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IMPACT OF LAND USE ON WATER QUALITY OF SUNGAI KENYANA AND ITS TRIBUTARIES IN MUKAH SARAWAK
I
Dayang Farhanna Binti Awang Bolhasan
Master of Environmental Science (Land Use and Water Resource Management)
2014
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Praise to Allah SWT the Almighty for all the blessing and guidance upon me throughout this
study
The motivation and hard work in pursuing a masters degree must come from within but my
acknowledgement are owned to a number of people First and foremost I would like to record
my gratitude and appreciation to my study supervisor Dr Siti Akmar Khadijah binti Ab
Rahim for support and advice in getting the research completed I would also like to thank
SLUSE programme coordinator Dr Tay Meng Guan and Dr Mohd Effendi Wasli for the
advice and guidance throughout this programme
In particular I would like to record special appreciation to all the laboratory assistants and of
course to my partner Hasanaliza binti Bujang Abdillah for their assistance support and
guidance that lead to the completion of this dissertation
I also would like to express my sincere appreciation to the NREB Inland Fisheries Section of
the Agricultural Dwartment and Forest Department for their support during the completion of
this research
Last but not least I would like to thank my family all SLUSE 11 Cohort lectures resource
person and course mates for their encouragement ideas knowledge and experience
throughout this programme
111
Pusat Khidmat MaklulRlt Akademik UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAK
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement 11
Table ofContents III
List ofFigures Vll
List ofTables viii
List of Appendices lX
List of Abbreviations x
Abstract Xl
Abstrak Xll
Introduction
Research Background 1
Significance of Study 3
Objectives 3
Literature Review
Sg Kenyanas background 4 I
Land use status at Sg Kenyana 4
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre) 6
Peat swamp forest 7
Water quality 8
Water quality monitoring and protection measures 9
III
I
I
I
I
I
Impact of water quality parameters to water ecosystem
pH 13
Temperature 14
Turbidity 15
Dissolves Oxygen (DO) 16
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 18
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 19
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 19
Nutrients (Ammoniacal Nitrogen Nitrate amp Phosphorus) 20
Total Coliform Counts (TCC) amp Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) 22
Land use effects on aquatic ecosystem 22
Methodology
Study site 24
Collection of water samples 27
Selected In-situ WQ measurement 27
Selected Ex-situ WQ measurement 27
COD 27
BOD 28
TSS 28
Nutrients analysis
Ammoniacal Nitrogen 28
Nitrate 28
IV
Orthophosphate 28
TCCampFCC 29
Data analysis 29
Results and Discussion
The water quality of the sampling stations 30
Ex-situ water parameters
Comparison with the report of water quality ofSg Kenyana and Sg
In-situ water parameters 30
pH 31
Temperature 32
Turbidity 34
Dissolved Oxygen 35
Chemical Oxygen Demand amp Biological Oxygen Demand5 37
Total Suspended Solids 39
Nutrients (Ammoniacal nitrogen nitrate and orthophosphate) 40
Faecal Coliform Counts amp Total Coliform Counts 43
Liwak by NREB 44 t
pH 45
Dissolved Oxygen 45
Biological Oxygen Demand 45
Chemical Oxygen Demand 46
Total Suspended Solids 46
v
47Ammoniacal Nitrogen
47Water quality index (wQI) ofthe sampling stations
Conclusion and Recommendations
Conclusion 50
Recommendations 52
References 53
Appendices 57
VI
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1 Distribution ofpeat swamps in Southeast Asia 7
Figure 2 Location of sampling stations 25
Figure 3 Mean and SD ofpH values for six stations respectively 32
Figure 4 Mean and SD of temperature values for six stations respectively 33
Figure 5 Mean and SD of turbidity values for six stations respectively 35
Figure 6 Mean and SD of DO concentrations for six stations respectively 36
Figure 7 Mean and SD of COD concentrations for six stations respectively 38
Figure 8 Mean and SD of BODs concentrations for six stations respectively 38
Figure 9 Mean and SD ofTSS concentrations for six stations respectively 39
Figure 10 Mean and SD of ammoniacal nitrogen concentrations for six stations 41
respectively
respectively
Figure 11 Mean and SD of nitrate concentrations for six stations respectively 42
Figure 12 Mean and SD oforthophosphate concentrations for six stations 42
Figure 13 Mean and SD of FCC and TCC values for six stations respectively 43 gt
Vll
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) 11
recorded at six stations
NREB (2010 and 2012)
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification 12
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses 12
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index 12
Table 5 The GPS coordinates and descriptions of each sampling stations 26
Table 6 Mean values ofdepth river wid th and surface water current 31
Table 7 WQI Comparison ofS1 S3 and S4 with water quality report from 44
Table 8 WQI of six stations respectively S2 S3 and S4 are located at 49
different part ofSg Kenyana
Table 9 Mean water quality readings in Sl - S6 66
viii
57
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Appendix 2 Biological Oxygen Demands (BODs) 59
Appendix 3 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 60
Appendix 4 Ammoniacal Nitrogen 61
Appendix 5 Nitrate 62
Appendix 6 Orthophosphate 63
Appendix 7 Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) 64
Appendix 8 WQI Formula and Calculation 65
Appendix 9 Mean water quality readings in S1 - S6 66
ix
I
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DOE Department of Environment
FCC Faecal Colifonn Counts
Kpg Kampung
mglL milligramliter
mm millimeter
NREB Natural Resources and Environment Board Sarawak
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units
NQWS National Water Quality Standards
SI Station 1
S2 Station 2
S3 Station 3
S4 Station 4
S5 Station 5
S6 Station 6
SO Standard Deviation
Sg Sungai
SK Sekolah Kebangsaan
TCC Total Colifonn Counts
TSS Total Suspended Soilds
WQ Water Quality
x
Impact of Land Use on Water Quality ofSungai Kenyana and Its Tributaries Mukah Sarawak
Dayang Farhanna Binti Awang Bolhasan
Sustainable Land Use and Water Resource Management Programme Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
ABSTRACT
(A study was conducted in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries Mukah Sarawak a peat swamp river in order to determine the impact of land use on water quality in the river This area has a great potential for eco-tourism and it also plays important roles as natural habitat for Asian Arowana However the influence of big scale oil palm plantation which also includes huge area of land clearing activities has change the natural condition of the rive) In-situ data and water samples were collected at six sampling stations from 15th until 18 th rv6rch 2013 In-situ data included pH temperature Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and turbidity Analysis for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrate (N03-N) orthophosphate (P04
3-) Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) were conducted in the laboratory The range values of water quality parameters obtained are as follows pH (436 - 587) temperature (2813 - 2857 DC) turbidity (358 - 950 NTU) Do (008 - 432 mglL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - L90 mglL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mglL) ammoniacal nitrogen (0490 shy1261 mgL) nitrate (01 - 02 mgL) orthophosphate (0036 - 01 05 mgL) TCC (l028 shy2750 countIOO mL) and FCC (333 - 1111 countl 00 mL) Overall the results show that the physical-chemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana were in normal range (Class I and II) except for DO ammoniacal nitrogen FCC and turbidity (Class III - moderate) and COD and pH (Class IV - bad) However the low values of pH and DO are normal for peat water (black water) The Water Quality Index (wQI) was calculated to determine the state of water quality in Sg Kenyana Based on WQI Sg Liwak was categorised under Class IV while Sg Kenyana and Btg Mukah were categorised under Class III Out of six physicochemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana that are required for WQI calculation four of them were in Class III and IV (PH DO COD and ammoniacal nitrogen) while the other two were in Class I and II (BOD and TSS)
Keywords water quality parameters land use Water Quality Index (WQI) peat swamp river
XI
ABSTRAK
Satu penyelidikan telah dijalankan di Sg Kenyana dan anak-anak sungainya di Mukah Sarawak yang merupakan sungai paya gambut untuk menentukan kesan penggunaan tanah ke atas kualiti air di sungai tersebut Kawasan ini mempunyai potensi yang tinggi untuk dijadikan sebagai eko-pelancongan dan ia juga memainkan peranan yang penting sebagai habitat semulajadi bagi ikan Arowana Data in-situ dan sampel air telah diambil di enam stesen persampelan dari 15 hingga 18 Mac 2013 Data in-situ adalah termasuk pH suhu oksigen terant (DO) dan kekeruhan Analisis untuk permintaan oksigen kimia (COD) permintaan oksigen biologi (BOD) jumlah pepejal terampai (TSS) ammoniakal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrat (N03-N) ortofosfat (POl) jumlah kiraan koliform (TCC) dan kiraan koliform fekal (FCC) akan ditakukan di makmal Nilai-nitai juat untuk parameter kualiti air adalah seperti berikut pH (436 - 587) suhu (2813 - 2857 DC) kekeruhan (358 - 950 NTU) DO (008 - 432 mgL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - 190 mgL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mgL) ammoniakal nitrogen (0490 - 1261 mgL) nitrat (01 - 02 mgL) ortofosfat (0036 - 0105 mgL) TCC (1028 - 2750 koloniJOO mL) dan FCC (333 - 11 1 1 koloni100 mL) Secara keseluruhan keputusan tersebut menunjukkan parameter fbkokimia bagi air di Sg Kenyana berada dalam lingkungan normal (Kelas 1 dan 11) kecuali DO ammoniakal nitrogen FCC dan kekeruhan (Kelas III - sederhana) dan COD dan pH (Kelas IV - teruk) Walau bagaimanapun nitai pH dan DO yang rendah adalah normal bagi air tanah gambut (air hitam) Indeks Kualiti Air (wQI) yang telah dikira untuk menentukan kualiti air di Sg Kenyana Berdasarkan kepada WQI Sg Liwak dikategorikan di bawah Kelas IV manakala Sg Kenyana dan Btg Mukah dikategorikan di bawah Kelas 111 Empat daripada enam parameter jizikokimia yang diperlukan untuk melentukan WQI di SgKenyana berada di Keas HI dan IV (pH DO COD dan ammoniakal nitrogen) manakala dua lagi berada di bawah Kelas I dan 11 (BOD dan TSS)
Kata Kunci parameter kualiti air kegunaan tanah Indeks Kualiti Air (WQI) sungai paya gambut
Xli
INTRODUCTION
Research Background
Forested peat swamps can be defined as waterlogged forests growing on a layer of
plant material and dead leaves up to 20 metres thick They involve a unique ecosystem
characterised by waterlogging with low dissolved oxygen and nutrients levels in acidic water
systems The naturally high water level ensures their survival by preventing the soil from
drying out to expose the combustible peat matter These swamps provide a variety of services
and goods both directly and indirectly in the form of fisheries and forestry products flood
mitigation water supply energy and groundwater recharge (UNDP 2006)
Peat swamp forests are common in tropical regions with high rainfall where they can
be maintained either by groundwater or by direct rainfall Even though forested peat swamp
occurs in a few areas in Africa and parts of central America more than 60 percent of the
worlds tropical peat lands are found in South-east Asia Most prominent are the large forested
peat swamps in Borneo Island (which belong to Malaysia Indonesia and Brunei) and Sumatra
(Indonesia) However there are also significant areas of peat swamp forests in other parts of
Malaysia Vietnam Indonesia Thailand and Philippines (UNDP 2006) shy
In Malaysia forested peat swamp is the largest wetland type accounting for about 75
percent ofMalaysias total wetlands An estimated 154 million hectares of peat swamp forests
still exist in Malaysia with more than 70 are found in the state of Sarawak 20 can be
found in Peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states of Selangor and Pahang and the rest
can be found in Sabah (UNDP 2006) Only 26 of an estimated 16 million hectares of peat
swamp forests in Sarawak is suitable for conventional commercial agriculture Gandaseca et
al 2009)
Peat swamp forest is important not only for the production of timber but also for its
role in hydrology functions of the ecosystem such as its role in flood mitigation prevention of
saline water intrusion providing habitats and breeding ground for many restricted flora and
fauna sediment and nutrient removal maintenance of river base flow and serving as a vital
carbon sink (Shuhaimi-Othman et ai 2009)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of anthropogenic activities that can cause water deterioration are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers pesticides and herbicides effluents from
industries and waste management plants industrial waste discharges and spills and
construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water
(Weiner 2008)
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of 2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah Sibu
Tourism Board has suggested conserving and protecting several areas that are rich in natural
biodiversity and cultul purposes Therefore Kenyana which has a potential as a natural
habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of the
attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
2
Significance of Study
Sg Kenyana which is located in a peat swamp area whereby serves as an important
natural habitat for blackwater fish including the Asian Arowana Therefore the area has been
proposed to be a nature reserved in order to protect this valuable fish and its habitat from the
land development and will become one of the eco-tourism attractions in Mukah However the
impact of clearing and widening of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries for oil palm
plantation could become a serious threat to the water resources in the area Therefore this
study is essential to identify the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its relation to the land use
especially oil palm plantation in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
Objectives
1 To assess the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
2 To examine the impact of land use (oil palm plantation) on water quality along Sg
Kenyana and its tributaries
j
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Praise to Allah SWT the Almighty for all the blessing and guidance upon me throughout this
study
The motivation and hard work in pursuing a masters degree must come from within but my
acknowledgement are owned to a number of people First and foremost I would like to record
my gratitude and appreciation to my study supervisor Dr Siti Akmar Khadijah binti Ab
Rahim for support and advice in getting the research completed I would also like to thank
SLUSE programme coordinator Dr Tay Meng Guan and Dr Mohd Effendi Wasli for the
advice and guidance throughout this programme
In particular I would like to record special appreciation to all the laboratory assistants and of
course to my partner Hasanaliza binti Bujang Abdillah for their assistance support and
guidance that lead to the completion of this dissertation
I also would like to express my sincere appreciation to the NREB Inland Fisheries Section of
the Agricultural Dwartment and Forest Department for their support during the completion of
this research
Last but not least I would like to thank my family all SLUSE 11 Cohort lectures resource
person and course mates for their encouragement ideas knowledge and experience
throughout this programme
111
Pusat Khidmat MaklulRlt Akademik UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAK
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement 11
Table ofContents III
List ofFigures Vll
List ofTables viii
List of Appendices lX
List of Abbreviations x
Abstract Xl
Abstrak Xll
Introduction
Research Background 1
Significance of Study 3
Objectives 3
Literature Review
Sg Kenyanas background 4 I
Land use status at Sg Kenyana 4
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre) 6
Peat swamp forest 7
Water quality 8
Water quality monitoring and protection measures 9
III
I
I
I
I
I
Impact of water quality parameters to water ecosystem
pH 13
Temperature 14
Turbidity 15
Dissolves Oxygen (DO) 16
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 18
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 19
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 19
Nutrients (Ammoniacal Nitrogen Nitrate amp Phosphorus) 20
Total Coliform Counts (TCC) amp Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) 22
Land use effects on aquatic ecosystem 22
Methodology
Study site 24
Collection of water samples 27
Selected In-situ WQ measurement 27
Selected Ex-situ WQ measurement 27
COD 27
BOD 28
TSS 28
Nutrients analysis
Ammoniacal Nitrogen 28
Nitrate 28
IV
Orthophosphate 28
TCCampFCC 29
Data analysis 29
Results and Discussion
The water quality of the sampling stations 30
Ex-situ water parameters
Comparison with the report of water quality ofSg Kenyana and Sg
In-situ water parameters 30
pH 31
Temperature 32
Turbidity 34
Dissolved Oxygen 35
Chemical Oxygen Demand amp Biological Oxygen Demand5 37
Total Suspended Solids 39
Nutrients (Ammoniacal nitrogen nitrate and orthophosphate) 40
Faecal Coliform Counts amp Total Coliform Counts 43
Liwak by NREB 44 t
pH 45
Dissolved Oxygen 45
Biological Oxygen Demand 45
Chemical Oxygen Demand 46
Total Suspended Solids 46
v
47Ammoniacal Nitrogen
47Water quality index (wQI) ofthe sampling stations
Conclusion and Recommendations
Conclusion 50
Recommendations 52
References 53
Appendices 57
VI
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1 Distribution ofpeat swamps in Southeast Asia 7
Figure 2 Location of sampling stations 25
Figure 3 Mean and SD ofpH values for six stations respectively 32
Figure 4 Mean and SD of temperature values for six stations respectively 33
Figure 5 Mean and SD of turbidity values for six stations respectively 35
Figure 6 Mean and SD of DO concentrations for six stations respectively 36
Figure 7 Mean and SD of COD concentrations for six stations respectively 38
Figure 8 Mean and SD of BODs concentrations for six stations respectively 38
Figure 9 Mean and SD ofTSS concentrations for six stations respectively 39
Figure 10 Mean and SD of ammoniacal nitrogen concentrations for six stations 41
respectively
respectively
Figure 11 Mean and SD of nitrate concentrations for six stations respectively 42
Figure 12 Mean and SD oforthophosphate concentrations for six stations 42
Figure 13 Mean and SD of FCC and TCC values for six stations respectively 43 gt
Vll
