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Invasions and resident communities
Richard Law
University of York, UK
Invasions in a community context
Hieracium pilosella
Mimulus guttatusCytisus scoparius
Pinus
Invasions in a community context
invasions are stochastic
invasion depends on propagule pressure
invasion implies persistence (usually)
invasion resistance and regional processes
invasion depends on resident community
Invasion: arrival of some propagules at some location, leading to local population, large enough for the probability of extinction by demographic stochasticity to be small
increasing speculation!
Invasions are stochastic
theory
microcosms
field
theory: from birth-death processes
Probability P(n,N) that a population starting with n independent individuals reaches a size N before it goes to extinction (Bailey 1964; Goel and Richter-Dyn 1974)
where b and d are constant probabilities per unit time of giving birth and of death (b > d )
Can think of an inoculum of n individuals, rare enough not to interact, added to a resident community
theory: probability of establishment
Warren, Law and Weatherby (2006) In M. W. Cadotte, et al .
nr/b
P(n)depends on r/b
how important is r?
To get established, require N to be large enough for stochastic effects to be small.
For d < b, large N
microcosms: protists
Weatherby, Warren & Law 1998. Journal of Animal Ecology 67, 554-566
controlled experiments
short time scales
high replication
but not a substitute for field work
Warren, Law & Weatherby 2003. Ecology 84:1001-1011.
microcosms: background
A. persistent sets of species
B. which absent species can invade persistent sets
C. the new community which emerges from invasion
Gives a graph showing invasions, and changes in communities. Can build a map of community assembly
Experimental work looks for:
microcosms: initial growth of Blepharisma
Law, Weatherby & Warren 2000. Oikos 88, 319-326.
stochasticity is important in establishment
Blepharisma introduced to Paramecium microcosms
Example of stochasticity
field: releases of a hemipteran to control broom in New Zealand
5 (100)5270
8 (80)1090
6 (60)1030
4(40)1010
3 (30)104
2 (20)102
No. (%) colonies extant after 1
year
No. of sites
Intended release size
hemipteran: Arytainilla spartiophila (European specialist on broom)
Memmott et al 2005 JAE 74:50-62
many other examples demonstrate stochasticity
Invasion depends on propagule
pressure
theory
microcosms
field
theory: propagule pressure
nr/b
P(n)
Warren, Law and Weatherby (2006) In M. W. Cadotte, et al .
assuming independence
but there may not be independence
e.g. Allee effect, founder effects, local interactions in space
field: biocontrol of broom in NZ
Memmott et al 2005 JAE 74:50-62
5 (100)5270
8 (80)1090
6 (60)1030
4(40)1010
3 (30)104
2 (20)102
No. (%) colonies extant after
1 year
No. of sites
Intended release
size
release of hemipteran: Arytainilla spartiophila (European specialist on broom)
increasing propagule pressure
increasing probability of colony survival
Invasion implies persistence
(usually)
theory
microcosms
field
theory: permanence
all orbits starting in the skin move further into the interior
boundary is a repellor
skin of finite thickness
x1
x2
permanence: from dynamical-systems theory (not well known)
theory: permanence: Lyapunov functions
fixed point
test by Lyapunov-like methods
extends to multispecies systems with k species, but have to check 2k subsystems
boundary of phase space
2D phase plane
theory: invasion implies persistence
resident community
invading speciesaugmented community
invading species persists
augmented community permanent
Case A:
collapse to a subset S of aug. comm.
augmented community not permanent
Case B:
theory: invasion implies persistence
can S be the resident community?
no: new species can invade it
can S be a subset of the resident community?
no: resident community is permanent and contains no attracting subsystem
leaves only subsets which contain new species
invasion implies persistence
caveatsresident community not permanent
heteroclinic cycles
microcosms:
exceptions: invaders as catalysts of change: {B,P} {P}E
prop. microcosms new species established
prop. microcosms new species persisted
invasion usually implies persistence
field:
Exceptions?
rabbits on islands
biological control agents
others?
invasion depends on resident community
theory
microcosms
field
theory
),( nEP nEbEd )()(1 =
Can think of the resident community as providing an environment E, into which a new species is introduced
omnivore: feeds on bacteria and small protists
eats T as well as competing with it
holds its own in competition with C
microcosms: introducing Blepharisma
Law, Weatherby & Warren 2000. Oikos 88, 319-326.
struggles to compete with P
microcosms: initial rate of increase
Model Number of parameters
Degrees of freedom
Deviance
i + j + ()ij 44 187 3.08
i + j 16 215 8.04
i 11 220 26.6
+ j 6 225 10.7
1 230 31.4 GLM
i : effect of resident communities
i : effect of introduced species
ij : introduction x resident interaction
a lot depends on idiosyncrasies of particular ecological interactions
field: invasion resistance
less invasion into species-rich communities: more niches filled (Elton 1958 etc)
treating every invasion as a special case not very helpful
attempts to generalise
not obvious why introduced species should be a weaker competitor than resident species
field: confusion?
At large spatial scales more exotic species get into species-rich communities (e.g. Lonsdale 1999)
At small spatial scales, species-rich communities less readily invaded (e.g. Naeem et al 2000)
Invasion resistance and regional processes
speculations about species pools
speculation: evolution of biotic interactions
theory: community assembly and invasion-resistance
theory: community assembly algorithm
Law & Morton 1996. Ecology 77:762-775.
{1} {1,3}
3
{2}
24
{1}
species pool
new species
resident comm
{1,2,3,4…}
theory: community assembly and invasion resistance
Law & Morton 1996. Ecology 77:762-775.
invasion resistance increases
invasion resistance: prop. species from pool unable to invade community
statistical result
invasion resistance depends on history of community, not on its species
richness
speculations about invasion resistance and species pools
larger species pools get communities closer to invasion-resistant states
richness of pool matters more than richness of community
size of species pool:
composition of species pool
species pool lacking major parts of a flora/fauna unlikely to be near invasion resistant states
communities from such species pools are especially vulnerable to invasions by introduced species
evolution of biotic interactions
differences in specificity of mutualistic symbionts and enemies
where do the rhizobia come from?
mycorrhizal fungi?
etc
Conclusions
invasions and extinctions are part of the natural turnover process in communities
community context is crucial for understanding invasions
NZ species pool is special
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