Mapping the Deep Blue Oceans - rgwinther.com · exaggeration, with examples from mapping the deep blue oceans. Cartography is the study of principles and rules of map making and map

MappingtheDeepBlueOceans

RasmusGrønfeldtWinther

www.rgwinther.com

ForThePhilosophyofGIS(Springer)EditedbyTimothyTambassi

KEYWORDSCartography;GIS;abstraction;simplification;selection;exaggeration;oceanography;bathymetry;scale;mapprojections;MarieTharp;BruceHeezen;Lamont-DohertyEarthObservatory;HeinrichBerann;oceancharts;physiographicdiagrams;panoramamaps;platetectonics;ColdWar;womeninscience;bias;discrimination;workplaceharassment.ABSTRACTTheoceanterrainspanningtheglobeisvastandcomplex–farfromanimmenseflatplainofmud.Tomapthisterrainaccuratelyandwisely,wemustunderstandhowcartographicabstractionandgeneralizationworkbothinanalogcartographyanddigitalGIS.Thischapterexploresabstractionpracticessuchasselectionandexaggerationwithrespecttomappingtheoceans,showingsignificantcontinuityinsuchpracticesacrosscartographyandcontemporaryGIS.Theroleofmeasurementandabstraction—aswellasofpoliticalandeconomicpower,andsexualandpersonalbias—inthesesciencesisillustratedbythebiographiesofMarieTharpandBruceHeezen,whosemappingoftheMid-AtlanticRidgeprecipitatedaparadigmshiftingeology.1.IntroductionThecartographerandgeologistMarieTharprecountsmeetingoceanographerJacquesCousteauinpersononlyonce,sometimebetweenAugust31andSeptember12,1959,inahotelballroominNewYorkCityattheinauguralInternationalOceanographicCongress.Sheattendedthecongressbutdidnotpresentapaper.SheandCousteauspokeafterahistoricalfilmscreening,aconversationTharpsaidsheenjoyed.1Oneimaginestheconversationwasfilledwithmutualadmiration,andpossiblycuriosityabouteachother’seccentricitiesandachievements.

1Felt2013,“enjoyed”,Loc2178.

RasmusGrønfeldtWintherwww.rgwinther.com“MappingtheDeepBlueOceans”

2

AtarecentconferenceinFrance,BruceHeezen,Tharp’slong-termcollaborator,hadgivenCousteauacopyoftheepoch-making1957physiographicdiagramoftheNorthAtlantic’soceanfloor(Fig1)thatTharphaddrawnfromHeezen’sdeep-seasonardata.ThemapdepictedamountainridgeinthemiddleoftheAtlantic.CousteauwasextremelyskepticalthatthisMid-AtlanticRidgeexisted;evenso,hehadhungitupinthemesshallofhisfamedCalypso,sothatheandhiscrewcouldstudyit. OntheCalypso’swaytoNewYorkCityandtheconferenceatwhichheandTharpwouldmeet,CousteaudecidedhewouldproveTharpandHeezenwrongonceandforall.Therecouldnotpossiblybesuchastrangephenomenon,whichseemedtocorroboratethemuch-malignedtheoryofcontinentaldriftandplatetectonics–whichwouldbeatopicofheateddiscussionattheInternationalOceanographicCongress.Kilometersabovethesupposedridge,theCalypsolowereditssubmarinecamera“sled,”theTroika,intodeepAtlanticwaters.Sureenough,ashisfilmprojectedtoalarge,enrapturedaudienceofscientistsatthecongress,theTroika’scamerarecordedahighmountainaheadinthedistance;aclimbupthatmountain;asteepdescent;atripacrossaplainfilledwithyounglava;andaclimbupanothermountain.TheyeventurnedtheCalypsoaroundandredidthewholeexercise.

Tharp’smap,Cousteau’sfilm,andtheAtlanticallagreed:TheAtlanticridgewasreal.Amapbecametheworldthroughafilm. Thischapterisapartialexplorationofhowmappingworks,particularlywithrespecttoabstractionpracticesofmap-making,andwithrespecttothecaseofdeepblueoceans.Theoceansarenotanimmense,flatplainofmud.Tomapthemaccuratelyandwisely,wemustunderstandhowcartographicabstractionandgeneralizationworkbothinanalogcartographyanddigitalGIS.

IseesignificantcontinuitybetweenclassiccartographyandGIS.TheemergenceofGIS,inmyview,signalsnottheclassicmap’snostalgicswansongortragicfuneral,butratheraretoolingandenrichmentofpossibilitiesforvisualgeographicpractices.Differentlyput,amap-basedscienceofdatacollection,management,andabstractionshiftedtoacomputer-basedscienceofdatabasemanagement,spatialanalysisandstatistics,expertsystems,andmodeling.2Inthisshift,thepowerofthemapwasneitherlostnorforgotten,ascanbeseenbelowwitheffortsofoceanfloormappingviasatellitealtimetryremotesensing.3 Finally,andperhapsmostconcretely,theintertwinedbiographiesofMarieTharpandBruceHeezencapturemanyempiricalandconceptual–aswellassocial

2Onbroadeningtheconcept,methods,andpurposesofcartographicgeneralisation,seee.g.,Abler1987;SheaandMcMaster1989;Couclelis1992;Goodchild1992;Schuurman2004;Lüscheretal.2009.3SmithandSandwell1997.


3

andpolitical–themesassociatedwithmapping.Byinterweavinghistoryandphilosophy,Ihopetointerestyouinhowandwhymapsoftheoceansaredrawn;whatimportancethishasforquestionsaboutpower,values,andbiasinscience;andtherelevancethatmappinghasforthefutureoftheoceans,especiallyinatimeofforebodingclimatechange.2.AbstractioninCartographyandGISTocreateananalogyforhowmapsgeneralizeandabstractfromtheworld,imagineyourselfsittingonanairplaneasitleavestheterminal.Youstareoutthewindowandseetherunway.Astheplaneaccelerates,youfeelthemovementinyourlimbsandyourgut.Buildings,cars,andhillswhizby,fasterandfaster.Theplaneclimbs.Thelevelofmagnificationchanges.Treesandcarsdisappear.Riversandhighwaysbecomegeneralizedcurves.Aquiltofgreens,blues,andbrownsemerges. Soonyouareaboveitall,lookingdownwithsweepingvision.Theteemingworldonthegroundhasbecomesimplerandmoreabstract–thegeneralfeaturesofamap.Wheneverwecompareamaptoitsterritory,wefindthisflipfromeveryday,human-scaleperceptiontoageneralizedabstraction. Mapsareproducedbypracticesofabstraction,tosomewhatsimilareffect.Oncedatahavebeencollected–size,direction,boundaries,landscapefeatures–abstractionmustbeperformedinordertoproducemaps,someofwhicharehighlydynamicandcomplex.Cartographicabstractionisakintoscientifictheorizing.Whetheramapismadeviaclassicanalogcartographyorageographicinformationsystem(GIS),astandard,classicsetofabstractionprotocolsisused,includingselection,classification,simplification,symbolization,andexaggeration–towhichIaddperspectivizingandpartitioninginChapter3ofmyforthcomingWhenMapsBecometheWorld(2019).HereIwillfocusonselection,simplification,andexaggeration,withexamplesfrommappingthedeepblueoceans. Cartographyisthestudyofprinciplesandrulesofmapmakingandmapuse.Iwouldargue,somewhatcontroversially,thatcartographyisroughlyatwentieth-centurydevelopment(Wolter1975;Winther2019).Animportantquestionshapingthisdisciplinewashowtoengageinabstractionandgeneralization,andwhy,whencreatingmaps.4ThesepracticesaresimilaracrossbothclassicanalogcartographyanddigitalGIS.5Eveninthedigital,computationalage,mapabstractionremains

4Iprefertheterm“abstraction”fortheprocessofinferringgeneralfeaturesfromtheparticularsoftheworldorourexperience.Althoughcartographersprefertouse“generalization,”“abstraction”isthemoreappropriate,flexible,andgeneralterm.Onmypragmaticaccountofabstractionanditsshadowside,perniciousreification,seeWinther2014.Cartographicabstractionisstructurallyandsubstantivelyrelatedtoscientificabstraction,Iargue(seeWinther2019,Chapter3).5Thecartographicframework,anditstakeonabstraction,canbegleanedfromclosestudyofworksuchasWright1942;Koláčný1969;Muehrcke1969,1972,1974a,b;RobinsonandPetchenik1976;Wood1992;MacEachren1995;Harley2001;Montello2002.SeealsoWinther2019.


4

verymuchthatswitchfromhuman-scaleperceptionandnavigationtographicrepresentationsatextremescales.

