View
7
Download
0
Category
Preview:
Citation preview
MALAYSIA AS AN EMERGING MIDDLE POWER:
AN EVALUATION OF ITS SOUTH-SOUTH
COOPERATION POLICIES, 1981-2003
BY
SELVARAJ RAMASAMY
A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Political Science
(International Relations)
Kulliyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and
Human Sciences
International Islamic University Malaysia
SEPTEMBER 2017
ii
ABSTRACT
This thesis analyses the foreign policy behavioral patterns of Malaysia from 1981 to
2003 using the concept of an emerging middle power. In so doing, this study also
helps to clarify a significant period (1981-2003) of Malaysia’s foreign policy using the
framework of the emerging middle power. Hence, by critically analysing the strategies
under the South-South Cooperation, it provides another dimension of explanation to
the country’s foreign policies. The study attempted to investigate three critical
strategies associated with the South-South Cooperation policies, which were: the
Malaysian Technical Cooperation Programme (MTCP), the South Investment, Trade
and Technology Data Exchange Centre (SITTDEC) and Bilateral Payment
Arrangements (BPA) arrangements and as the Chair of Commission on Sustainable
Development (1992-1993). The study is evaluative in nature. This study comprises
library research and field research. Data collected were on information regarding
policies, strategies applied and the actual practices in the implementation of the
Malaysian Technical Cooperation Programme (MTCP), fostering economic relations
with countries of the South in the Group of 15 (G-15) using the South Investment,
Trade and Technology Data Exchange Centre (SITTDEC) and Bilateral Payment
Arrangements (BPA) and the role of Malaysia in voicing the countries of South’s
interest on environment and sustainable development issues in the Rio Earth Summit
(1992) and as the Chair of Commission on Sustainable Development (1992-
1993).These data have been analysed based on the behavioural patterns of an
emerging middle power, corresponding with foreign policy of Malaysia from 1981 to
2003. The findings from this study suggest that, it is now possible to state that
Malaysia can be identified as an emerging middle power not only because of its
features as explained by Eduard Jordaan’s (2003) theoretical framework of emerging
middle power, but also because it fulfills the foreign policy behavioural patterns of an
emerging middle power. The three behavioural patterns of the concept of an emerging
middle power that have been pursued in this study are preference to pursue
multilateralism, playing an active role in reforming global agenda and act as a good
international citizen. When applying these behavioural patterns to analyse strategies of
South-South Cooperation, it has fulfilled the foreign policy behavioural patterns of an
emerging middle power. The study also detects Malaysia’s active role in international
fora during the period of 1981–2003, had increased its international prestige. Further,
the study found out that the economic relations have changed the state of affairs of the
countries of the South. South-South Cooperation policies have also created strained
relationship between the countries of the South and countries of the North, in
particular when Malaysia was the most vocal opponent to any suggestion that their
natural resources should be "internationalized" during the Earth Summit and urged
countries of the North to build consensus on the sustainable development forestry with
the countries of the South. Finally, this study also provides recommendations to the
Malaysian government to further continue to play its role as an emerging middle
power by representing the countries of the South in speaking about issues confronting
these countries with practical solutions as Malaysia continues to render its modest
technical assistance under the auspices of MTCP to further strengthen the human
capital of countries of South.