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) 11
recorded at six stations
NREB (2010 and 2012)
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification 12
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses 12
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index 12
Table 5 The GPS coordinates and descriptions of each sampling stations 26
Table 6 Mean values ofdepth river wid th and surface water current 31
Table 7 WQI Comparison ofS1 S3 and S4 with water quality report from 44
Table 8 WQI of six stations respectively S2 S3 and S4 are located at 49
different part ofSg Kenyana
Table 9 Mean water quality readings in Sl - S6 66
viii
57
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Appendix 2 Biological Oxygen Demands (BODs) 59
Appendix 3 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 60
Appendix 4 Ammoniacal Nitrogen 61
Appendix 5 Nitrate 62
Appendix 6 Orthophosphate 63
Appendix 7 Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) 64
Appendix 8 WQI Formula and Calculation 65
Appendix 9 Mean water quality readings in S1 - S6 66
ix
I
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DOE Department of Environment
FCC Faecal Colifonn Counts
Kpg Kampung
mglL milligramliter
mm millimeter
NREB Natural Resources and Environment Board Sarawak
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units
NQWS National Water Quality Standards
SI Station 1
S2 Station 2
S3 Station 3
S4 Station 4
S5 Station 5
S6 Station 6
SO Standard Deviation
Sg Sungai
SK Sekolah Kebangsaan
TCC Total Colifonn Counts
TSS Total Suspended Soilds
WQ Water Quality
x
Impact of Land Use on Water Quality ofSungai Kenyana and Its Tributaries Mukah Sarawak
Dayang Farhanna Binti Awang Bolhasan
Sustainable Land Use and Water Resource Management Programme Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
ABSTRACT
(A study was conducted in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries Mukah Sarawak a peat swamp river in order to determine the impact of land use on water quality in the river This area has a great potential for eco-tourism and it also plays important roles as natural habitat for Asian Arowana However the influence of big scale oil palm plantation which also includes huge area of land clearing activities has change the natural condition of the rive) In-situ data and water samples were collected at six sampling stations from 15th until 18 th rv6rch 2013 In-situ data included pH temperature Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and turbidity Analysis for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrate (N03-N) orthophosphate (P04
3-) Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) were conducted in the laboratory The range values of water quality parameters obtained are as follows pH (436 - 587) temperature (2813 - 2857 DC) turbidity (358 - 950 NTU) Do (008 - 432 mglL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - L90 mglL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mglL) ammoniacal nitrogen (0490 shy1261 mgL) nitrate (01 - 02 mgL) orthophosphate (0036 - 01 05 mgL) TCC (l028 shy2750 countIOO mL) and FCC (333 - 1111 countl 00 mL) Overall the results show that the physical-chemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana were in normal range (Class I and II) except for DO ammoniacal nitrogen FCC and turbidity (Class III - moderate) and COD and pH (Class IV - bad) However the low values of pH and DO are normal for peat water (black water) The Water Quality Index (wQI) was calculated to determine the state of water quality in Sg Kenyana Based on WQI Sg Liwak was categorised under Class IV while Sg Kenyana and Btg Mukah were categorised under Class III Out of six physicochemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana that are required for WQI calculation four of them were in Class III and IV (PH DO COD and ammoniacal nitrogen) while the other two were in Class I and II (BOD and TSS)
Keywords water quality parameters land use Water Quality Index (WQI) peat swamp river
XI
ABSTRAK
Satu penyelidikan telah dijalankan di Sg Kenyana dan anak-anak sungainya di Mukah Sarawak yang merupakan sungai paya gambut untuk menentukan kesan penggunaan tanah ke atas kualiti air di sungai tersebut Kawasan ini mempunyai potensi yang tinggi untuk dijadikan sebagai eko-pelancongan dan ia juga memainkan peranan yang penting sebagai habitat semulajadi bagi ikan Arowana Data in-situ dan sampel air telah diambil di enam stesen persampelan dari 15 hingga 18 Mac 2013 Data in-situ adalah termasuk pH suhu oksigen terant (DO) dan kekeruhan Analisis untuk permintaan oksigen kimia (COD) permintaan oksigen biologi (BOD) jumlah pepejal terampai (TSS) ammoniakal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrat (N03-N) ortofosfat (POl) jumlah kiraan koliform (TCC) dan kiraan koliform fekal (FCC) akan ditakukan di makmal Nilai-nitai juat untuk parameter kualiti air adalah seperti berikut pH (436 - 587) suhu (2813 - 2857 DC) kekeruhan (358 - 950 NTU) DO (008 - 432 mgL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - 190 mgL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mgL) ammoniakal nitrogen (0490 - 1261 mgL) nitrat (01 - 02 mgL) ortofosfat (0036 - 0105 mgL) TCC (1028 - 2750 koloniJOO mL) dan FCC (333 - 11 1 1 koloni100 mL) Secara keseluruhan keputusan tersebut menunjukkan parameter fbkokimia bagi air di Sg Kenyana berada dalam lingkungan normal (Kelas 1 dan 11) kecuali DO ammoniakal nitrogen FCC dan kekeruhan (Kelas III - sederhana) dan COD dan pH (Kelas IV - teruk) Walau bagaimanapun nitai pH dan DO yang rendah adalah normal bagi air tanah gambut (air hitam) Indeks Kualiti Air (wQI) yang telah dikira untuk menentukan kualiti air di Sg Kenyana Berdasarkan kepada WQI Sg Liwak dikategorikan di bawah Kelas IV manakala Sg Kenyana dan Btg Mukah dikategorikan di bawah Kelas 111 Empat daripada enam parameter jizikokimia yang diperlukan untuk melentukan WQI di SgKenyana berada di Keas HI dan IV (pH DO COD dan ammoniakal nitrogen) manakala dua lagi berada di bawah Kelas I dan 11 (BOD dan TSS)
Kata Kunci parameter kualiti air kegunaan tanah Indeks Kualiti Air (WQI) sungai paya gambut
Xli
INTRODUCTION
Research Background
Forested peat swamps can be defined as waterlogged forests growing on a layer of
plant material and dead leaves up to 20 metres thick They involve a unique ecosystem
characterised by waterlogging with low dissolved oxygen and nutrients levels in acidic water
systems The naturally high water level ensures their survival by preventing the soil from
drying out to expose the combustible peat matter These swamps provide a variety of services
and goods both directly and indirectly in the form of fisheries and forestry products flood
mitigation water supply energy and groundwater recharge (UNDP 2006)
Peat swamp forests are common in tropical regions with high rainfall where they can
be maintained either by groundwater or by direct rainfall Even though forested peat swamp
occurs in a few areas in Africa and parts of central America more than 60 percent of the
worlds tropical peat lands are found in South-east Asia Most prominent are the large forested
peat swamps in Borneo Island (which belong to Malaysia Indonesia and Brunei) and Sumatra
(Indonesia) However there are also significant areas of peat swamp forests in other parts of
Malaysia Vietnam Indonesia Thailand and Philippines (UNDP 2006) shy
In Malaysia forested peat swamp is the largest wetland type accounting for about 75
percent ofMalaysias total wetlands An estimated 154 million hectares of peat swamp forests
still exist in Malaysia with more than 70 are found in the state of Sarawak 20 can be
found in Peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states of Selangor and Pahang and the rest
can be found in Sabah (UNDP 2006) Only 26 of an estimated 16 million hectares of peat
swamp forests in Sarawak is suitable for conventional commercial agriculture Gandaseca et
al 2009)
Peat swamp forest is important not only for the production of timber but also for its
role in hydrology functions of the ecosystem such as its role in flood mitigation prevention of
saline water intrusion providing habitats and breeding ground for many restricted flora and
fauna sediment and nutrient removal maintenance of river base flow and serving as a vital
carbon sink (Shuhaimi-Othman et ai 2009)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of anthropogenic activities that can cause water deterioration are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers pesticides and herbicides effluents from
industries and waste management plants industrial waste discharges and spills and
construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water
(Weiner 2008)
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of 2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah Sibu
Tourism Board has suggested conserving and protecting several areas that are rich in natural
biodiversity and cultul purposes Therefore Kenyana which has a potential as a natural
habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of the
attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
2
Significance of Study
Sg Kenyana which is located in a peat swamp area whereby serves as an important
natural habitat for blackwater fish including the Asian Arowana Therefore the area has been
proposed to be a nature reserved in order to protect this valuable fish and its habitat from the
land development and will become one of the eco-tourism attractions in Mukah However the
impact of clearing and widening of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries for oil palm
plantation could become a serious threat to the water resources in the area Therefore this
study is essential to identify the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its relation to the land use
especially oil palm plantation in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
Objectives
1 To assess the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
2 To examine the impact of land use (oil palm plantation) on water quality along Sg
Kenyana and its tributaries
j
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
Pusat Khidmat MaklulRlt Akademik UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAK
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement 11
Table ofContents III
List ofFigures Vll
List ofTables viii
List of Appendices lX
List of Abbreviations x
Abstract Xl
Abstrak Xll
Introduction
Research Background 1
Significance of Study 3
Objectives 3
Literature Review
Sg Kenyanas background 4 I
Land use status at Sg Kenyana 4
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre) 6
Peat swamp forest 7
Water quality 8
Water quality monitoring and protection measures 9
III
I
I
I
I
I
Impact of water quality parameters to water ecosystem
pH 13
Temperature 14
Turbidity 15
Dissolves Oxygen (DO) 16
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 18
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 19
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 19
Nutrients (Ammoniacal Nitrogen Nitrate amp Phosphorus) 20
Total Coliform Counts (TCC) amp Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) 22
Land use effects on aquatic ecosystem 22
Methodology
Study site 24
Collection of water samples 27
Selected In-situ WQ measurement 27
Selected Ex-situ WQ measurement 27
COD 27
BOD 28
TSS 28
Nutrients analysis
Ammoniacal Nitrogen 28
Nitrate 28
IV
Orthophosphate 28
TCCampFCC 29
Data analysis 29
Results and Discussion
The water quality of the sampling stations 30
Ex-situ water parameters
Comparison with the report of water quality ofSg Kenyana and Sg
In-situ water parameters 30
pH 31
Temperature 32
Turbidity 34
Dissolved Oxygen 35
Chemical Oxygen Demand amp Biological Oxygen Demand5 37
Total Suspended Solids 39
Nutrients (Ammoniacal nitrogen nitrate and orthophosphate) 40
Faecal Coliform Counts amp Total Coliform Counts 43
Liwak by NREB 44 t
pH 45
Dissolved Oxygen 45
Biological Oxygen Demand 45
Chemical Oxygen Demand 46
Total Suspended Solids 46
v
47Ammoniacal Nitrogen
47Water quality index (wQI) ofthe sampling stations
Conclusion and Recommendations
Conclusion 50
Recommendations 52
References 53
Appendices 57
VI
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1 Distribution ofpeat swamps in Southeast Asia 7
Figure 2 Location of sampling stations 25
Figure 3 Mean and SD ofpH values for six stations respectively 32
Figure 4 Mean and SD of temperature values for six stations respectively 33
Figure 5 Mean and SD of turbidity values for six stations respectively 35
Figure 6 Mean and SD of DO concentrations for six stations respectively 36
Figure 7 Mean and SD of COD concentrations for six stations respectively 38
Figure 8 Mean and SD of BODs concentrations for six stations respectively 38
Figure 9 Mean and SD ofTSS concentrations for six stations respectively 39
Figure 10 Mean and SD of ammoniacal nitrogen concentrations for six stations 41
respectively
respectively
Figure 11 Mean and SD of nitrate concentrations for six stations respectively 42
Figure 12 Mean and SD oforthophosphate concentrations for six stations 42
Figure 13 Mean and SD of FCC and TCC values for six stations respectively 43 gt
Vll
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) 11
recorded at six stations
NREB (2010 and 2012)
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification 12
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses 12
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index 12
Table 5 The GPS coordinates and descriptions of each sampling stations 26
Table 6 Mean values ofdepth river wid th and surface water current 31
Table 7 WQI Comparison ofS1 S3 and S4 with water quality report from 44
Table 8 WQI of six stations respectively S2 S3 and S4 are located at 49
different part ofSg Kenyana
Table 9 Mean water quality readings in Sl - S6 66
viii
57
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Appendix 2 Biological Oxygen Demands (BODs) 59
Appendix 3 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 60
Appendix 4 Ammoniacal Nitrogen 61
Appendix 5 Nitrate 62
Appendix 6 Orthophosphate 63
Appendix 7 Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) 64
Appendix 8 WQI Formula and Calculation 65
Appendix 9 Mean water quality readings in S1 - S6 66
ix
I
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DOE Department of Environment
FCC Faecal Colifonn Counts
Kpg Kampung
mglL milligramliter
mm millimeter
NREB Natural Resources and Environment Board Sarawak
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units
NQWS National Water Quality Standards
SI Station 1
S2 Station 2
S3 Station 3
S4 Station 4
S5 Station 5
S6 Station 6
SO Standard Deviation
Sg Sungai
SK Sekolah Kebangsaan
TCC Total Colifonn Counts
TSS Total Suspended Soilds
WQ Water Quality
x
Impact of Land Use on Water Quality ofSungai Kenyana and Its Tributaries Mukah Sarawak
Dayang Farhanna Binti Awang Bolhasan
Sustainable Land Use and Water Resource Management Programme Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
ABSTRACT
(A study was conducted in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries Mukah Sarawak a peat swamp river in order to determine the impact of land use on water quality in the river This area has a great potential for eco-tourism and it also plays important roles as natural habitat for Asian Arowana However the influence of big scale oil palm plantation which also includes huge area of land clearing activities has change the natural condition of the rive) In-situ data and water samples were collected at six sampling stations from 15th until 18 th rv6rch 2013 In-situ data included pH temperature Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and turbidity Analysis for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrate (N03-N) orthophosphate (P04
3-) Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) were conducted in the laboratory The range values of water quality parameters obtained are as follows pH (436 - 587) temperature (2813 - 2857 DC) turbidity (358 - 950 NTU) Do (008 - 432 mglL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - L90 mglL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mglL) ammoniacal nitrogen (0490 shy1261 mgL) nitrate (01 - 02 mgL) orthophosphate (0036 - 01 05 mgL) TCC (l028 shy2750 countIOO mL) and FCC (333 - 1111 countl 00 mL) Overall the results show that the physical-chemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana were in normal range (Class I and II) except for DO ammoniacal nitrogen FCC and turbidity (Class III - moderate) and COD and pH (Class IV - bad) However the low values of pH and DO are normal for peat water (black water) The Water Quality Index (wQI) was calculated to determine the state of water quality in Sg Kenyana Based on WQI Sg Liwak was categorised under Class IV while Sg Kenyana and Btg Mukah were categorised under Class III Out of six physicochemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana that are required for WQI calculation four of them were in Class III and IV (PH DO COD and ammoniacal nitrogen) while the other two were in Class I and II (BOD and TSS)
Keywords water quality parameters land use Water Quality Index (WQI) peat swamp river
XI
ABSTRAK
Satu penyelidikan telah dijalankan di Sg Kenyana dan anak-anak sungainya di Mukah Sarawak yang merupakan sungai paya gambut untuk menentukan kesan penggunaan tanah ke atas kualiti air di sungai tersebut Kawasan ini mempunyai potensi yang tinggi untuk dijadikan sebagai eko-pelancongan dan ia juga memainkan peranan yang penting sebagai habitat semulajadi bagi ikan Arowana Data in-situ dan sampel air telah diambil di enam stesen persampelan dari 15 hingga 18 Mac 2013 Data in-situ adalah termasuk pH suhu oksigen terant (DO) dan kekeruhan Analisis untuk permintaan oksigen kimia (COD) permintaan oksigen biologi (BOD) jumlah pepejal terampai (TSS) ammoniakal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrat (N03-N) ortofosfat (POl) jumlah kiraan koliform (TCC) dan kiraan koliform fekal (FCC) akan ditakukan di makmal Nilai-nitai juat untuk parameter kualiti air adalah seperti berikut pH (436 - 587) suhu (2813 - 2857 DC) kekeruhan (358 - 950 NTU) DO (008 - 432 mgL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - 190 mgL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mgL) ammoniakal nitrogen (0490 - 1261 mgL) nitrat (01 - 02 mgL) ortofosfat (0036 - 0105 mgL) TCC (1028 - 2750 koloniJOO mL) dan FCC (333 - 11 1 1 koloni100 mL) Secara keseluruhan keputusan tersebut menunjukkan parameter fbkokimia bagi air di Sg Kenyana berada dalam lingkungan normal (Kelas 1 dan 11) kecuali DO ammoniakal nitrogen FCC dan kekeruhan (Kelas III - sederhana) dan COD dan pH (Kelas IV - teruk) Walau bagaimanapun nitai pH dan DO yang rendah adalah normal bagi air tanah gambut (air hitam) Indeks Kualiti Air (wQI) yang telah dikira untuk menentukan kualiti air di Sg Kenyana Berdasarkan kepada WQI Sg Liwak dikategorikan di bawah Kelas IV manakala Sg Kenyana dan Btg Mukah dikategorikan di bawah Kelas 111 Empat daripada enam parameter jizikokimia yang diperlukan untuk melentukan WQI di SgKenyana berada di Keas HI dan IV (pH DO COD dan ammoniakal nitrogen) manakala dua lagi berada di bawah Kelas I dan 11 (BOD dan TSS)
