedthissentence:“TheHeezen-Tharpphysiographicmaps,firstoftheNorthAtlanticandthenofallmajoroceansoftheworld,werewidelycirculatedbytheNationalGeographicSociety.”431977/1978.AppearanceofWorldOceanFloorPanoramaMap.44Themid-oceanicriftsystemspanningtheentireglobeisnowshownasasinglesystem–EarthasaFrankenstein-monsterpatchworkoftectonicplates(Fig7).

[InsertFigure7here]1978.TharpattendsasessionoftheGeneralBathymetricChartoftheOceans(GEBCO)guidingcommitteeinOttawa,Canada,whereplansforfutureeditionsoftheWorldOceanFloorPanoramawerebeingconsidered.GEBCOfigurativelyrippedhermapoutofherhandsinanactthatcouldappropriatelybecalledsystemicpiracy.Anonlinearticleputsitdramatically,butaccurately:“MarieTharphadtositstillwhilearoomfulofmendismemberedherlegacyanddivvieduptheremnantsamongthemselvesinafrenzyofviolentopportunism[…]Shewatchedoceanafteroceansnatchedfromhergrasp,herprospectsforfutureworkchoppedtoafewsectorsaroundAustralia,hardlyenoughtosustainherfinanciallyorintellectuallyformorethanafewmonths.”451982.AnofficialversionofwhatTharpcallsher“Opus”appearsinacommemorativevolumeonHeezen.46Fortheremainderofherlifesheworksandrevisesthisautobiographicalwriting,whichotherwiseremainsunpublished.

42Felt2013,Loc3818.

43Sullivan1977.

44Proofscompletedin1977.Felt2013,Loc4106:“ThefirstcopyoftheWorldOceanFloorPanorama—conceptualizedbyMarieTharpandBruceHeezen,paintedbyHeinrichBerannwithassistancefromHeinzVielkind,andfundedbytheU.S.OfficeofNavalResearch—rolledoffthepressesatabout7:00p.m.onMay17,1978.”InthefinalstretchofproducingtheWOFP,TharphadhiredaUkrainiancartographer,LubaProkop.WOFPhassinceappearedinmanyplaces,invariousavatars,andeveninposterformat.

45Debakcsy2018.

46Tharp1982.

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1997.Tharpisnamedoneofthefourgreatestcartographersofthe20thcenturybytheLibraryofCongress’sGeographyandMapDivision’sPhilipLeeSociety.Thatsameyear,herworkisshowninaLibraryofCongressexhibitionAmericanTreasuresfromtheLibraryofCongress,markingthe100thanniversaryoftheJeffersonBuilding.Attheopeninggala,forwhichPresidentClintonispresent,sheseestheoriginaldraftoftheDeclarationofIndependence,mapsdrawnbyGeorgeWashington,andtheEmancipationProclamation,amongothertreasures,fromherwheelchair.Thefriendaccompanyingherrecountshowshecriedwhenhereyesfinallyfellononeofheroceanfloormaps.Shetellshim,“IwishthatPapaandBrucecouldseeit.”472001.TharpreceivesthefirstannualLamont-DohertyHeritageAward.48

2006.TharpdiesofcancerinNyack,NewYork.3.2.MapTypesTharpandHeezenproducedfivekindsofmaps:

Physiographicdiagramsprovidea“45degreeview”fromabove,withstylizediconographyandshading(Figure1).Profilesarecross-sectionsoftheoceanfloor,withverticalheightsexaggerated40times.(figures4and5)“Panoramamaps”paintedbyBerann,areof3kinds:PerspectivemapsbyBerann,underTharpandHeezen’sguidance,weresimilartoRichardEdesHarrison’sWorldWarIIperspectivemaps,asiflookingatEarthfromasatellitesome40,000kilometersaboveEarth’ssurface(NorthernAtlanticOcean49;Winther2019,Chapter3).Angledpanoramamapsareakindofbird’s-eye,abstractedviewwherethewholeimageisangled/curved,yetthehorizonisflat(Figure6).50BerannpaintedtheHimalayasandAlpsinthismanner,and–undertheguidanceofTharpandHeezen–theoceanbottoms.MappingthedeepblueoceansIndeed.