Asanemergingdiscipline,animportantphaseforGISintheearly1990swas,

asNadineSchuurmanplausiblysuggested,a“switch”from“amaptomodel-orientedapproachtogeneralization”(1999,83).InNorthAmerica,the“cultureofcartography”wasdominant;themapassuchwasthefocus.Conversely,“Europeanshaddevelopedalandscapemodel[thedatabase]thatisbasedonderiveddata”(ibid).Thekeyshiftwasfrom“workingwithmentalmodelsofmaps”tocommittingto“thedatabase”asgenerativeof“mapobjects”(2004,48-49).SchuurmanhighlightedKurtBrasselandRobertWeibel’s1988articleonautomatedmapgeneralizationasinstrumentaltothisshift.HereBrasselandWeibelcharacterizedgeneralization“asanintellectualprocess,[which]structuresexperiencedrealityintoanumberofindividualentities,thenselectsimportantentitiesandrepresentstheminanewform”(1988,230-1).Theauthorsthendistinguishedtwokindsof“objectivesforspatialmodeling,”correspondingtotwokindsofgeneralization:“spatialmodelingforpurposesofdatacompaction,spatialanalysisandthelike[i.e.,]statisticalgeneralization”and“cartographicgeneralization,”which,“incontrast,aimstomodifylocalstructureandisnon-statistical”(232).Byidentifyingabroadersetofmodelingstrategiesandpurposes–beyondvisualdisplayandmap-making–BrasselandWeibelpromptedtheemergingGIScommunityto,Ibelieve,transformcartographyandthemap.Yet,themapremains. Letusnowturntospecificpracticesofmapabstraction.2.1.Selection:ScaleSelectionincartographyistheintentionalreductionofcontent,particularlyasaconsequenceofchoosingmapscaleandmapprojection.Scalesetsamap’srepresentationalscopeandgranularityofdetail,6whileamapprojectionisaflat,two-dimensionalgeometricrepresentationofacurved,three-dimensionalglobesurface,ellipsoid,orgeoid.Thesearepracticesofabstractionbecausetheyinvolvethedetachmentofcertaininformationfromitscontext,generallyemphasizingsomefeaturesattheexpenseofothers.Theselectionofscaleandprojectionarealsosignificantinthattheyconstrainmyriadotherrepresentationalfeaturesofthemap.Scaleisaratioorproportionbetweenfeaturesoftherepresentationandpropertiesoftheworlddepicted.Dependingonthemapormodel,thescalemightbegivenintermsoftimepassage,intensityoffeatures,distancesandsizes,orotherparameters.Mapscalecanbeshownvisually(forexample,withagradatedline

6Thesciencesaredistinguishedbydifferencesofscale.Theboundariesofparticlephysics,biochemistry,neuroscience,anthropology,orcosmology,etc.,areset(ifpermeably)bytheminimumormaximumspatialscaleoftheobjectsandprocessesofitsdomain,fromthetinytotheenormous.Temporalscalesalsovaryacrossthesciences.Forinstance,quantummechanicsandquantumchemistrytradeinextremelyshorttimescales,developmentalbiologyindays,weeks,andmonths,geologyinmillenniaandmillionsofyears,cosmologyinbillionsofyears.


5

representing10kilometers),quantitatively(forexample,1:10,000,000),orinwords.Scaleaffectsallotherabstractionpractices.7Scaleshouldbeselectedbasedonhowmuchareaonedesirestocover(extent),andatwhatlevelofdetail(grain),whiletakingpresentationconstraintsintoaccount(forexample,abook,aposter,orascreenwithzoomingcapacities).Thelargerthescale,themorefine-grained,detailed,andconcretethemapcanbe.Atonelogicallimitisthefamedone-to-onemapoftheworld,aconceptthatispoeticallyandhumorouslyexplodedbyauthorssuchasLewisCarroll,MarkTwain,andJorgeLuisBorges.8

[InsertFigure1here]Someauthorsclassifymapsaccordingtoscale.9Worldmapsaresmall-scale;amapfittingontwoleavesofanatlascouldhaveascaleof1to60million(1:60,000,000).10Incontrast,citymapshavealargerscale,typicallyvaryingbetween1:10,000and1:25,000.11TharpandHeezen’smaps(figures1and2)representatdifferentscales–1:5,000,000and1:30,412,800(480miles:1inch)respectively.

[InsertFigure2here]Ingeneral,manyofthesameconsiderationsaboutthepurpose-dependencyandlimitsofscalefromanalogcartographypertaintodigitalmaps.Selectingmapscaleisasnecessaryfordigitalmapsasitisforanalogmaps.DigitalmapssuchasGoogleMapsareoftenzoomable12,butthegraincanthusincreaseonlybecausethesystemaddsnewinformationasweincreasethescale–orelseitwouldbelikevisuallyblowingupaphotographtorevealitsbasicpixels.2.2.Selection:ProjectionAsforprojections,theMercatorprojectionremainsfavoredinthemappingoftheoceans,includingbyTharpandHeezenandandoceanmappersandcoauthorsWalterSmith(oftheNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration)andDavid

7Forarigorous,mathematicaltreatmentofmapscales,seeBugayevskiyandSnyder1995,17-20.8Carroll(1893)2010,162–163;Twain1894,Chapter3,57;Borges([1935]1975),325.Withhumorandirony,Eco([1992]1994)playfullydeconstructstheveryconceptofaone-to-onemap.9Greenhood1964,48;MuehrckeandMuehrcke1998,13;Kimerlingetal.2009,22-33;andKrygierandWood2011,94-95.10ESRI(n.d.)providesalistofcommonmapscales.11Someauthorsclassifymapsaccordingtoscale:Greenhood1964,48;MuehrckeandMuehrcke1998,13;Kimerlingetal.2009,22-33;andKrygierandWood2011,94-95.

12Since2009,GoogleEarthshowstheoceansbasedon,amongotherdatasources,MarieTharpaswellasSmithandSandwell,andcollaborator’smapsanddata.SeeJha2009.


6

Sandwell(oftheScrippsInstitutionofOceanography).13Well-knownforitsuseinmarinecharts,theMercatorprojectionprojectstheworldontoacylindersuchthatlinesofconstantbearingonEarth(i.e.,rhumblines)aretransformedtostraightlinesonthemap.Whilestilltaught,thestudyofmapprojections,whichfilledgeographyandcartographyclassesandtextbooksbeforetheriseofGIS,hasmassivelydeclinedinimportance.AsIshowinChapter4ofWhenMapsBecometheWorld,partofthereasonliesinthebiographyoftheMercatorprojection,initsvariousguises,includingJohannHeinrichLambert’s1772“transverseMercator”,inwhichthecylindricaldevelopablesurfaceisorientednotaroundtheequator,butalongameridian.Incartographicargot,thisprojectionhasatransverseratherthananequatorialaspect(orientation).ThetransverseMercatorbecamecentraltotheellipsoiddatum’scoordinatesystem(i.e.,WGS84)inthemid-twentiethcentury.14Furthermore,forvariouscognitiveandsocialreasons,suchasfamiliarityandhistoricalinertia,GISandonlinemappingservicessuchasGoogleMaps,BingMaps,andArcGISOnlineemploya“WebMercator”.TheseequationsrenderEarthinanear-conformal,cylindricalprojection.15PerhapsWebMercatorhasbecometheonlineanddigitalcartographicrepresentationstandardbecause“northisalwaysthesamedirection”;itsimply“look[s]right”;it“allowsforsimpler(andthereforequicker)calculations...[and]continuouspanningandzoomingatanyarea,atanylocation,andatanyscale”;andit“allowsclose-ups(streetlevel)toappearmorelikereality.”16ButthesearenotsufficientexplanationsforWebMercator’sdominance,sincecomputerscouldalwaysretranslateprojections,dependingondifferentpartsoftheworldonewishestoshow.

Tobefair,mapprojectiondistortionsbecomelessimportantasscaleincreases–afterall,alarge-scalemapshowsaroughlyflatarea,withjustalittlebitofcurvature.However,thereisnoreasonnottobeabletocomparemapprojectionsforsmall-scalemaps.ConsidermapaficionadoTobiasJung’sCompareMapProjectionswebsite.17WhileMercator’sprojectionisusefulfornavigationalpurposesandalsothestandardprojectionMarieTharpandBruceHeezenused,thereisnothingtostopitfrombeingjustoneamongmultipleprojectionsina

13Heezen,Tharp,andEwing1959,3;SmithandSandwell1997,1961;Sandwelletal.2014,66.Themathematics,visualizations,andquandariesinvolvedinandwithmapprojectionsarediscussedextensivelyelsewhere(e.g.,Snyder1993;Winther2019),soIshallsetitasidehere.