Kata Kunci parameter kualiti air kegunaan tanah Indeks Kualiti Air (WQI) sungai paya gambut
Xli
INTRODUCTION
Research Background
Forested peat swamps can be defined as waterlogged forests growing on a layer of
plant material and dead leaves up to 20 metres thick They involve a unique ecosystem
characterised by waterlogging with low dissolved oxygen and nutrients levels in acidic water
systems The naturally high water level ensures their survival by preventing the soil from
drying out to expose the combustible peat matter These swamps provide a variety of services
and goods both directly and indirectly in the form of fisheries and forestry products flood
mitigation water supply energy and groundwater recharge (UNDP 2006)
Peat swamp forests are common in tropical regions with high rainfall where they can
be maintained either by groundwater or by direct rainfall Even though forested peat swamp
occurs in a few areas in Africa and parts of central America more than 60 percent of the
worlds tropical peat lands are found in South-east Asia Most prominent are the large forested
peat swamps in Borneo Island (which belong to Malaysia Indonesia and Brunei) and Sumatra
(Indonesia) However there are also significant areas of peat swamp forests in other parts of
Malaysia Vietnam Indonesia Thailand and Philippines (UNDP 2006) shy
In Malaysia forested peat swamp is the largest wetland type accounting for about 75
percent ofMalaysias total wetlands An estimated 154 million hectares of peat swamp forests
still exist in Malaysia with more than 70 are found in the state of Sarawak 20 can be
found in Peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states of Selangor and Pahang and the rest
can be found in Sabah (UNDP 2006) Only 26 of an estimated 16 million hectares of peat
swamp forests in Sarawak is suitable for conventional commercial agriculture Gandaseca et
al 2009)
Peat swamp forest is important not only for the production of timber but also for its
role in hydrology functions of the ecosystem such as its role in flood mitigation prevention of
saline water intrusion providing habitats and breeding ground for many restricted flora and
fauna sediment and nutrient removal maintenance of river base flow and serving as a vital
carbon sink (Shuhaimi-Othman et ai 2009)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of anthropogenic activities that can cause water deterioration are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers pesticides and herbicides effluents from
industries and waste management plants industrial waste discharges and spills and
construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water
(Weiner 2008)
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of 2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah Sibu
Tourism Board has suggested conserving and protecting several areas that are rich in natural
biodiversity and cultul purposes Therefore Kenyana which has a potential as a natural
habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of the
attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
2
Significance of Study
Sg Kenyana which is located in a peat swamp area whereby serves as an important
natural habitat for blackwater fish including the Asian Arowana Therefore the area has been
proposed to be a nature reserved in order to protect this valuable fish and its habitat from the
land development and will become one of the eco-tourism attractions in Mukah However the
impact of clearing and widening of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries for oil palm
plantation could become a serious threat to the water resources in the area Therefore this
study is essential to identify the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its relation to the land use
especially oil palm plantation in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
Objectives
1 To assess the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
2 To examine the impact of land use (oil palm plantation) on water quality along Sg
Kenyana and its tributaries
j
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
I
I
I
I
I
Impact of water quality parameters to water ecosystem
pH 13
Temperature 14
Turbidity 15
Dissolves Oxygen (DO) 16
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 18
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 19
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 19
Nutrients (Ammoniacal Nitrogen Nitrate amp Phosphorus) 20
Total Coliform Counts (TCC) amp Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) 22
Land use effects on aquatic ecosystem 22
Methodology
Study site 24
Collection of water samples 27
Selected In-situ WQ measurement 27
Selected Ex-situ WQ measurement 27
COD 27
BOD 28
TSS 28
Nutrients analysis
Ammoniacal Nitrogen 28
Nitrate 28
IV
Orthophosphate 28
TCCampFCC 29
Data analysis 29
Results and Discussion
The water quality of the sampling stations 30
Ex-situ water parameters
Comparison with the report of water quality ofSg Kenyana and Sg
In-situ water parameters 30
pH 31
Temperature 32
Turbidity 34
Dissolved Oxygen 35
Chemical Oxygen Demand amp Biological Oxygen Demand5 37
Total Suspended Solids 39
Nutrients (Ammoniacal nitrogen nitrate and orthophosphate) 40
Faecal Coliform Counts amp Total Coliform Counts 43
Liwak by NREB 44 t
pH 45
Dissolved Oxygen 45
Biological Oxygen Demand 45
Chemical Oxygen Demand 46
Total Suspended Solids 46
v
47Ammoniacal Nitrogen
47Water quality index (wQI) ofthe sampling stations
Conclusion and Recommendations
Conclusion 50
Recommendations 52
References 53
Appendices 57
VI
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1 Distribution ofpeat swamps in Southeast Asia 7
Figure 2 Location of sampling stations 25
Figure 3 Mean and SD ofpH values for six stations respectively 32
Figure 4 Mean and SD of temperature values for six stations respectively 33
Figure 5 Mean and SD of turbidity values for six stations respectively 35
Figure 6 Mean and SD of DO concentrations for six stations respectively 36
Figure 7 Mean and SD of COD concentrations for six stations respectively 38
Figure 8 Mean and SD of BODs concentrations for six stations respectively 38
Figure 9 Mean and SD ofTSS concentrations for six stations respectively 39
Figure 10 Mean and SD of ammoniacal nitrogen concentrations for six stations 41
respectively
respectively
Figure 11 Mean and SD of nitrate concentrations for six stations respectively 42
Figure 12 Mean and SD oforthophosphate concentrations for six stations 42
Figure 13 Mean and SD of FCC and TCC values for six stations respectively 43 gt
Vll
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) 11
recorded at six stations
NREB (2010 and 2012)
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification 12
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses 12
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index 12
Table 5 The GPS coordinates and descriptions of each sampling stations 26
Table 6 Mean values ofdepth river wid th and surface water current 31
Table 7 WQI Comparison ofS1 S3 and S4 with water quality report from 44
Table 8 WQI of six stations respectively S2 S3 and S4 are located at 49
different part ofSg Kenyana
Table 9 Mean water quality readings in Sl - S6 66
viii
57
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Appendix 2 Biological Oxygen Demands (BODs) 59
Appendix 3 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 60
Appendix 4 Ammoniacal Nitrogen 61
Appendix 5 Nitrate 62
Appendix 6 Orthophosphate 63
Appendix 7 Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) 64
Appendix 8 WQI Formula and Calculation 65
Appendix 9 Mean water quality readings in S1 - S6 66
ix
I
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DOE Department of Environment
FCC Faecal Colifonn Counts
Kpg Kampung
mglL milligramliter
mm millimeter
NREB Natural Resources and Environment Board Sarawak
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units
NQWS National Water Quality Standards
SI Station 1
S2 Station 2
S3 Station 3
S4 Station 4
S5 Station 5
S6 Station 6
SO Standard Deviation
Sg Sungai
SK Sekolah Kebangsaan
TCC Total Colifonn Counts
TSS Total Suspended Soilds
WQ Water Quality
x
Impact of Land Use on Water Quality ofSungai Kenyana and Its Tributaries Mukah Sarawak
Dayang Farhanna Binti Awang Bolhasan
Sustainable Land Use and Water Resource Management Programme Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
ABSTRACT
(A study was conducted in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries Mukah Sarawak a peat swamp river in order to determine the impact of land use on water quality in the river This area has a great potential for eco-tourism and it also plays important roles as natural habitat for Asian Arowana However the influence of big scale oil palm plantation which also includes huge area of land clearing activities has change the natural condition of the rive) In-situ data and water samples were collected at six sampling stations from 15th until 18 th rv6rch 2013 In-situ data included pH temperature Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and turbidity Analysis for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrate (N03-N) orthophosphate (P04
3-) Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) were conducted in the laboratory The range values of water quality parameters obtained are as follows pH (436 - 587) temperature (2813 - 2857 DC) turbidity (358 - 950 NTU) Do (008 - 432 mglL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - L90 mglL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mglL) ammoniacal nitrogen (0490 shy1261 mgL) nitrate (01 - 02 mgL) orthophosphate (0036 - 01 05 mgL) TCC (l028 shy2750 countIOO mL) and FCC (333 - 1111 countl 00 mL) Overall the results show that the physical-chemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana were in normal range (Class I and II) except for DO ammoniacal nitrogen FCC and turbidity (Class III - moderate) and COD and pH (Class IV - bad) However the low values of pH and DO are normal for peat water (black water) The Water Quality Index (wQI) was calculated to determine the state of water quality in Sg Kenyana Based on WQI Sg Liwak was categorised under Class IV while Sg Kenyana and Btg Mukah were categorised under Class III Out of six physicochemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana that are required for WQI calculation four of them were in Class III and IV (PH DO COD and ammoniacal nitrogen) while the other two were in Class I and II (BOD and TSS)
Keywords water quality parameters land use Water Quality Index (WQI) peat swamp river
XI
ABSTRAK
Satu penyelidikan telah dijalankan di Sg Kenyana dan anak-anak sungainya di Mukah Sarawak yang merupakan sungai paya gambut untuk menentukan kesan penggunaan tanah ke atas kualiti air di sungai tersebut Kawasan ini mempunyai potensi yang tinggi untuk dijadikan sebagai eko-pelancongan dan ia juga memainkan peranan yang penting sebagai habitat semulajadi bagi ikan Arowana Data in-situ dan sampel air telah diambil di enam stesen persampelan dari 15 hingga 18 Mac 2013 Data in-situ adalah termasuk pH suhu oksigen terant (DO) dan kekeruhan Analisis untuk permintaan oksigen kimia (COD) permintaan oksigen biologi (BOD) jumlah pepejal terampai (TSS) ammoniakal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrat (N03-N) ortofosfat (POl) jumlah kiraan koliform (TCC) dan kiraan koliform fekal (FCC) akan ditakukan di makmal Nilai-nitai juat untuk parameter kualiti air adalah seperti berikut pH (436 - 587) suhu (2813 - 2857 DC) kekeruhan (358 - 950 NTU) DO (008 - 432 mgL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - 190 mgL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mgL) ammoniakal nitrogen (0490 - 1261 mgL) nitrat (01 - 02 mgL) ortofosfat (0036 - 0105 mgL) TCC (1028 - 2750 koloniJOO mL) dan FCC (333 - 11 1 1 koloni100 mL) Secara keseluruhan keputusan tersebut menunjukkan parameter fbkokimia bagi air di Sg Kenyana berada dalam lingkungan normal (Kelas 1 dan 11) kecuali DO ammoniakal nitrogen FCC dan kekeruhan (Kelas III - sederhana) dan COD dan pH (Kelas IV - teruk) Walau bagaimanapun nitai pH dan DO yang rendah adalah normal bagi air tanah gambut (air hitam) Indeks Kualiti Air (wQI) yang telah dikira untuk menentukan kualiti air di Sg Kenyana Berdasarkan kepada WQI Sg Liwak dikategorikan di bawah Kelas IV manakala Sg Kenyana dan Btg Mukah dikategorikan di bawah Kelas 111 Empat daripada enam parameter jizikokimia yang diperlukan untuk melentukan WQI di SgKenyana berada di Keas HI dan IV (pH DO COD dan ammoniakal nitrogen) manakala dua lagi berada di bawah Kelas I dan 11 (BOD dan TSS)
Kata Kunci parameter kualiti air kegunaan tanah Indeks Kualiti Air (WQI) sungai paya gambut
Xli
INTRODUCTION
Research Background
Forested peat swamps can be defined as waterlogged forests growing on a layer of
plant material and dead leaves up to 20 metres thick They involve a unique ecosystem
characterised by waterlogging with low dissolved oxygen and nutrients levels in acidic water
systems The naturally high water level ensures their survival by preventing the soil from
drying out to expose the combustible peat matter These swamps provide a variety of services
and goods both directly and indirectly in the form of fisheries and forestry products flood
mitigation water supply energy and groundwater recharge (UNDP 2006)
Peat swamp forests are common in tropical regions with high rainfall where they can
be maintained either by groundwater or by direct rainfall Even though forested peat swamp
occurs in a few areas in Africa and parts of central America more than 60 percent of the
worlds tropical peat lands are found in South-east Asia Most prominent are the large forested
peat swamps in Borneo Island (which belong to Malaysia Indonesia and Brunei) and Sumatra
(Indonesia) However there are also significant areas of peat swamp forests in other parts of
Malaysia Vietnam Indonesia Thailand and Philippines (UNDP 2006) shy
In Malaysia forested peat swamp is the largest wetland type accounting for about 75
percent ofMalaysias total wetlands An estimated 154 million hectares of peat swamp forests
still exist in Malaysia with more than 70 are found in the state of Sarawak 20 can be
found in Peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states of Selangor and Pahang and the rest
can be found in Sabah (UNDP 2006) Only 26 of an estimated 16 million hectares of peat
swamp forests in Sarawak is suitable for conventional commercial agriculture Gandaseca et
al 2009)
Peat swamp forest is important not only for the production of timber but also for its
role in hydrology functions of the ecosystem such as its role in flood mitigation prevention of
saline water intrusion providing habitats and breeding ground for many restricted flora and
fauna sediment and nutrient removal maintenance of river base flow and serving as a vital
carbon sink (Shuhaimi-Othman et ai 2009)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of anthropogenic activities that can cause water deterioration are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers pesticides and herbicides effluents from
industries and waste management plants industrial waste discharges and spills and
construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water
(Weiner 2008)
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of 2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah Sibu
Tourism Board has suggested conserving and protecting several areas that are rich in natural
biodiversity and cultul purposes Therefore Kenyana which has a potential as a natural
habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of the
attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
2
Significance of Study
Sg Kenyana which is located in a peat swamp area whereby serves as an important
natural habitat for blackwater fish including the Asian Arowana Therefore the area has been
proposed to be a nature reserved in order to protect this valuable fish and its habitat from the
land development and will become one of the eco-tourism attractions in Mukah However the
impact of clearing and widening of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries for oil palm
plantation could become a serious threat to the water resources in the area Therefore this
study is essential to identify the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its relation to the land use
especially oil palm plantation in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
Objectives
1 To assess the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
2 To examine the impact of land use (oil palm plantation) on water quality along Sg
Kenyana and its tributaries
j
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
Orthophosphate 28
TCCampFCC 29
Data analysis 29
Results and Discussion
The water quality of the sampling stations 30
Ex-situ water parameters
Comparison with the report of water quality ofSg Kenyana and Sg
In-situ water parameters 30
pH 31
Temperature 32
Turbidity 34
Dissolved Oxygen 35
Chemical Oxygen Demand amp Biological Oxygen Demand5 37
Total Suspended Solids 39
Nutrients (Ammoniacal nitrogen nitrate and orthophosphate) 40
Faecal Coliform Counts amp Total Coliform Counts 43
Liwak by NREB 44 t
pH 45
Dissolved Oxygen 45
Biological Oxygen Demand 45
Chemical Oxygen Demand 46
Total Suspended Solids 46
v
47Ammoniacal Nitrogen
47Water quality index (wQI) ofthe sampling stations
Conclusion and Recommendations
Conclusion 50
Recommendations 52
References 53
Appendices 57
VI
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1 Distribution ofpeat swamps in Southeast Asia 7
Figure 2 Location of sampling stations 25
Figure 3 Mean and SD ofpH values for six stations respectively 32
Figure 4 Mean and SD of temperature values for six stations respectively 33
Figure 5 Mean and SD of turbidity values for six stations respectively 35
Figure 6 Mean and SD of DO concentrations for six stations respectively 36
Figure 7 Mean and SD of COD concentrations for six stations respectively 38
Figure 8 Mean and SD of BODs concentrations for six stations respectively 38
Figure 9 Mean and SD ofTSS concentrations for six stations respectively 39
Figure 10 Mean and SD of ammoniacal nitrogen concentrations for six stations 41
respectively
respectively
Figure 11 Mean and SD of nitrate concentrations for six stations respectively 42
Figure 12 Mean and SD oforthophosphate concentrations for six stations 42
Figure 13 Mean and SD of FCC and TCC values for six stations respectively 43 gt
Vll
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) 11
recorded at six stations
NREB (2010 and 2012)
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification 12
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses 12