47Felt2013,Loc4627.

48Bizzarro2001.

49 NationalGeographic,June1968.Foundhere:

http://www.berann.com/panorama/archive/image/PN_W_10.jpgAccessedNovember8,2018

50 Patterson2000exploresthiskindofpanoramamap.

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Absolutepanoramamapsarepaintedasanall-knowingviewfromanabsolutevantagepoint–theMercatorprojectionisappropriateforthispurpose,andwasused(figures2and7).

3.3.CartopowerandtheFutureofMappingThedepthsoftheoceansareamystery.Nocomprehensive,fine-grainedbathymetricmapexists.Notyet.Only5%oftheoceanbottomshavebeenfullymapped.51Recentsatellitetechnologiespermitprecisemeasurementsofseasurfacetopographyandgravitationalanomaliesacrosstheplanet.Withsatellitealtimetryandgravitationalpotentialmeasurements,newcomprehensive,small-scalemapscanbedrawn(Fig8).Suchmapsdonot,forbetterandworse,useinterpolationandextrapolation.Thesecoarse-grainedmapspreciselyportraythedataatthehighestlevelofresolutionthedatapermit.Yet,muchworkremainstobedone.

[InsertFigure8here]

Whateverourfuturemappingwilllooklike,onethingiscertain:Likeallformsofrepresentation,theywillexistwithinapowerstructure.Icallthespecificformsofpowerencodedinmapscartopower.Cartopoweristwofold:first,itisthepolitical,economic,andsocialpowerstructure,ofteninvisible,behindamap;second,itisthepowerthatamapexertsintheworldviaitsontologicalassumptions.Powerscaffoldsmaps,andmapsexertpower.52

AnanatomyofthecartopowerofTharpandHeezen’smapsilluminates,yet

again,theubiquityanddisproportionateimportanceofmilitaryandcorporateinterestsinmanyscientificendeavors. ConsiderthepowerstructuresthatenabledTharpandHeezen’sgroundbreakingresearch.AhistoricalarticlebyDoel,Levin,andMarker(2006)exploreshowunderwaterbathymetrybecameverysecretiveunderandafterWWII,afteraninitialglobalfreeinformation/opensourceperiodimmediatelyafterWWI.TheUSNavynowwishedtocollectsecretinformationaboutwheretheirsubmarinescouldhide,thelocationofseamountsandmountainsintowhichsubmarinescouldcrash,andthewhereaboutsofenemysubmarines.53Totheseends,theNavywasbusydevelopinganunderwater“SOundSUrveillanceSystem”(SOSUS)–listeningdevicesthatcoulddetectRussiansubmarines.Inallofthis,thePentagondecidedthat“creatingacomprehensivemapoftheoceanfloor”wasessential.5451SeeCopley2014foraclearexpositionofwhatthisactuallymeans.

52Winther2019;Wood1992.

53Doeletal2006,608.

54Doeletal2006,608.

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Thus,“LamontGeologicalObservatorywasaquintessentialColdWarinstitution,largelydependentonmilitarycontractstosupportitsresearchprograms.”55Heezen’sandTharp’sresearchwasfundedbyheavymilitaryinterests. Corporateinterestsdidnottakeabackseat.Intheearly1950s,AT&TBellLabswasbusytryingtocreatethefirsttrans-Atlanticcommercialmarinetelephonelines.Interestingly,theselabsalsoworkedcloselywiththeAmericanmilitaryonitsclassifiedSOSUSproject.Heezen’sdirect(andTharp’sindirect)collaborationwithAT&TBellLabsprovidedthemwithtwocrucialresources:“arich,vastlyexpandedsourceofseafloordata”and“invaluablefinancialresources.”56IwouldalsogosofarastoagreewithDoeletal’sstatementthat“BellLabsfundingmadetheHeezen-TharpNorthAtlanticphysiographicmappossible.”57 MuchliketheColdWargrowthofphysics,spacetechnology,andcomputerscience,theemergenceofmapsoftheoceanfloorbyTharpandHeezenwassuffusedwithCartopower.Thiswasahigh-stakesmappingproject.Asprecise,beautiful,scientific,andcreativeasMarieTharp’smapswere,theywerealsobuffetedaboutinaperfectstormofpolitical,culture,military,andeconomicpower.