14SeeRankin2016.15E.g.,Brotton2012,Chapter12;Strebe2012;Battersbyetal.2014.16FirsttwoquotesfromStrebe2012;thirdquotefromBattersbyetal.2014,88-9;lastquotefromGooglerepresentativeJoelH.,August4,2009.https://productforums.google.com/forum/#!topic/maps/A2ygEJ5eG-o

17https://map-projections.net/index.php


7

flexible,GISintegrationplatform,wherethecontext-dependencyandadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeachmapprojectionareindicatedanddiscussed,asperJung’swebsite.2.3.SimplificationSimplificationistheomissionandstreamliningofinformationsuchthatgeneralfeaturesofapatternorprocessarerepresentedonthemap,butunnecessarydetailisabstractedaway.Wecanabstractoutanynumberofpatternsfromarichdataset,representingonlysomeaspectsofthedata.Forinstance,housesandroadscanberemoved,ameanderingriverstraightenedout,oralargenumberoftreesaggregatedintoasmallsimplepatchofgreen.18Andthereismuchthatcannotberepresentedonamap.Themoresimplifiedamapis,themoreabstractitis(evenifabstractioninvolvesmuchmorethansimplification).Wemightalsosimplifybecauseweareprivytoonlylimiteddata,duetolimitedtechnologiesorimperfectsurveyingopportunities,orevenbecauseamapwas“bornclassified,”19allofwhichwerethecasewithTharpandHeezen’smaps.20Insuchconditions,wewouldwishonlytoperformtheminimalamountofinterpolationwithin,andextrapolationacross,theavailabledata.AsHaliFeltquotesMarieTharpinhercreativebiographyoftheoceanographiccartographer,“Deepseasoundingsobtainedalongaship’strackwereasaribbonoflightwhereallwasdarknessoneitherside.”21

[InsertFigure3here]AnearlyprotocolofautomatedlinesimplificationistheRamer-Douglas-Peuckeralgorithm,whichoutputsasimplifiedzigzaglinefromacomplexreal-worldline,whilepreservingthelatter’sbasicproperties.22Theprogramfirstconnectstothetwoendsofthecomplex,real-worldlineandfindsthereal-linebendpointfarthestfromthatconnectingline.Releasingthefirstconnection,itconnectsbetweenthefirstendpointandthatfarthestpoint,anddeletesthebendpointthatliesbetweenthem.Itdoesthisrecursively(Figure3).Therecursionends,overall,whenevery

18AninterestingmaterialsimplificationstrategyisdescribedinHammond’sCompactPetersWorldAtlas:“Cartographershavestruggledwiththebestwaytocreatehillshadingforhundredsofyears.Inthisatlasthe3-Dreliefcomesfromphotographingspeciallymadeplasterreliefmodelsandblendingthesephotoswithhand-renderedcoloring”(Hardaker2002,7).

19Tharpspokethus:“Thedisplacementofpeaksandothertopographicfeatures[inphysiographicdiagrams]duetotheverticalexaggerationblurredtheiractualpositionsasdemandedbyaclassificationregulation.”(Felt2013,Loc1779)

20Doeletal.2006,p.605.

21Felt2012,Loc1720.

22Ramer1972;DouglasandPeucker1973.


8

farthestpointiswithinasetmaximumtolerancedistance.23Thisalgorithmmarksanimportantmilestoneinthedevelopmentofthedigital,computationalmap.2.4.ExaggerationExaggerationisthedisproportionateandtechnicallyinaccurateadjustmentorreproportioningofthesizeandplacementofmapelements.Thepurposeofexaggerationistoincreaselegibility,comprehensibility,andcommunicativepower.Anexampleisexpandingthewidthofstreamsorhighwaysonamaptomakethemvisibleratherthanrazor-thin.Moredramatically,HarryBeck’sclassicLondonTubemapsacrificesgeographicallyaccuratelocationofstationsbyexaggeratingtheirrelativelocation,fixingtheirplacementsintotopologicallyaccurate,user-friendlystraightlines.24Tharpexaggeratedverticalcross-sectionprofilesofmountainridges:“Withafewexceptionsallprofilesarerepresentedwitha40:1verticalexaggeration.”25(Fig.5)ShehadtodothisinordertoshowtheMid-AtlanticRidgeprofileinameaningfulandmemorableway.Otherwise,theprofilewouldhavenearlydisappearedintoasolidlinebarelycrawlingalongtheoceanbottom.Theoceanissowidethateventoweringmountainslooksmallbycomparison.Mapelementsbecomeexaggeratedinvariousways.WhengeographicfeatureshavetobeshownatdifferentscalesofaGISmap,thenthemapelementsoftenhavetobeexaggeratedindistinctratios.Forinstance,aswezoomin,thatriverneednotbecomethickerinproportiontothescale.Itcouldremainrelativelythinandstillbevisuallyrecognizable.However,thesoftwareplatformwillprobablyupdatethesnakinessoftheriver,recalculatingperhapswiththeRamer-Douglas-Peuckeralgorithm. Adigitalmapcapturestoomuchdataandinterpretationtorepresentinanysplit-secondvisualizationonascreenoronpaper.SoftwarepackagesbyEsri,forinstance,storeandsometimescompressdata.GoogleMapsstoresdataelsewhere,farfromusers’computers.Thedigitalmapismorelikeanextendednetwork,where

23Moreconcretely,Ramer’scodeselectseveryanchoringpointofwhatbecomesanirregularpolygonconstructedfromthetargetline.[Ananchoringpointwasafurthestorthogonalpointorvertex,inthepriorstep(N-1).]Verticesexceedingmaximumdistance(see:lower-lefthandcolumnbox)“open”thepolygonateachstep,andarelabeledassuchintheprogramstack.Thepolygonbecomes“closed”whenthetwonewlinesegmentsfromthatpointtotheoriginalanchoringpointsareconstructed.Thisautomatedprocedureisrepeated,untilnofurthervertices(orthogonalpoints)aregreaterthandm(themaximumdistance)andthepolygonbecomesfullyclosed.ForadynamicrenditionoftheRamer-Douglas-Peuckeralgorithm,see:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramer%E2%80%93Douglas%E2%80%93Peucker_algorithm#/media/File:Douglas-Peucker_animated.gif24Seethe“HarryBeck’sTubemap”postonthewebsiteofLondon’stransitagency,tfl.gov.uk.

25Heezenetal.1959,15.


9

thevisualizationisatip-of-the-iceberg,ahyperlocalmapping-as-you-go,ratherthansomethingyoucanhangonawall.3.Tharp-HeezenMapsAsaprolegomenontoafullerstoryofabstractionincartographyandGIS,considerthecaseofMarieTharp’smapsofthedeep.26ThesemapschangedthefaceoftheEarthSciences:“Thisphysiographicmap‘isinsomewaystheoceanfloor’,formerHeezengraduateWilliamRyanlatermused:‘It’souronlymulti-dimensionalpictureofit…thatmapandeverysubsequentrevisiontoit’.”27ThroughherMid-AtlanticRidgeprofiles,herphysiographicdiagramsreminiscentofgeographerArminLobeck’s28,andherlong-termcollaborationwithBruceHeezen(and,toalesserextent,HeinrichBerann)onperspectiveandpanoramamaps,MarieTharpgaveustheoceanfloor.Tharp’srepresentationsalsosuggestedamechanismforexplainingtheoceanfloor’sfeatures.Tharp’smapsbecametheworld.

Tharpshowstheimportanceofcharacterizingasystemassuch,notmerelyasanaggregationofparts.MyargumenthereresonateswithEvelynFoxKeller’sanalysisofNobelPrizewinningcorngeneticistBarbaraMcClintockinherAFeelingfortheOrganism(1984).Thereareclearindicationsthat,justlikeMcClintock,MarieTharppossessedpowerfulcapacitiestoseeallthepartsofasysteminaholisticanddynamicmanner.Sheeschewedatomismandreductionism.Shewasalsoabletointuithypotheticalpatternsviascientificinterpolationandextrapolation.SheactuallyintegratedtheoceansinherphysiographicdiagramsandinhercoachingofAustrianpainterHeinrichBerann’spanoramas.

BothMcClintockandTharphadaperhapsmoretraditionallyfeminine(only

weaklyandstatisticallyassociatedwithactualgender)capacitytoapproachasetofcomplexbiologicalorgeologicalprocesses–geneticinheritanceandoceanfloorbottoms,respectively–withabroadvision.Theyinvestigateimportantscientificphenomenawiththeirall-inclusive,embodiedGefühl.29Suchafloodlightvisioncomplementsthesharp-cutting,analyticspotlightvisiontypicallypermeatingscience.Effectiveresearchatthecommunitylevelrequiresacommitmenttoa

26IexplorethemesofcontemporarymappingthedeepblueoceansfurtherinWinther(forthcoming).