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index 12
Table 5 The GPS coordinates and descriptions of each sampling stations 26
Table 6 Mean values ofdepth river wid th and surface water current 31
Table 7 WQI Comparison ofS1 S3 and S4 with water quality report from 44
Table 8 WQI of six stations respectively S2 S3 and S4 are located at 49
different part ofSg Kenyana
Table 9 Mean water quality readings in Sl - S6 66
viii
57
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Appendix 2 Biological Oxygen Demands (BODs) 59
Appendix 3 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 60
Appendix 4 Ammoniacal Nitrogen 61
Appendix 5 Nitrate 62
Appendix 6 Orthophosphate 63
Appendix 7 Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) 64
Appendix 8 WQI Formula and Calculation 65
Appendix 9 Mean water quality readings in S1 - S6 66
ix
I
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DOE Department of Environment
FCC Faecal Colifonn Counts
Kpg Kampung
mglL milligramliter
mm millimeter
NREB Natural Resources and Environment Board Sarawak
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units
NQWS National Water Quality Standards
SI Station 1
S2 Station 2
S3 Station 3
S4 Station 4
S5 Station 5
S6 Station 6
SO Standard Deviation
Sg Sungai
SK Sekolah Kebangsaan
TCC Total Colifonn Counts
TSS Total Suspended Soilds
WQ Water Quality
x
Impact of Land Use on Water Quality ofSungai Kenyana and Its Tributaries Mukah Sarawak
Dayang Farhanna Binti Awang Bolhasan
Sustainable Land Use and Water Resource Management Programme Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
ABSTRACT
(A study was conducted in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries Mukah Sarawak a peat swamp river in order to determine the impact of land use on water quality in the river This area has a great potential for eco-tourism and it also plays important roles as natural habitat for Asian Arowana However the influence of big scale oil palm plantation which also includes huge area of land clearing activities has change the natural condition of the rive) In-situ data and water samples were collected at six sampling stations from 15th until 18 th rv6rch 2013 In-situ data included pH temperature Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and turbidity Analysis for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrate (N03-N) orthophosphate (P04
3-) Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) were conducted in the laboratory The range values of water quality parameters obtained are as follows pH (436 - 587) temperature (2813 - 2857 DC) turbidity (358 - 950 NTU) Do (008 - 432 mglL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - L90 mglL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mglL) ammoniacal nitrogen (0490 shy1261 mgL) nitrate (01 - 02 mgL) orthophosphate (0036 - 01 05 mgL) TCC (l028 shy2750 countIOO mL) and FCC (333 - 1111 countl 00 mL) Overall the results show that the physical-chemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana were in normal range (Class I and II) except for DO ammoniacal nitrogen FCC and turbidity (Class III - moderate) and COD and pH (Class IV - bad) However the low values of pH and DO are normal for peat water (black water) The Water Quality Index (wQI) was calculated to determine the state of water quality in Sg Kenyana Based on WQI Sg Liwak was categorised under Class IV while Sg Kenyana and Btg Mukah were categorised under Class III Out of six physicochemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana that are required for WQI calculation four of them were in Class III and IV (PH DO COD and ammoniacal nitrogen) while the other two were in Class I and II (BOD and TSS)
Keywords water quality parameters land use Water Quality Index (WQI) peat swamp river
XI
ABSTRAK
Satu penyelidikan telah dijalankan di Sg Kenyana dan anak-anak sungainya di Mukah Sarawak yang merupakan sungai paya gambut untuk menentukan kesan penggunaan tanah ke atas kualiti air di sungai tersebut Kawasan ini mempunyai potensi yang tinggi untuk dijadikan sebagai eko-pelancongan dan ia juga memainkan peranan yang penting sebagai habitat semulajadi bagi ikan Arowana Data in-situ dan sampel air telah diambil di enam stesen persampelan dari 15 hingga 18 Mac 2013 Data in-situ adalah termasuk pH suhu oksigen terant (DO) dan kekeruhan Analisis untuk permintaan oksigen kimia (COD) permintaan oksigen biologi (BOD) jumlah pepejal terampai (TSS) ammoniakal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrat (N03-N) ortofosfat (POl) jumlah kiraan koliform (TCC) dan kiraan koliform fekal (FCC) akan ditakukan di makmal Nilai-nitai juat untuk parameter kualiti air adalah seperti berikut pH (436 - 587) suhu (2813 - 2857 DC) kekeruhan (358 - 950 NTU) DO (008 - 432 mgL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - 190 mgL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mgL) ammoniakal nitrogen (0490 - 1261 mgL) nitrat (01 - 02 mgL) ortofosfat (0036 - 0105 mgL) TCC (1028 - 2750 koloniJOO mL) dan FCC (333 - 11 1 1 koloni100 mL) Secara keseluruhan keputusan tersebut menunjukkan parameter fbkokimia bagi air di Sg Kenyana berada dalam lingkungan normal (Kelas 1 dan 11) kecuali DO ammoniakal nitrogen FCC dan kekeruhan (Kelas III - sederhana) dan COD dan pH (Kelas IV - teruk) Walau bagaimanapun nitai pH dan DO yang rendah adalah normal bagi air tanah gambut (air hitam) Indeks Kualiti Air (wQI) yang telah dikira untuk menentukan kualiti air di Sg Kenyana Berdasarkan kepada WQI Sg Liwak dikategorikan di bawah Kelas IV manakala Sg Kenyana dan Btg Mukah dikategorikan di bawah Kelas 111 Empat daripada enam parameter jizikokimia yang diperlukan untuk melentukan WQI di SgKenyana berada di Keas HI dan IV (pH DO COD dan ammoniakal nitrogen) manakala dua lagi berada di bawah Kelas I dan 11 (BOD dan TSS)
Kata Kunci parameter kualiti air kegunaan tanah Indeks Kualiti Air (WQI) sungai paya gambut
Xli
INTRODUCTION
Research Background
Forested peat swamps can be defined as waterlogged forests growing on a layer of
plant material and dead leaves up to 20 metres thick They involve a unique ecosystem
characterised by waterlogging with low dissolved oxygen and nutrients levels in acidic water
systems The naturally high water level ensures their survival by preventing the soil from
drying out to expose the combustible peat matter These swamps provide a variety of services
and goods both directly and indirectly in the form of fisheries and forestry products flood
mitigation water supply energy and groundwater recharge (UNDP 2006)
Peat swamp forests are common in tropical regions with high rainfall where they can
be maintained either by groundwater or by direct rainfall Even though forested peat swamp
occurs in a few areas in Africa and parts of central America more than 60 percent of the
worlds tropical peat lands are found in South-east Asia Most prominent are the large forested
peat swamps in Borneo Island (which belong to Malaysia Indonesia and Brunei) and Sumatra
(Indonesia) However there are also significant areas of peat swamp forests in other parts of
Malaysia Vietnam Indonesia Thailand and Philippines (UNDP 2006) shy
In Malaysia forested peat swamp is the largest wetland type accounting for about 75
percent ofMalaysias total wetlands An estimated 154 million hectares of peat swamp forests
still exist in Malaysia with more than 70 are found in the state of Sarawak 20 can be
found in Peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states of Selangor and Pahang and the rest
can be found in Sabah (UNDP 2006) Only 26 of an estimated 16 million hectares of peat
swamp forests in Sarawak is suitable for conventional commercial agriculture Gandaseca et
al 2009)
Peat swamp forest is important not only for the production of timber but also for its
role in hydrology functions of the ecosystem such as its role in flood mitigation prevention of
saline water intrusion providing habitats and breeding ground for many restricted flora and
fauna sediment and nutrient removal maintenance of river base flow and serving as a vital
carbon sink (Shuhaimi-Othman et ai 2009)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of anthropogenic activities that can cause water deterioration are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers pesticides and herbicides effluents from
industries and waste management plants industrial waste discharges and spills and
construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water
(Weiner 2008)
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of 2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah Sibu
Tourism Board has suggested conserving and protecting several areas that are rich in natural
biodiversity and cultul purposes Therefore Kenyana which has a potential as a natural
habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of the
attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
2
Significance of Study
Sg Kenyana which is located in a peat swamp area whereby serves as an important
natural habitat for blackwater fish including the Asian Arowana Therefore the area has been
proposed to be a nature reserved in order to protect this valuable fish and its habitat from the
land development and will become one of the eco-tourism attractions in Mukah However the
impact of clearing and widening of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries for oil palm
plantation could become a serious threat to the water resources in the area Therefore this
study is essential to identify the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its relation to the land use
especially oil palm plantation in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
Objectives
1 To assess the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
2 To examine the impact of land use (oil palm plantation) on water quality along Sg
Kenyana and its tributaries
j
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
47Ammoniacal Nitrogen
47Water quality index (wQI) ofthe sampling stations
Conclusion and Recommendations
Conclusion 50
Recommendations 52
References 53
Appendices 57
VI
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1 Distribution ofpeat swamps in Southeast Asia 7
Figure 2 Location of sampling stations 25
Figure 3 Mean and SD ofpH values for six stations respectively 32
Figure 4 Mean and SD of temperature values for six stations respectively 33
Figure 5 Mean and SD of turbidity values for six stations respectively 35
Figure 6 Mean and SD of DO concentrations for six stations respectively 36
Figure 7 Mean and SD of COD concentrations for six stations respectively 38
Figure 8 Mean and SD of BODs concentrations for six stations respectively 38
Figure 9 Mean and SD ofTSS concentrations for six stations respectively 39
Figure 10 Mean and SD of ammoniacal nitrogen concentrations for six stations 41
respectively
respectively
Figure 11 Mean and SD of nitrate concentrations for six stations respectively 42
Figure 12 Mean and SD oforthophosphate concentrations for six stations 42
Figure 13 Mean and SD of FCC and TCC values for six stations respectively 43 gt
Vll
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) 11
recorded at six stations
NREB (2010 and 2012)
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification 12
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses 12
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index 12
Table 5 The GPS coordinates and descriptions of each sampling stations 26
Table 6 Mean values ofdepth river wid th and surface water current 31
Table 7 WQI Comparison ofS1 S3 and S4 with water quality report from 44
Table 8 WQI of six stations respectively S2 S3 and S4 are located at 49
different part ofSg Kenyana
Table 9 Mean water quality readings in Sl - S6 66
viii
57
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Appendix 2 Biological Oxygen Demands (BODs) 59
Appendix 3 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 60
Appendix 4 Ammoniacal Nitrogen 61
Appendix 5 Nitrate 62
Appendix 6 Orthophosphate 63
Appendix 7 Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) 64
Appendix 8 WQI Formula and Calculation 65
Appendix 9 Mean water quality readings in S1 - S6 66
ix
I
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DOE Department of Environment
FCC Faecal Colifonn Counts
Kpg Kampung
mglL milligramliter
mm millimeter
NREB Natural Resources and Environment Board Sarawak
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units
NQWS National Water Quality Standards
SI Station 1
S2 Station 2
S3 Station 3
S4 Station 4
S5 Station 5
S6 Station 6
SO Standard Deviation
Sg Sungai
SK Sekolah Kebangsaan
TCC Total Colifonn Counts
TSS Total Suspended Soilds
WQ Water Quality
x
Impact of Land Use on Water Quality ofSungai Kenyana and Its Tributaries Mukah Sarawak
Dayang Farhanna Binti Awang Bolhasan
Sustainable Land Use and Water Resource Management Programme Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
ABSTRACT
(A study was conducted in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries Mukah Sarawak a peat swamp river in order to determine the impact of land use on water quality in the river This area has a great potential for eco-tourism and it also plays important roles as natural habitat for Asian Arowana However the influence of big scale oil palm plantation which also includes huge area of land clearing activities has change the natural condition of the rive) In-situ data and water samples were collected at six sampling stations from 15th until 18 th rv6rch 2013 In-situ data included pH temperature Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and turbidity Analysis for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrate (N03-N) orthophosphate (P04
3-) Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) were conducted in the laboratory The range values of water quality parameters obtained are as follows pH (436 - 587) temperature (2813 - 2857 DC) turbidity (358 - 950 NTU) Do (008 - 432 mglL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - L90 mglL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mglL) ammoniacal nitrogen (0490 shy1261 mgL) nitrate (01 - 02 mgL) orthophosphate (0036 - 01 05 mgL) TCC (l028 shy2750 countIOO mL) and FCC (333 - 1111 countl 00 mL) Overall the results show that the physical-chemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana were in normal range (Class I and II) except for DO ammoniacal nitrogen FCC and turbidity (Class III - moderate) and COD and pH (Class IV - bad) However the low values of pH and DO are normal for peat water (black water) The Water Quality Index (wQI) was calculated to determine the state of water quality in Sg Kenyana Based on WQI Sg Liwak was categorised under Class IV while Sg Kenyana and Btg Mukah were categorised under Class III Out of six physicochemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana that are required for WQI calculation four of them were in Class III and IV (PH DO COD and ammoniacal nitrogen) while the other two were in Class I and II (BOD and TSS)
Keywords water quality parameters land use Water Quality Index (WQI) peat swamp river
XI
ABSTRAK
Satu penyelidikan telah dijalankan di Sg Kenyana dan anak-anak sungainya di Mukah Sarawak yang merupakan sungai paya gambut untuk menentukan kesan penggunaan tanah ke atas kualiti air di sungai tersebut Kawasan ini mempunyai potensi yang tinggi untuk dijadikan sebagai eko-pelancongan dan ia juga memainkan peranan yang penting sebagai habitat semulajadi bagi ikan Arowana Data in-situ dan sampel air telah diambil di enam stesen persampelan dari 15 hingga 18 Mac 2013 Data in-situ adalah termasuk pH suhu oksigen terant (DO) dan kekeruhan Analisis untuk permintaan oksigen kimia (COD) permintaan oksigen biologi (BOD) jumlah pepejal terampai (TSS) ammoniakal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrat (N03-N) ortofosfat (POl) jumlah kiraan koliform (TCC) dan kiraan koliform fekal (FCC) akan ditakukan di makmal Nilai-nitai juat untuk parameter kualiti air adalah seperti berikut pH (436 - 587) suhu (2813 - 2857 DC) kekeruhan (358 - 950 NTU) DO (008 - 432 mgL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - 190 mgL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mgL) ammoniakal nitrogen (0490 - 1261 mgL) nitrat (01 - 02 mgL) ortofosfat (0036 - 0105 mgL) TCC (1028 - 2750 koloniJOO mL) dan FCC (333 - 11 1 1 koloni100 mL) Secara keseluruhan keputusan tersebut menunjukkan parameter fbkokimia bagi air di Sg Kenyana berada dalam lingkungan normal (Kelas 1 dan 11) kecuali DO ammoniakal nitrogen FCC dan kekeruhan (Kelas III - sederhana) dan COD dan pH (Kelas IV - teruk) Walau bagaimanapun nitai pH dan DO yang rendah adalah normal bagi air tanah gambut (air hitam) Indeks Kualiti Air (wQI) yang telah dikira untuk menentukan kualiti air di Sg Kenyana Berdasarkan kepada WQI Sg Liwak dikategorikan di bawah Kelas IV manakala Sg Kenyana dan Btg Mukah dikategorikan di bawah Kelas 111 Empat daripada enam parameter jizikokimia yang diperlukan untuk melentukan WQI di SgKenyana berada di Keas HI dan IV (pH DO COD dan ammoniakal nitrogen) manakala dua lagi berada di bawah Kelas I dan 11 (BOD dan TSS)
Kata Kunci parameter kualiti air kegunaan tanah Indeks Kualiti Air (WQI) sungai paya gambut
Xli
INTRODUCTION
Research Background
Forested peat swamps can be defined as waterlogged forests growing on a layer of
plant material and dead leaves up to 20 metres thick They involve a unique ecosystem
characterised by waterlogging with low dissolved oxygen and nutrients levels in acidic water
systems The naturally high water level ensures their survival by preventing the soil from
drying out to expose the combustible peat matter These swamps provide a variety of services
and goods both directly and indirectly in the form of fisheries and forestry products flood
mitigation water supply energy and groundwater recharge (UNDP 2006)
Peat swamp forests are common in tropical regions with high rainfall where they can
be maintained either by groundwater or by direct rainfall Even though forested peat swamp
occurs in a few areas in Africa and parts of central America more than 60 percent of the
worlds tropical peat lands are found in South-east Asia Most prominent are the large forested
peat swamps in Borneo Island (which belong to Malaysia Indonesia and Brunei) and Sumatra
(Indonesia) However there are also significant areas of peat swamp forests in other parts of
Malaysia Vietnam Indonesia Thailand and Philippines (UNDP 2006) shy
In Malaysia forested peat swamp is the largest wetland type accounting for about 75
percent ofMalaysias total wetlands An estimated 154 million hectares of peat swamp forests
still exist in Malaysia with more than 70 are found in the state of Sarawak 20 can be
found in Peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states of Selangor and Pahang and the rest
can be found in Sabah (UNDP 2006) Only 26 of an estimated 16 million hectares of peat
swamp forests in Sarawak is suitable for conventional commercial agriculture Gandaseca et