iii
البحث ملخصABSTRACT IN ARABIC
إلى 1981من قامت هذه الأطروحة بتحليل الأنماط السلوكية للسياسة الخارجية لماليزيا للفترة باستخدام مفهوم نشوء القوة المتوسطة. وبذلك، ساعدت هذه الدراسة على م،2003
م( باستخدام إطار 2003-1981توضيح السياسة الخارجية لماليزيا لفترة مهمة بين عامي )مفهوم نشوء القوة المتوسطة. وبالتالي، من خلال التحليل النقدي لاستراتيجية التعاون بين
لجنوب، قدمت الدراسة بعدا آخر لتفسير السياسة الخارجية للبلاد. حاولت الدراسة بلدان االتحقيق في ثلاث استراتيجيات مهمة ومرتبطة بسياسات التعاون بين بلدان الجنوب، وهي:
(، وسياسة الاستثمار الجنوبي، ومركز التجارة وتبادل MTCPبرنامج التعاون التقني الماليزي )(، ورئيسا للجنة التنمية BPA(، وترتيبات الدفع الثنائية )SITTDECنولوجيا )البيانات التكم(. وقد كانت الدراسة تقييمية في طبيعتها، واعتمدت على 1993-1992المستدامة )
البحوث المكتبية والميدانية. وتم جمع بيانات الدراسة والمعلومات بشأن السياسات (، MTCPفعلية في تنفيذ برنامج التعاون التقني الماليزي )والاستراتيجيات المطبقة والممارسات ال
( باستخدام سياسة G-15) 15وتعزيز العلاقات الاقتصادية مع بلدان الجنوب في مجموعة ال ( SITTDECالاستثمار الجنوبية، وإجراءات مركز التجارة وتبادل البيانات التكنولوجيا )
يا في التعبير عن مصلحة بلدان الجنوب حول (؛ ودور ماليز BPAوترتيبات الدفع الثنائية )م(، ورئيسا للجنة التنمية 1992قضايا البيئة والتنمية المستدامة في مؤتمر قمة الأرض ريو )
م(. تم تحليل البيانات بالنسبة الى الأنماط السلوكية للقوة المتوسطة 1993-1992المستدامة )م. وتشير 2003م إلى 1981يا من عام الناشئة، وانسجامها مع السياسة الخارجية لماليز
نتائج هذه الدراسة إلى أنه الآن أصبح من الممكن تعريف ماليزيا بوصفها قوة متوسطة ناشئة م( لنشوء القوة 2003ليس فقط بسبب مميزاتها الموضحة في إطار نظرية إدوارد جوردان )
ابقت أنماط القوة المتوسطة المتوسطة، ولكن أيضا لأن الأنماط السلوكية لسياستها الخارجية طالناشئة. وقد اتبعت هذه الدراسة ثلاثة أنماط سلوكية من مفهوم نشوء القوة المتوسطة وهي تفضيل تطبيق التعددية، في إصلاح جدول الأعمال العالمي، والتصرف بوصفها مواطنا دوليا
بين بلدان الجنوب، جيد. وعند تطبيق هذه الأنماط السلوكية لتحليل استراتيجيات التعاون
iv
وجد أنها قد ماثلت الأنماط السلوكية للسياسة الخارجية للقوة المتوسطة الناشئة. كما كشفت م، 2003إلى 1981الدراسة أيضا أن دور ماليزيا النشط في المحافل الدولية خلال الفترة من
علاقات زاد من هيبتها على الصعيد الدولي. علاوة على ذلك، وجدت الدراسة أن الالاقتصادية بين بلدان الجنوب قد غيرت هذه البلدان من حالتها الراهنة. كما كشفت عن أن سياسات التعاون بين بلدان الجنوب خلقت علاقة متوترة بين بلدان الجنوب وبلدان الشمال، لا سيما عندما كانت ماليزيا من أشد المعارضين لاقتراح "تدويل" مواردها الطبيعية في مؤتمر
قمة الأرض، وحثت بلدان الشمال لبناء آراء توافقية بشأن غابات التنمية المستدامة مع دول الجنوب. وأخيرا، تقدم هذه الدراسة أيضا توصيات لحكومة الماليزية لمواصلة الاستمرار في القيام بدورها بوصفها قوة متوسطة ناشئة تمثل بلدان الجنوب والتحدث حول القضايا التي
جه بلدان جنوب وايجاد الحلول العملية لها، ومواصلة ماليزيا بتقديم المساعدة التقنية لهذه توا .( لزيادة تعزيز رأس المال البشري في بلدان الجنوبMTCPالدول تحت رعاية )
v
APPROVAL PAGE
The dissertation of Selvaraj Ramasamy has been approved by the following:
__________________________________
Ishtiaq Hossain
Supervisor
__________________________________
Wahabuddin Ra`ees
Internal Examiner
__________________________________
K.S.Nathan
External Examiner
__________________________________
Fahimul Quadir
External Examiner
__________________________________
Ismaiel Hassanein Ahmed Mohamed
Chairperson
vi
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigation, except
where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently
submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.
Selvaraj Ramasamy
Signature…………………....………. Date …….……………….
vii
COPYRIGHT
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF
FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH
MALAYSIA AS AN EMERGING MIDDLE POWER:
AN EVALUATION OF ITS SOUTH-SOUTH COOPERATION
POLICIES, 1981-2003
I declare that the copyright holder of this dissertation are jointly owned by the
student and IIUM.