27Doeletal.2006,620.28LobeckwashiredasafullprofessorinGeologyatColumbiaUniversity,homeofLamont,in1948.Tharphad“devoured”his1924BlockDiagramsbook(Felt2013,Loc1715).Lobeckdevelopedthephysiographicdiagram,andwasinvolvedwiththeUSmilitary,especiallyduringthetwoworldwars.His“PhysiographicDiagramoftheUnitedStates”(1948)wasinfluential.Forabriefbiography,seeSmith1959.

29Forearlyworkontheepistemologyofgender,sex,andscience,seeHarding1986;KellerandLongino1996.


10

panoplyofdistinctresearchstyles,eachexpressedbychangingconstellationsofindividualresearchersandresearchgroups.30

Theroleofpoliticalandeconomicpowerandofpersonalbiasin

contemporaryGISisillustratedbyTharp’sandHeezen’sbiographies.3.1.Tharp-HeezenTimeline1947.WhileanundergraduategeologystudentatIowaStateUniversity,BruceHeezenheardalecturebyMaurice“Doc”Ewing,andwasenraptured.EwinginvitedhimtojoinanexpeditionoftheMid-AtlanticRidgeontheAtlantisI.Heezenaccepted,andeventuallybecameagraduatestudentatColumbia,receivinghisdoctorateunderEwingin1955.311948.MarieTharphadcompletedabachelor’sinEnglishliteratureandmusicatOhioUniversity,amaster’sdegreeingeologyattheUniversityofMichigan,andabachelor’sinmathematicsatUniversityofTulsainOklahoma.32In1948shewashiredbyEwingasaresearchassociate.Afterafewyears,shewasworkingalmostexclusivelywithHeezenontheirsharedinterestsinoceanmapping(Fig4).

[InsertFigure4here]1949.TheLamontGeologicalObservatorywasofficiallyestablishedinPalisades,NY,associatedwithColumbiaUniversity.Ewingwasitsfounderandsourceofenergy.33WhileEwingandHeezenhadacloseandproductivecollaborativeeffortinthefirstyearsofthisinstitution,theirrelationshipwouldsour.HeezenwasassociatedwithLamontfortheremainderofhislife,evenwithamuch-diminishedrole,startingin1966.TharpwastreatedunjustlybyLamontafterHeezen’sdeath.1952.TharpcompletedsixprofiledrawingsoftheMid-AtlanticRidge(Fig5)primarilyusingLamontsurveydata,muchofitcollectedbyHeezenonAtlantisI,butalsowithsomedatafromtheGermanshipMeteorandothersources.Theseprofileswerebasedonsonarsoundingdata,asshipscrossedwhatturnedouttobetheMid-AtlanticRidgeatdifferentlatitudes.Particularlystrikingaboutthesedrawings–andwhattookTharpinitiallybysurprise,andthenapproximatelyayeartoconvinceHeezenof–wasthevalleydepictedinsidetheridge.Thissmelledofcontinentaldrift,becauseitmeanttheplateswerecomingapart,withlavaoozingoutfromthewound.(Heezendefendedanalternativetheory:anexpandingEarthcomingapartatitsseams.)30Longino2001;Winther2012,2019.

31FrankelandTharp1986,3.32FrankelandTharp1986,2-3;Barton2002,216-217.SeeLanda2010fordiscussionofTharp’searlybiography,andher“ties”toherfather,asoilsurveyor.33ConsultLamont-DohertyEarthObservatory(n.d.).


11

[InsertFigure5here]1953.Giventheprofiledrawingsandfurthersoundingdata,Tharpstartedherfirstsketchesofphysiographicdiagrams.HerdiagramoftheNorthAtlanticwascompletedin195634,officiallypublishedin195735,andpresentedasamapinsettoHeezenetal.1959(figures1and4).ToaidintheseeffortsLamontsecuredtheresearchshipVema,whichbecameoneofthemostinfluentialoceanographicresearchshipsduringinitialoceanographicmapping,withover1millionkilometersoftotalsailingduringitslifetimeasaresearchvessel.1954.TharpandindirectcollaboratorHowardFoster,aPhDstudentwhowasdrawingmapsofearthquakedataonmapsofthesamescaleontheadjacenttable,madeanimportantdiscovery.Heezenhadinsistedthattheydrawtheirmapsonthesamescale.36Whiletheexactdateandcircumstancesareunclear,one(orboth)ofthem,havingsuperimposedtheearthquakedatamapontheMid-AtlanticRidgevalleymap,noticedastrongconcentrationofearthquakesinthevalleysandveryfewearthquakesbeyondtheridge.Thiswasofcoursefurtherevidenceforsomekindofmovementoftheoceanfloor.ThisdatafromGutenbergandRichter1954andtheUSGSwasshownasPlate29ofHeezen,Tharp,andEwing1957.1957.OnMarch26,1957,HeezengaveatalkontheriftintheMid-AtlanticRidgetothePrincetonGeologyDepartment,attheendofwhichtheinfluentialgeologistHarryHessrosetohisfeetanddeclared,“Thankyou,Bruce,foralecturethatshakesgeologytoitsveryfoundations.”37Someyearsprior,HesshadrejectedapaperbyHeezenontheverytopicoftheMid-AtlanticRidge,anditsrift.Hesswouldbecomeoneofthekeydevelopersofmodernplatetectonics.1959.PublicationofthemonographTheFloorsoftheOcean:1.TheNorthAtlanticbyHeezen,Tharp,andEwing.Choicepassagesaboutmapabstractionincludeonewheretheydiscussthedifferencebetweenpreparingaterrestrialandamarinephysiographicdiagram:“Intheformerthemajorproblemistoselectfrommore-detailedmapsthefeaturestoberepresented.[…]Incontrast,thepreparationofamarinephysiographicdiagramrequirestheauthortopostulatethepatternsandtrendsofthereliefonthebasisofcrosssectionsandthentoportraythisinterpretationinthediagram.“38

34Felt2013,“bytheendof1956”Loc1880.

35ItappearedasanaddendumtoElmendorfandHeezen1957.Intheacknowledgmentsofthatpaper,MarieTharpisthankedfirstandthelastsentencereads“TheencouragementandguidanceofDr.MauriceEwinghasbeenofgreatvalue”(1093).

36Felt2013,“samescale”Loc1737.

37Meritt1979,273.

38Heezenetal.1959,3.


12

1966.Thelong-termepisodeTharpandHeezencalled“theharassment,”whichhadalreadystartedtorumbleduetotheir1965triptoIndia,Thailand,Taiwan,andAustralia,ifnotbefore,intensifiedandcametoaheadforallinvolvedpartiesasaconsequenceofapressconferenceatthe19662ndInternationalOceanographicCongressinMoscow.HeezenandTharpsharedinformationatthecongressthattheyhadnotstrictlybeenauthorizedbyEwing,andLamontmoregenerally,tocirculate.Furthermore,apaperHeezenhadco-authoredwithother“Lamonters”(butnotEwing)wasinitiallyrejectedbyScience,butthenacceptedbyNature.EwingwasupsetbecauseLamontpolicywastohavetwoseniorscientistsapproveeverypaperbeforetheseweresubmittedtoconferences,conferenceproceedings,orspecialistjournals.ThisprotocolhadnotbeenfollowedwhenHeezenandco-author’spaperwassenttoNature.39Ofvariousdescriptionsavailable,MarieTharpputsitmostdirectlyandauthoritatively:

WehadplannedtostudytheMediterraneanSeanext,butweweredivertedinsteadtotheIndianOcean[Fig6],becauseadiagramofitwasurgentlyneededtohelpplantheInternationalIndianOceanExpedition.Nowoureffortswere[eventually]thwartedbyalong-lastingfallingoutbetweenBruceandDoc.Therearetwosidestothatstory,buttheresultwasthatDocbannedBrucefromLamontshipsanddeniedBruceaccesstoLamontdata.HetriedunsuccessfullytofireBruce,whohadatenuredfacultypositionatColumbia,buthedidfireme.Fromthenon,IwaspaidthroughresearchgrantsthatBrucereceivedfromtheNavy,andIcontinuedthemappingworkingathome.40

1967.Firstangledpanoramamap(Fig6)producedbyTharp,Heezen,andBerann.TharpandHeezenwould,onseveraloccasionsovertheyears,stayatBerann’shousenearInnsbruck,Austria,forlongperiodsoftime.AccordingtoFelt“ThestoryofhowtheIndianOceanmapcameintoexistenceunfoldsratherliketheplotofaMission:Impossibleepisode,”andtheinterestedreaderisinvitedtoconsultChapter17ofherbookforbackgroundonFigure6.411968.Firstabsolutepanoramamap(Fig2)byTharp,HeezenandBerann.Moreover,figures1and7ofW.Jason’sMorgan’sinfluentialandclassic1968JournalofGeophysicalResearcharticle“Rises,Trenches,GreatFaults,andCrustalBlocks”werebasedonHeezenandTharpmaps.