al 2009)
Peat swamp forest is important not only for the production of timber but also for its
role in hydrology functions of the ecosystem such as its role in flood mitigation prevention of
saline water intrusion providing habitats and breeding ground for many restricted flora and
fauna sediment and nutrient removal maintenance of river base flow and serving as a vital
carbon sink (Shuhaimi-Othman et ai 2009)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of anthropogenic activities that can cause water deterioration are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers pesticides and herbicides effluents from
industries and waste management plants industrial waste discharges and spills and
construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water
(Weiner 2008)
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of 2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah Sibu
Tourism Board has suggested conserving and protecting several areas that are rich in natural
biodiversity and cultul purposes Therefore Kenyana which has a potential as a natural
habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of the
attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
2
Significance of Study
Sg Kenyana which is located in a peat swamp area whereby serves as an important
natural habitat for blackwater fish including the Asian Arowana Therefore the area has been
proposed to be a nature reserved in order to protect this valuable fish and its habitat from the
land development and will become one of the eco-tourism attractions in Mukah However the
impact of clearing and widening of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries for oil palm
plantation could become a serious threat to the water resources in the area Therefore this
study is essential to identify the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its relation to the land use
especially oil palm plantation in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
Objectives
1 To assess the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
2 To examine the impact of land use (oil palm plantation) on water quality along Sg
Kenyana and its tributaries
j
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1 Distribution ofpeat swamps in Southeast Asia 7
Figure 2 Location of sampling stations 25
Figure 3 Mean and SD ofpH values for six stations respectively 32
Figure 4 Mean and SD of temperature values for six stations respectively 33
Figure 5 Mean and SD of turbidity values for six stations respectively 35
Figure 6 Mean and SD of DO concentrations for six stations respectively 36
Figure 7 Mean and SD of COD concentrations for six stations respectively 38
Figure 8 Mean and SD of BODs concentrations for six stations respectively 38
Figure 9 Mean and SD ofTSS concentrations for six stations respectively 39
Figure 10 Mean and SD of ammoniacal nitrogen concentrations for six stations 41
respectively
respectively
Figure 11 Mean and SD of nitrate concentrations for six stations respectively 42
Figure 12 Mean and SD oforthophosphate concentrations for six stations 42
Figure 13 Mean and SD of FCC and TCC values for six stations respectively 43 gt
Vll
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) 11
recorded at six stations
NREB (2010 and 2012)
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification 12
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses 12
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index 12
Table 5 The GPS coordinates and descriptions of each sampling stations 26
Table 6 Mean values ofdepth river wid th and surface water current 31
Table 7 WQI Comparison ofS1 S3 and S4 with water quality report from 44
Table 8 WQI of six stations respectively S2 S3 and S4 are located at 49
different part ofSg Kenyana
Table 9 Mean water quality readings in Sl - S6 66
viii
57
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Appendix 2 Biological Oxygen Demands (BODs) 59
Appendix 3 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 60
Appendix 4 Ammoniacal Nitrogen 61
Appendix 5 Nitrate 62
Appendix 6 Orthophosphate 63
Appendix 7 Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) 64
Appendix 8 WQI Formula and Calculation 65
Appendix 9 Mean water quality readings in S1 - S6 66
ix
I
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DOE Department of Environment
FCC Faecal Colifonn Counts
Kpg Kampung
mglL milligramliter
mm millimeter
NREB Natural Resources and Environment Board Sarawak
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units
NQWS National Water Quality Standards
SI Station 1
S2 Station 2
S3 Station 3
S4 Station 4
S5 Station 5
S6 Station 6
SO Standard Deviation
Sg Sungai
SK Sekolah Kebangsaan
TCC Total Colifonn Counts
TSS Total Suspended Soilds
WQ Water Quality
x
Impact of Land Use on Water Quality ofSungai Kenyana and Its Tributaries Mukah Sarawak
Dayang Farhanna Binti Awang Bolhasan
Sustainable Land Use and Water Resource Management Programme Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
ABSTRACT
(A study was conducted in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries Mukah Sarawak a peat swamp river in order to determine the impact of land use on water quality in the river This area has a great potential for eco-tourism and it also plays important roles as natural habitat for Asian Arowana However the influence of big scale oil palm plantation which also includes huge area of land clearing activities has change the natural condition of the rive) In-situ data and water samples were collected at six sampling stations from 15th until 18 th rv6rch 2013 In-situ data included pH temperature Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and turbidity Analysis for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrate (N03-N) orthophosphate (P04
3-) Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) were conducted in the laboratory The range values of water quality parameters obtained are as follows pH (436 - 587) temperature (2813 - 2857 DC) turbidity (358 - 950 NTU) Do (008 - 432 mglL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - L90 mglL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mglL) ammoniacal nitrogen (0490 shy1261 mgL) nitrate (01 - 02 mgL) orthophosphate (0036 - 01 05 mgL) TCC (l028 shy2750 countIOO mL) and FCC (333 - 1111 countl 00 mL) Overall the results show that the physical-chemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana were in normal range (Class I and II) except for DO ammoniacal nitrogen FCC and turbidity (Class III - moderate) and COD and pH (Class IV - bad) However the low values of pH and DO are normal for peat water (black water) The Water Quality Index (wQI) was calculated to determine the state of water quality in Sg Kenyana Based on WQI Sg Liwak was categorised under Class IV while Sg Kenyana and Btg Mukah were categorised under Class III Out of six physicochemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana that are required for WQI calculation four of them were in Class III and IV (PH DO COD and ammoniacal nitrogen) while the other two were in Class I and II (BOD and TSS)
Keywords water quality parameters land use Water Quality Index (WQI) peat swamp river
XI
ABSTRAK
Satu penyelidikan telah dijalankan di Sg Kenyana dan anak-anak sungainya di Mukah Sarawak yang merupakan sungai paya gambut untuk menentukan kesan penggunaan tanah ke atas kualiti air di sungai tersebut Kawasan ini mempunyai potensi yang tinggi untuk dijadikan sebagai eko-pelancongan dan ia juga memainkan peranan yang penting sebagai habitat semulajadi bagi ikan Arowana Data in-situ dan sampel air telah diambil di enam stesen persampelan dari 15 hingga 18 Mac 2013 Data in-situ adalah termasuk pH suhu oksigen terant (DO) dan kekeruhan Analisis untuk permintaan oksigen kimia (COD) permintaan oksigen biologi (BOD) jumlah pepejal terampai (TSS) ammoniakal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrat (N03-N) ortofosfat (POl) jumlah kiraan koliform (TCC) dan kiraan koliform fekal (FCC) akan ditakukan di makmal Nilai-nitai juat untuk parameter kualiti air adalah seperti berikut pH (436 - 587) suhu (2813 - 2857 DC) kekeruhan (358 - 950 NTU) DO (008 - 432 mgL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - 190 mgL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mgL) ammoniakal nitrogen (0490 - 1261 mgL) nitrat (01 - 02 mgL) ortofosfat (0036 - 0105 mgL) TCC (1028 - 2750 koloniJOO mL) dan FCC (333 - 11 1 1 koloni100 mL) Secara keseluruhan keputusan tersebut menunjukkan parameter fbkokimia bagi air di Sg Kenyana berada dalam lingkungan normal (Kelas 1 dan 11) kecuali DO ammoniakal nitrogen FCC dan kekeruhan (Kelas III - sederhana) dan COD dan pH (Kelas IV - teruk) Walau bagaimanapun nitai pH dan DO yang rendah adalah normal bagi air tanah gambut (air hitam) Indeks Kualiti Air (wQI) yang telah dikira untuk menentukan kualiti air di Sg Kenyana Berdasarkan kepada WQI Sg Liwak dikategorikan di bawah Kelas IV manakala Sg Kenyana dan Btg Mukah dikategorikan di bawah Kelas 111 Empat daripada enam parameter jizikokimia yang diperlukan untuk melentukan WQI di SgKenyana berada di Keas HI dan IV (pH DO COD dan ammoniakal nitrogen) manakala dua lagi berada di bawah Kelas I dan 11 (BOD dan TSS)
Kata Kunci parameter kualiti air kegunaan tanah Indeks Kualiti Air (WQI) sungai paya gambut
Xli
INTRODUCTION
Research Background
Forested peat swamps can be defined as waterlogged forests growing on a layer of
plant material and dead leaves up to 20 metres thick They involve a unique ecosystem
characterised by waterlogging with low dissolved oxygen and nutrients levels in acidic water
systems The naturally high water level ensures their survival by preventing the soil from
drying out to expose the combustible peat matter These swamps provide a variety of services
and goods both directly and indirectly in the form of fisheries and forestry products flood
mitigation water supply energy and groundwater recharge (UNDP 2006)
Peat swamp forests are common in tropical regions with high rainfall where they can
be maintained either by groundwater or by direct rainfall Even though forested peat swamp
occurs in a few areas in Africa and parts of central America more than 60 percent of the
worlds tropical peat lands are found in South-east Asia Most prominent are the large forested
peat swamps in Borneo Island (which belong to Malaysia Indonesia and Brunei) and Sumatra
(Indonesia) However there are also significant areas of peat swamp forests in other parts of
Malaysia Vietnam Indonesia Thailand and Philippines (UNDP 2006) shy
In Malaysia forested peat swamp is the largest wetland type accounting for about 75
percent ofMalaysias total wetlands An estimated 154 million hectares of peat swamp forests
still exist in Malaysia with more than 70 are found in the state of Sarawak 20 can be
found in Peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states of Selangor and Pahang and the rest
can be found in Sabah (UNDP 2006) Only 26 of an estimated 16 million hectares of peat
swamp forests in Sarawak is suitable for conventional commercial agriculture Gandaseca et
al 2009)
Peat swamp forest is important not only for the production of timber but also for its
role in hydrology functions of the ecosystem such as its role in flood mitigation prevention of
saline water intrusion providing habitats and breeding ground for many restricted flora and
fauna sediment and nutrient removal maintenance of river base flow and serving as a vital
carbon sink (Shuhaimi-Othman et ai 2009)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of anthropogenic activities that can cause water deterioration are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers pesticides and herbicides effluents from
industries and waste management plants industrial waste discharges and spills and
construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water
(Weiner 2008)
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of 2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah Sibu
Tourism Board has suggested conserving and protecting several areas that are rich in natural
biodiversity and cultul purposes Therefore Kenyana which has a potential as a natural
habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of the
attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
2
Significance of Study
Sg Kenyana which is located in a peat swamp area whereby serves as an important
natural habitat for blackwater fish including the Asian Arowana Therefore the area has been
proposed to be a nature reserved in order to protect this valuable fish and its habitat from the
land development and will become one of the eco-tourism attractions in Mukah However the
impact of clearing and widening of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries for oil palm
plantation could become a serious threat to the water resources in the area Therefore this
study is essential to identify the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its relation to the land use
especially oil palm plantation in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
Objectives
1 To assess the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
2 To examine the impact of land use (oil palm plantation) on water quality along Sg
Kenyana and its tributaries
j
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) 11
recorded at six stations
NREB (2010 and 2012)
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification 12
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses 12
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index 12
Table 5 The GPS coordinates and descriptions of each sampling stations 26
Table 6 Mean values ofdepth river wid th and surface water current 31
Table 7 WQI Comparison ofS1 S3 and S4 with water quality report from 44
Table 8 WQI of six stations respectively S2 S3 and S4 are located at 49
different part ofSg Kenyana
Table 9 Mean water quality readings in Sl - S6 66
viii
57
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Appendix 2 Biological Oxygen Demands (BODs) 59
Appendix 3 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 60
Appendix 4 Ammoniacal Nitrogen 61
Appendix 5 Nitrate 62
Appendix 6 Orthophosphate 63
Appendix 7 Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) 64
Appendix 8 WQI Formula and Calculation 65
Appendix 9 Mean water quality readings in S1 - S6 66
ix
I
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DOE Department of Environment
FCC Faecal Colifonn Counts
Kpg Kampung
mglL milligramliter
mm millimeter
NREB Natural Resources and Environment Board Sarawak
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units
NQWS National Water Quality Standards
SI Station 1
S2 Station 2
S3 Station 3
S4 Station 4
S5 Station 5
S6 Station 6
SO Standard Deviation
Sg Sungai
SK Sekolah Kebangsaan
TCC Total Colifonn Counts
TSS Total Suspended Soilds
WQ Water Quality
x
Impact of Land Use on Water Quality ofSungai Kenyana and Its Tributaries Mukah Sarawak
Dayang Farhanna Binti Awang Bolhasan
Sustainable Land Use and Water Resource Management Programme Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
ABSTRACT
(A study was conducted in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries Mukah Sarawak a peat swamp river in order to determine the impact of land use on water quality in the river This area has a great potential for eco-tourism and it also plays important roles as natural habitat for Asian Arowana However the influence of big scale oil palm plantation which also includes huge area of land clearing activities has change the natural condition of the rive) In-situ data and water samples were collected at six sampling stations from 15th until 18 th rv6rch 2013 In-situ data included pH temperature Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and turbidity Analysis for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrate (N03-N) orthophosphate (P04
3-) Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) were conducted in the laboratory The range values of water quality parameters obtained are as follows pH (436 - 587) temperature (2813 - 2857 DC) turbidity (358 - 950 NTU) Do (008 - 432 mglL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - L90 mglL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mglL) ammoniacal nitrogen (0490 shy1261 mgL) nitrate (01 - 02 mgL) orthophosphate (0036 - 01 05 mgL) TCC (l028 shy2750 countIOO mL) and FCC (333 - 1111 countl 00 mL) Overall the results show that the physical-chemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana were in normal range (Class I and II) except for DO ammoniacal nitrogen FCC and turbidity (Class III - moderate) and COD and pH (Class IV - bad) However the low values of pH and DO are normal for peat water (black water) The Water Quality Index (wQI) was calculated to determine the state of water quality in Sg Kenyana Based on WQI Sg Liwak was categorised under Class IV while Sg Kenyana and Btg Mukah were categorised under Class III Out of six physicochemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana that are required for WQI calculation four of them were in Class III and IV (PH DO COD and ammoniacal nitrogen) while the other two were in Class I and II (BOD and TSS)
Keywords water quality parameters land use Water Quality Index (WQI) peat swamp river
XI
ABSTRAK
Satu penyelidikan telah dijalankan di Sg Kenyana dan anak-anak sungainya di Mukah Sarawak yang merupakan sungai paya gambut untuk menentukan kesan penggunaan tanah ke atas kualiti air di sungai tersebut Kawasan ini mempunyai potensi yang tinggi untuk dijadikan sebagai eko-pelancongan dan ia juga memainkan peranan yang penting sebagai habitat semulajadi bagi ikan Arowana Data in-situ dan sampel air telah diambil di enam stesen persampelan dari 15 hingga 18 Mac 2013 Data in-situ adalah termasuk pH suhu oksigen terant (DO) dan kekeruhan Analisis untuk permintaan oksigen kimia (COD) permintaan oksigen biologi (BOD) jumlah pepejal terampai (TSS) ammoniakal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrat (N03-N) ortofosfat (POl) jumlah kiraan koliform (TCC) dan kiraan koliform fekal (FCC) akan ditakukan di makmal Nilai-nitai juat untuk parameter kualiti air adalah seperti berikut pH (436 - 587) suhu (2813 - 2857 DC) kekeruhan (358 - 950 NTU) DO (008 - 432 mgL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - 190 mgL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mgL) ammoniakal nitrogen (0490 - 1261 mgL) nitrat (01 - 02 mgL) ortofosfat (0036 - 0105 mgL) TCC (1028 - 2750 koloniJOO mL) dan FCC (333 - 11 1 1 koloni100 mL) Secara keseluruhan keputusan tersebut menunjukkan parameter fbkokimia bagi air di Sg Kenyana berada dalam lingkungan normal (Kelas 1 dan 11) kecuali DO ammoniakal nitrogen FCC dan kekeruhan (Kelas III - sederhana) dan COD dan pH (Kelas IV - teruk) Walau bagaimanapun nitai pH dan DO yang rendah adalah normal bagi air tanah gambut (air hitam) Indeks Kualiti Air (wQI) yang telah dikira untuk menentukan kualiti air di Sg Kenyana Berdasarkan kepada WQI Sg Liwak dikategorikan di bawah Kelas IV manakala Sg Kenyana dan Btg Mukah dikategorikan di bawah Kelas 111 Empat daripada enam parameter jizikokimia yang diperlukan untuk melentukan WQI di SgKenyana berada di Keas HI dan IV (pH DO COD dan ammoniakal nitrogen) manakala dua lagi berada di bawah Kelas I dan 11 (BOD dan TSS)