Copyright © 2017 Selvaraj Ramasamy and International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights
reserved.
No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder
except as provided below
1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may
be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.
2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print
or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.
3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieved system
and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other
universities and research libraries.
By signing this form, I acknowledged that I have read and understand the IIUM
Intellectual Property Right and Commercialization policy.
Affirmed by Selvaraj Ramasamy
……..…………………….. ………………………..
Signature Date
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Praise be to God, the Almighty for enabling me complete this study. I would like to
express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ishtiaq Hossain for his
continuous support of my Ph.D study and related research, for his patience,
motivation, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped me during the time of my
research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better
supervisor for my Ph.D study. Besides my supervisor, I would like to thank the
following academic staff in the Department of Political Science, Kulliyyah of Islamic
Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences (KIRKHS): Prof. Dr. Abdul Rashid
Moten, Prof. Dr. El Fatih Abdullahi Abdelsalam, Prof. Dr. Wahabuddin Ra'ees,
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Garout Suliman Eisa, Assoc. Prof. Dr Md. Moniruzzaman, Assist.
Prof. Dr. Khairil Izamin Ahmad and Assist. Prof. Dr. Tunku Mohar Tunku
Mohd.Mokhtar, Head, Department of Political Science, KIRKHS, for their insightful
comments and encouragement, but also for their searching questions, which
encouraged me to widen my research to various perspectives. My sincere thanks also
go to Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad, Tun Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, Tan Sri Dr. Syed
Hamid Albar, Tan Sri Rafidah Aziz, Tan Sri Razali Ismail as well as the following
officials: Mr. Zainal Abidin Bakar, Mr. Badaruddin Othman (Ministry of Foreign
Affairs), Datuk Wong Seng Foo (Ministry of International Trade and Industry), Mr.
Low Yew Eng (Ministry of Finance), Dr. Gary Theseira, Mrs. Norsham binti Abdul
Latip (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources), Mr. Mohamad Razif Hj.
Abd. Mubin (Economic Planning Unit), Mr. Tan Nyat Chuan (Central Bank), and,
Mrs. Rokiah Jamil (INTAN), Ms. Chee Yoke Ling (Third World Network). My
special thanks go to Dr. Da'i Bachtiar (Indonesian Ambassador to Malaysia), Assoc.
Prof. Dr. D. Ravichandran (National University of Malaysia), Dr. Tan Er-Win, Datuk
Dr. Rajmah Hussain (University of Malaya) for their willingness to share their
expertise and knowledge for the research. Without their precious support it would not
have been possible to conduct this research.I am also indebted to the Public Service
Department of Malaysia for granting me the study leave enabling me to fully focus on
my research and writing. I thank my fellow class mates: Dr. Nor Azlina, Dr. Hawas,
Dr. Ammar Albadry, Dr. Belal Shobaki, Dr. Oracha Rakadee, Dr. Abdulhakeem, Dr.
Aliyu Mukhtar Katsina, Dr. Habib Hizaqi, Dr. Zahir Ahmad, Dr. Moghset Kamal and
Dr. Amnah Khalid, for the stimulating discussions and for all the fun we had during
our academic years. Also I thank my friends Rozie Johari, Adam Daniale, Norizan
Akmar, Ee Kim Hwee, Evon Manja, Kala Thangarajoo, Vasugei Periannan, Robert
Samuel and Samsudeen. Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents
Ramasamy Vellasamy and Rajam Arunachallam, my brother Murali, Mahendran, and
sisters Vaniseri and Malika for supporting me spiritually throughout writing this thesis
and my life in general.
