Lecture 2: A Brief History of Parapsychology n 1. Introduction and basic terminology n 2. Evidence...

Lecture 2: A Brief History of Lecture 2: A Brief History of ParapsychologyParapsychology

1. Introduction and basic terminology1. Introduction and basic terminology 2. Evidence from antiquity2. Evidence from antiquity 3. The rise of spiritualism3. The rise of spiritualism 4. The Society for Psychical Research4. The Society for Psychical Research 5. 1930-1960s: The Duke University 5. 1930-1960s: The Duke University

PeriodPeriod 6. Fraud within parapsychology6. Fraud within parapsychology

Precognitive DreamsPrecognitive Dreams

Miraculous HealingMiraculous Healing

Strange PowersStrange Powers

DivinationDivination

TelepathyTelepathy

Historical PerspectiveHistorical Perspective

Shows that ostensibly paranormal Shows that ostensibly paranormal experiences are an important part experiences are an important part of human experienceof human experience– Either paranormal forces existEither paranormal forces exist– Or we learn something useful about Or we learn something useful about

human psychologyhuman psychology Makes us question our own Makes us question our own

assumptionsassumptions

Do you believe in fairies?Do you believe in fairies?

Fairies in FolkloreFairies in Folklore

Cottingley Fairies (1917)Cottingley Fairies (1917)Elsie Wright (13)Elsie Wright (13)

Cottingley Fairies (1917)Cottingley Fairies (1917)Frances Griffiths (10)Frances Griffiths (10)

Sir Arthur Conan DoyleSir Arthur Conan Doyle

Cottingley Fairies: ArticlesCottingley Fairies: Articles

PhrenologyPhrenology

Basic TerminologyBasic Terminology

Psychokinesis (PK): Psychokinesis (PK): "the influence "the influence of mind on external objects or of mind on external objects or processes without the mediation of processes without the mediation of known physical energies or forces" known physical energies or forces" (Wolman, 1977)(Wolman, 1977)

Psychokinesis (PK)Psychokinesis (PK)Nina KulaginaNina Kulagina

Basic TerminologyBasic Terminology

Psychokinesis (PK): "the influence of mind on external objects or processes without the mediation of known physical energies or forces" (Wolman, 1977)

Extrasensory Perception (ESP): "knowledge of or a response to an external event or influence not apprehended through known sensory channels" (Wolman, 1977)

ESP includes:ESP includes: 1)1) telepathytelepathy (transference of (transference of

thoughts between two people)thoughts between two people)

Telepathy?Telepathy?

ESP includes:ESP includes: 1)1) telepathytelepathy (transference of (transference of

thoughts between two people)thoughts between two people) 2)2) clairvoyanceclairvoyance (awareness of (awareness of

remote objects or events)remote objects or events)

Clairvoyance?Clairvoyance?

ESP includes:ESP includes: 1)1) telepathytelepathy (transference of (transference of

thoughts between two people)thoughts between two people) 2)2) clairvoyanceclairvoyance (awareness of (awareness of

remote objects or events)remote objects or events) 3)3) precognitionprecognition (knowledge of (knowledge of

events before they occur, other events before they occur, other than as a result of inference)than as a result of inference)

Precognition?Precognition?

PsiPsi

““a general term to identify a person's a general term to identify a person's extrasensorimotor communication with extrasensorimotor communication with the environment” (Wolman, 1977).the environment” (Wolman, 1977).

NB: Strict definition of the paranormal, as NB: Strict definition of the paranormal, as used by parapsychologists, limits used by parapsychologists, limits subject matter to PK, ESP, and subject matter to PK, ESP, and (possibly) issues relating to life-after-(possibly) issues relating to life-after-death.death.

Oracles in Ancient GreeceOracles in Ancient Greece

The Delphic OracleThe Delphic Oracle

King Croesus of LydiaKing Croesus of Lydia(c. 550 BC)(c. 550 BC)

Biblical examples:Biblical examples:Precognitive dreamsPrecognitive dreams

ApparitionsApparitions

HealingHealing

Physical PhenomenaPhysical Phenomena

Prophetic VisionsProphetic Visions

The Rise of Spiritualism:The Rise of Spiritualism:Hydesville, NY, March Hydesville, NY, March

18481848

The Fox SistersThe Fox Sisters

Rapping Sounds in the Rapping Sounds in the Bedroom …Bedroom …

Communicating with the Communicating with the Spirits?Spirits?