[InsertFigure6here]

39Felt2013,“seniorresearchscientists,”Loc2900.

40Tharp1999.

41Felt2013,Loc2451.


13

1977.HeezendiesaboardtheBritishresearchvesselDiscoveryoffthecoastofIceland.“OnJune21,1977,BruceHeezendiedsuddenlyofaheartattackinasubmarine[NR-1]neartheReyjkjanesRidge.IwasontheresearchshipDiscoverystudyingtheRidgefromabove.Wehadrecentlycompletedworkonourworldoceanfloorpanoramaandeachhadproofswithusonourrespectiveboats.”42TheNewYorkTimespublishedanobituarytwodaysafterHeezen’sdeath,whichincludedthissentence:“TheHeezen-Tharpphysiographicmaps,firstoftheNorthAtlanticandthenofallmajoroceansoftheworld,werewidelycirculatedbytheNationalGeographicSociety.”431977/1978.AppearanceofWorldOceanFloorPanoramaMap.44Themid-oceanicriftsystemspanningtheentireglobeisnowshownasasinglesystem–EarthasaFrankenstein-monsterpatchworkoftectonicplates(Fig7).

[InsertFigure7here]1978.TharpattendsasessionoftheGeneralBathymetricChartoftheOceans(GEBCO)guidingcommitteeinOttawa,Canada,whereplansforfutureeditionsoftheWorldOceanFloorPanoramawerebeingconsidered.GEBCOfigurativelyrippedhermapoutofherhandsinanactthatcouldappropriatelybecalledsystemicpiracy.Anonlinearticleputsitdramatically,butaccurately:“MarieTharphadtositstillwhilearoomfulofmendismemberedherlegacyanddivvieduptheremnantsamongthemselvesinafrenzyofviolentopportunism[…]Shewatchedoceanafteroceansnatchedfromhergrasp,herprospectsforfutureworkchoppedtoafewsectorsaroundAustralia,hardlyenoughtosustainherfinanciallyorintellectuallyformorethanafewmonths.”451982.AnofficialversionofwhatTharpcallsher“Opus”appearsinacommemorativevolumeonHeezen.46Fortheremainderofherlifesheworksandrevisesthisautobiographicalwriting,whichotherwiseremainsunpublished.

42Felt2013,Loc3818.

43Sullivan1977.

44Proofscompletedin1977.Felt2013,Loc4106:“ThefirstcopyoftheWorldOceanFloorPanorama—conceptualizedbyMarieTharpandBruceHeezen,paintedbyHeinrichBerannwithassistancefromHeinzVielkind,andfundedbytheU.S.OfficeofNavalResearch—rolledoffthepressesatabout7:00p.m.onMay17,1978.”InthefinalstretchofproducingtheWOFP,TharphadhiredaUkrainiancartographer,LubaProkop.WOFPhassinceappearedinmanyplaces,invariousavatars,andeveninposterformat.

45Debakcsy2018.

46Tharp1982.


14

1997.Tharpisnamedoneofthefourgreatestcartographersofthe20thcenturybytheLibraryofCongress’sGeographyandMapDivision’sPhilipLeeSociety.Thatsameyear,herworkisshowninaLibraryofCongressexhibitionAmericanTreasuresfromtheLibraryofCongress,markingthe100thanniversaryoftheJeffersonBuilding.Attheopeninggala,forwhichPresidentClintonispresent,sheseestheoriginaldraftoftheDeclarationofIndependence,mapsdrawnbyGeorgeWashington,andtheEmancipationProclamation,amongothertreasures,fromherwheelchair.Thefriendaccompanyingherrecountshowshecriedwhenhereyesfinallyfellononeofheroceanfloormaps.Shetellshim,“IwishthatPapaandBrucecouldseeit.”472001.TharpreceivesthefirstannualLamont-DohertyHeritageAward.48

2006.TharpdiesofcancerinNyack,NewYork.3.2.MapTypesTharpandHeezenproducedfivekindsofmaps:

Physiographicdiagramsprovidea“45degreeview”fromabove,withstylizediconographyandshading(Figure1).Profilesarecross-sectionsoftheoceanfloor,withverticalheightsexaggerated40times.(figures4and5)“Panoramamaps”paintedbyBerann,areof3kinds:PerspectivemapsbyBerann,underTharpandHeezen’sguidance,weresimilartoRichardEdesHarrison’sWorldWarIIperspectivemaps,asiflookingatEarthfromasatellitesome40,000kilometersaboveEarth’ssurface(NorthernAtlanticOcean49;Winther2019,Chapter3).Angledpanoramamapsareakindofbird’s-eye,abstractedviewwherethewholeimageisangled/curved,yetthehorizonisflat(Figure6).50BerannpaintedtheHimalayasandAlpsinthismanner,and–undertheguidanceofTharpandHeezen–theoceanbottoms.MappingthedeepblueoceansIndeed.

47Felt2013,Loc4627.

48Bizzarro2001.

49 NationalGeographic,June1968.Foundhere:

http://www.berann.com/panorama/archive/image/PN_W_10.jpgAccessedNovember8,2018

50 Patterson2000exploresthiskindofpanoramamap.


15

Absolutepanoramamapsarepaintedasanall-knowingviewfromanabsolutevantagepoint–theMercatorprojectionisappropriateforthispurpose,andwasused(figures2and7).

3.3.CartopowerandtheFutureofMappingThedepthsoftheoceansareamystery.Nocomprehensive,fine-grainedbathymetricmapexists.Notyet.Only5%oftheoceanbottomshavebeenfullymapped.51Recentsatellitetechnologiespermitprecisemeasurementsofseasurfacetopographyandgravitationalanomaliesacrosstheplanet.Withsatellitealtimetryandgravitationalpotentialmeasurements,newcomprehensive,small-scalemapscanbedrawn(Fig8).Suchmapsdonot,forbetterandworse,useinterpolationandextrapolation.Thesecoarse-grainedmapspreciselyportraythedataatthehighestlevelofresolutionthedatapermit.Yet,muchworkremainstobedone.

[InsertFigure8here]

Whateverourfuturemappingwilllooklike,onethingiscertain:Likeallformsofrepresentation,theywillexistwithinapowerstructure.Icallthespecificformsofpowerencodedinmapscartopower.Cartopoweristwofold:first,itisthepolitical,economic,andsocialpowerstructure,ofteninvisible,behindamap;second,itisthepowerthatamapexertsintheworldviaitsontologicalassumptions.Powerscaffoldsmaps,andmapsexertpower.52

AnanatomyofthecartopowerofTharpandHeezen’smapsilluminates,yet

again,theubiquityanddisproportionateimportanceofmilitaryandcorporateinterestsinmanyscientificendeavors. ConsiderthepowerstructuresthatenabledTharpandHeezen’sgroundbreakingresearch.AhistoricalarticlebyDoel,Levin,andMarker(2006)exploreshowunderwaterbathymetrybecameverysecretiveunderandafterWWII,afteraninitialglobalfreeinformation/opensourceperiodimmediatelyafterWWI.TheUSNavynowwishedtocollectsecretinformationaboutwheretheirsubmarinescouldhide,thelocationofseamountsandmountainsintowhichsubmarinescouldcrash,andthewhereaboutsofenemysubmarines.53Totheseends,theNavywasbusydevelopinganunderwater“SOundSUrveillanceSystem”(SOSUS)–listeningdevicesthatcoulddetectRussiansubmarines.Inallofthis,thePentagondecidedthat“creatingacomprehensivemapoftheoceanfloor”wasessential.5451SeeCopley2014foraclearexpositionofwhatthisactuallymeans.

52Winther2019;Wood1992.

53Doeletal2006,608.

54Doeletal2006,608.