x
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ........................................................................................................................ ii Abstract in Arabic ........................................................................................................ iii Approval Page .............................................................................................................. v
Declaration ................................................................................................................... vi Copyright ..................................................................................................................... vii Dedication .................................................................................................................... viii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... ix
List of Tables ............................................................................................................... xiii List of Figures .............................................................................................................. xiv
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem............................................................................ 3 1.3 Significance of the Study ............................................................................ 4 1.4 Research Objectives / Questions ................................................................ 5
1.5 Literature Review ....................................................................................... 6 1.5.1 Multilateralism .................................................................................. 6
1.5.2 Reformist ........................................................................................... 8 1.5.3 Good International Citizen ................................................................ 9
1.5.4 Regional Integration and Cooperation .............................................. 9 1.5.5 Islam in Malaysia’s Foreign Policy .................................................. 11
1.5.6 Tun Dr. Mahathir’s idiosyncrasy and leadership style in
Malaysia’s foreign policy ................................................................. 12 1.5.7 Malaysia’s foreign policy and its decision making process .............. 13
1.5.8 Historical phases in Malaysia’s foreign policy ................................. 13 1.6 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................... 16
1.6.1 Discussion on the Emerging Middle Power ...................................... 18 1.7 Arguments Of The Study ............................................................................ 24
1.8 Methods And Procedures ............................................................................ 25 1.9 Chapter Outline ........................................................................................... 28
CHAPTER TWO: MALAYSIA’S FOREIGN POLICY, 1957-1981 .................... 31 2.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 31 2.2 Background to Malaysia’s Foreign Policy ................................................. 32
2.2.1 Malaysia’s Foreign Policy ................................................................ 34
2.2.2 Factors influencing Malaysia’s Foreign Policy Decision
Making .............................................................................................. 35 2.2.3 Domestic Factors............................................................................... 36
2.2.3.1 Parliament ............................................................................. 36 2.2.3.2 The Cabinet .......................................................................... 36
2.2.3.3 Personality ............................................................................ 37 2.2.3.4 Institutional Structures in the Formulation of Foreign
Policy .................................................................................... 37
2.2.3.5 External Factors .................................................................... 38 2.2.4 Malaysia’s Foreign Policy 1957–1981 ............................................. 38
xi
2.2.4.1 Foreign Policy of Tunku Abdul Rahman ............................. 41 2.2.4.2 End of Confrontation and Formation of ASEAN ................. 42 2.2.4.3 Foreign Policy of Tun Abdul Razak .................................... 43
2.2.4.4 Foreign Policy of Tun Hussein Onn ..................................... 44 2.3 Foreign Policy Behavioural Patterns of Malaysia as an Emerging
Middle Power, 1957-1981 .......................................................................... 45 2.3.1 Foreign Policy Behavioural Pattern 1957–1969 ............................... 45 2.3.2 Foreign Policy Behavioural Pattern, 1970–1981 .............................. 46
2.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 47
CHAPTER THREE: MALAYSIA’S FOREIGN POLICY 1981-2003 AND
SOUTH-SOUTH COOPERATION ......................................................................... 48 3.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 48 3.2 Malaysia’s Foreign Policy 1981 – 2003 ..................................................... 48 3.3 South-South Cooperation ........................................................................... 52
3.3.1 Malaysia’s Involvement .................................................................... 60 3.3.1.1 Pressure to distance Malaysia from the West ....................... 60 3.3.1.2 Enhancement of Malaysian Economic interests ................... 61 3.3.1.3 Mahathir’s Leadership .......................................................... 62
3.3.2 Strategies of Cooperation .................................................................. 70 3.3.2.1 South Investment, Trade and Technology Data
Exchange Centre (SITTDEC) .............................................. 71 3.3.2.2 Bilateral Payment Arrangements (BPA) .............................. 72 3.3.2.3 Malaysian Technical Cooperation Programme
(MTCP) ................................................................................ 73 3.3.2.4 Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992 .................... 74
3.4 Foreign Policy Behavioural Patterns of Malaysia as an Emerging
Middle Power, 1982-2003 .......................................................................... 75
3.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 77
CHAPTER FOUR: MULTILATERALISMAND THE MALAYSIAN
TECHNICAL COOPERATION PROGRAMME (MTCP) .................................. 78 4.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 78 4.2 Malaysian Technical Cooperation Programme (MTCP) ............................ 79 4.3 Multilateralism ............................................................................................ 88 4.4 Factors that Strengthened Malaysia’s Role in South-South
