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INTERPRETIVE guIdaNcE oN ThE NoTIoN of
Dctptcptonn hottuNdER INTERNaTIoNal humaNITaRIaN law
nils Melzer, egal adviser, cc
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INTERPRETIVE guIdaNcE oN ThE NoTIoN of
Dct
ptcptonn hottuNdER INTERNaTIoNal humaNITaRIaN law
nils Melzer, egal adviser, cc
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2 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
CONTENTS
FOREWORD 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 8
INTRODUCTION 9
1. purse ad ature the terretive Guidae 9
2. Te issue ivilia artiiati i hstilities 11
3. Key legal questis 12
PART1:RECOMMENDATIONSOFTHEICRC 15
PART2:RECOMMENDATIONSANDCOMMENTARY 19
A. THECONCEPTOFCIvILIAN 20
I. THECONCEPTOFCIvILIANININTERNATIONALARMEDCONFLICT 201. Mutual exlusiveess the ets ivilia,
armed res ad leve en masse 20
2. rmed res 21
3. eve e masse 25
4. clusi 26
II. THECONCEPTOFCIvILIANINNON-INTERNATIONALARMEDCONFLICT27
1. Mutual exlusiveess the ets ivilia,
armed res ad rgaized armed grus 27
2. tate armed res 30
3. orgaized armed grus 31
4. clusi 36
III. PRIvATECONTRACTORSANDCIvILIANEMPLOYEES 371. partiular difulties related t rivate tratrs ad
ivilia emlyees 37
2. teratial armed it 38
3. n-iteratial armed it 39
4. clusi 40
B. THECONCEPTOFDIRECTPARTICIPATION
INHOSTILITIES 41
Iv. DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIESASASPECIFICACT 43
1. Basi mets the ti diret artiiati i hstilities 43
2. estriti t sei ats 44
3. clusi 45
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CONTENTS 3
v. CONSTITUTIvEELEMENTSOFDIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES 46
1. Tresld arm 47
2. Diret ausatin 51
3. Belligerent nexus 58
4. cnlusin 64
vI. BEGINNINGANDENDOFDIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES 65
1. prearatry measures 65
2. Delyment and return 67
3. cnlusin 68
C. MODALITIESGOvERNINGTHELOSS
OFPROTECTION 69
vII. TEMPORALSCOPEOFTHELOSSOFPROTECTION 70
1. civilians 70
2. Members rganized armed grus 71
3. cnlusin 73
vIII.PRECAUTIONSANDPRESUMPTIONSINSITUATIONSOFDOUBT 74
1. Te requirement easible reautins 74
2. presumtin ivilian rtetin 75
3. cnlusin 76
IX. RESTRAINTSONTHEUSEOFFORCEINDIRECTATTACK 77
1. pribitins and restritins laid dwn in seif
rvisins h 77
2. Te riniles military neessity and umanity 783. cnlusin 82
X. CONSEqUENCESOFREGAININGCIvILIANPROTECTION 83
1. ak immunity rm dmesti rseutin 83
2. obligatin t reset h 84
3. cnlusin 85
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4 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
FOREWORD
the rein ivilians is ne he main gals inernainal
humaniarian law. pursuan is rules n he ndu hsiliies, he
ivilian ulain and individual ivilians enjy general rein
agains he ees hsiliies. rdingly, he law bliges he aries
an armed nli disinguish, a all imes, beween he ivilian
ulain and mbaans and dire erains nly agains miliaryarges. als rvides ha ivilians may n be he bje deliberae
aak. n he same vein, humaniarian law mandaes ha ivilians mus
be humanely reaed i and when hey fnd hemselves in he hands he
enemy. this verarhing nrm inds exressin in many rvisins
humaniarian law, inluding hse rhibiing any rm vilene lie,
as well as rure r ruel, inhuman r degrading reamen.
Unusual as i may seem day, he mrehensive rein ivilians
was n always a main us inernainal humaniarian law. s rigins,
a leas in erms reay rules, lie a a ime when ivilian ulains were
largely sared rm he dire ees hsiliies and aual fghing was
arried u nly by mbaans. n 1864, when he frs Geneva cnvenin
was aded, armies aed n balefelds wih learly drawn rnlines.
was he suering sldiers, en ens husands hem wh
lay wunded r dying aer a miliary engagemen, ha needed be
alleviaed. only laer, when ehnlgial innvains in weanry sared
ausing massive ivilian suering and asualies in war, did he rein ivilians als need be addressed.
over ime, and ariularly aer he end Wrld War, he law als had
regulae he nsequenes mre and mre requen dire ariiain
by ivilians in hsiliies. tw siuains were emblemai: irs, wars
nainal liberain in whih gvernmen res aed agains irregular
armed rmains ighing r he reedm lnized ulains.
n 1977, ddiinal prl regnized ha suh wars uld undererain irumsanes be deemed inernainal in haraer. send
siuain has beme revalen and remains grea nern day: armed
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FOREWORD 5
nlis n an inernainal haraer waged beween gvernmen
res and rganized nn-ae armed grus, r beween suh grus, r
liial, enmi, r her reasns. hardly needs be said ha hese
yes ni, in whih ars he ivilian ulain are eeively
ransrmed in ghing res, and in whih ivilians are als he main
viims, ninue ause unld lss lie, injury and desruin.
nernainal humaniarian law has addressed he rend wards inreased
ivilian ariiain in hsiliies by rviding a basi rule, und in
bh ddiinal prls he Geneva cnvenins, ursuan whih
ivilians benei rm rein agains dire aak unless and r
suh ime as hey ake a dire ar in hsiliies. is he meaning his
nin dire ariiain in hsiliies ha he resen nerreive
Guidane seeks exlain. n examining he nin dire ariiain
in hsiliies he cc n nly had ae lngsanding dilemmas ha
had surrunded is raial aliain (e.g., an a ersn be a reed
armer by day and a argeable igher a nigh?), bu als had grale
wih mre reen rends ha urher underlined he need r lariy. one
suh rend has been a marked shi in he ndu hsiliies in ivilian
ulain enres, inluding ases urban warare, haraerized by
an unreedened inermingling ivilians and armed ars. nher
has been he inreased usuring reviusly radiinal miliary
unins a range ivilian ersnnel suh as rivae nrars rivilian gvernmen emlyees, whih has made disinguishing beween
hse wh enjy rein rm dire aak and hse wh d n ever
mre diful. hird, ariularly wrrying rend has been he ailure
ersns direly ariiaing in hsiliies, wheher ivilians r members
armed res r grus, adequaely disinguish hemselves rm he
ivilian ulain.