Typical SeanceTypical Seance

Other Strange Other Strange Phenomena:Phenomena:

LevitationLevitation

Playing of Musical Playing of Musical Instruments by Unseen Instruments by Unseen

Hands and LipsHands and Lips

Lights in the DarkLights in the Dark

ApportsApports

Materialisation of Spirit Materialisation of Spirit FormsForms

EctoplasmEctoplasm

Spirit PhotographsSpirit Photographs

Written CommunicationsWritten Communications

““Table Tilting”Table Tilting”

Michael FaradayMichael Faraday

Robert Hare,Robert Hare,American ChemistAmerican Chemist

Alfred Russell Wallace,Alfred Russell Wallace,Cofounder Theory of Cofounder Theory of

EvolutionEvolution

Sir William Crookes,Sir William Crookes,Discoverer of ThalliumDiscoverer of Thallium

Florence CookFlorence Cook

““Katie King”Katie King”

More than a passing More than a passing resemblance?resemblance?

All down to trickery?All down to trickery?

The Society for Psychical The Society for Psychical ResearchResearch

Founded in UK in 1882Founded in UK in 1882 American Society for Psychical American Society for Psychical

Research founded in 1885Research founded in 1885 One major aim was to scientifically One major aim was to scientifically

prove that the soul survived bodily prove that the soul survived bodily deathdeath

Response to Darwin’s Response to Darwin’s IdeasIdeas

Daniel Dunglas HomeDaniel Dunglas Home

Harry HoudiniHarry HoudiniThe World’s Greatest The World’s Greatest

ConjurorConjuror

Houdini and Conan DoyleHoudini and Conan Doyle

Luminous Faces EffectLuminous Faces Effect

Bells rung by spirits?Bells rung by spirits?

Houdini’s “Ectoplasm”Houdini’s “Ectoplasm”

Houdini’s Slate WritingHoudini’s Slate Writing

Fox Sisters Confess (1888)Fox Sisters Confess (1888)

Noises produced in various ways Noises produced in various ways including cracking of toe and ankle including cracking of toe and ankle jointsjoints

Schoolgirl prank had got out of Schoolgirl prank had got out of handhand

Spiritualists simply refused to Spiritualists simply refused to believe confessionbelieve confession

A Time of Transition for A Time of Transition for Psychical Research Psychical Research

Phenomena most researched:Phenomena most researched:

1. mental phenomena of 1. mental phenomena of psychics and mediumspsychics and mediums

Leonora Piper (as a child)Leonora Piper (as a child)

Gladys Osborne LeonardGladys Osborne Leonard

Eileen GarrettEileen Garrett

A Time of Transition for A Time of Transition for Psychical Research Psychical Research

Phenomena most researched:Phenomena most researched:

1. mental phenomena of 1. mental phenomena of psychics and mediums (e.g. psychics and mediums (e.g. Leonara Piper, Gladys Osborne Leonara Piper, Gladys Osborne Leonard, Eileen Garrett)Leonard, Eileen Garrett)

2. physical phenomena of the 2. physical phenomena of the type produced by Hometype produced by Home

Eusapia PalladinoEusapia Palladino

Eusapia in ActionEusapia in Action

A Time of Transition for A Time of Transition for Psychical Research Psychical Research

Phenomena most researched:Phenomena most researched:

1. mental phenomena of psychics 1. mental phenomena of psychics and mediums (e.g. Leonara Piper, and mediums (e.g. Leonara Piper, Gladys Osborne Leonard, Eileen Gladys Osborne Leonard, Eileen Garrett)Garrett)

2. physical phenomena of the type 2. physical phenomena of the type produced by Home (e.g. Eusapia produced by Home (e.g. Eusapia Palladino)Palladino)

3. investigations of hauntings and 3. investigations of hauntings and poltergeists poltergeists

Poltergeist ActivityPoltergeist Activity

A Time of Transition for A Time of Transition for Psychical Research Psychical Research

Phenomena most researched:Phenomena most researched:

1. mental phenomena of psychics and 1. mental phenomena of psychics and mediums (e.g. Leonara Piper, Gladys mediums (e.g. Leonara Piper, Gladys Osborne Leonard, Eileen Garrett)Osborne Leonard, Eileen Garrett)

2. physical phenomena of the type 2. physical phenomena of the type produced by Home (e.g. Eusapia produced by Home (e.g. Eusapia Palladino)Palladino)

3. investigations of hauntings and 3. investigations of hauntings and poltergeists poltergeists

4. the evolution of controlled 4. the evolution of controlled experiments (e.g. ESP studies of card experiments (e.g. ESP studies of card guessing)guessing)

The Duke University The Duke University PeriodPeriod

Joseph RhineJoseph Rhine

Louisa RhineLouisa Rhine

Joseph Rhine’s ApproachJoseph Rhine’s Approach

Large scale investigations of Large scale investigations of presumed psychic ability of presumed psychic ability of ordinary peopleordinary people

Easily controlled simple testsEasily controlled simple tests Statistical evaluation of resultsStatistical evaluation of results E.g., use of Zener cardsE.g., use of Zener cards

General Extrasensory General Extrasensory Perception (GESP)Perception (GESP)

Cannot rule out possibility of Cannot rule out possibility of clairvoyance in telepathy studiesclairvoyance in telepathy studies

Cannot rule out precognition in Cannot rule out precognition in clairvoyance studiesclairvoyance studies

Cannot rule out PK in precognition Cannot rule out PK in precognition studiesstudies

So Rhine preferred GESP!So Rhine preferred GESP!