16

Thus,“LamontGeologicalObservatorywasaquintessentialColdWarinstitution,largelydependentonmilitarycontractstosupportitsresearchprograms.”55Heezen’sandTharp’sresearchwasfundedbyheavymilitaryinterests. Corporateinterestsdidnottakeabackseat.Intheearly1950s,AT&TBellLabswasbusytryingtocreatethefirsttrans-Atlanticcommercialmarinetelephonelines.Interestingly,theselabsalsoworkedcloselywiththeAmericanmilitaryonitsclassifiedSOSUSproject.Heezen’sdirect(andTharp’sindirect)collaborationwithAT&TBellLabsprovidedthemwithtwocrucialresources:“arich,vastlyexpandedsourceofseafloordata”and“invaluablefinancialresources.”56IwouldalsogosofarastoagreewithDoeletal’sstatementthat“BellLabsfundingmadetheHeezen-TharpNorthAtlanticphysiographicmappossible.”57 MuchliketheColdWargrowthofphysics,spacetechnology,andcomputerscience,theemergenceofmapsoftheoceanfloorbyTharpandHeezenwassuffusedwithCartopower.Thiswasahigh-stakesmappingproject.Asprecise,beautiful,scientific,andcreativeasMarieTharp’smapswere,theywerealsobuffetedaboutinaperfectstormofpolitical,culture,military,andeconomicpower.

Justasthereisacontinuityofpositivist,scientificabstractionpracticesacrosscartographyandGIS,sothereareongoingconcernswithbias,discrimination,andmoneyedinterests.58Forinstance,inamilestonearticle,feministGIS’erMei-PoKwanasks:“isGISaninherentlymasculinisttechnologyorsocialpractice?HowareparticularsubjectivitiesorgenderedidentitiesconstitutedthroughroutineinteractionwithGIStechnology?DowomenandmeninteractwithoruseGIStechnologydifferently?…HowmayGIStechnologyperpetuategenderinequalityoroccupationalsegregationintheinformationtechnologylabormarketandwomen’sstatusingeography?”59Thesequestionsareclearlyimportanttoanyperspectiveon“critical”issuesinGIS,andtheongoingnatureanddeploymentofCartopower.Theyalsopointtoissuesofsexualandotherformsofbiasthatresearchersmaysuffer,shapingthewaythattheirworkbecomesavailableornot.

ConsidertheproblemofwhatIwillcall“personalstyleharassment,”whichis

whencreativespirits,withindependentflair,findthemselvesmovingaroundrestlessly–bothintheirmindsandintheworld–unabletofitintothepower

55Doeletal2006,609.

56Doeletal2006,610,p.611.

57Doeletal2006,611.

58DiscussionsofthesimultaneousempiricalandtechnologicalandsocialandpoliticalfacetsofGIScanbefoundin,e.g.,Kwan2002;Schuurman2004;Pavloskaya2006;St.MartinandWing2007;CopeandElwood2009;Crampton2010;Dodgeetal.2009;andDodgeetal.2011.

59Kwan2002,275.


17

structuresattheirinstitutionalhome.Inthecaseexploredinthischapter,Heezen’screativepersonalstyleconflictedstronglywiththepowerstructureofDirectorEwing’sLamont.Theinstitutionissuesrules,whichareopentointerpretation.Evenwhenthereissomemodicumofclarityaboutsuchrules,therearemanyofthem,andareasonableandoverworkedhumanbeingissimplynotabletofollowallofthem.Suchlimitationsaretacitlyacceptedbytheupperadministration,whichignoressmallinfractionsorsuppresses,tosomeextent,enforcementofnarrowrule-following.Theydothisuntilacreativethinkercomesuponthescene,tryingtocontributeonherownterms,inherowntempo,sometimesshakingthefoundationsofherfield.TharpandHeezenwerebothsubjecttosuchapersonalstyleharassment,withTharpexperiencingfurtherbiasorharassmentintheformofsexism.60

SciencejournalistStephenS.Hallmadethepointclearlyandforcefullyinhis

obituaryofTharp:

Maurice(Doc)Ewing,thebrilliantandautocraticdirectorofwhatisnowtheLamont-DohertyEarthObservatoryatColumbia,remainedfamouslyunpersuadedbythegrowingevidenceofcontinentaldriftandbegantoclashwithHeezenoverbothideasandego.Heezenhadbecomeatenuredprofessor,butEwingdidwhathecouldtothwartthemappingproject.Herefusedtoshareimportantdataabouttheseafloorwiththemapmakers—datathatHeezen’sgraduatestudentssometimessurreptitiously“exported”toTharpandherassistants.HestrippedHeezenofhisdepartmentalresponsibilities,tookawayhisspace,drilledthelocksoutofhisofficedooranddumpedhisfilesinahallway.Mostimportant,EwingblockedHeezen’sgrantrequestsand,as[PaulJ.]Foxsaid,“wasessentiallytryingtoruinBruce’scareer.”61

WemustaddressscientificandtechnicalfeaturesofGISandcartographyaswellasthesecomplexandinterrelatedfields’social,politicalandeconomicaspects.Thisincludessocialconditionsatinstitutionalaswellinterpersonalscales.Scienceisdata,theory,andknowledge;butscienceisalsopolitics,economics,andethics.WhateverthefateofthemapwithinGIS,itsconceptualframeworkdevelopedwithincartographyhasmuchtoteachus,eventhoseworkingonGIS.60Doeletal.2006,609proclaim:“Theirearlycareersofferasnapshotofthedivergentopportunitiesformenandwomenintheearthsciencesinmid-twentiethcenturyAmerica.OneofveryfewfemaleresearchersatLamontduringitsfirstdecades,Tharphadlimitedfinancialsecurityandfewopportunitiestoattendscientificmeetings.Typicalforthisperiod,hercontributionsoftenremainedinvisible.”Moreover,recallthe1978GEBCOaffairabove,whereMarieTharp’sworkwasforcefullyremovedfromher–inmymoraluniverse,thiswasanactofpiracyagainstTharp.Fordiscussionofthe“climateandconsciousness”(9)ofwomeningeography(notgeology)seeMonk2004.

61Hall2006.


18

4.Conclusion:OceanMapping,ClimateChange,andGratitudeThefirstpartofthischapterreviewedsomebasicmap-makingabstractionpractices.Wheneverwecompareamaptoitsterritory,weshiftfromeveryday,human-scaleperceptiontosomethingmoredetachedandabstract.Itriedtoshowthecontinuitybetweenanaloganddigitalcartographyinstrategiesofabstraction.Asabstractionpractices,selection,simplification,andexaggerationapplyasmuchtoold-schoolcartographicmapsastocutting-edgeGISefforts.TheinterestedreaderisinvitedtoconsultWhenMapsBecometheWorld,andmyforthcomingarticleoncontemporarymappingoftheoceansandclimatechangeinClimateChangeManagement.

WealsosurveyedthetremendouscareersofMarieTharpandBruceHeezen.

InadditiontocarefullystudyingTharp’smaps,ifwealsolearnabouthowsheturnedherhouse,andlaterHeezen’shouse,intoacartographicdatamanagementcenter,trainingzone,gourmetkitchen,studio,andlibrary,weareleftwithnodoubtabouthowremarkabletheseresearcherswere.Intheend,Tharplookedbackatherlifewithgratitude:

Nottoomanypeoplecansaythisabouttheirlives:Thewholeworldwasspreadoutbeforeme(oratleast,the70percentofitcoveredbyoceans).Ihadablankcanvastofillwithextraordinarypossibilities,afascinatingjigsawpuzzletopiecetogether:mappingtheworld’svasthiddenseafloor.Itwasaonce-in-a-lifetime—aonce-in-the-history-of-the-world—opportunityforanyone,butespeciallyforawomaninthe1940s.Thenatureofthetimes,thestateofthescience,andeventslargeandsmall,logicalandillogical,combinedtomakeitallhappen.62

ThestoriesofTharpandHeezenalsoremindus,however,thatpolitics,greed,anddiscriminationdienot.Wehavemuchtodonotonlyonenvironmentalmatters,butalsoonsocialequity.Ingratitudeforwhatwehavetodayandwithhopeforagenuinelysustainablefutureletuspleasegettowork.AcknowledgementsKristineSergejevaprovidedexpertprojectcoordination.LauraLainesecuredfigurepermissions.MatsWedinprocessedandfinalizedfigures.LucasMcGranahanandGloriaSturzenackerprovidedoutstandingeditorialcommentary.HeidiSvenningsenKajitaandMetteBannergaardJohansenweresoundingboards.Gratitudetoall.

62Tharp1999.


19

Bibliographyfor“MappingtheDeepBlueOceans”

RasmusGrønfeldtWinther

www.rgwinther.comAbler,R.F.(1987).TheNationalScienceFoundationNationalCenterforGeographicInformationandAnalysis.InternationalJournalofGeographicalInformationSciences,1(4),303–326.Barton,C.(2002)MarieTharp,OceanographicCartographer,andHerContributionstotheRevolutionintheEarthSciences."GeologicalSociety,London,SpecialPublications192(1),215-228.