the nerreive Guidane rvides a legal reading he nin dire ariiain in hsiliies wih a view srenghening he
imlemenain he rinile disinin. n rder r he rhibiin
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6 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
direting attaks against ivilians t be ully bserved, it is neessary that
the armed res parties t an armed nit whether internatinal r
nn-internatinal be distinguished rm ivilians, and that ivilians wh
never take a diret part in hstilities be distinguished rm thse wh d s
n an individual, spradi r unrganized basis nly. Te present text seeks
t ailitate these distintins by prviding guidane n the interpretatin
internatinal humanitarian law relating t the ntin diret
partiipatin in hstilities. n s ding, it examines three questins: wh is
nsidered a ivilian r the purpses the priniple distintin, what
ndut amunts t diret partiipatin in hstilities and what mdalities
gvern the lss prtetin against diret attak.
Te respnses prvided and the resulting interpretatins inluded in the
nterpretive Guidane takle ne the mst difult, but as yet unreslved
issues internatinal humanitarian law. Te cc initiated reetin n
the ntin diret partiipatin in hstilities based bth n the need t
enhane the prtetin ivilians in pratie r humanitarian reasns
and n the internatinal mandate it has been given t wrk r the better
understanding and aithul appliatin internatinal humanitarian law.
n this ntext, it is apprpriate that three bservatins be made: First,
the nterpretive Guidane is an expressin slely the ccs views.
While internatinal humanitarian law relating t the ntin diret
partiipatin in hstilities was examined ver several years with a grup
eminent legal experts, t whm the cc wes a huge debt gratitude,
the psitins enuniated are the ccs alne. end, while reeting the
ccs views, the nterpretive Guidane is nt and annt be a text a
legally binding nature. only tate agreements (treaties) r tate pratie
llwed ut a sense legal bligatin n a ertain issue (ustm) anprdue binding law. Tird, the Guidane des nt purprt t hange the
law, but prvides an interpretatin the ntin diret partiipatin in
hstilities within existing legal parameters.
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FOREWORD 7
Te presen ex inerpres he nin f dire pariipain in hsiliies
fr he purpses f he ndu f hsiliies nly. thus, apar frm
prviding guidane n when and fr hw lng a persn is nsidered
have ls prein frm dire aak, i des n address he
nsequenes f dire pariipain in hsiliies ne he r she finds
himself r herself in he adversarys hands. oher rules f inernainal
humaniarian law hen gvern, frems amng hem being he already
menined priniple f humane reamen.
Unfrunaely, here seems be lile reasn believe ha he urren
rend wards inreased ivilian pariipain in hsiliies will weakenver ime. tday, mre han ever, i is f he ums imprane ha
all feasible measures be aken preven he expsure f he ivilian
ppulain errneus r arbirary argeing based, amng her
hings, n reliable guidane as hw he priniple f disinin
shuld be implemened in he hallenging and mplex irumsanes f
nemprary warfare. By presening his nerpreive Guidane, he cc
hpes make a nribuin ensuring ha hse wh d n ake a
dire par in hsiliies reeive he humaniarian prein ha hey are
eniled under inernainal humaniarian law.
Dr. Jakob Kellenberger
President of the International Committee of the Red Cross
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8 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Te prese erpreive Guidae siues a isiuial publiai
f he eraial cmmiee f he ed crss (cc). is he ume
f a exper press dued by he cc frm 2003 2008.
the epualizai, drafig, ad publiai f he erpreive
Guidae wuld have bee pssible wihu he mmime adribuis f may idividuals, ly sme f whm a be haked
here. our persal graiude ges, firs f all, Dr. nils Melzer, egal
dviser a he cc, wh has bee respsible fr he exper press
sie 2004 ad wh is he auhr f he erpreive Guidae ad ms
bakgrud dumes ad exper meeig reprs prdued durig ha
press. We wuld als like express ur ms rdial graiude he
expers, all f whm pariipaed i he exper meeigs i heir persal
apaiy ad wihu whse mmime, experise, ad experiee
his larifiai press uld have bee brugh a suessful
lusi. Fially, we wuld like sierely hak all ur lleagues
a he cc wh ribued he ex f he erpreive Guidae
hrugh heir mmes, prvided valuable suppr i he rgaizai
ad fllw-up f he exper meeigs, r helped wih he publiai f he
erpreive Guidae.
International Committee of the Red CrossFebruary 2009
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INTRODUCTION 9
INTRODUCTION
1.PURPOSEANDNATUREOFTHEINTERPRETIvEGUIDANCE
Te purpose o e nerpreive Guidane is o provide reommendaions
onerning e inerpreaion o inernaional umaniarian law (h)
as ar as i relaes o e noion o dire pariipaion in osiliies.
ordingly, the10recommendationsmadebytheInterpretive
Guidance,aswellastheaccompanyingcommentary,donotendeavourtochangebindingrulesofcustomaryortreatyIHL,butreflect
theICRCsinstitutionalpositionastohowexistingIHLshouldbe
interpreted in lig o e irumsanes prevailing in onemporary
armed onfis.
te nerpreive Guidane draws on a variey o soures inluding, irs
and oremos, e rules and priniples o usomary and reay h
and, were neessary, e travaux prparatoires o reaies, inernaional
jurisprudene, miliary manuals, and sandard works o legal dorine.
ddiionally, i draws on e weal o maerials produed in e ourse
o an exper proess, joinly iniiaed by e cc and e tMc sser
nsiue wi e aim o lariying e noion o dire pariipaion in
osiliies under h.1 Five inormal exper meeings were ondued
rom 2003 o 2008 in te hague and Geneva, ea bringing ogeer
40 o 50 legal expers rom aademi, miliary, governmenal, and non-
governmenal irles, all o wom pariipaed in eir privae apaiy.2
te nerpreive Guidane is widely inormed by e disussions eld
during ese exper meeings bu does no neessarily refe a unanimous
view or majoriy opinion o e expers . endeavours o propose a
balaned and praial soluion a akes ino aoun e wide variey
1 ll maerials produed in e ourse o e exper proess, su as repors, bakground doumens e.,
will be available a: www.ir.org.