Cooperation Leading to Its Emergence as an Emerging Middle
Power Through MTCP ............................................................................... 89 4.4.1 The role played by Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad .............................. 90
4.4.2 High expectation of Malaysia’s role in South-South
Cooperation by the international community ................................... 93 4.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 95
CHAPTER FIVE: REFORMING GLOBAL AGENDA AND THE
GROUP OF 15 ............................................................................................................ 97 5.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 97 5.2 The Group of 15.......................................................................................... 97
5.2.1 South Investment, Trade and Technology Data Exchange
Centre (SITTDEC) ........................................................................... 100
xii
5.2.2 Bilateral Payment Arrangements (BPA) ........................................... 103 5.2.3 G-15 Member States – Malaysian Joint Ventures ............................ 107
5.3 Reforming Global Agenda .......................................................................... 110
5.4 Evaluating on the Success of Malaysia’s Attempt in Fostering
Economic Cooperation among the Countries of the South through
G-15 ............................................................................................................ 111 5.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 114
CHAPTER SIX: GOOD INTERNATIONAL CITIZEN AND RIO
EARTH SUMMIT ..................................................................................................... 115 6.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 115 6.2 Rio Earth Summit 1992 .............................................................................. 116
6.3 Chair of the Commission on Sustainable Development, 1992 - 1993 ........ 117 6.4 Financial Resources to Fund Agenda 21 .................................................... 120 6.5 Managing Forests Sustainably .................................................................... 125
6.6 Good International Citizen ......................................................................... 128 6.7 Evaluating on the Role of Malaysia in Environment and Sustainable
Development Issues Representing the Countries of the South
Leading to its Emergence as an Emerging Middle Power ......................... 130
6.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 134
CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION ...................................................................... 135 7.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 135 7.2 Summary of Findings ................................................................................. 137
7.3 Implications ................................................................................................ 140 7.4 Recommendations....................................................................................... 141
7.5 Some Reflections for Further Research ...................................................... 142
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................... 146
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Distinguishing features between emerging and traditional middle
powers 19
Table 3.1 Meetings of the Summit Level Group for South-South
Consultation and Cooperation (G15) (1990 – 2003) 69
Table 4.1 Participants of INTAN’s Malaysian Technical Cooperation
Programme (MTCP) (1981-2003) According to the Regions 84
Table 4.2 Participants of IDFR’s Malaysian Technical Cooperation
Programme (MTCP) (1981-2003) According to the Regions 86
Table 4.3 Official visits to multilateral fora undertaken by Dr. Mahathir
during his tenure as the Prime Minister of Malaysia, 1981-2003 91
Table 4.4 Respondents’ Opinion on the MTCP’s Performance 94
Table 4.5 Respondents’ Opinion on Multilateralism approach adopted by
Malaysia in pursuing MTCP 94
Table 5.1 The G-15 Summit Meetings, 1990 – 2003 99
Table 5.2 Trade Figures of SITTDEC Member Countries between 1993 and
2003 103
Table 5.3 The Amount of Trade between Malaysia and BPA Signatories 106
Table 5.4 Amount of Inflow and Outflow FDI from /to G-15 member states
from/to Malaysia during the period of 1981–2003 109
Table 6.1 Statements Made by Country Representatives at the Preparatory
Committee Meeting (1993) on UNGA Resolution 44/228, 22
December 1989 on Agenda 21, 1992 132
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 The Similarity and Difference between the Traditional Middle
Power and Emerging Middle Power 18
Figure 1.2 A Diagram Illustrating the Relations between the Behavioural
Patterns (Independent Variables) and Emerging Middle Power
(Dependent Variable) 24
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years, foreign policies of a number of progressively influential states known
as traditional middle powers, e.g. Australia, Canada, Norway and Sweden, have
attracted the attention of scholars of international relations. These are described as
traditional middle powers because they are states with intermediate influence, and are
considered neither small nor great powers (Chapnick, 1993). In other words, they do
not have great power status, but enjoy certain amount of international influence.
Subsequently, with the end of the Cold War, another set of middle powers,
dubbed as emerging middle powers by Jordaan (2003, p.168) burst onto the
international stage. Among these emerging middle powers the following are
considered as prominent ones: Malaysia, Argentina and South Africa.
Malaysia played an active role in international relations, especially during the
period from 1981 to 2003. During this period, Malaysia’s foreign policy took a new
sense of direction and purpose, particularly not only identifying itself with the
countries of the South but also working for increased cooperation, especially
economic, among countries of the South. South-South Cooperation was the policies
used by Malaysia to utilize resources of the South for their greater benefit. The
objectives of South-South Cooperation were as follows: First, to strengthen and
improve economic ties (trade and investment) among the countries of the South and
subsequently promote economic independence. Second, to gradually eliminate the
South’s dependence on developed countries in terms of economic and human
2
resources capacity building for the country. Third, to voice the aspirations and aims of
the countries of the South on issues affecting them at the global stage – e.g.
environment and price stabilization of primary commodities such as rubber, palm oil,
tin and timber (Ahmad Faiz, 2005, p.2-3).
