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INTRODUCTION TO THE ECONOMICS
OF ANTITRUST
ASSUMPTIONS OF CLASSICAL ECONOMICS
• PEOPLE ACT RATIONALLY TO MAXIMIZE THEIR OWN INTERESTS
ASSUMPTIONS OF CLASSICAL ECONOMICS
• PEOPLE ACT RATIONALLY TO MAXIMIZE THEIR OWN INTERESTS
• RESOURCES MOVE TO MOST VALUABLE USE IF VOLUNTARY EXCHANGE PERMITTED
““VALUE”VALUE”
MEASURED BY AGGREGATE CONSUMER WILLINGNESS TO
PAY FOR THINGS
““EFFICIENCY”EFFICIENCY”
EXPLOITING ECONOMIC RESOURCES TO MAXIMIZE
“VALUE”
PROBLEMS WITH ASSUMPTIONS
• DEFINITION OF “VALUE”
• PEOPLE OFTEN IRRATIONAL
PROBLEMS WITH ASSUMPTIONS
• DEFINITION OF “VALUE”
–CONSUMER CULTURE
–DEPENDS ON INCOME DISTRIBUTION
–MORE $ = MORE VOTES
PROBLEMS WITH ASSUMPTIONS
• PEOPLE OFTEN IRRATIONAL
–OFTEN APPEAR TO ACT AGAINST SELF-INTEREST
–OFTEN PERCEIVE SELVES ACTING AGAINST SELF-INTEREST
DEMAND CURVE:
GENERALLY BUY MORE OF GOOD THE LESS IT COSTS
DEMAND CURVE:GENERALLY BUY MORE OF GOOD
THE LESS IT COSTS
• SUBSTITUTION EFFECT
• INCOME EFFECT
DEMAND CURVE:GENERALLY BUY MORE OF GOOD
THE LESS IT COSTS
• SUBSTITUTION EFFECT: AS GOOD BECOMES CHEAPER, BUY IT INSTEAD OF ALTERNATIVES
• INCOME EFFECT
DEMAND CURVE:GENERALLY BUY MORE OF GOOD
THE LESS IT COSTS
• SUBSTITUTION EFFECT
• INCOME EFFECT: AS GOOD BECOMES CHEAPER, PURCHASING POWER INCREASES, SO BUY MORE
DEMANDDemand
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Q
P P
DEMAND CURVE:GENERALLY BY MORE OF GOOD
THE LESS IT COSTS
EXCEPTIONS:
• INFERIOR GOODS
• LUXURY GOODS
DEMAND CURVE:GENERALLY BY MORE OF GOOD
THE LESS IT COSTSEXCEPTIONS:
• INFERIOR GOODS: GOODS YOU BUY MORE OF, THE LESS $ YOU HAVE
• LUXURY GOODS
DEMAND CURVE:GENERALLY BY MORE OF GOOD
THE LESS IT COSTSEXCEPTIONS:
• INFERIOR GOODS
• LUXURY GOODS: GOODS YOU BUY BECAUSE OF THE HIGH PRICE
FACTORS AFFECTING DEMAND
• PERSONAL TASTE• INCOME
• PRICE OF COMPLEMENTARY GOODS
• PRICE OF SUBSTITUTES
FACTORS AFFECTING DEMAND
• PERSONAL TASTE
• INCOME• PRICE OF COMPLEMENTARY GOODS
• PRICE OF SUBSTITUTES
FACTORS AFFECTING DEMAND
• PERSONAL TASTE
• INCOME
• PRICE OF COMPLEMENTARY GOODS
• PRICE OF SUBSTITUTES
FACTORS AFFECTING DEMAND
• PERSONAL TASTE
• INCOME
• PRICE OF COMPLEMENTARY GOODS
• PRICE OF SUBSTITUTES
DEMANDDemand
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Q
P P
DEMANDDemand
0
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10
15
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25
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Q
P P
DEMANDDemand
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Q
P P
TYPES OF PRODUCER COSTS
• FIXED v.VARIABLE COSTS
• TOTAL v. AVERAGE COSTS
• MARGINAL COST