2 For more inormaion on e exper proess, see e doumen
Overview of the ICRCs Expert Process (2003-2008).
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10 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
o onerns involved and, a e same ime, ensures a lear and oeren
inerpreaion o e law onsisen wi e purposes and priniples
o h. Ultimately,theresponsibilityfortheInterpretiveGuidance
isassumedbytheICRCasaneutralandindependenthumanitarian
organizationmandatedbytheinternationalcommunityofStatesto
promoteandworkforabetterunderstandingofIHL.3 loug a legally
binding inerpreaion o h an only be ormulaed by a ompeen
judiial organ or, olleively, by e aes emselves, e cc opes a
e ompreensive legal analysis and e areul balane o umaniarian
and miliary ineress underlying e nerpreive Guidane will render
e resuling reommendaions persuasive or aes, non-ae aors,praiioners, and aademis alike.
te nerpreive Guidane onsiss o 10 reommendaions, ea o
wi summarizes e ccs posiion on e inerpreaion o h on
a pariular legal quesion, and a ommenary explaining e bases o
ea reommendaion. trougou e ex, pariularly were major
divergenes o opinion persised among e expers, oonoes reer o
e passages o e exper meeing repors and bakground doumens
were e relevan disussions were reorded. Thesectionsand
recommendationsoftheInterpretiveGuidancearecloselyinterrelated
andcanonlybeproperlyunderstoodifreadasawhole. ikewise, e
examples oered rougou e nerpreive Guidane are no absolue
saemens on e legal qualifaion o a pariular siuaion or ondu,
bu mus be read in good ai, wiin e preise onex in wi ey
are menioned and in aordane wi generally reognized rules and
priniples o h. Tey an only illusrae e priniples based on wi
e relevan disinions oug o be made, bu anno replae a areulassessmen o e onree irumsanes prevailing a e relevan ime
and plae.
3 ee, e.g., r. 5 [2] () and (g) aues o e nernaional ed cross and ed cresen Movemen.
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INTRODUCTION 11
asly, i sould be empasized a e nerpreive Guidance examines
theconceptofdirectparticipationinhostilitiesonlyforthepurposes
oftheconductofhostilities. s conclusions are no inended o serve as
a basis or inerpreing h regulaing e saus, rigs and proecions
o persons ouside e conduc o osiliies, suc as ose deprived o
eir libery. Moreover, aloug e nerpreive Guidance is concerned
wi h only, itsconclusionsremainwithoutprejudicetoananalysis
ofquestionsrelatedtodirectparticipationinhostilitiesunderother
applicablebranchesofinternationallaw,suchashumanrightslawor
thelawgoverningtheuseofinterstateforce(jus ad bellum).
2.THEISSUEOFCIvILIANPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
te primary aim o h is o proec e vicims o armed conlic and
o regulae e conduc o osiliies based on a balance beween miliary
necessiy and umaniy. e ear o h lies e principle o disincion
beween e armed orces, wo conduc e osiliies on beal o e
paries o an armed confic, and civilians, wo are presumed no o direcly
paricipae in osiliies and mus be proeced agains e dangers arising
rom miliary operaions. Trougou isory, e civilian populaion as
always conribued o e general war eor o paries o armed confics,
or example roug e producion and supply o weapons, equipmen,
ood, and seler, or roug economic, adminisraive, and poliical
suppor. however, suc aciviies ypically remained disan rom e
baleield and, radiionally, only a small minoriy o civilians became
involved in e conduc o miliary operaions.
ecen decades ave seen is paern cange signicanly. coninuous
si o e conduc o osiliies ino civilian populaion cenres as ledo an increased inermingling o civilians wi armed acors and as
aciliaed eir involvemen in aciviies more closely relaed o miliary
operaions. ven more recenly, e increased ousourcing o radiionally
miliary uncions as insered numerous privae conracors, civilian
inelligence personnel, and oer civilian governmen employees ino e
realiy o modern armed confic. Moreover, miliary operaions ave oen
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12 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
aained an unreedened level o omlexiy, involving e oordinaion
o a grea variey o inerdeenden uman and enial resoures in
dieren loaions.
ll o ese ases o onemorary warare ave given rise o onusion
and unerainy as o e disinion beween legiimae miliary arges
and ersons roeed agains dire aaks. tese diiulies are
aggravaed were armed aors do no disinguis emselves rom e
ivilian oulaion, or examle during underover miliary oeraions or
wen aing as armers by day and gers by nig. s a resul, ivilians
are more likely o all viim o erroneous or arbirary argeing, wilearmed ores unable o roerly ideniy eir adversary run an
inreased risk o being aaked by ersons ey anno disinguis rom
e ivilian oulaion.
3.KEYLEGALqUESTIONS
Tis rend underlines e imorane o disinguising no only beween
ivilians and e armed ores, bu also beween ivilians wo do and,
reseively, do no ake a dire ar in osiliies. Under h, e
one o dire ariiaion in osiliies reers o ondu wi, i
arried ou by ivilians, susends eir roeion agains e dangers
arising rom miliary oeraions.4 Mos noably, or e duraion o eir
dire ariiaion in osiliies, ivilians may be direly aaked as
i ey were ombaans. Derived rom rile 3 ommon o e Geneva
convenions, e noion o aking a dire or aive ar in osiliies
is ound in many rovisions o h. however, desie e serious legal
onsequenes involved, neier e convenions nor eir ddiional
proools rovide a deiniion o dire ariiaion in osiliies. tissiuaion alls or e lariaion o ree quesions under h aliable
in bo inernaional and non-inernaional armed onfi:
4 For e uroses o is nerreive Guidane, e rases dire ariia ion in osiliies,
aking a dire ar in osiliies and direly ariiaing in osiliies will be used synonymously.
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INTRODUCTION 13
Who is considered a civilian for the purposes of the principle of distinction?
the answer o his quesion deermines he irle o ersons who are
roeed agains dire aak unless and or suh ime as hey direly
ariiae in hosiliies.5
What conduct amounts to direct participation in hostilities?