In addressing the above objectives of South-South Cooperation, Malaysia had
extended its technical assistance to the countries of the South through the Malaysian
Technical Cooperation Programme (MTCP). In addition, Malaysia had significantly
contributed to the Group of 15 (G-15) to strengthen and improve economic ties (trade
and investment) among the countries of the South. Furthermore, Malaysia represented
the countries of the South in speaking about environmental issues at the Rio Earth
Summit (1992), and as the Chair of Commission on Sustainable Development (1992-
1993).
Based on these, this study assumes that by pursuing such a policy Malaysia
was behaving like an emerging middle power. In doing so, Malaysia had taken three
main strategies to support this foreign policy. These strategies included Malaysia’s
extension of technical assistance to the countries of the South through the Malaysian
Technical Cooperation Programme (MTCP), building economic relations with
countries of the South in the Group of 15 (G-15) through the South Investment, Trade
and Technology Data Exchange Centre (SITTDEC) and Bilateral Payment
Arrangements (BPA); and playing a significant role in voicing the countries of
South’s interest on environment and sustainable development issues in the Rio Earth
Summit (1992), and as the Chair of Commission on Sustainable Development (1992-
1993).
3
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Dealing with foreign policy behavioural patterns of emerging middle powers does not
allow easy predictions when compared with super powers and small powers. Super
powers can act as they please while small powers have little freedom of manoeuvre as
they lack the necessary essentials to follow active foreign policies and they may also
feel constrained by the super powers. What makes an emerging middle power so
intrinsically intriguing, as argued by Jordaan (2003, p.168) are the following foreign
policy behavioural patterns:
1. The emerging middle powers’ preference to pursue multilateralism;
2. The emerging middle powers playing an active role in reforming global
agenda such as strengthening and improving economic ties (trade and
investment); and
3. The emerging middle powers acting as a good international citizen in the
sense that, apart from their own interest, they voice the interests of the
group they are representing.
In relation to the above, it is submitted that Malaysia has displayed the afore-
mentioned foreign policy behavioural patterns of an emerging middle power that
seeks to stabilize and legitimize the global order. In addition, Malaysia has increased
its international profile and association with the countries of the South. It champions
the causes of creating a just world order, whether political or economic, based on the
principles of international law and international justice.
Therefore, this study aims to analyse the foreign policy behavioural patterns of
Malaysia from 1981 to 2003 using the concept of an emerging middle power. In doing
so, the study uses Malaysia’s foreign policy on South-South Cooperation with
particular reference to the Malaysian Technical Cooperation Programme (MTCP),
4
Malaysia’s economic relations within G-15 members through the South Investment,
Trade and Technology Data Exchange Centre (SITTDEC) and Bilateral Payment
Arrangements (BPA), and finally Malaysia’s representation for the countries of the
South on environment and sustainable development issues in the Rio Earth Summit
(1992) and as the Chair of Commission on Sustainable Development (1992-1993). In
this regard, this study contends that Malaysia’s foreign policy behavioural patterns
towards these issues demonstrated its emerging middle power image.
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Many studies have been published dealing with the different aspects of Malaysia’s
foreign policy. Some of these studies deal with the idiosyncratic variables in the
making of Malaysia’s foreign policy while others deal with the role of religion in the
country’s foreign policy. Yet other studies have been published on the country’s role
in various international organizations such as the Organization of Islamic Cooperation
(OIC), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) or the Commonwealth.
However, a thorough study analyzing Malaysia’s foreign policy from the perspective
of an emerging middle power is yet to be done. Therefore, this study aims to add to
the existing knowledge on Malaysia’s foreign policy. Additionally, although studies
on traditional middle powers like Australia, Canada, Norway and Sweden are in
abundance, not much has been done in explaining the foreign policies of an emerging
group of middle powers like Malaysia, Argentina and South Africa.