FIXED v. VARIABLE COSTS
• FIXED COSTS: DO NOT VARY IN SHORT RUN
• VARIABLE COSTS
FIXED v. VARIABLE COSTS
• FIXED COSTS: DO NOT VARY IN SHORT RUN
• VARIABLE COSTS: VARY WITH LEVEL OF PRODUCTION
TOTAL v. AVERAGE COST
• TOTAL COST: ALL COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH PRODUCT LINE
• AVERAGE COST
TOTAL v. AVERAGE COST
• TOTAL COST: ALL COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH PRODUCT LINE
• AVERAGE COST: MEAN COST PER ITEM PRODUCED
TOTAL v. AVERAGE COST
• TOTAL COST: ALL COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH PRODUCT LINE
• AVERAGE COST: MEAN COST PER ITEM PRODUCED– AVERAGE TOTAL COST
– AVERAGE VARIABLE COST
MARGINAL COST =
ADDITIONAL COST OF PRODUCING
ONE MORE UNIT
ALL COSTS INCLUDE “NORMAL” PROFIT
SUPPLY CURVE =MARGINAL COST CURVE
FOR INDUSTRY AS A WHOLE
SUPPLY & DEMANDDemand
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Q
P P
FACTORS AFFECTING FACTORS AFFECTING SUPPLY CURVESUPPLY CURVE
• TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE
FACTORS AFFECTING FACTORS AFFECTING SUPPLY CURVESUPPLY CURVE
• TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE
• INPUT PRICES
SUPPLY & DEMANDDemand
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Q
P P
PRODUCERS’ GOAL
MARGINAL REVENUE =
MARGINAL COST
PRODUCERS’ GOAL
IN COMPETITIVE MARKET
MARGINAL REVENUE =
PRICE =
MARGINAL COST
SUPPLY & DEMANDDemand
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Q
P P
OPTIMUM CONDITIONS FOR COMPETITIVE EQUILIBRIUM• FUNGIBLE PRODUCT
• SUPPLIERS CAN’T AFFECT EACH OTHERS PRICING/OUTPUT
• MOBILITY/EQUALITY OF RESOURCE AVAILABILITY
• GOOD INFORMATION/LOW TRANSACTION COSTS
OPTIMUM CONDITIONS FOR COMPETITIVE EQUILIBRIUM• FUNGIBLE PRODUCT
• SUPPLIERS CAN’T AFFECT EACH OTHERS PRICING/OUTPUT
• MOBILITY/EQUALITY OF RESOURCE AVAILABILITY
• GOOD INFORMATION/LOW TRANSACTION COSTS
OPTIMUM CONDITIONS FOR COMPETITIVE EQUILIBRIUM• FUNGIBLE PRODUCT
• SUPPLIERS CAN’T AFFECT EACH OTHERS PRICING/OUTPUT
• MOBILITY/EQUALITY OF RESOURCE AVAILABILITY
• GOOD INFORMATION/LOW TRANSACTION COSTS
OPTIMUM CONDITIONS FOR COMPETITIVE EQUILIBRIUM• FUNGIBLE PRODUCT
• SUPPLIERS CAN’T AFFECT EACH OTHERS PRICING/OUTPUT
• MOBILITY/EQUALITY OF RESOURCE AVAILABILITY
• GOOD INFORMATION/LOW TRANSACTION COSTS
OPTIMUM CONDITIONS FOR COMPETITIVE EQUILIBRIUM• FUNGIBLE PRODUCT
• SUPPLIERS CAN’T AFFECT EACH OTHERS PRICING/OUTPUT
• MOBILITY/EQUALITY OF RESOURCE AVAILABILITY
• GOOD INFORMATION/LOW TRANSACTION COSTS
SUPPLY AND DEMANDDemand
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Q
P P
SUPPLY & DEMANDDemand
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Q