Te answer o his quesion deermines he individual ondu ha leads
o he susension o a ivilians roeion agains dire aak.6
What modalities govern the loss of protection against direct attack?
the answer o his quesion will eluidae issues suh as he duraiono he loss o roeion agains dire aak, he reauions and
resumions in siuaions o doub, he rules and riniles governing
he use o ore agains legiimae miliary arges, and he onsequenes
o regaining roeion agains dire aak.
5 Te saus, righs, and roeions o ersons ouside he ondu o hosiliies does no deend
on heir qualifaion as ivilia ns bu on he reise ersonal soe o aliaion o he rovisions
onerring he relevan saus, righs, and roeions (e.g., rs 4 Gc , 4 Gc V, 3 Gc -V, 75 p ,
and 4 o 6 p ).
6 For he sake o simliiy, when disussing he onsequenes o ivil ian dire ar iiaion in hosiliies,
he nerreive Guidane will generally reer o loss o roeion agains dire aaks. Unless saed
oherwise, his erminology inludes also he susension o ivilian roeion agains oher dangers
arising rom miliar y oeraions (rs 51 [1], [3] p and 13 [1], [3] p ). Tis enails, or examle, ha
ivilians direly ariiaing in hosiliies may no only be direly aaked hemselves, bu also do no
have o be aken ino aoun in he roorionaliy assessmen when miliary objeives in heir
roximiy are aaked.
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Part1:
ReCommendTIonS
ofTHeICRC
concerningtheinterpretationofinternationalhumanitarianlaw
relatingtothenotionofdirectparticipationinhostilities
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I. THeConCePTofCIvILIan
InInTeRnaTIonaLaRmedConfLICT
For the uroses o the rincile o distinction in international armed confict, all
ersons who are neither members o the armed orces o a arty to the confict nor
articiants in a leve en masse are civilians and, thereore, entitled to rotection
against direct attack unless and or such time as they take a direct art in hostilities.
II. THeConCePTofCIvILIanInnon-InTeRnaTIonaL
aRmedConfLICT
For the uroses o the rincile o distinction in non-international armed confict,
all ersons who are not members o tate armed orces or organized armed grous
o a arty to the confict are civilians and, thereore, entitled to rotection against
direct attack unless and or such time as they take a direct art in hostilities. n non-international armed confict, organized armed grous constitute the armed orces
o a non-tate arty to the confict and consist only o individuals whose continuous
unction it is to take a direct art in hostilities (continuous combat unction).
III. PRIvaTeConTRaCToRSandCIvILIanemPLoyeeS
private contractors and emloyees o a arty to an armed confict who are civilians
(see above and ) are entitled to rotection against direct attack unless and or
such time as they take a direct art in hostilities. Teir activities or location may,
however, exose them to an increased risk o incidental death or injury even i they
do not take a direct art in hostilities.
Iv. dIReCTPaRTICIPaTIonInHoSTILITIeS
aSaSPeCIfICaCT
Te notion o direct articiation in hostilities reers to secic acts carried out by
individuals as art o the conduct o hostilities between arties to an armed confict.
v. ConSTITUTIveeLemenTSofdIReCTPaRTICIPaTIonInHoSTILITIeS
n order to qualiy as direct articiation in hostilities, a secic act must meet the
ollowing cumulative criteria:
1. Te act must be likely to adversely aect the military oerations or military caacity
o a arty to an armed confict or, alternatively, to infict death, injury, or destruction
on ersons or objects rotected against direct attack (threshold o harm), and
2. there must be a direct causal link between the act and the harm likely to result
either rom that act, or rom a coordinated military oeration o which that actconstitutes an integral art (direct causation), and
3. the act must be specically designed to directly cause the required threshold o harm
in support o a party to the confict and to the detriment o another (belligerent nexus).
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vI. BeGInnInGandendofdIReCTPaRTICIPaTIon
InHoSTILITIeS
Measures preparatory to the exeution o a speii at o diret partiipation in
hostilities, as well as the deployment to and the return rom the loation o its
exeution, onstitute an integral part o that at.
vII. TemPoRaLSCoPeofTHeLoSSofPRoTeCTIon
civilians lose protetion against diret attak or the duration o eah spei at
amounting to diret partiipation in hostilities, whereas members o organized
armed groups belonging to a non-tate party to an armed onlit ease to be
ivilians (see above ), and lose protetion against diret attak, or as long as they
assume their ontinuous ombat untion.
vIII.PReCaUTIonSandPReSUmPTIonS
InSITUaTIonSofdoUBT
ll easible preautions must be taken in determining whether a person is a ivilian
and, i so, whether that ivilian is diretly partiipating in hostilities. n ase o
doubt, the person must be presumed to be proteted against diret attak.
IX. ReSTRaInTSonTHeUSeoffoRCeIndIReCTaTTaCk
n addition to the restraints imposed by international humanitarian law on spei
means and methods o warare, and without prejudie to urther restritions that
may arise under other appliable branhes o international law, the kind and degree
o ore whih is permissible against persons not entitled to protetion against
diret attak must not exeed what is atually neessary to aomplish a legitimate
military purpose in the prevailing irumstanes.
X. ConSeqUenCeSofReGaInInGCIvILIanPRoTeCTIon
nternational humanitarian law neither prohibits nor privileges ivilian diret
partiipation in hostilities. When ivilians ease to diretly partiipate in hostilities,or when members o organized armed groups belonging to a non-tate party to an
armed onfit ease to assume their ontinuous ombat untion, they regain ull
ivilian protetion against diret attak, but are not exempted rom proseution or
violations o domesti and international law they may have ommitted.
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Part2:
ReCommendTIonS
ndCommenTRy
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20 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
For te uroses o te riile o distitio, te deitio o ivilia
reers to tose ersos wo ejoy immuity rom diret attak uless
ad or su time as tey take a diret art i ostilities.7 Were h
rovides ersos oter ta ivilias wit immuity rom diret attak,
te loss ad restoratio o rotetio is govered by riteria similar to,
but ot eessarily idetial wit, diret artiiatio i ostilities.8
Beore iterretig te otio o diret artiiatio i ostilities itsel,
it will tereore be eessary to lariy te oet o ivilia uder h
aliable i iteratioal ad o-iteratioal armed ofit.