This study also helps to clarify a significant period (1981-2003) of Malaysia’s
foreign policy using the framework of the emerging middle power. Hence, by
critically analysing the strategies under the South-South Cooperation, it hopes to
provide another dimension of explanation to the country’s foreign policy. The
5
strategies associated with the South-South Cooperation, which have been chosen for
investigation in this study, are: the Malaysian Technical Cooperation Programme
(MTCP), Malaysia’s economic relations within G-15 members through the South
Investment, Trade and Technology Data Exchange Centre (SITTDEC) and Bilateral
Payment Arrangements (BPA), and environment and sustainable development issues,
in reference to Rio Earth Summit and as the Chair of Commission on Sustainable
Development.
This study will be a source of reference to foreign policy practitioners,
academicians, students and researchers in the future.
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES / QUESTIONS
In view of the above-mentioned significance of the study, this study is set forth to
achieve the following objectives:
1. This study intends to explain the factors that strengthened Malaysia’s role
in South-South Cooperation leading to its emergence as an emerging
middle power through its MTCP.
2. This study aims to analyse the success of Malaysia’s attempt in fostering
economic cooperation among the countries of the South through the G-15,
as part of its effort to becoming an emerging middle power.
3. The study assesses the factors for Malaysia’s participation in the 1992 Rio
Earth Summit and its post-Rio activities as well as its role as the Chair of
Commission on Sustainable Development from 1992 to 1993. These
subsequently defined its position at the global level as an emerging middle
power.
In addition, the study attempts to answer the following research questions:
6
1. What were the factors in Malaysia’s MTCP strategy with the countries of
the South that strengthened its multilateralism leading to its emergence as
an emerging middle power?
2. Had Malaysia been successful as an emerging middle power in fostering
economic cooperation among the countries of the South through the G-15
that demonstrated its active role in reforming global agenda?
3. Did Malaysia’s involvement in environment and sustainable development
issues representing the countries of the South reflect its role as a good
international citizen, leading to its emergence as an emerging middle
power?
1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW
There were some studies that have used the concept of middlepowermanship in
explaining Malaysia’s foreign policy. The following may be cited as examples: Johan
(2010), Izzuddin (2007), and Nosal, Richard and Stubbs (1997). However, unlike this
research, the studies only focus on Malaysia’s relations with the Western world,
ASEAN, China and India. None of them has explained Malaysia’s foreign policy
using the concept of an emerging middle power. However, some of the literature
discussed below have indirectly dealt with the behavioural patterns of an emerging
middle power such as multilateralism, reformism, good international citizenship and
regional integration and cooperation.
1.5.1 Multilateralism
Rajmah Hussain (2010), has evaluated Malaysia’s foreign policy and its participation
at the United Nations (UN). She discusses the mechanisms of the formulation and
7
implementation of Malaysian foreign policy and examines Malaysia’s role at the
United Nations. Rajmah’s approach to the study was thematic. She divides Malaysia’s
foreign policy into five phases; the pro-West and anti-Communist posture (1957-
1962), a shift towards regionalism and non-alignment (1963-1969), neutralization and
rapprochement to China (1970-1976), consolidation of policy (1976-1980) and a
rearrangement of priorities (mid-1981 to 1987). Rajmah’s study concentrated on the
issue of Malaysian foreign policy at the United Nations. The behavioural pattern of an
emerging middle power in adhering to multilateral framework has been indirectly put
forward by Rajmah.
The works by Zainal Aznam Yusof (2003) and Muhammad Ben Muda (2009)
focused on Malaysia’s promotion of foreign and economic policy at the multilateral
level vis-à-vis China and the Commonwealth. Zainal discusses the importance of
China to Malaysia in terms of both the destination of its products and the source of
investment in the country with a detailed account of the proportion of exports, imports
and foreign direct investment being furnished. Zainal’s work also focuses on the
ASEAN-China Free Trade Area which covered trade, services and investment. In
addition, Zainal also explains the ways Malaysia planned to respond to the ASEAN-
China Free Trade through its policy and strategies. He suggests some policy options
for Malaysia to consider in response to the challenges and opportunities posed by
China. Zainal firstly recommends that Malaysia should work closely with other
ASEAN states and major trading partners like Japan and the United States as to how
to deal with the growing Chinese economic power in the region. Secondly, Zainal
suggests that Malaysia should focus more on technology based industries rather than
labour intensive industries. He also emphasizes the importance of improving the skills
of Malaysia’s workforce (pp. 66-67).