Kata Kunci parameter kualiti air kegunaan tanah Indeks Kualiti Air (WQI) sungai paya gambut
Xli
INTRODUCTION
Research Background
Forested peat swamps can be defined as waterlogged forests growing on a layer of
plant material and dead leaves up to 20 metres thick They involve a unique ecosystem
characterised by waterlogging with low dissolved oxygen and nutrients levels in acidic water
systems The naturally high water level ensures their survival by preventing the soil from
drying out to expose the combustible peat matter These swamps provide a variety of services
and goods both directly and indirectly in the form of fisheries and forestry products flood
mitigation water supply energy and groundwater recharge (UNDP 2006)
Peat swamp forests are common in tropical regions with high rainfall where they can
be maintained either by groundwater or by direct rainfall Even though forested peat swamp
occurs in a few areas in Africa and parts of central America more than 60 percent of the
worlds tropical peat lands are found in South-east Asia Most prominent are the large forested
peat swamps in Borneo Island (which belong to Malaysia Indonesia and Brunei) and Sumatra
(Indonesia) However there are also significant areas of peat swamp forests in other parts of
Malaysia Vietnam Indonesia Thailand and Philippines (UNDP 2006) shy
In Malaysia forested peat swamp is the largest wetland type accounting for about 75
percent ofMalaysias total wetlands An estimated 154 million hectares of peat swamp forests
still exist in Malaysia with more than 70 are found in the state of Sarawak 20 can be
found in Peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states of Selangor and Pahang and the rest
can be found in Sabah (UNDP 2006) Only 26 of an estimated 16 million hectares of peat
swamp forests in Sarawak is suitable for conventional commercial agriculture Gandaseca et
al 2009)
Peat swamp forest is important not only for the production of timber but also for its
role in hydrology functions of the ecosystem such as its role in flood mitigation prevention of
saline water intrusion providing habitats and breeding ground for many restricted flora and
fauna sediment and nutrient removal maintenance of river base flow and serving as a vital
carbon sink (Shuhaimi-Othman et ai 2009)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of anthropogenic activities that can cause water deterioration are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers pesticides and herbicides effluents from
industries and waste management plants industrial waste discharges and spills and
construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water
(Weiner 2008)
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of 2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah Sibu
Tourism Board has suggested conserving and protecting several areas that are rich in natural
biodiversity and cultul purposes Therefore Kenyana which has a potential as a natural
habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of the
attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
2
Significance of Study
Sg Kenyana which is located in a peat swamp area whereby serves as an important
natural habitat for blackwater fish including the Asian Arowana Therefore the area has been
proposed to be a nature reserved in order to protect this valuable fish and its habitat from the
land development and will become one of the eco-tourism attractions in Mukah However the
impact of clearing and widening of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries for oil palm
plantation could become a serious threat to the water resources in the area Therefore this
study is essential to identify the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its relation to the land use
especially oil palm plantation in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
Objectives
1 To assess the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
2 To examine the impact of land use (oil palm plantation) on water quality along Sg
Kenyana and its tributaries
j
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
57
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Appendix 2 Biological Oxygen Demands (BODs) 59
Appendix 3 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 60
Appendix 4 Ammoniacal Nitrogen 61
Appendix 5 Nitrate 62
Appendix 6 Orthophosphate 63
Appendix 7 Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) 64
Appendix 8 WQI Formula and Calculation 65
Appendix 9 Mean water quality readings in S1 - S6 66
ix
I
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DOE Department of Environment
FCC Faecal Colifonn Counts
Kpg Kampung
mglL milligramliter
mm millimeter
NREB Natural Resources and Environment Board Sarawak
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units
NQWS National Water Quality Standards
SI Station 1
S2 Station 2
S3 Station 3
S4 Station 4
S5 Station 5
S6 Station 6
SO Standard Deviation
Sg Sungai
SK Sekolah Kebangsaan
TCC Total Colifonn Counts
TSS Total Suspended Soilds
WQ Water Quality
x
Impact of Land Use on Water Quality ofSungai Kenyana and Its Tributaries Mukah Sarawak
Dayang Farhanna Binti Awang Bolhasan
Sustainable Land Use and Water Resource Management Programme Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
ABSTRACT
(A study was conducted in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries Mukah Sarawak a peat swamp river in order to determine the impact of land use on water quality in the river This area has a great potential for eco-tourism and it also plays important roles as natural habitat for Asian Arowana However the influence of big scale oil palm plantation which also includes huge area of land clearing activities has change the natural condition of the rive) In-situ data and water samples were collected at six sampling stations from 15th until 18 th rv6rch 2013 In-situ data included pH temperature Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and turbidity Analysis for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrate (N03-N) orthophosphate (P04
3-) Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) were conducted in the laboratory The range values of water quality parameters obtained are as follows pH (436 - 587) temperature (2813 - 2857 DC) turbidity (358 - 950 NTU) Do (008 - 432 mglL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - L90 mglL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mglL) ammoniacal nitrogen (0490 shy1261 mgL) nitrate (01 - 02 mgL) orthophosphate (0036 - 01 05 mgL) TCC (l028 shy2750 countIOO mL) and FCC (333 - 1111 countl 00 mL) Overall the results show that the physical-chemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana were in normal range (Class I and II) except for DO ammoniacal nitrogen FCC and turbidity (Class III - moderate) and COD and pH (Class IV - bad) However the low values of pH and DO are normal for peat water (black water) The Water Quality Index (wQI) was calculated to determine the state of water quality in Sg Kenyana Based on WQI Sg Liwak was categorised under Class IV while Sg Kenyana and Btg Mukah were categorised under Class III Out of six physicochemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana that are required for WQI calculation four of them were in Class III and IV (PH DO COD and ammoniacal nitrogen) while the other two were in Class I and II (BOD and TSS)
Keywords water quality parameters land use Water Quality Index (WQI) peat swamp river
XI
ABSTRAK
Satu penyelidikan telah dijalankan di Sg Kenyana dan anak-anak sungainya di Mukah Sarawak yang merupakan sungai paya gambut untuk menentukan kesan penggunaan tanah ke atas kualiti air di sungai tersebut Kawasan ini mempunyai potensi yang tinggi untuk dijadikan sebagai eko-pelancongan dan ia juga memainkan peranan yang penting sebagai habitat semulajadi bagi ikan Arowana Data in-situ dan sampel air telah diambil di enam stesen persampelan dari 15 hingga 18 Mac 2013 Data in-situ adalah termasuk pH suhu oksigen terant (DO) dan kekeruhan Analisis untuk permintaan oksigen kimia (COD) permintaan oksigen biologi (BOD) jumlah pepejal terampai (TSS) ammoniakal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrat (N03-N) ortofosfat (POl) jumlah kiraan koliform (TCC) dan kiraan koliform fekal (FCC) akan ditakukan di makmal Nilai-nitai juat untuk parameter kualiti air adalah seperti berikut pH (436 - 587) suhu (2813 - 2857 DC) kekeruhan (358 - 950 NTU) DO (008 - 432 mgL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - 190 mgL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mgL) ammoniakal nitrogen (0490 - 1261 mgL) nitrat (01 - 02 mgL) ortofosfat (0036 - 0105 mgL) TCC (1028 - 2750 koloniJOO mL) dan FCC (333 - 11 1 1 koloni100 mL) Secara keseluruhan keputusan tersebut menunjukkan parameter fbkokimia bagi air di Sg Kenyana berada dalam lingkungan normal (Kelas 1 dan 11) kecuali DO ammoniakal nitrogen FCC dan kekeruhan (Kelas III - sederhana) dan COD dan pH (Kelas IV - teruk) Walau bagaimanapun nitai pH dan DO yang rendah adalah normal bagi air tanah gambut (air hitam) Indeks Kualiti Air (wQI) yang telah dikira untuk menentukan kualiti air di Sg Kenyana Berdasarkan kepada WQI Sg Liwak dikategorikan di bawah Kelas IV manakala Sg Kenyana dan Btg Mukah dikategorikan di bawah Kelas 111 Empat daripada enam parameter jizikokimia yang diperlukan untuk melentukan WQI di SgKenyana berada di Keas HI dan IV (pH DO COD dan ammoniakal nitrogen) manakala dua lagi berada di bawah Kelas I dan 11 (BOD dan TSS)
Kata Kunci parameter kualiti air kegunaan tanah Indeks Kualiti Air (WQI) sungai paya gambut
Xli
INTRODUCTION
Research Background
Forested peat swamps can be defined as waterlogged forests growing on a layer of
plant material and dead leaves up to 20 metres thick They involve a unique ecosystem
characterised by waterlogging with low dissolved oxygen and nutrients levels in acidic water
systems The naturally high water level ensures their survival by preventing the soil from
drying out to expose the combustible peat matter These swamps provide a variety of services
and goods both directly and indirectly in the form of fisheries and forestry products flood
mitigation water supply energy and groundwater recharge (UNDP 2006)
Peat swamp forests are common in tropical regions with high rainfall where they can
be maintained either by groundwater or by direct rainfall Even though forested peat swamp
occurs in a few areas in Africa and parts of central America more than 60 percent of the
worlds tropical peat lands are found in South-east Asia Most prominent are the large forested
peat swamps in Borneo Island (which belong to Malaysia Indonesia and Brunei) and Sumatra
(Indonesia) However there are also significant areas of peat swamp forests in other parts of
Malaysia Vietnam Indonesia Thailand and Philippines (UNDP 2006) shy
In Malaysia forested peat swamp is the largest wetland type accounting for about 75
percent ofMalaysias total wetlands An estimated 154 million hectares of peat swamp forests
still exist in Malaysia with more than 70 are found in the state of Sarawak 20 can be
found in Peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states of Selangor and Pahang and the rest
can be found in Sabah (UNDP 2006) Only 26 of an estimated 16 million hectares of peat
swamp forests in Sarawak is suitable for conventional commercial agriculture Gandaseca et
al 2009)
Peat swamp forest is important not only for the production of timber but also for its
role in hydrology functions of the ecosystem such as its role in flood mitigation prevention of
saline water intrusion providing habitats and breeding ground for many restricted flora and
fauna sediment and nutrient removal maintenance of river base flow and serving as a vital
carbon sink (Shuhaimi-Othman et ai 2009)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of anthropogenic activities that can cause water deterioration are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers pesticides and herbicides effluents from
industries and waste management plants industrial waste discharges and spills and
construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water
(Weiner 2008)
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of 2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah Sibu
Tourism Board has suggested conserving and protecting several areas that are rich in natural
biodiversity and cultul purposes Therefore Kenyana which has a potential as a natural
habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of the
attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
2
Significance of Study
Sg Kenyana which is located in a peat swamp area whereby serves as an important
natural habitat for blackwater fish including the Asian Arowana Therefore the area has been
proposed to be a nature reserved in order to protect this valuable fish and its habitat from the
land development and will become one of the eco-tourism attractions in Mukah However the
impact of clearing and widening of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries for oil palm
plantation could become a serious threat to the water resources in the area Therefore this
study is essential to identify the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its relation to the land use
especially oil palm plantation in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
Objectives
1 To assess the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
2 To examine the impact of land use (oil palm plantation) on water quality along Sg
Kenyana and its tributaries
j
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DOE Department of Environment
FCC Faecal Colifonn Counts
Kpg Kampung
mglL milligramliter
mm millimeter
NREB Natural Resources and Environment Board Sarawak
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units
NQWS National Water Quality Standards
SI Station 1
S2 Station 2
S3 Station 3
S4 Station 4
S5 Station 5
S6 Station 6
SO Standard Deviation
Sg Sungai
SK Sekolah Kebangsaan
TCC Total Colifonn Counts
TSS Total Suspended Soilds
WQ Water Quality
x
Impact of Land Use on Water Quality ofSungai Kenyana and Its Tributaries Mukah Sarawak
Dayang Farhanna Binti Awang Bolhasan
Sustainable Land Use and Water Resource Management Programme Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
ABSTRACT
(A study was conducted in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries Mukah Sarawak a peat swamp river in order to determine the impact of land use on water quality in the river This area has a great potential for eco-tourism and it also plays important roles as natural habitat for Asian Arowana However the influence of big scale oil palm plantation which also includes huge area of land clearing activities has change the natural condition of the rive) In-situ data and water samples were collected at six sampling stations from 15th until 18 th rv6rch 2013 In-situ data included pH temperature Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and turbidity Analysis for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrate (N03-N) orthophosphate (P04
3-) Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) were conducted in the laboratory The range values of water quality parameters obtained are as follows pH (436 - 587) temperature (2813 - 2857 DC) turbidity (358 - 950 NTU) Do (008 - 432 mglL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - L90 mglL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mglL) ammoniacal nitrogen (0490 shy1261 mgL) nitrate (01 - 02 mgL) orthophosphate (0036 - 01 05 mgL) TCC (l028 shy2750 countIOO mL) and FCC (333 - 1111 countl 00 mL) Overall the results show that the physical-chemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana were in normal range (Class I and II) except for DO ammoniacal nitrogen FCC and turbidity (Class III - moderate) and COD and pH (Class IV - bad) However the low values of pH and DO are normal for peat water (black water) The Water Quality Index (wQI) was calculated to determine the state of water quality in Sg Kenyana Based on WQI Sg Liwak was categorised under Class IV while Sg Kenyana and Btg Mukah were categorised under Class III Out of six physicochemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana that are required for WQI calculation four of them were in Class III and IV (PH DO COD and ammoniacal nitrogen) while the other two were in Class I and II (BOD and TSS)
Keywords water quality parameters land use Water Quality Index (WQI) peat swamp river
XI
ABSTRAK
Satu penyelidikan telah dijalankan di Sg Kenyana dan anak-anak sungainya di Mukah Sarawak yang merupakan sungai paya gambut untuk menentukan kesan penggunaan tanah ke atas kualiti air di sungai tersebut Kawasan ini mempunyai potensi yang tinggi untuk dijadikan sebagai eko-pelancongan dan ia juga memainkan peranan yang penting sebagai habitat semulajadi bagi ikan Arowana Data in-situ dan sampel air telah diambil di enam stesen persampelan dari 15 hingga 18 Mac 2013 Data in-situ adalah termasuk pH suhu oksigen terant (DO) dan kekeruhan Analisis untuk permintaan oksigen kimia (COD) permintaan oksigen biologi (BOD) jumlah pepejal terampai (TSS) ammoniakal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrat (N03-N) ortofosfat (POl) jumlah kiraan koliform (TCC) dan kiraan koliform fekal (FCC) akan ditakukan di makmal Nilai-nitai juat untuk parameter kualiti air adalah seperti berikut pH (436 - 587) suhu (2813 - 2857 DC) kekeruhan (358 - 950 NTU) DO (008 - 432 mgL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - 190 mgL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mgL) ammoniakal nitrogen (0490 - 1261 mgL) nitrat (01 - 02 mgL) ortofosfat (0036 - 0105 mgL) TCC (1028 - 2750 koloniJOO mL) dan FCC (333 - 11 1 1 koloni100 mL) Secara keseluruhan keputusan tersebut menunjukkan parameter fbkokimia bagi air di Sg Kenyana berada dalam lingkungan normal (Kelas 1 dan 11) kecuali DO ammoniakal nitrogen FCC dan kekeruhan (Kelas III - sederhana) dan COD dan pH (Kelas IV - teruk) Walau bagaimanapun nitai pH dan DO yang rendah adalah normal bagi air tanah gambut (air hitam) Indeks Kualiti Air (wQI) yang telah dikira untuk menentukan kualiti air di Sg Kenyana Berdasarkan kepada WQI Sg Liwak dikategorikan di bawah Kelas IV manakala Sg Kenyana dan Btg Mukah dikategorikan di bawah Kelas 111 Empat daripada enam parameter jizikokimia yang diperlukan untuk melentukan WQI di SgKenyana berada di Keas HI dan IV (pH DO COD dan ammoniakal nitrogen) manakala dua lagi berada di bawah Kelas I dan 11 (BOD dan TSS)
Kata Kunci parameter kualiti air kegunaan tanah Indeks Kualiti Air (WQI) sungai paya gambut
Xli
INTRODUCTION