Battersby,S.E.,Finn,M.P.,Usery,E.L.,Yamamoto,K.H.(2014).ImplicationsoftheWebMercatoranditsuseinonlinemapping.Cartographica49(2),85–101.

Bizzarro,D.(2001).Lamont-DohertyEarthObservatorybestowsHeritageAwardonMarieTharp,pioneerofmodernoceanography.ColumbiaNews.http://www.columbia.edu/cu/news/01/07/marieTharp.html.LastmodifiedSeptember18,2002.

Borges,J.L.([1935]1975).Onexactitudeinscience.InCollectedFictions(trans:Hurley,A.).(p.325).London:Penguin.

Brassel,K.E.,&Weibel,R.(1988).Areviewandconceptualframeworkofautomatedmapgeneralization.InternationalJournalofGeographicalInformationSciences2(3),229–244.

Bressan,D.(2018).MarieTharp,thewomanwhodiscoveredthebackboneofEarth.Forbes.(Online,AccessedJuly30,2018.)

Brotton,J.(2012).Ahistoryoftheworldin12maps.NewYork:Viking.

Bugayevskiy,L.M.&Snyder,J.P.(1995).Mapprojections:Areferencemanual.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress.

Carroll,L.([1893]2010).SylvieandBrunoconcluded.Charleston,SC:NabuPress.

Cope,M.,&Elwood,S. (2009).QualitativeGIS.Amixedmethodsapproach. London:Sage.

Copley,J.(2014).Justhowlittledoweknowabouttheoceanfloor?TheConversation(website). https://theconversation.com/just-how-little-do-we-know-about-the-ocean-floor-32751AccessedOctober2,2018.

Couclelis, H. (1992). People manipulate objects (but cultivate fields): Beyond theraster-vector debate in GIS. In A. U. Frank, I. Campari, U. Formentini, U. (Eds.),Theoriesandmethodsofspatial–temporalreasoningingeographicspace(pp.65–77).Berlin:Springer.


20

Crampton, J. W. (2010).Mapping: A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS.Chichester,U.K.:Wiley-Blackwell.

Debakcsy,D.(2018).Makingcontinentsmove:TheoceancartographyofMarieTharp.WomenYouShouldKnow(website).https://womenyoushouldknow.net/cartography-marie-tharp/.AccessedOctober18,2018.

Dodge, M., Kitchin, R., Perkins, C. (Eds.). (2011). The Map Reader: Theories ofMapping Practice and Cartographic Representation. Chichester, U. K.: Wiley-Blackwell.

Dodge,M.,Perkins,C.,Kitchin,R.(2009).Mappingmodes,methods,andmoments:Amanifesto for map studies. In M. Dodge, R. Kitchin, C. Perkins (Eds.), RethinkingMaps:NewFrontiersinCartographicTheory(pp.220–243).London:Routledge.

Doel,R.E.,Levin,T.J.,Marker,M.K.(2006).Extendingmoderncartographytotheoceandepths:Militarypatronage,ColdWarpriorities,andtheHeezen-Tharpmappingproject,1952–1959.JournalofHistoricalGeography32,605–626,

Douglas,D.H.,&Peucker,T.K.(1973).Algorithmsforthereductionofthenumberofpointsrequiredtorepresentadigitizedlineoritscaricature.TheCanadianCartographer10,112–122.

Eco,U.([1992]1994).OntheimpossibilityofdrawingamapoftheEmpireonascaleof1to1.InHowtoTravelwithaSalmonandOtherEssays(pp.95–106).NewYork:Harcourt.

Elmendorf,C.H.,&HeezenC.H.1957.OceanographicInformationforEngineeringSubmarineCableSystems.TheBellSystemTechnicalJournal36(5),1047-1093.

Esri.(n.d.).FAQ:Whataresomecommonmapscales?https://support.esri.com/en/technical-article/000010532.AccessedAugust20,2018.

Felt, H. (2013). Soundings: The Story of the RemarkableWomanWhoMapped theOceanFloor.(Kindleedition.)NewYork:HenryHolt.

Goodchild,M. F. (1992).Geographical information science. International JournalofGeographicalInformationSciences6(1),31–45.

Greenhood,D.(1964).Mapping.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Gutenberg,B.,&Richter,C.F.1954.SeismicityoftheEarth.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.(AscitedinHeezenetal.1959,110.)

Hall, S.S. (2006). The Contrary Map Maker. The New York Times. Dec 31.https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/31/magazine/31Tharp.t.html AccessedNovember6,2018.

Hardaker,T.(2002).CartographicIntroduction.InHammond.CompactPetersWorldAtlas.Union,NJ:Hammond.


21

Harding,S.(1986).TheScienceQuestioninFeminism.Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress.

Harley, J. B. (2001).TheNewNatureofMaps:Essays in theHistoryofCartography.Baltimore,Maryland:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.

Heezen,B.,Tharp,M.,Ewing,M.(1959).TheFloorsoftheOceans.I.TheNorthAtlantic.TexttoAccompanythePhysiographicDiagramoftheNorthAtlantic.Specialpaper65.NewYork:TheGeologicalSocietyofAmerica.

Jha,A.2009.GoogleEarthdropsintotheoceans.TheGuardian.February2.https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/feb/02/google-earth-oceans.AccessedNovember7.2018.

Keller,E.F.(1984).AFeelingfortheOrganism:TheLifeandWorkofBarbaraMcClintock,10thanniversaryed.NewYork:HenryHolt.

Keller,E.F.,&Longino,H.E.(1996).FeminismandScience.Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress.

Kimerling,A.J.,Buckley,A.R.,Muehrcke,P.C.,Muehrcke,J.O.(2009).Mapuse:Readingandanalysis.6thed.Redlands,CA:ESRIPress.

Koláčný,A. (1969). Cartographic information:A fundamental concept and term inmoderncartography.TheCartographicJournal6,47–49.

Krygier,J.&Wood,D.(2011).Makingmaps:AvisualguidetomapdesignforGIS.2nded.NewYork:GuilfordPress.

Kwan,M-P.(2002).IsGISforwomen?Reflectionsonthecriticaldiscourseinthe1990s.Gender,PlaceandCulture:AJournalofFeministGeography9(3),271–279.

Lamont-DohertyEarthObservatory.(n.d.)HistoryofLamont.https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/about-ldeo/history-lamont-0.AccessedOctober12,2018.)

Landa,E.R.(2010.)Thetiesthatbind:SoilsurveyorWilliamEdgarTharpandoceanographiccartographerMarieTharp.PhysicsandChemistryoftheEarth35,868–880.

Lobeck,A.K.(1948).AphysiographicdiagramoftheUnitedStates.(Map.)Chicago:A.J.Nystrom.https://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/RUMSEY~8~1~234507~5510052:United-States----Physiographic-Diag.(AccessedOctober2018.)

Longino, H. E. (2001).The Fate of Knowledge. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UniversityPress.

Lüscher,P.,Weibel,R.,Burghardt,D.(2009). IntegratingontologicalmodellingandBayesianinferenceforpatternclassificationintopographicvectordata.Computers,EnvironmentandUrbanSystems33,363–374.


22

MacEachren, A. (1995).Howmapswork: Representation, visualization, and design.NewYork:GuilfordPress.

Merritt,J.L.(1979).Hess’sGeologicalRevolution.InTheBestofPAW:(100YearsofthePrincetonAlumniWeekly)(pp.273–277).https://www.princeton.edu/geosciences/about/publications/Harry_Hess_bop.pdfAccessedAugust24,2018.

Monk,J.(2004).Women,gender,andthehistoriesofAmericangeography.AnnalsoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers94(1),1–22.

Montello,D.R.(2002).Cognitivemap-designresearchintheTwentiethCentury:Theoreticalandempiricalapproaches.CartographyandGeographicInformationScience29(3),283–304.

Morgan,W.J.(1968).Rises,trenches,greatfaults,andcrustalblocks.JournalofGeophysicalResearch73(6),1959–1982.

Muehrcke, P. C. (1969). Visual pattern analysis: A look atmaps. PhD dissertation,UniversityofMichigan.*

———. (1972). Thematic cartography. Resource paper no. 19, Commission onCollegeGeography.WashingtonDC:AssociationofAmericanGeographers.

———.(1974a).Mapreadingandabuse.JournalofGeography73(5),11–23.

———.(1974b).Beyondabstractmapsymbols.JournalofGeography73(8),35–52.

Muehrcke,P.C.,&Muehrcke,J.O.(1998).Mapuse:Reading,analysisandinterpretation.4thed.Redlands,California:ESRIPress.

