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Individual Development
Understanding the Learner Module
Understanding the Learner 2
Individual Development In general psychological terms,
development refers to certain orderly changes that occur in human beings from the time of conception until death.
Different aspects of individual development are:
– Physical development – changes in the body
– Personal development – changes in personality
– Social development – changes in the way we relate to others
– Cognitive development – changes in thinking.
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General Principles of Development
Development occurs at different rates
Development is relatively orderly
Development takes place gradually
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Piaget’s Four Developmental StagesPiaget believed that all people pass through the same four
stages in exactly the same order.
Sensorimotor Stage (birth-2 years): child builds a set of concepts about reality
Pre-operational Stage (2-7): child unable to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations
Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11): child starts to conceptualize and creates structures for problem solving
Formal Operational Stage (11-15): child solves abstract problems and conceptual reasoning
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What does the Infancy Stage mean for a teacher?
Infancy: The Sensorimotor Stage– Child’s thinking involves seeing, hearing,
moving, touching, tasting.– Child develops object permanence.– Child begins logical goal-directed actions
(example: turns a container upside down and shakes out any objects inside and then refills the container).
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What does the Preoperational Stage (early elementary years) mean for the teacher? Child gains ability to use symbols
(words, gestures, images, signs). Child pretends or mimics actions in
play (pretends to drink from a cup while playing house).
Child develops vocabulary between age 2 and 4 of 200 – 2,000 words.
Child is egocentric (sees the world from own view).
Child has difficulty with reversible thinking.
Child engages in collective monologue or actively talking when no one is listening.
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What does the Concrete Operational Stage (later elementary to middle school)mean to the teacher? Child begins to recognize the stability of the
physical world. Child begins classification or grouping of
objects. Child begins to make orderly arrangement
from small to large and to understand sequential relationships.
Child masters reversibility, or the ability to reverse steps in a series of steps.
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What does the Formal Operational Stage (junior and senior high school) mean to the teacher? All earlier abilities are in force. Thinking shifts from ‘what is’ to ‘what might be.’ Inductive reasoning is used. Ability to consider abstract possibilities is gained. Ability to think hypothetically occurs. Some students do not gain all of the aspects of this
stage.
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Jean Piaget’s Stages of Mental Development, A Summary
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Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory & Cognitive Development
Child’s culture shapes cognitive development. Major spokesman was Russian psychologist Lev
Vygotsky. Theory provides alternative to Piaget’s ideas. Theory proposes that cognitive development
depends on interaction with the people and the tools the culture provides.
Language is the most important symbol system supporting learning.
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Implications of Vygotsky’s Theory to Teachers
The following cultural tools can be passed on to the child by teachers:
Imitative Learning (one imitates another). Instructional Learning (child internalizes). Collaborative Learning (peers try to
understand each other). Assisted Learning –(guided practice).
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Psychosocial Development of the ChildErik Erickson’s Theory Proposed 8 Stages
Preschool years-
Stage 1 = Trust versus Mistrust
Stage 2 = Autonomy verses Shame and Doubt Elementary and Middle School-
Stage 3 = Initiative versus Guilt
Stage 4 = Industry versus Inferiority Adolescence-
Stage 5 = Identity versus Role Confusion Beyond the School Years-
Stage 6 = Intimacy versus Isolation
Stage 7 = Generativity versus Stagnation
Stage 8 = Ego integrity versus Despair
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General principles of Erickson’s theory for teachers to consider are: All stages are interdependent on conflict resolution in
earlier stages. Individuals when faced with a developmental crisis are
presented positive and unhealthy alternatives. Resolution or outcome of the developmental crises has a
lasting effect on a person’s view of himself and of society. Unhealthy resolutions have potential life-long negative
consequences. Damage from unhealthy resolutions can be repaired by
choosing positive alternatives in later stages.
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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral DevelopmentLawrence Kohlberg proposed a sequence of stages that the child goes through in making decisions between right and wrong. He proposed that moral reasoning is related to cognitive and emotional development.
Pre-conventional Moral Reasoning Stage – judgment based on a person’s own needs and perceptions
Conventional Moral Reasoning Stage – expectations of society and law are important
Post-conventional Moral Reasoning Stage – judgments are based on abstract and personal principles
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Self- Concept and Self-Esteem
Self-Concept is the way a person perceives himself or herself.
(It is a cognitive structure.)
Self-Esteem is the value that a person places on his or her own abilities and characteristics.
(It is more of an affective reaction.)
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How do issues of self-concept and self-esteem affect behavior at school?
Judgments of teachers, parents, and peers are very important.
Students compare their performance to the performance of their peers in both academic and social situations.
During middle school, students grow more self-conscious, and self-worth is closely tied to appearance and social acceptance.
Students with higher self-esteem are more likely to have favorable attitudes toward school, more positive behavior in class, and greater popularity with peers.
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Suggestions for Encouraging Self-Esteem
Value all students. Create a physically and psychologically safe environment for students. Have clear standards of evaluation. Model appropriate methods of perseverance and self-criticism. Avoid destructive comparisons. Accept students even if you must reject their behavior. Encourage students to take responsibility and show them that they
have choices. Set up support groups and teach students how to help each other. Highlight the value of diversity in cultures and accomplishments.
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Reference
Woolfolk, A. (2004). Educational psychology, (9th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
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