I. THCCPTCIILIIITRTILRCLICT
A.THECONCEPTOFCIvILIAN
orthepurposesoftheprincipleofdistinctionininternationalarmedconflict,all
personswhoareneithermembersofthearmedforcesofapartytotheconflictnor
participantsinaleve en masseareciviliansand,therefore,entitledtoprotectionagainst
directattackunlessandforsuchtimeastheytakeadirectpartinhostilities.
1.MUTUALEXCLUSIvENESSOFTHECONCEPTSOFCIvILIAN,ARMEDFORCESANDleve en masse
ordig to dditioal protool (p ),9 i situatios o iteratioal
armed olit, ivilias are deied egatively as all ersos wo
are eiter members o te armed ores o a arty to te olit or
7 rts 51 [3] p ; 13 [3] p . ee also hekaerts / Doswald-Bek, customary teratioal humaitaria
aw, Volume : ules (cambridge Uiversity press, 20 05), ule 6 [ereaer: customary h]. egardig
te termiology o loss o rotetio agaist diret attaks used i te terretive Guidae see above n 6.
8 For examle, medial ad religious ersoel o te armed ores lose teir rotetio i ase o ostile
or armul ats outside teir rivileged utio (rts 21 Gc , 11 [2] p ; customary h, above n 7,
Vol. , ule 25). combatats hors de combatlose teir rotetio i tey ommit a ostile at or attemt
to esae (rt . 41 [2] p ).
9 s o 1 november 2008, 168 tates were arty to p . t te same time, te ratiat io o Gc -V was
vir tua lly uiversal (194 tates arty).
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THECONCEPTOFCIVILIANS 21
ariias i a leve en masse.10 Wile reay h redaig ddiial
prl des exressly dee ivilias, e ermilgy used i e
hague egulais (h V ) ad e ur Geeva cveis (Gc -V)
evereless suggess a e es ivilia, armed res, ad
leve en masse are muually exlusive, ad a every ers ivlved
i, r aeed by, e du siliies alls i e ese ree
aegries.11 er wrds, uder all isrumes gverig ieraial
armed li, e e ivilia is egaively delimied by e
deiis armed res ad leve en masse,12 b wi sall i
e llwig be mre lsely examied.
2.ARMEDFORCES
a)Basicconcept
rdig ddiial prl , e armed res a ary e
li mrise all rgaized armed res, grus ad uis wi
are uder a mmad ressible a ary r e du is
subrdiaes.13 rs glae, is brad ad uial e armed
res seems wider a a uderlyig e hague egulais ad e
Geeva cveis. lug ese reaies d exressly deie
10 r. 50 [1] p . rdig cusmary h, abve n 7, Vl. , ule 5, is deii ivilia rees
usmary h i ieraial armed i. Te aegries vered by r. 4 [1], [2] ad [3] Gc are
iluded i e geera l deii armed res i r. 43 [1] p . ee als adz e a l. (eds.),
cmmeary e ddiial prls 8 Jue 1977 e Geeva cveis 12 ugus 1949
(Geeva: cc, 1987), 1916 . [ereaer : cmmear y p].
11 Fr examle, r. 22 [2] e Brussels Delarai (1874) ad r. 29 h V (1907) reer ivil ias
i radisii sldiers. imilarly, as eir iles sugges, e Geeva cveis (1949) usee geeri aegry ivilia erss (Gc V) as mlemeary members e armed res
(Gc ad Gc ). ve ug e se aliai ea vei des exaly rresd
e geeri aegries meied i eir reseive iles, e aegries ivilia ad armed res
are learly used as muua lly exlusive i all ur veis. Fr examle, Gc , Gc ad Gc V reer
ivilia wuded, sik a d siwreked (r. 22 [5] Gc ; r . 35 [4] Gc ; rs 20, 21, 22 Gc V)
as sed e geeri aegries reed by Gc ad Gc , amely e wuded, sik ad
siwreked e armed res (iles Gc ad Gc ). imilarly, r. 57 Gc V reers miliary
wuded ad sik as sed e geeri aegry reed by Gc V, amely ivilia erss. oer
rvisis e veis als use e erm ivil ia as sed miliary (r. 30 [2] Gc :
miliary r ivilia media l ui; r. 32 Gc V: ivilia r miliary ages; r. 144 [1] Gc V: miliary
ad ivil isrui; r. 93 [2] Gc : ivilia lig, resumably as sed miliary uirm;
rs 18, 19, 20, 57 Gc V: ivilia sials, resumably as sed mi liary sials; r . 144 [2] Gc
V: ivilia, miliary, lie r er auriies) r mbaas ad -mbaas (r. 15 Gc
V). ne ese isrumes suggess e exisee addiial aegries erss w wuld quali y
eier as ivilia s, r as members e armed res r as ariia s i a leve en masse.
12 frmaive als Commentary AP(abve n 10), 1914. Te eraial crimial tribual r e rmer
Yugslavia (ctY) deed e e ivi lias r siuais ieraial armed i as erss
w are , r lger, members e armed res (ctY, Prosecutor v. Blaskic, case n. t-95-14-t,
Judgme 3 Mar 2000, 180). Fr e releva disussi durig e exer meeigs see: er Dph
2005, . 43 ., 58, 74; er Dph 2006, . 10, 12 ., 19 .; er Dph 2008, . 35, 37.
13 r . 43 [1] p ; Customary IHL, abve n 7, Vl. , ule 4.
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22 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
armed res, ey require a members miliias ad vlueer rs
er a e regular armed res regized as su i dmesi law
ulil ur requiremes: (a) ressible mmad; (b) ixed disiive
sig regizable a a disae; () arryig arms ely; ad (d) eraig
i ardae wi e laws ad usms war.14 rily seakig,
wever, ese requiremes siue diis r e s-aure
eileme irregular armed res mbaa rivilege ad riser-
-war saus ad are siuive elemes e armed res a
ary a i.
tus, wile members irregular armed res ailig ulil e urrequiremes may be eiled mbaa rivilege ad riser-
-war saus aer aure,15 i des llw a ay su ers mus
eessarily be exluded rm e aegry armed res ad regarded as
a ivilia r e urses e du siliies.16 o e rary, i
wuld radi e lgi e riile disii lae irregular
armed res uder e mre reive legal regime arded e
ivilia ulai merely beause ey ail disiguis emselves rm
a ulai, arry eir arms ely, r du eir erais
i ardae wi e laws ad usms war. Terere, eve uder e
erms e hague egulais ad e Geeva cveis, all armed
ars swig a sufie degree miliary rgaizai ad belgig
a ary e i mus be regarded as ar e armed res
a ary.17
14 r. 1 h V ; rs 13 [1], [2], [3] ad [6] Gc ad Gc ; r. 4 [1], [2], [3] ad [6] Gc .