Oreskes,N.(1999).Therejectionofcontinentaldrift:TheoryandmethodinAmericanearthscience.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

Painter,J.(2008).Cartographicanxietyandthesearchforregionality.EnvironmentandPlanningA40,342–361.

Patterson,T.(2000)AViewFromOnHigh:HeinrichBerann’sPanoramasandLandscapeVisualizationTechniquesfortheU.S.NationalParkService.CartographicPerspectives36,38-65.

Pavloskaya,M.(2006).TheorizingwithGIS:Atoolforcriticalgeographies?EnvironmentandPlanningA38,2003–2020.

Pickles, J. (2004). A history of spaces, cartographic reason, mapping and the geo-codedworld.London:Routledge.

Ramer,Urs.(1972).Aniterativeprocedureforthepolygonalapproximationofplanecurves.ComputerGraphicsandImageProcessing1,244–256.

Rankin,W.(2016).AftertheMap:Cartography,Navigation,andtheTransformationofTerritoryintheTwentiethCentury.Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.


23

Robinson, A. H., & Petchenik, B. B. (1976). The Nature of Maps, Essays towardUnderstandingMapsandMapping.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Sandwell,D.T.,Müller,R.D.,Smith,W.H.F.,Garcia,E.,Francis,R.(2014).NewglobalmarinegravitymodelfromCryoSat-2andJason-1revealsburiedtectonicstructure.Science346(6205),pp.65–67.

Schuurman,N.(1999).ReconcilingsocialconstructivismandrealisminGIS,ACME:AnInternationalE-JournalforCriticalGeographies1(1),75–90.

———.(2004).GIS:Ashortintroduction.Malden,MA:BlackwellPublishing.

Shea, K. S., & McMaster, R. B. (1989). Cartographic generalization in a digitalenvironment:Whenandhow to generalize. InAUTO–CARTO9,NinthInternationalSymposiumonComputer-AssistedCartography(pp.56–67).Baltimore,Maryland.

Smith,G.-H.(1959).ArminKohlLobeck,geomorphologistandlandscapeartist,1886–1958.AnnalsoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers49(1),83–87.https://www.jstor.org/stable/2561290.

Smith,W.H.F.,&Sandwell,D.T.(1997).Globalseafloortopographyfromsatellitealtimetryandshipdepthsoundings.Science277(5334),1956–1962.

Snyder,J.P.(1993).FlatteningtheEarth.Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.

St.Martin,K.,&Wing,J.(2007).ThediscourseanddisciplineofGIS.Cartographica42(3),235–248.

Strebe,D.(2012).WhyMercatorfortheweb?Isn’ttheMercatorbad?(PostedMarch15,2012).https://www.mapthematics.com/forums/viewtopic.php?f=8&t=251.

Sullivan,W. (1977). Dr. Bruce C. Heezen, 53, dies;mapped ocean floors.TheNewYorkTimes. June 23. https://www.nytimes.com/1977/06/23/archives/dr-bruce-c-heezen-53-dies-mapped-ocean-floors.html.AccessedOctober20,2018.

Tharp,M.(1982).MappingtheOceanFloor:1947–1977.InR.A.Scrutton&M.Talwani(Eds.),TheOceanFloor:BruceHeezenCommemorativeVolume(pp.19–31).NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons.

———.(1999).ConnecttheDots:MappingtheSeafloorandDiscoveringtheMid-OceanRidge.InL.Lippsett(ed.),Lamont-DohertyEarthObservatory:TwelvePerspectivesontheFirstFiftyYears,1949-1999.Palisades,NY:Lamont-DohertyEarthObservatoryofColumbiaUniversity.Partsavailableat:http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=7500&tid=282&cid=23306AccessedOctober26,2018Tharp,M.,&Frankel,H.(October1986.)Mappersofthedeep.AmericanHistory95(10),48–62.Foundat:http://www.faculty.umb.edu/anamarija.frankic/files/Oceanography%20Spring%2008/MidAtlantic%20ridge%20discovery.pdf.gzAccessedJuly14,2018,paginationabovefromthisfile.


24

Twain,M.(1894).TomSawyerAbroad.CharlesWebster&Co.

Winther,R.G.(2012).Interweavingcategories:Styles,paradigms,andmodels.StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofSciencePartA43(4),628–639.

———.(2014).JamesandDeweyonabstraction.ThePluralist9(2),1–28.

———. (2019).WhenMaps Become theWorld. Chicago, IL: University of ChicagoPress.

———.(Forthcoming).InClimateChangeManagement.Xxx:Springer.https://www.springer.com/series/8740

Wolter, J.A. (1975).Cartography–anemergingdiscipline.CanadianCartographer12(2),210-16.

Wood,D.(1992).ThePowerofMaps.NewYork:GuilfordPress.

Wright,J.K.(1942).Mapmakersarehuman:Commentsonthesubjectiveinmaps.GeographicalReview32(1),527–544.

FigureCaptionsfor“MappingtheDeepBlueOceans”Figure1.NorthAtlanticPhysiographicDiagram.(Publishedin1957;mapinsettoEwing,Heezen,Tharp1959.)Asindicatedintheinformationbox,theverticalexaggerationis20:1.Thisboxislocatedwhereitisbecausetheydidnothavemuchdataforthatregionoftheocean.Inparttheychosetodrawphysiographicdiagrams,becauseexactdepthdataneednotbeshown,andthisinformation,whiletheyhadaccesstoit,wasclassifiedbytheUSMilitaryuntilatleastthelate1960s.ReproducedbykindpermissionofLamont-DohertyEarthObservatoryandtheEstateofMarieTharp/©MarieTharpMaps,LLCFionaYacopino,8EdwardSt.Sparkill,NY10976.

Figure2.AnabsolutepanoramamapoftheAtlanticOceanflooraspaintedbyHeinrichBerann,underclosecollaborationwithTharpandHeezen.BerannpaintedmanypanoramamapsforNationalGeographic,alsooftheHimalayasandtheAlps.ThismapappearedintheJune1968issueofNationalGeographic.Notably,thisimagealsogracesthecoverofNaomiOreskes’well-respectedandexcellent1999bookoncontinentaldrift.ButTharpherselfismentionedonjusttwopagesofthemaintextofOreskes’book.HeinrichBerann/NationalGeographicCreative/NATIONALGEOGRAPHICIMAGECOLLECTION


25

Figure3.ComputerGraphicsandImageProcessingp.248,UrsRamer1972.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramer%E2%80%93Douglas%E2%80%93Peucker_algorithm.RedrawnbycartographerandgraphicdesignerMatsWedin.Figure4.MarieTharpinfrontofprofilesandglobesthatshe,Heezen,andtheirassistantsusedinpreparinganddrawingphysiographicmaps.Picturedhereisherfirst1957physiographicdiagram.Someoftheirglobesweremadewith“acrylicappliedtoabasketball”(Doeletal2006,ftnt.72,p.625).Theseglobesremainedunpublished,butavoidedanymapprojectiondistortions.Cf:Bressan2018.ReproducedbykindpermissionofLamont-DohertyEarthObservatoryandtheestateofMarieTharp

Figure5.“SixTrans-AtlanticTopographicProfiles”(with40:1verticalexaggeration).BruceC.Heezen,MarieTharp,andMauriceEwing,1959,TheFloorsoftheOceans:I.TheNorthAtlantic:GeologicalSocietyofAmericaSpecialPaper65,145p.,https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE65.Heezenetal.(LamontGeologicalObservatory,ColumbiaUniversity),Plate22.Figure6.TheIndianOceanFloorangledpanoramamapbyBerann,Tharp&Heezanwasasupplemental,fold-outmapintheOctober1967issueofNationalGeographic.SubscriptionstothatmagazinenumberedsixmillionintheUSAalone63.HeinrichBerann/NationalGeographicCreative.NATIONALGEOGRAPHICIMAGECOLLECTION.Figure7.WorldOceanFloorPanorama,BruceC.HeezenandMarieTharp,1977.CopyrightbyMarieTharp1977/2003.ReproducedbykindpermissionofMarieTharpMapsLLCimageprovidedbyLamont-DohertyEarthObservatory.

Figure8.BathymetricmapusinggravitationalanomaliesandsatellitealtimetryfromdataprovidedattheScrippsInstitutionofOceanography(UCSD),andoriginallyexplainedinSmithandSandwell(1997).Dataavailablehere:https://topex.ucsd.edu/WWW_html/mar_topo.htmlDrawnbycartographerandgraphicdesignerMatsWedin.

63 Felt 2013, Loc 2810


26

Documents

Mapping the Deep Blue Oceans - rgwinther.com · exaggeration, with examples from mapping the deep blue oceans. Cartography is the study of principles and rules of map making and map