Research Background
Forested peat swamps can be defined as waterlogged forests growing on a layer of
plant material and dead leaves up to 20 metres thick They involve a unique ecosystem
characterised by waterlogging with low dissolved oxygen and nutrients levels in acidic water
systems The naturally high water level ensures their survival by preventing the soil from
drying out to expose the combustible peat matter These swamps provide a variety of services
and goods both directly and indirectly in the form of fisheries and forestry products flood
mitigation water supply energy and groundwater recharge (UNDP 2006)
Peat swamp forests are common in tropical regions with high rainfall where they can
be maintained either by groundwater or by direct rainfall Even though forested peat swamp
occurs in a few areas in Africa and parts of central America more than 60 percent of the
worlds tropical peat lands are found in South-east Asia Most prominent are the large forested
peat swamps in Borneo Island (which belong to Malaysia Indonesia and Brunei) and Sumatra
(Indonesia) However there are also significant areas of peat swamp forests in other parts of
Malaysia Vietnam Indonesia Thailand and Philippines (UNDP 2006) shy
In Malaysia forested peat swamp is the largest wetland type accounting for about 75
percent ofMalaysias total wetlands An estimated 154 million hectares of peat swamp forests
still exist in Malaysia with more than 70 are found in the state of Sarawak 20 can be
found in Peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states of Selangor and Pahang and the rest
can be found in Sabah (UNDP 2006) Only 26 of an estimated 16 million hectares of peat
swamp forests in Sarawak is suitable for conventional commercial agriculture Gandaseca et
al 2009)
Peat swamp forest is important not only for the production of timber but also for its
role in hydrology functions of the ecosystem such as its role in flood mitigation prevention of
saline water intrusion providing habitats and breeding ground for many restricted flora and
fauna sediment and nutrient removal maintenance of river base flow and serving as a vital
carbon sink (Shuhaimi-Othman et ai 2009)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of anthropogenic activities that can cause water deterioration are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers pesticides and herbicides effluents from
industries and waste management plants industrial waste discharges and spills and
construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water
(Weiner 2008)
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of 2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah Sibu
Tourism Board has suggested conserving and protecting several areas that are rich in natural
biodiversity and cultul purposes Therefore Kenyana which has a potential as a natural
habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of the
attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
2
Significance of Study
Sg Kenyana which is located in a peat swamp area whereby serves as an important
natural habitat for blackwater fish including the Asian Arowana Therefore the area has been
proposed to be a nature reserved in order to protect this valuable fish and its habitat from the
land development and will become one of the eco-tourism attractions in Mukah However the
impact of clearing and widening of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries for oil palm
plantation could become a serious threat to the water resources in the area Therefore this
study is essential to identify the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its relation to the land use
especially oil palm plantation in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
Objectives
1 To assess the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
2 To examine the impact of land use (oil palm plantation) on water quality along Sg
Kenyana and its tributaries
j
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
Impact of Land Use on Water Quality ofSungai Kenyana and Its Tributaries Mukah Sarawak
Dayang Farhanna Binti Awang Bolhasan
Sustainable Land Use and Water Resource Management Programme Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
ABSTRACT
(A study was conducted in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries Mukah Sarawak a peat swamp river in order to determine the impact of land use on water quality in the river This area has a great potential for eco-tourism and it also plays important roles as natural habitat for Asian Arowana However the influence of big scale oil palm plantation which also includes huge area of land clearing activities has change the natural condition of the rive) In-situ data and water samples were collected at six sampling stations from 15th until 18 th rv6rch 2013 In-situ data included pH temperature Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and turbidity Analysis for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrate (N03-N) orthophosphate (P04
3-) Total Coliform Counts (TCC) and Faecal Coliform Counts (FCC) were conducted in the laboratory The range values of water quality parameters obtained are as follows pH (436 - 587) temperature (2813 - 2857 DC) turbidity (358 - 950 NTU) Do (008 - 432 mglL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - L90 mglL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mglL) ammoniacal nitrogen (0490 shy1261 mgL) nitrate (01 - 02 mgL) orthophosphate (0036 - 01 05 mgL) TCC (l028 shy2750 countIOO mL) and FCC (333 - 1111 countl 00 mL) Overall the results show that the physical-chemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana were in normal range (Class I and II) except for DO ammoniacal nitrogen FCC and turbidity (Class III - moderate) and COD and pH (Class IV - bad) However the low values of pH and DO are normal for peat water (black water) The Water Quality Index (wQI) was calculated to determine the state of water quality in Sg Kenyana Based on WQI Sg Liwak was categorised under Class IV while Sg Kenyana and Btg Mukah were categorised under Class III Out of six physicochemical parameters of water in Sg Kenyana that are required for WQI calculation four of them were in Class III and IV (PH DO COD and ammoniacal nitrogen) while the other two were in Class I and II (BOD and TSS)
Keywords water quality parameters land use Water Quality Index (WQI) peat swamp river
XI
ABSTRAK
Satu penyelidikan telah dijalankan di Sg Kenyana dan anak-anak sungainya di Mukah Sarawak yang merupakan sungai paya gambut untuk menentukan kesan penggunaan tanah ke atas kualiti air di sungai tersebut Kawasan ini mempunyai potensi yang tinggi untuk dijadikan sebagai eko-pelancongan dan ia juga memainkan peranan yang penting sebagai habitat semulajadi bagi ikan Arowana Data in-situ dan sampel air telah diambil di enam stesen persampelan dari 15 hingga 18 Mac 2013 Data in-situ adalah termasuk pH suhu oksigen terant (DO) dan kekeruhan Analisis untuk permintaan oksigen kimia (COD) permintaan oksigen biologi (BOD) jumlah pepejal terampai (TSS) ammoniakal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrat (N03-N) ortofosfat (POl) jumlah kiraan koliform (TCC) dan kiraan koliform fekal (FCC) akan ditakukan di makmal Nilai-nitai juat untuk parameter kualiti air adalah seperti berikut pH (436 - 587) suhu (2813 - 2857 DC) kekeruhan (358 - 950 NTU) DO (008 - 432 mgL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - 190 mgL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mgL) ammoniakal nitrogen (0490 - 1261 mgL) nitrat (01 - 02 mgL) ortofosfat (0036 - 0105 mgL) TCC (1028 - 2750 koloniJOO mL) dan FCC (333 - 11 1 1 koloni100 mL) Secara keseluruhan keputusan tersebut menunjukkan parameter fbkokimia bagi air di Sg Kenyana berada dalam lingkungan normal (Kelas 1 dan 11) kecuali DO ammoniakal nitrogen FCC dan kekeruhan (Kelas III - sederhana) dan COD dan pH (Kelas IV - teruk) Walau bagaimanapun nitai pH dan DO yang rendah adalah normal bagi air tanah gambut (air hitam) Indeks Kualiti Air (wQI) yang telah dikira untuk menentukan kualiti air di Sg Kenyana Berdasarkan kepada WQI Sg Liwak dikategorikan di bawah Kelas IV manakala Sg Kenyana dan Btg Mukah dikategorikan di bawah Kelas 111 Empat daripada enam parameter jizikokimia yang diperlukan untuk melentukan WQI di SgKenyana berada di Keas HI dan IV (pH DO COD dan ammoniakal nitrogen) manakala dua lagi berada di bawah Kelas I dan 11 (BOD dan TSS)
Kata Kunci parameter kualiti air kegunaan tanah Indeks Kualiti Air (WQI) sungai paya gambut
Xli
INTRODUCTION
Research Background
Forested peat swamps can be defined as waterlogged forests growing on a layer of
plant material and dead leaves up to 20 metres thick They involve a unique ecosystem
characterised by waterlogging with low dissolved oxygen and nutrients levels in acidic water
systems The naturally high water level ensures their survival by preventing the soil from
drying out to expose the combustible peat matter These swamps provide a variety of services
and goods both directly and indirectly in the form of fisheries and forestry products flood
mitigation water supply energy and groundwater recharge (UNDP 2006)
Peat swamp forests are common in tropical regions with high rainfall where they can
be maintained either by groundwater or by direct rainfall Even though forested peat swamp
occurs in a few areas in Africa and parts of central America more than 60 percent of the
worlds tropical peat lands are found in South-east Asia Most prominent are the large forested
peat swamps in Borneo Island (which belong to Malaysia Indonesia and Brunei) and Sumatra
(Indonesia) However there are also significant areas of peat swamp forests in other parts of
Malaysia Vietnam Indonesia Thailand and Philippines (UNDP 2006) shy
In Malaysia forested peat swamp is the largest wetland type accounting for about 75
percent ofMalaysias total wetlands An estimated 154 million hectares of peat swamp forests
still exist in Malaysia with more than 70 are found in the state of Sarawak 20 can be
found in Peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states of Selangor and Pahang and the rest
can be found in Sabah (UNDP 2006) Only 26 of an estimated 16 million hectares of peat
swamp forests in Sarawak is suitable for conventional commercial agriculture Gandaseca et
al 2009)
Peat swamp forest is important not only for the production of timber but also for its
role in hydrology functions of the ecosystem such as its role in flood mitigation prevention of
saline water intrusion providing habitats and breeding ground for many restricted flora and
fauna sediment and nutrient removal maintenance of river base flow and serving as a vital
carbon sink (Shuhaimi-Othman et ai 2009)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of anthropogenic activities that can cause water deterioration are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers pesticides and herbicides effluents from
industries and waste management plants industrial waste discharges and spills and
construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water
(Weiner 2008)
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of 2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah Sibu
Tourism Board has suggested conserving and protecting several areas that are rich in natural
biodiversity and cultul purposes Therefore Kenyana which has a potential as a natural
habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of the
attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
2
Significance of Study
Sg Kenyana which is located in a peat swamp area whereby serves as an important
natural habitat for blackwater fish including the Asian Arowana Therefore the area has been
proposed to be a nature reserved in order to protect this valuable fish and its habitat from the
land development and will become one of the eco-tourism attractions in Mukah However the
impact of clearing and widening of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries for oil palm
plantation could become a serious threat to the water resources in the area Therefore this
study is essential to identify the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its relation to the land use
especially oil palm plantation in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
Objectives
1 To assess the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
2 To examine the impact of land use (oil palm plantation) on water quality along Sg
Kenyana and its tributaries
j
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
ABSTRAK
Satu penyelidikan telah dijalankan di Sg Kenyana dan anak-anak sungainya di Mukah Sarawak yang merupakan sungai paya gambut untuk menentukan kesan penggunaan tanah ke atas kualiti air di sungai tersebut Kawasan ini mempunyai potensi yang tinggi untuk dijadikan sebagai eko-pelancongan dan ia juga memainkan peranan yang penting sebagai habitat semulajadi bagi ikan Arowana Data in-situ dan sampel air telah diambil di enam stesen persampelan dari 15 hingga 18 Mac 2013 Data in-situ adalah termasuk pH suhu oksigen terant (DO) dan kekeruhan Analisis untuk permintaan oksigen kimia (COD) permintaan oksigen biologi (BOD) jumlah pepejal terampai (TSS) ammoniakal nitrogen (NH3-N) nitrat (N03-N) ortofosfat (POl) jumlah kiraan koliform (TCC) dan kiraan koliform fekal (FCC) akan ditakukan di makmal Nilai-nitai juat untuk parameter kualiti air adalah seperti berikut pH (436 - 587) suhu (2813 - 2857 DC) kekeruhan (358 - 950 NTU) DO (008 - 432 mgL) COD (405 - 704 mgL) BOD (121 - 190 mgL) TSS (2423 - 5644 mgL) ammoniakal nitrogen (0490 - 1261 mgL) nitrat (01 - 02 mgL) ortofosfat (0036 - 0105 mgL) TCC (1028 - 2750 koloniJOO mL) dan FCC (333 - 11 1 1 koloni100 mL) Secara keseluruhan keputusan tersebut menunjukkan parameter fbkokimia bagi air di Sg Kenyana berada dalam lingkungan normal (Kelas 1 dan 11) kecuali DO ammoniakal nitrogen FCC dan kekeruhan (Kelas III - sederhana) dan COD dan pH (Kelas IV - teruk) Walau bagaimanapun nitai pH dan DO yang rendah adalah normal bagi air tanah gambut (air hitam) Indeks Kualiti Air (wQI) yang telah dikira untuk menentukan kualiti air di Sg Kenyana Berdasarkan kepada WQI Sg Liwak dikategorikan di bawah Kelas IV manakala Sg Kenyana dan Btg Mukah dikategorikan di bawah Kelas 111 Empat daripada enam parameter jizikokimia yang diperlukan untuk melentukan WQI di SgKenyana berada di Keas HI dan IV (pH DO COD dan ammoniakal nitrogen) manakala dua lagi berada di bawah Kelas I dan 11 (BOD dan TSS)
Kata Kunci parameter kualiti air kegunaan tanah Indeks Kualiti Air (WQI) sungai paya gambut
Xli
INTRODUCTION
Research Background
Forested peat swamps can be defined as waterlogged forests growing on a layer of
plant material and dead leaves up to 20 metres thick They involve a unique ecosystem
characterised by waterlogging with low dissolved oxygen and nutrients levels in acidic water
systems The naturally high water level ensures their survival by preventing the soil from
drying out to expose the combustible peat matter These swamps provide a variety of services
and goods both directly and indirectly in the form of fisheries and forestry products flood
mitigation water supply energy and groundwater recharge (UNDP 2006)
Peat swamp forests are common in tropical regions with high rainfall where they can
be maintained either by groundwater or by direct rainfall Even though forested peat swamp
occurs in a few areas in Africa and parts of central America more than 60 percent of the
worlds tropical peat lands are found in South-east Asia Most prominent are the large forested
peat swamps in Borneo Island (which belong to Malaysia Indonesia and Brunei) and Sumatra
(Indonesia) However there are also significant areas of peat swamp forests in other parts of
Malaysia Vietnam Indonesia Thailand and Philippines (UNDP 2006) shy
In Malaysia forested peat swamp is the largest wetland type accounting for about 75
percent ofMalaysias total wetlands An estimated 154 million hectares of peat swamp forests
still exist in Malaysia with more than 70 are found in the state of Sarawak 20 can be
found in Peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states of Selangor and Pahang and the rest
can be found in Sabah (UNDP 2006) Only 26 of an estimated 16 million hectares of peat
swamp forests in Sarawak is suitable for conventional commercial agriculture Gandaseca et
al 2009)
Peat swamp forest is important not only for the production of timber but also for its
role in hydrology functions of the ecosystem such as its role in flood mitigation prevention of
saline water intrusion providing habitats and breeding ground for many restricted flora and
fauna sediment and nutrient removal maintenance of river base flow and serving as a vital
carbon sink (Shuhaimi-Othman et ai 2009)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of anthropogenic activities that can cause water deterioration are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers pesticides and herbicides effluents from
industries and waste management plants industrial waste discharges and spills and
construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water
(Weiner 2008)
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of 2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah Sibu
Tourism Board has suggested conserving and protecting several areas that are rich in natural
biodiversity and cultul purposes Therefore Kenyana which has a potential as a natural
habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of the
attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
2
Significance of Study
Sg Kenyana which is located in a peat swamp area whereby serves as an important
natural habitat for blackwater fish including the Asian Arowana Therefore the area has been
proposed to be a nature reserved in order to protect this valuable fish and its habitat from the
land development and will become one of the eco-tourism attractions in Mukah However the
impact of clearing and widening of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries for oil palm
plantation could become a serious threat to the water resources in the area Therefore this
study is essential to identify the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its relation to the land use
especially oil palm plantation in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
Objectives
1 To assess the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
2 To examine the impact of land use (oil palm plantation) on water quality along Sg
Kenyana and its tributaries
j
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
INTRODUCTION
Research Background
Forested peat swamps can be defined as waterlogged forests growing on a layer of
plant material and dead leaves up to 20 metres thick They involve a unique ecosystem
characterised by waterlogging with low dissolved oxygen and nutrients levels in acidic water
systems The naturally high water level ensures their survival by preventing the soil from