8
Muhammad analysed Malaysia’s relations with the Commonwealth, and
makes the point that the successive governments in Malaysia have maintained close
relations with the Commonwealth since Malaysia’s independence in 1957. According
to Muhammad, Malaysia’s relations with the Commonwealth have always been based
on economic and strategic interests. On a similar note, the author argues that the
Commonwealth connection has helped Malaysia in exploring trade opportunities and
subsequently economic achievement (p.133). In his analysis, Muhammad also
explains the usefulness of the Commonwealth as a platform to voice various Third
World issues and effectiveness in promoting Malaysia’s Technical Cooperation
Programme (p. 130).
Both works by Zainal and Muhammad provide another perspective in
describing Malaysia’s relations within a multilateral context. Thus, in an indirect way
it touches on the behavioural pattern of an emerging middle power.
1.5.2 Reformist
Abdul Faiz (2005), focuses on Malaysia's relations with developing countries under
the leadership of Dr. Mahathir Mohamad. The author addresses four critical issues
with the first being issues that persuaded Malaysia's relations with developing
countries and the repercussions of such relations; second, the impacts of Mahathir's
leadership on Malaysia's involvement in the South-South Cooperation (pp. 69-123);
third, the reasons that brought Mahathir's involvement in expressing North-South
concerns and its implications; and finally, the visions and dilemmas of Malaysia's
economic relations with the countries of the South (pp. 125-234). In this work, the
author argues that Malaysia had a moral responsibility towards the countries of the
9
South in enriching their economies. This can be seen as a reformist action in bringing
changes to Malaysia’s relations with the countries of the South.
1.5.3 Good International Citizen
Liow (2009) assesses the impact of Mahathir Mohamad’s personality on the
formulation and execution of Malaysia’s foreign policy. The author acknowledges that
Mahathir had earned the world’s respect due to Malaysia’s high economic growth and
Mahathir’s embracement of liberal Muslim values. Furthermore, according to the
author, since Mahathir understood Third World issues such as the bridging of the
North-South division, the development of Islamic nations and his dedication to the
Third World blocs such as ASEAN, the Group of 77 (G-77), the Non-Aligned
Movement (NAM), and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), Mahathir
was considered as one of the greatest spokesmen for the Third World. Liow mentions
that Malaysia, under Mahathir’s leadership, behaved as a good international citizen –
an important behavioural pattern of an emerging middle power.
Liow also highlights Tun Ghazali Shafie’s key role in facing the nation’s early
challenges and then as the theoretician behind whom the fundamental pillars of
Malaysia’s foreign policy were created. The author also discusses the demands of
domestic needs as well as international politics, which were considered the
determinants of foreign policy of Malaysia.
1.5.4 Regional Integration and Cooperation
Meanwhile, Abdul Razak and Chee Seng (1990) deal with the following two aspects
in Malaysia’s foreign policy; the regional security and the economic issues,
respectively. While dealing with the regional security issue, Abdul Razak emphasizes
10
that Malaysia paid particular importance to striking a balance between various
agencies connected with defence planning and security affairs. He also points out that
relying on diplomacy was important in keeping levels of conflict at a tolerable level.
Nonetheless, he does not discount the possibility of equipping the military, taking into
account any eventualities regionally (pp. 37-52). Under the economic issue, Chee
Seng’s discussion is mainly on the role of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in securing
Malaysia’s economic interests abroad (pp. 53-62).
On ASEAN, Azhari examines how ASEAN camaraderie had brought the
association to new heights of achievements. This could be witnessed through the
involvement of the private sector and more emphasis placed on human resource
development. Furthermore, it was vital that the member states of ASEAN balanced the
national development goals and economic interests of the association. ASEAN only
projected the necessity of having a collective voice on global economic issues
affecting the countries of the South. Azhari also points out that ASEAN should not be
overloaded in its undertakings (pp. 65-76).
The above literature shows that that those discussions focus on multilateralism,
reformist, good international citizen and regional integration and cooperation which
are the features of an emerging middle power. In this regard, this study has obtained
helpful ideas and information from the afore-mentioned studies undertaken by other
scholars. However, these studies do not discuss in detail the concept of an emerging
middle power. Thus, this study provides an in-depth and more comprehensive analysis
of Malaysia’s foreign policy as an emerging middle power.
The following sections deal with the studies on the role of Islam in Malaysia’s
foreign policy, Tun Dr. Mahathir’s idiosyncrasies and leadership style in Malaysia’s
Recommended