Justasthereisacontinuityofpositivist,scientificabstractionpracticesacrosscartographyandGIS,sothereareongoingconcernswithbias,discrimination,andmoneyedinterests.58Forinstance,inamilestonearticle,feministGIS’erMei-PoKwanasks:“isGISaninherentlymasculinisttechnologyorsocialpractice?HowareparticularsubjectivitiesorgenderedidentitiesconstitutedthroughroutineinteractionwithGIStechnology?DowomenandmeninteractwithoruseGIStechnologydifferently?…HowmayGIStechnologyperpetuategenderinequalityoroccupationalsegregationintheinformationtechnologylabormarketandwomen’sstatusingeography?”59Thesequestionsareclearlyimportanttoanyperspectiveon“critical”issuesinGIS,andtheongoingnatureanddeploymentofCartopower.Theyalsopointtoissuesofsexualandotherformsofbiasthatresearchersmaysuffer,shapingthewaythattheirworkbecomesavailableornot.

ConsidertheproblemofwhatIwillcall“personalstyleharassment,”whichis

whencreativespirits,withindependentflair,findthemselvesmovingaroundrestlessly–bothintheirmindsandintheworld–unabletofitintothepower

55Doeletal2006,609.

56Doeletal2006,610,p.611.

57Doeletal2006,611.

58DiscussionsofthesimultaneousempiricalandtechnologicalandsocialandpoliticalfacetsofGIScanbefoundin,e.g.,Kwan2002;Schuurman2004;Pavloskaya2006;St.MartinandWing2007;CopeandElwood2009;Crampton2010;Dodgeetal.2009;andDodgeetal.2011.

59Kwan2002,275.

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structuresattheirinstitutionalhome.Inthecaseexploredinthischapter,Heezen’screativepersonalstyleconflictedstronglywiththepowerstructureofDirectorEwing’sLamont.Theinstitutionissuesrules,whichareopentointerpretation.Evenwhenthereissomemodicumofclarityaboutsuchrules,therearemanyofthem,andareasonableandoverworkedhumanbeingissimplynotabletofollowallofthem.Suchlimitationsaretacitlyacceptedbytheupperadministration,whichignoressmallinfractionsorsuppresses,tosomeextent,enforcementofnarrowrule-following.Theydothisuntilacreativethinkercomesuponthescene,tryingtocontributeonherownterms,inherowntempo,sometimesshakingthefoundationsofherfield.TharpandHeezenwerebothsubjecttosuchapersonalstyleharassment,withTharpexperiencingfurtherbiasorharassmentintheformofsexism.60

SciencejournalistStephenS.Hallmadethepointclearlyandforcefullyinhis

obituaryofTharp:

Maurice(Doc)Ewing,thebrilliantandautocraticdirectorofwhatisnowtheLamont-DohertyEarthObservatoryatColumbia,remainedfamouslyunpersuadedbythegrowingevidenceofcontinentaldriftandbegantoclashwithHeezenoverbothideasandego.Heezenhadbecomeatenuredprofessor,butEwingdidwhathecouldtothwartthemappingproject.Herefusedtoshareimportantdataabouttheseafloorwiththemapmakers—datathatHeezen’sgraduatestudentssometimessurreptitiously“exported”toTharpandherassistants.HestrippedHeezenofhisdepartmentalresponsibilities,tookawayhisspace,drilledthelocksoutofhisofficedooranddumpedhisfilesinahallway.Mostimportant,EwingblockedHeezen’sgrantrequestsand,as[PaulJ.]Foxsaid,“wasessentiallytryingtoruinBruce’scareer.”61