15 e ccs view, i ieraial armed i, ay ers ailig quali y r riser--war saus
uder r. 4 Gc mus be arded e udameal guaraees se u i r. 75 p , wi ave
aaied usmary aure ad, subje e aialiy requiremes r. 4 Gc V, als remais a
reed ers wii e meaig Gc V.
16 s illusraed by e reame sies (rs 29-31 h V ; r. 46 p ) ad er mbaas ailig
disiguis emselves as required by h (r . 44 p ), lss eileme mbaa rivilege
r riser--war saus des eessari ly lead lss membersi i e armed res.
17 Wile e revailig ii durig e 2006 exer meeig was surive is ierreai,
sme ers were exressed a is ara uld be misudersd as reaig a aegry erss
reed eier by Gc r by Gc V (er Dph 2006, . 15 .). Fr e ccs sii i is
rese see, e.g., abve n 15.
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THECONCEPTOFCIVILIANS 23
b)meaningandsignicanceofbelongingtoapartytotheconict
order or orgaized armed grous o qualiy as armed ores uder h,
ey mus belog o a ary o e ofi. Wile is requireme is made
exually exlii oly or irregular miliias ad volueer ors, iludig
orgaized resisae movemes,18 i is imlied werever e reaies reer
o e armed ores o a ary o e ofi.19 Te oe o belogig
o requires a leas a de facto relaiosi bewee a orgaized armed
grou ad a ary o e oli. tis relaiosi may be oiially
delared, bu may also be exressed roug ai agreeme or olusive
beaviour a makes lear or wi ary e grou is gig.20 Wiou
ay doub, a orgaized armed grou a be said o belog o a ae iis odu is aribuable o a ae uder e ieraioal law o ae
resosibiliy.21 Te degree o orol required o make a ae resosible
or e odu o a orgaized armed grou is o seled i ieraioal
law.22 raie, i order or a orgaized armed grou o belog o
a ary o e oli, i aears esseial a i odu osiliies o
beal ad wi e agreeme o a ary.23
Grous egagig i orgaized armed violee agais a ary o a
ieraioal armed oli wiou belogig o aoer ary o e
same oli ao be regarded as members o e armed ores o a
ary o a oli, weer uder ddiioal proool , e hague
egulaios, or e Geeva coveios. tey are us ivilias uder
ose ree isrumes.24 y oer view would disard e dioomy
18 ee rs 13 [2] Gc ad Gc ad r. 4 [2] Gc .
19 ee, e.g. r. 3 h V ; r. 4 [1] Gc ; r. 43 p .20 pie (ed.), Commentary on the Tird Geneva Convention Relative to the reatment of Prisoners ofWar
(Geeva: cc, 1960), . 57 [ereaer: Commentary GC III].21 ee also eor Dph 2006, . 16.
22 For e basi osiios i is rese, see, mos oably, cJ,Military and Paramilitary Activities in andAgainst Nicaragua (Nicaragua. v. United States of America), Judgme o 27 Jue 1986 (Meris), 115; ctY,
Prosecutor v. adic, case no. t-94-, Judgme o 15 July 1999 (eals camber), 145; cJ,Applicationof the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.Serbia and Montenegro), Judgme o 27 February 2007, 413; c, eor o e Geera l ssembly o ework o is 53rd sessio (2001), Un Do. /56/10, Dra rile 8, commea ry 5.
23 ee also below n 26.
24 Tis was e revailig oiio durig e exer meeigs (eor Dph 2006, . 16 .; eor Dph 2008,
. 43 .). For ree aioal ase law refeig is osiio see: sraeli hig cour o Jusie,
Te Public Committee Against orture et al. v. Te Government of Israel et al., (hcJ 769/02), Judgme o13 Deember 2006, 26, were e cour eld a, uder h goverig ieraioal armed ofi,
ideede palesiia armed grous oeraig i a oex o belligere ouaio eessarily
qualied as ivilia s. Wi regard o e emoral soe o loss o roeio or members o su grous,
e cour evereless oluded a: a ivilia wo as joied a erroris orgaizaio wi as beome
isome, ad i e ramework o is role i a orgaiza io e ommis a ai o osili ies, wi sor
eriods o res bewee em, loses is immuiy rom aakor su ime as e is ommiig e ai
o as. deed, regardig su a ivilia, e res bewee osiliies is oig oer a rearaio or
e ex osiliy (ibid., 39).
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24 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
i all armed fis bewee e armed forces of the parties to the conict
ad e civilian population; i wuld als radi e deiii
ieraial armed lis as rais bewee aes ad
bewee aes ad -ae ars.25 orgaized armed grus eraig
wii e brader ex a ieraial armed li wiu
belgig a ary a li uld sill be regarded as aries
a searae -ieraial armed li rvided a e vilee
reaes e required resld.26 Weer e idividuals are ivilias r
members e armed res a ary e fi wuld e ave
be deermied uder h gverig -ieraial armed fis.27
asly, i suld be ied u a rgaized armed vilee ailig
qualiy as a ieraial r -ieraial armed fi remais a
issue law ereme, weer e ererars are viewed as riers,
errriss, iraes, gagsers, sage-akers r er rgaized rimials.28
25 ee als er Dph 2006, . 16 ., 52 .; er Dph 2008, . 43 . Fr aes ary ddiial prl ,
e law gverig ieraial armed fis als alies armed fis bewee aes ad aial
liberai mvemes wii e meaig rile 1 [4] p .