drying out to expose the combustible peat matter These swamps provide a variety of services
and goods both directly and indirectly in the form of fisheries and forestry products flood
mitigation water supply energy and groundwater recharge (UNDP 2006)
Peat swamp forests are common in tropical regions with high rainfall where they can
be maintained either by groundwater or by direct rainfall Even though forested peat swamp
occurs in a few areas in Africa and parts of central America more than 60 percent of the
worlds tropical peat lands are found in South-east Asia Most prominent are the large forested
peat swamps in Borneo Island (which belong to Malaysia Indonesia and Brunei) and Sumatra
(Indonesia) However there are also significant areas of peat swamp forests in other parts of
Malaysia Vietnam Indonesia Thailand and Philippines (UNDP 2006) shy
In Malaysia forested peat swamp is the largest wetland type accounting for about 75
percent ofMalaysias total wetlands An estimated 154 million hectares of peat swamp forests
still exist in Malaysia with more than 70 are found in the state of Sarawak 20 can be
found in Peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states of Selangor and Pahang and the rest
can be found in Sabah (UNDP 2006) Only 26 of an estimated 16 million hectares of peat
swamp forests in Sarawak is suitable for conventional commercial agriculture Gandaseca et
al 2009)
Peat swamp forest is important not only for the production of timber but also for its
role in hydrology functions of the ecosystem such as its role in flood mitigation prevention of
saline water intrusion providing habitats and breeding ground for many restricted flora and
fauna sediment and nutrient removal maintenance of river base flow and serving as a vital
carbon sink (Shuhaimi-Othman et ai 2009)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of anthropogenic activities that can cause water deterioration are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers pesticides and herbicides effluents from
industries and waste management plants industrial waste discharges and spills and
construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water
(Weiner 2008)
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of 2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah Sibu
Tourism Board has suggested conserving and protecting several areas that are rich in natural
biodiversity and cultul purposes Therefore Kenyana which has a potential as a natural
habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of the
attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
2
Significance of Study
Sg Kenyana which is located in a peat swamp area whereby serves as an important
natural habitat for blackwater fish including the Asian Arowana Therefore the area has been
proposed to be a nature reserved in order to protect this valuable fish and its habitat from the
land development and will become one of the eco-tourism attractions in Mukah However the
impact of clearing and widening of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries for oil palm
plantation could become a serious threat to the water resources in the area Therefore this
study is essential to identify the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its relation to the land use
especially oil palm plantation in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
Objectives
1 To assess the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
2 To examine the impact of land use (oil palm plantation) on water quality along Sg
Kenyana and its tributaries
j
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
swamp forests in Sarawak is suitable for conventional commercial agriculture Gandaseca et
al 2009)
Peat swamp forest is important not only for the production of timber but also for its
role in hydrology functions of the ecosystem such as its role in flood mitigation prevention of
saline water intrusion providing habitats and breeding ground for many restricted flora and
fauna sediment and nutrient removal maintenance of river base flow and serving as a vital
carbon sink (Shuhaimi-Othman et ai 2009)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of anthropogenic activities that can cause water deterioration are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers pesticides and herbicides effluents from
industries and waste management plants industrial waste discharges and spills and
construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water
(Weiner 2008)
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of 2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah Sibu
Tourism Board has suggested conserving and protecting several areas that are rich in natural
biodiversity and cultul purposes Therefore Kenyana which has a potential as a natural
habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of the
attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
2
Significance of Study
Sg Kenyana which is located in a peat swamp area whereby serves as an important
natural habitat for blackwater fish including the Asian Arowana Therefore the area has been
proposed to be a nature reserved in order to protect this valuable fish and its habitat from the
land development and will become one of the eco-tourism attractions in Mukah However the
impact of clearing and widening of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries for oil palm
plantation could become a serious threat to the water resources in the area Therefore this
study is essential to identify the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its relation to the land use
especially oil palm plantation in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
Objectives
1 To assess the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
2 To examine the impact of land use (oil palm plantation) on water quality along Sg
Kenyana and its tributaries
j
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
Significance of Study
Sg Kenyana which is located in a peat swamp area whereby serves as an important
natural habitat for blackwater fish including the Asian Arowana Therefore the area has been
proposed to be a nature reserved in order to protect this valuable fish and its habitat from the
land development and will become one of the eco-tourism attractions in Mukah However the
impact of clearing and widening of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries for oil palm
plantation could become a serious threat to the water resources in the area Therefore this
study is essential to identify the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its relation to the land use
especially oil palm plantation in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
Objectives
1 To assess the water quality of Sg Kenyana and its tributaries
2 To examine the impact of land use (oil palm plantation) on water quality along Sg
Kenyana and its tributaries
j
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sg Kenyanas Background
Sg Kenyana is one of the tributaries ofBtg Mukah that is located in Mukah Sarawak
According to data provided by Forest Department Mukah Division approximately 6416760
ha of total forest in Mukah Division is covered by hill or mixed dipterocarp forest while peat
swamp forest covers approximately 2527740 ha which also include the area in Sg Kenyana
Most part of lower Sg Kenyana is covered by pandan and mats of water hyacinth
According to the Inland Fisheries Section of the Agricultural Department Sg Kenyana and its
tributaries are one of the natural habitats for arowana fish in Sarawak There are also several
type of fish dominating in Sg Kenyana and its tributaries besides the Asian arowana such as
belida toman kaloi tapah and baung as reported in the study by Inland Fisheries Section
Agriculture Department Mukah Division in 2007
Other activities along this river besides oil palm plantation include trees cutting wood
utilisation and fishing Heavy machineries can also be seen where they are used to clear river
bank and widen Sg Kenyana to drain out flood water from Rinwood Oil Palm Plantation
along the river i
Land Use Status at Sg Kenyana
Kpg Sitieng is the only settlement area that can be found along Sg Kenyana There is
no basic infrastructure such as road communication line electricity and clean water supply in
the area The local communities that live nearby the area depend on generators for electricity
4
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
Pusat Kbidmat Maklumat Akadfmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAIlt
and rain water for consumption The only developments that can be seen in the area are SK
Muara Kenyana Balai Raya Kg Sitieng and Kenyana Lake Information Centre
Other than involving in sago trees harvesting activities and working as general workers
at nearby plantations the local communities also depend on Sg Kenyana for the main source
of their economical resource Sg Kenyana is also important for transportation since there is
still no road that can reach the area
According to Sarawak Forest Department only 20 of the original peat land was still
being covered by peat swamp forest while most of the peat lands in Mukah Division had been
converted for sago plantation oil palm plantation and planted forest (NREB(b) 2009) About
55 of total peat land has already been converted to oil palm plantation followed by sago
plantation which is 16 and planted forest 9 (NREB(b) 2009)
By the end of 2007 more than 40 of the total oil palm planted areas in Sarawak is
located in Mukah Division which is approximately 295614 ha and 15 121 ha of the oil palm
plantation is developed under Rinwood Pelita (Mukah) Plantation where it includes half of Sg
Kenyana area (NREB(a) 2009) There are also several other big scale oil palm plantations
located nearby Sg Kenyana Other than oil palm plantations the economic enlargement in
Mukah Diviosion has also been influenced by sago plantations However the area that has
been planted with sago trees is far from this study area
5
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
Eco-tourism (Kenyana Lake Information Centre)
Sarawak Corridor of Renewal Energy (SCORE) project which has been announced by
the Chief Minister of Sarawak in 2009 has rapidly increased the population in Mukah and thus
brought positive development to the area
Mukah has been aimed to be one of the main targets for tourism industry in Sarawak
by the year of2015 (SIMU 2004) As stated in tourism management plan for Mukah several
areas that are rich in natural biodiversity and cultural purposes have been suggested by the
Sibu Tourism Board to be conserved and protected Therefore Kenyana which has a potential
as a natural habitat for the protected Asian Arowana (green variety) has been chosen as one of
the attractions for eco-tourism in Mukah and also has been proposed to be gazetted as Nature
Reserved
Mukah Resident Office has started the first phase of the eco-tourism project that costs
RM 1000000 which includes the building facilities comprises the belian plant walk and 600
m length gazebo The Kenyana Lake Information Centre had been completed in 2009 and
taken over and maintained by Mukah Dalat Municipal Council in 20 10 Even though the first
phase of the project had been completed the area is still not functioning as planned due to several external factors such as lack of promotions and transportation problem Furthermore
the clearing and widening of the upper part of Sg Kenyana using heavy machineries by the
plantation workers has lead to the deterioration of water quality of the river and could affect
the natural habitat of the aquatic organisms
6
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical peat swamp forests can be found in parts of Africa and northeastern South
America but are most widespread in Southeast Asia where they are concentrated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra and on peninsular Malaysia (UNDP 2006) These swamps
derived their name from their substrate of peat that consists of plant detritus which gradually
release tannins and organic acids into poorly buffered water (Beamish et ai 2003)
Figure 1 Distribution of peat swamps in Southeast Asia (Source UNDP 2006)
of
The dark brown to black in colour of the peat forests waters is resulted by high levels
of humus humic acids and tannins (Ng et ai 1994 Beamish et ai 2003) The area of peat
swamp is also known by its extreme acidic environment with low water pH values low in
nutrients and dissolved oxygen (Rahim et ai 2009 Satrio et ai 2009 Yule and Gomez
7
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
2009) According to Law (2011) water of peat swamp contains low dissolved oxygen (DO)
because oftransfonnation of inorganic ions into larger molecules by humic acid
The peat swamp forests face increasing destruction through drainage and conversion to
agricultural land despite the mUltiple ecosystem services provided by them The peat swamp
forests of Peninsular Malaysia for example were reduced from 067 million ha to 034 million
ha between 1981 and 1991 More than 70 of the existing peat forests in Malaysia are found
in the state of Sarawak on Borneo Island with a small percentage found in the state of Sabah
on Borneo Island and the remaining approximately 20 along the west coast and east coast of
peninsular Malaysia particularly in the states ofSelangor and Pahang (UNDP 2006)
Water Quality
The term water quality is used to describe the biological chemical and physical
characteristics of water that affect the ecosystem health and water suitability for human
consumption such as drinking industrial use and irrigation (Li and Migliaccio 2011) The
biological constituents of water are living organisms such as bacteria protozoans viruses
insects plants zooplankton phytoplankton and fish while the chemical constituents of water
are substances that dissolved in water such as nutrients pesticides materials and other organic compounds The most common physical characteristics of water are temperature
turbidi ty colour odour and taste (Li and Migliacci 2011)
Water quality can be affected by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors
Some important sources of human activities that can cause water contamination are
agricultural applications of chemical fertilisers herbicides and pesticides industrial waste
8
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
discharges and spills effluents from industries and waste management plants and construction and mining where freshly exposed minerals and soils can contact flowing water (Weiner
2008)
A variety of factors can influence water quality in streams and rivers Studies showed
that water degradation could be caused by two general sources which are the non-point
sources represented by farmland and urban area runoff and the point sources which typically
include household or industrial wastewater and wastewater treatment plants (Guo et at 2010)
Point sources of pollutants are important but in many areas non-point sources such as the
runoff from agricultural and urban area are larger and more intractable problems (Atasoy et
at 2006)
Water Quality Monitoring and Protection Measures
According to USEP A water quality screening is conducted to characterize water and
identify changes or trends in water quality over time The Natural Resources and
Environmental Board (NREB) Sarawak has started the River Water Quality Monitoring
Program (RWQMP) since 1999 in order to manage and protect the environment of Sarawak
where the objective is to determine water quality changes and detect sources of pollution I
(Sumok 200 I) This ts in line with the Government effort to regulate development activities
and to help achieve the State Governments obj ctive of maintaining water quality of rivers to
at least Class lIB of the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Sumok
2001)
9
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
Water samples were collected at regular intervals from designated stafons for in-situ
and laboratory analysis to determine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was used as a basis for assessment of a watercourse in relation to
pollution load categorization and designation of classes of beneficial uses as required in the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) (Table I) The WQI was derived
using Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) Suspended Solids (SS) and pH (Table 2)
Malaysian rivers can be classified according to six classes based on the parameters of
water quality The water classes and uses are summarised in Table 3 while Table 4 shows the
DOE water quality classification based on water quality index
10
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
Table 1 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQSM) (Source EQR2011)
Parameter I
Unit Class I IIA 1m III IV V
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
mglL 01 03 03 09 27 gt 27
BOD mglL I 3 3 6 12 gt 12
COD mglL 10 25 25 50 100 gt 100
DO mgiL 7 5 - 7 5-7 I 3 - 5 lt 3 lt I
pH - 65 - 85 6 - 9 i 6-9 5-9 I
5 - 9I -TSS mglL 25 50 50 150 I 300 300
Temperature degC - I Normal
plusmn2degC - Nonnal
plusmn2degC - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -FCC countl 00
mL 10 100 400 5000
(20000) 5000
(20000) -
TCC CountIOO mL
100 5000 5000 50000 50000 gt 50000
Nitrate mglL Natural levels or absent
70 70 I - 50 Levels above IV
Phosphorus mglL Natural levels or absent
02
02 01 - Levels above IV
Notes Geometric mean a Maximum not to be exceeded
gt
II
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
Table 2 DOE Water Quality Index Classification (Source EQR2011)
Parameters Units Classes
I II III I IV V
pH - gt7 6-7 5-6 I
lt5 gt5
DO mglL gt 7 5-7 3-5 1 - 3 lt 1
COD mglL lt10 10 - 25 25 - 50 50 shy 100 gt 100
BOD mgL lt 1 1 - 3 3-6 6 shy 12 gt 12
TSS mglL lt 25 25 - 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 gt 300
NH3-N mgL lt 01 OI-OJ OJ shy 0 9 09 -27 gt 27
WQI - gt 927 765 - 927 519 -765 310 - 519 lt 310
Table 3 Water Classes and Uses (Source EQR2011)
Class Uses
Class I I Conservation of natural environment
Water Supply 1- Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I - Very sensitive aquatic species
Class IIA Water supply II ~ Conventional treatment requITed
Fishery II shy Sensitive aquatic species
Class 1m Recreational use with body contact
Class III Water supply II1 - Extensive treatment required
Fishery 111- Common of economic value and tolerant species livestock drinking
Class IV Irrigation
Class V None of the above
Table 4 DOE Water quality classification based on water quality index (Source EQR2011)
Sub Index amp Water Quality Index Index Range
Clean Slightly PoUuted Polluted
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 91 - 100 80 - 90 0-79
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) 92 - 100 71 - 91 0-70
Suspended Solid (SS) 76 - 100 70 -75 0-69
Water Quality Index (WQI) 81 - 1~00 60 - 80 0-59
12
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