WemustaddressscientificandtechnicalfeaturesofGISandcartographyaswellasthesecomplexandinterrelatedfields’social,politicalandeconomicaspects.Thisincludessocialconditionsatinstitutionalaswellinterpersonalscales.Scienceisdata,theory,andknowledge;butscienceisalsopolitics,economics,andethics.WhateverthefateofthemapwithinGIS,itsconceptualframeworkdevelopedwithincartographyhasmuchtoteachus,eventhoseworkingonGIS.60Doeletal.2006,609proclaim:“Theirearlycareersofferasnapshotofthedivergentopportunitiesformenandwomenintheearthsciencesinmid-twentiethcenturyAmerica.OneofveryfewfemaleresearchersatLamontduringitsfirstdecades,Tharphadlimitedfinancialsecurityandfewopportunitiestoattendscientificmeetings.Typicalforthisperiod,hercontributionsoftenremainedinvisible.”Moreover,recallthe1978GEBCOaffairabove,whereMarieTharp’sworkwasforcefullyremovedfromher–inmymoraluniverse,thiswasanactofpiracyagainstTharp.Fordiscussionofthe“climateandconsciousness”(9)ofwomeningeography(notgeology)seeMonk2004.

61Hall2006.

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4.Conclusion:OceanMapping,ClimateChange,andGratitudeThefirstpartofthischapterreviewedsomebasicmap-makingabstractionpractices.Wheneverwecompareamaptoitsterritory,weshiftfromeveryday,human-scaleperceptiontosomethingmoredetachedandabstract.Itriedtoshowthecontinuitybetweenanaloganddigitalcartographyinstrategiesofabstraction.Asabstractionpractices,selection,simplification,andexaggerationapplyasmuchtoold-schoolcartographicmapsastocutting-edgeGISefforts.TheinterestedreaderisinvitedtoconsultWhenMapsBecometheWorld,andmyforthcomingarticleoncontemporarymappingoftheoceansandclimatechangeinClimateChangeManagement.

WealsosurveyedthetremendouscareersofMarieTharpandBruceHeezen.

InadditiontocarefullystudyingTharp’smaps,ifwealsolearnabouthowsheturnedherhouse,andlaterHeezen’shouse,intoacartographicdatamanagementcenter,trainingzone,gourmetkitchen,studio,andlibrary,weareleftwithnodoubtabouthowremarkabletheseresearcherswere.Intheend,Tharplookedbackatherlifewithgratitude:

Nottoomanypeoplecansaythisabouttheirlives:Thewholeworldwasspreadoutbeforeme(oratleast,the70percentofitcoveredbyoceans).Ihadablankcanvastofillwithextraordinarypossibilities,afascinatingjigsawpuzzletopiecetogether:mappingtheworld’svasthiddenseafloor.Itwasaonce-in-a-lifetime—aonce-in-the-history-of-the-world—opportunityforanyone,butespeciallyforawomaninthe1940s.Thenatureofthetimes,thestateofthescience,andeventslargeandsmall,logicalandillogical,combinedtomakeitallhappen.62

ThestoriesofTharpandHeezenalsoremindus,however,thatpolitics,greed,anddiscriminationdienot.Wehavemuchtodonotonlyonenvironmentalmatters,butalsoonsocialequity.Ingratitudeforwhatwehavetodayandwithhopeforagenuinelysustainablefutureletuspleasegettowork.AcknowledgementsKristineSergejevaprovidedexpertprojectcoordination.LauraLainesecuredfigurepermissions.MatsWedinprocessedandfinalizedfigures.LucasMcGranahanandGloriaSturzenackerprovidedoutstandingeditorialcommentary.HeidiSvenningsenKajitaandMetteBannergaardJohansenweresoundingboards.Gratitudetoall.