26 rdig Commentary GC III(abve n 20), . 57: esisae mvemes mus be gig beal
apary e fi i e sese r. 2 , erwise e rvisis r. 3 relaig -ieraial
fis are aliable, sie su miliias ad vlueer rs are eiled syle emselves apary
e fi . Te travaux prparatoires are sile e ssible arallel exisee ieraial ad
-ieraial ases wii e greaer ex e same armed fi. Fr e releva
disussi durig e exer meeigs, see er Dph 2005, . 10; er Dph 2006, . 17 . ad 53 .;
er Dph 2008, . 43 . suld be ed a ieral disurbaes ad esis, su as ris, islaed
ad sradi as vilee ad er as a similar aure (r. 1 [2] p ) d rea e resld
rraed armed vilee, wi is required r e emergee a searae -ieraial
armed fi (ctY, Prosecutor v. Tadic, case n. t-94-1-72, Deisi e Deee Mi r
erlury eal Jurisdii 2 ober 1995, 70).
27 ee belw ei .
28 ee er Dph 2006, . 16; er Dph 2008, . 44, 49.
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THECONCEPTOFCIVILIANS 25
c)determinationofmembership
For e regular armed ores o aes, individual membersi is generally
regulaed by domesi law and exressed roug ormal inegraion ino
ermanen unis disinguisable by uniorms, insignia, and equimen.
te same alies were armed unis o olie, border guard, or similar
uniormed ores are inororaed ino ae armed ores. Members o
regularly onsiued ores are no ivilians, regardless o eir individual
ondu or e union ey assume wiin e armed ores. For e
uroses o e rinile o disinion, membersi in regular ae
armed ores eases, and ivilian roeion is resored, wen a member
disengages rom aive duy and re-inegraes ino ivilian lie, weerdue o a ull disarge rom duy or as a deaivaed reservis.
Membersi in irregular armed ores, su as miliias, voluneer ors, or
resisane movemens belonging o a ary o e oni, generally is no
regulaed by domesi law and an only be reliably deermined on e basis
o unional rieria, su as ose alying o organized armed grous in
non-inernaional armed oni.29
3.Leve en masse
s ar as e leve en masse is onerned, all relevan insrumens are based
on e same deniion, wi reers o e inabians o a non-ouied
erriory wo, on e aroa o e enemy, sonaneously ake u arms
o resis e invading ores wiou aving ad ime o orm emselves
ino regular armed unis, rovided ey arry arms oenly and rese
e laws and usoms o war.30 pariians in a leve en masse are e only
armed aors wo are exluded rom e ivilian oulaion aloug, by
deniion, ey oerae sonaneously and lak sufien organizaion andommand o qualiy as members o e armed ores. ll oer ersons
wo direly ariiae in osiliies on a merely sonaneous, soradi or
unorganized basis mus be regarded as ivilians.
29 ee below eion .3.(b) and, wi regard o rivae onraors, eion .2.
30 r. 2 h V ; r. 4 [6] Gc . ee also e reerene o r. 4 [6] Gc in r. 50 [1] p .
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26 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
4.CONCLUSION
For the purposes o the principle o distinction in international armed
conlict, all persons who are neither members o the armed orces o a
party to the confict nor participants in a leve en masse are civilians and,
thereore, entitled to protection against direct attack unless and or such
time as they take a direct part in hostilities. Membership in irregularly
constituted militia and volunteer corps, including organized resistance
movements, belonging to a party to the confict must be determined based
on the same unctional criteria that apply to organized armed groups in
non-international armed confict.
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THECONCEPTOFCIVILIANS 27
II. THCCPTCIILII-ITRTILRCLICT
orthepurposesoftheprincipleofdistinctioninnoninternationalarmedconict,all
personswhoarenotmembersofStatearmedforcesororganizedarmedgroupsofaparty
totheconflictareciviliansand,therefore,entitledtoprotectionagainstdirectattack
unlessandforsuchtimeastheytakeadirectpartinhostilities.Innoninternational
armedconict,organizedarmedgroupsconstitutethearmedforcesofanonStateparty
totheconictandconsistonlyofindividualswhosecontinuousfunctionitistotakea
directpartinhostilities(continuouscombatfunction).
1.MUTUALEXCLUSIvENESSOFTHECONCEPTSOFCIvILIAN,
ARMEDFORCESANDORGANIzEDARMEDGROUPS
a)Lackofexpressdenitionsintreatylaw
treay h goverig o-ieraioal armed oli uses e erms
ivilia, armed ores ad orgaized armed group wiou expressly
deig em. Tese oeps mus ereore be ierpreed i good ai
i aordae wi e ordiary meaig o be give o em i eir
oex ad i e lig o e obje ad purpose o h.31
Wile i is geerally reogized a members o ae armed ores i
o-ieraioal armed oli do o qualiy as ivilias, reay law,
ae praie, ad ieraioal jurisprudee ave o uequivoallyseled weer e same applies o members o orgaized armed groups
(i.e. e armed ores o o-ae paries o a armed ofi).32 Beause
orgaized armed groups geerally ao qualiy as regular armed ores
uder aioal law, i mig be empig o olude a membersip i
su groups is simply a oiuous orm o ivilia dire pariipaio
31 r. 31 [1] Viea coveio o e aw o treaies.
32 ee Customary IHL, above n 7, Vol. , p. 19.
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i siliies. rdigly, members rgaized armed grus wuld be
regarded as ivilias w, wig eir iuus dire ariiai
i siliies, lse rei agais dire aak r e eire durai
eir membersi. hwever, is ara wuld seriusly udermie
e eual iegriy e aegries erss uderlyig e
riile disii, ms ably beause i wuld reae aries
-ieraial armed fis wse eire armed res remai ar
e ivilia ulai.33 s e wrdig ad lgi rile 3 Gc
-V ad ddiial prl (p ) reveals, ivilias, armed res,
ad rgaized armed grus e aries e li are muually
exlusive aegries als i -ieraial armed fi.
b)rticle3commontotheGenevaConventions
lug rile 3 Gc -V geerally is sidered gver e
du siliies, is wrdig allws erai lusis be draw
wi regard e geeri disii bewee e armed res ad e
ivilia ulai i -ieraial armed li. Ms ably,
rile 3 Gc -V rvides a ea pary e li mus ard
rei erss akig aive ar i e siliies, iludig
members armed res w ave laid dw eir arms ad se laed
hors de combat.34 tus, b ae ad -ae aries e li
ave armed res disi rm e ivilia ulai.35 tis assage
als makes lear a members su armed res, i ras er
erss, are sidered as akig aive ar i e siliies ly
e ey ave disegaged rm eir gig ui (ave laid dw
eir arms) r are laed hors de combat; mere susesi mba
is isuiie. rile 3 Gc -V us imlies a e ivilia
mrisig se idividuals w d bear arms beal a ary e fi.36
33 o e dager exedig e e dire ariiai i siliies beyd sei as, see als
belw ei V.2. Durig e exer meeigs, e ara based iuus dire ariiai
i siliies was riiized as blurrig e disii made by h bewee lss rei based
du (ivilias) ad saus r u i (members armed res r rgaized armed g rus).
ee Bakg rud D. Dph 2004, . 36; Bakgrud D. Dph 2005, W V-V, . 10; er Dph 2005,
. 44, 48, 50. ee als e disussis i er Dph 2006, . 20 .; er Dph 2008, . 46 .