Rhine’s Dice PK StudiesRhine’s Dice PK Studies

Rhine’s Book (1934)Rhine’s Book (1934)

Response to Rhine (1934)Response to Rhine (1934)

Attempts at replicationAttempts at replication– Some claimed successSome claimed success– Many failures (especially in Britain)Many failures (especially in Britain)

Statistical criticismsStatistical criticisms– Technically correct, but insubstantialTechnically correct, but insubstantial

Methodological criticismsMethodological criticisms– More seriousMore serious

Led to improvements in methodologyLed to improvements in methodology

Samuel George SoalSamuel George SoalBritish MathematicianBritish Mathematician

Soal’s Attempted Soal’s Attempted ReplicationReplication

Around 160 participantsAround 160 participants 128,350 trials128,350 trials Attempted to remove all flaws and Attempted to remove all flaws and

weaknesses from Rhine’s designweaknesses from Rhine’s design No deviation from chance expectationNo deviation from chance expectation But then found displacement effects But then found displacement effects

for Gloria Stewart and Basil for Gloria Stewart and Basil ShackletonShackleton

New Series of StudiesNew Series of Studies

Shackleton’s performance at MCE Shackleton’s performance at MCE for direct hitsfor direct hits

But p-value with respect to next But p-value with respect to next card in series at 1 in 10card in series at 1 in 103535!!

Stewart obtained a direct hit rate Stewart obtained a direct hit rate with p-value of 10with p-value of 107979!!

George Price’s (1955) George Price’s (1955) CritiqueCritique

Review of Soal and Bateman (1954) Review of Soal and Bateman (1954) Modern Experiments in Telepathy Modern Experiments in Telepathy in in ScienceScience

Results in favour of psi must be due Results in favour of psi must be due to:to:– "clerical and statistical errors and "clerical and statistical errors and

unintentional use of sensory clues" or unintentional use of sensory clues" or – "deliberate fraud or mildly abnormal "deliberate fraud or mildly abnormal

mental conditions."mental conditions."

Exposing Soal’s FraudExposing Soal’s Fraud

Mrs Gretl’s allegationsMrs Gretl’s allegations Published in 1960 by Soal and GoldneyPublished in 1960 by Soal and Goldney Medhurst’s (1971) analysisMedhurst’s (1971) analysis Scott & Haskell’s (1973, 1974) Scott & Haskell’s (1973, 1974)

analysesanalyses Markwick’s (1978) analysisMarkwick’s (1978) analysis J G Pratt still maintains Soal’s J G Pratt still maintains Soal’s

innocenceinnocence

Fraud Within Fraud Within ParapsychologyParapsychology

Historical evidence of fraudulent Historical evidence of fraudulent mediumsmediums

S G SoalS G Soal Walter Levy in 1970sWalter Levy in 1970s Circumstantial evidence against Circumstantial evidence against

Uri GellerUri Geller ““Geller kids”Geller kids” Are parapsychologists easy to fool?Are parapsychologists easy to fool?

James Randi’s (1980)James Randi’s (1980)Project AlphaProject Alpha

Steve Shaw and Michael EdwardsSteve Shaw and Michael Edwards McDonnell Laboratory for Psychical McDonnell Laboratory for Psychical

Research, Washington UniversityResearch, Washington University Over two year period, performed all Over two year period, performed all

standard tricks: metal bending, standard tricks: metal bending, mind reading, divining contents of mind reading, divining contents of sealed envelopes, etcsealed envelopes, etc

Described as “gifted psychic Described as “gifted psychic subjects”subjects”

AcknowledgementAcknowledgement

With thanks to Hilary Evans, With thanks to Hilary Evans, proprietor of the Mary Evans proprietor of the Mary Evans Picture Library, for permission to Picture Library, for permission to use illustrations featured in this use illustrations featured in this presentation. These illustrations presentation. These illustrations must not be reproduced in any must not be reproduced in any form without permission from the form without permission from the Mary Evans Picture Library.Mary Evans Picture Library.