62Tharp1999.

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FigureCaptionsfor“MappingtheDeepBlueOceans”Figure1.NorthAtlanticPhysiographicDiagram.(Publishedin1957;mapinsettoEwing,Heezen,Tharp1959.)Asindicatedintheinformationbox,theverticalexaggerationis20:1.Thisboxislocatedwhereitisbecausetheydidnothavemuchdataforthatregionoftheocean.Inparttheychosetodrawphysiographicdiagrams,becauseexactdepthdataneednotbeshown,andthisinformation,whiletheyhadaccesstoit,wasclassifiedbytheUSMilitaryuntilatleastthelate1960s.ReproducedbykindpermissionofLamont-DohertyEarthObservatoryandtheEstateofMarieTharp/©MarieTharpMaps,LLCFionaYacopino,8EdwardSt.Sparkill,NY10976.

Figure2.AnabsolutepanoramamapoftheAtlanticOceanflooraspaintedbyHeinrichBerann,underclosecollaborationwithTharpandHeezen.BerannpaintedmanypanoramamapsforNationalGeographic,alsooftheHimalayasandtheAlps.ThismapappearedintheJune1968issueofNationalGeographic.Notably,thisimagealsogracesthecoverofNaomiOreskes’well-respectedandexcellent1999bookoncontinentaldrift.ButTharpherselfismentionedonjusttwopagesofthemaintextofOreskes’book.HeinrichBerann/NationalGeographicCreative/NATIONALGEOGRAPHICIMAGECOLLECTION

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Figure3.ComputerGraphicsandImageProcessingp.248,UrsRamer1972.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramer%E2%80%93Douglas%E2%80%93Peucker_algorithm.RedrawnbycartographerandgraphicdesignerMatsWedin.Figure4.MarieTharpinfrontofprofilesandglobesthatshe,Heezen,andtheirassistantsusedinpreparinganddrawingphysiographicmaps.Picturedhereisherfirst1957physiographicdiagram.Someoftheirglobesweremadewith“acrylicappliedtoabasketball”(Doeletal2006,ftnt.72,p.625).Theseglobesremainedunpublished,butavoidedanymapprojectiondistortions.Cf:Bressan2018.ReproducedbykindpermissionofLamont-DohertyEarthObservatoryandtheestateofMarieTharp

Figure5.“SixTrans-AtlanticTopographicProfiles”(with40:1verticalexaggeration).BruceC.Heezen,MarieTharp,andMauriceEwing,1959,TheFloorsoftheOceans:I.TheNorthAtlantic:GeologicalSocietyofAmericaSpecialPaper65,145p.,https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE65.Heezenetal.(LamontGeologicalObservatory,ColumbiaUniversity),Plate22.Figure6.TheIndianOceanFloorangledpanoramamapbyBerann,Tharp&Heezanwasasupplemental,fold-outmapintheOctober1967issueofNationalGeographic.SubscriptionstothatmagazinenumberedsixmillionintheUSAalone63.HeinrichBerann/NationalGeographicCreative.NATIONALGEOGRAPHICIMAGECOLLECTION.Figure7.WorldOceanFloorPanorama,BruceC.HeezenandMarieTharp,1977.CopyrightbyMarieTharp1977/2003.ReproducedbykindpermissionofMarieTharpMapsLLCimageprovidedbyLamont-DohertyEarthObservatory.

Figure8.BathymetricmapusinggravitationalanomaliesandsatellitealtimetryfromdataprovidedattheScrippsInstitutionofOceanography(UCSD),andoriginallyexplainedinSmithandSandwell(1997).Dataavailablehere:https://topex.ucsd.edu/WWW_html/mar_topo.htmlDrawnbycartographerandgraphicdesignerMatsWedin.

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