P P
SUPPLY & DEMANDDemand
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Q
P P
0
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
P
MC
0
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
P
MC
ELASTICITY(SENSITIVITY TO PRICE CHANGES)
% CHANGE IN OUTPUT NECESSITATED BY 1% CHANGE IN
PRICE
ELASTICITY > 1DEMAND IS ELASTIC
•CONSUMERS RESPONSIVE TO PRICE CHANGES
•GOOD SUBSTITUTES EXIST
ELASTICITY < 1DEMAND IS INELASTIC
•CONSUMERS UNRESPONSIVE TO PRICE CHANGES
•FEW GOOD SUBSTITUTES
TOTAL REVENUE/DEMAND
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Q
P/$ P
TR
Q P TR MRI MC TC Pft 4 21 84 15 7 28 565 19 95 11 7 35 606 17 102 7 7 42 607 15 105 3 7 49 568 13 104 -1 7 56 489 11 99 -5 7 63 3610 9 90 -9 7 70 2011 7 77 -13 7 77 012 5 60 -17 7 84 -24
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
P
MRI
MC
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
P
MRI
MC
Q P TR MRI MC TC Pft 4 21 84 15 7 28 565 19 95 11 7 35 606 17 102 7 7 42 607 15 105 3 7 49 568 13 104 -1 7 56 489 11 99 -5 7 63 3610 9 90 -9 7 70 2011 7 77 -13 7 77 012 5 60 -17 7 84 -24
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
P
MRI
MC
MONOPOLY: PROBLEMS
• HIGH PRICES
• LOWER OUTPUT
• WEALTH TRANSFER (?)
• DEADWEIGHT LOSS
BARRIERS TO ENTRY
• LIMITED ACCESS TO KEY RESOURCES
• GOVERNMENT REGULATION
• HIGH FIXED COSTS
• BRAND LOYALTY
MONOPOLY: PROBLEMS
• HIGH PRICES
• LOWER OUTPUT
• WEALTH TRANSFER (?)
• DEADWEIGHT LOSS
• PREDATORY CONDUCT
• RENT-SEEKING BEHAVIOR
MARKET DEFINITION:TIPS
• FOCUS: DEFENDANT’S PRODUCT
MARKET DEFINITION:TIPS
• FOCUS: DEFENDANT’S PRODUCT
• ADD OTHERS NECESSARY TO GET MARKET POWER
MARKET DEFINITION:TIPS
• FOCUS: DEFENDANT’S PRODUCT
• ADD OTHERS NECESSARY TO GET MARKET POWER
• PRODUCT & GEOGRAPHIC MARKETS
MARKET DEFINITION:TIPS
• FOCUS: DEFENDANT’S PRODUCT
• ADD OTHERS NECESSARY TO GET MARKET POWER
• PRODUCT & GEOGRAPHIC MARKETS
• TRY SEVERAL ALTERNATIVES
MARKET DEFINITION:TIPS
• FOCUS: DEFENDANT’S PRODUCT
• ADD OTHERS NECESSARY TO GET MARKET POWER
• PRODUCT & GEOGRAPHIC MARKETS
• TRY SEVERAL ALTERNATIVES
• ART NOT SCIENCE
MARKET DEFINITION: FACTORS
LOGIC DATA
CONSUMERFOCUS
PRODUCERFOCUS
MARKET DEFINITION: FACTORS
LOGIC DATA
CONSUMERFOCUS
FUNCTION
PRODUCERFOCUS
MARKET DEFINITION: FACTORS
LOGIC DATA
CONSUMERFOCUS
FUNCTION MARKETPERFORMANCE
PRODUCERFOCUS
MARKET DEFINITION: FACTORS
LOGIC DATA
CONSUMERFOCUS
FUNCTION MARKETPERFORMANCE
PRODUCERFOCUS
SUPPLY-SIDESUBSTITUTES
MARKET DEFINITION: FACTORS
LOGIC DATA
CONSUMERFOCUS
FUNCTION MARKETPERFORMANCE
PRODUCERFOCUS
SUPPLY-SIDESUBSTITUTES
DEFENDANTBEHAVIOR
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