34 r. 3 Gc -V.
35 rdig Commentary GC III(abve n 20), . 37: eakig geera lly, i mus be regized a e
fis reerred i r. 3 are armed fis, wiarmed res eier side egaged isiliies
fis, i sr, wi are i may reses similar a ieraial war [].
36 rdig pie (ed.), Commentary on the Fourth Geneva Convention Relative to the Protec tion
of Civilian Persons in Time of War(Geeva: cc, 1958), . 40: rile 3 as a ex remely wide eld
aliai ad vers members e armed res as well as erss w d ake a r i e
siliies. is isae, wever, e rile aurally alies rs ad rems ivilias a is
ele w d bear arms.
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THECONCEPTOFCIVILIANS 29
c)dditionalProtocolII
Wile dditial prtl 37 as a sigiiatly arrwer se
aliati ad uses terms dieret rm tse i rtile 3 Gc -V, te
geeri ategrizati erss is te same i bt istrumets. 38 Durig
te Dilmati ceree 1974-77, Dra rtile 25 [1] p deed
te et ivilia as iludig aye w is t a member te
armed res r a rgaized armed gru.39 ltug tis artile was
disarded alg wit mst ter rvisis te dut stilities
i a last miute ert t simliy te prtl, te al text tiues
t relet te rigially rsed et ivilia. rdig t te
prtl, armed res, dissidet armed res, ad ter rgaizedarmed grus ave te uti ad ability t arry ut sustaied ad
erted military eratis;40 wereas te ivilia ulati ad
idividual ivilias sall ejy geeral rteti agaist te dagers
arisig rm military eratis arried ut by tese res uless ad
r su time as tey take a diret art i stilities.41
d)Reconciliationofterminology
n ddiional proocol , he erm armed forces is resriced o ae
armed forces, whereas he armed forces of non-ae aries are referred o
as dissiden armed forces or oher organized armed grous. the noion
37 s 1 nvember 2008, 164 tates were arty t p .
38 Fr te ig tresld aliati dditial prtl , see rt. 1 [1] p .
39 Dra rt. 25 [1] p was adted by sesus i te Tird cmmittee 4 ril 1975 (o.., Vl. XV,
. 320, cDDh/215/ev.1). ee al s te ccs cmmetary (otber 1973) te rigial versi rt.
25 [1] te Dra p submitted t te Dilmati ceree 1974 t 1977: [] st sidrs
mme ivils tus les tres umais qui se truvet sur le territire due partie tra tate se drule
u fit arm au ses de lartile remier et qui e t as artie des res armes u grues arms.
40 rt. 1 [1] p .
41 rt. 13 [1] ad [3] p . Tis iterretati is urter surted by te resetive texts i wi
te prtl reers t ivilia s (rts 13, 14, 17 p ) ad te ivilia ulati (title part V p ;
rts 5 [1] (b) ad (e), 13, 14, 15, 17 ad 18 p ).
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o armed ores in rile 3 Gc -V, on he oher hand, inludes all hree
aegories juxaosed in rile 1 [1] p , namely ae armed ores,
dissiden armed ores, and oher organized armed grous. thus, similar
o siuaions o inernaional armed onfi, he one o ivilian in non-
inernaional armed onfi is negaively delimied by he deniion o armed
ores (rile 3 Gc -V) or, exressed in he erminology o ddiional
proool , o ae armed ores, dissiden armed ores and oher
organized armed grous.42 For he uroses o his nerreive Guidane,
he armed ores o aes ary o a non-inernaional armed onli are
reerred o as ae armed ores, whereas he armed ores o non-ae
aries are desribed as organized armed grous.43
Where no saedoherwise, he one o organized armed grou inludes boh dissiden
armed ores and oher organized armed grous (rile 1 [1] p ).
2.STATEARMEDFORCES
a)Basicconcept
tere is reas assume a aes ary b ddiial
prls desired disi deiiis ae armed res i siuais
ieraial ad -ieraial armed li. rdig e
travaux prparatoires r ddiial prl , e e armed
res a hig craig pary i rile 1 [1] p was ieded
be brad eug ilude armed ars w d eessarily qualiy
as armed res uder dmesi law, su as members e aial
guard, usms, r lie res, rvided a ey d, i a, assume
e ui armed res.44 Tus, marable e e armed
res i ddiial prl , ae armed res uder ddiial
42 frmaive ctY, Prosecutor v. Martic, case n. t-95-11-, Judgme 8 ober 20 08, 300-302. Tis
was e revail ig view als dur ig e exer mee igs (see er Dph 2005, . 43 .; er Dph 2006,
. 20 .; er Dph 2008, . 46 .).
43 ne a e e rgaized armed gru is als used i h gverig ieraial armed i
desribe rgaized armed ars er a e regular armed res wi erae uder a mmad
ressible a ary e i ad, erere, qualiy as ar e armed res a ary (r. 43
[1] p ; see abve ei ).
44 ee Commentary AP(abve n 10), 4462: Te ermarmed res e hig craig pary suld be
udersd i e brades sese. a, is erm was se i reeree ers suggesed su as,
r examle,regula r armed res, i rder ver all e armed res, iludig se iluded i
e deii e army i e aial legislai sme uries (aial guard, usms, lie
res r ay er simila r re), reerrig o.., Vl. X, . 94, cDDh / /238/ev.1. o e eia l
qualiai lie res as ar e armed res a ary e i, see als e disussi
i er Dph 2005, . 11; er Dph 2006, . 43, 52 .; er Dph 2008, . 54, 64, 68 .
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THECONCEPTOFCIVILIANS 31
prcl iclude b e regular armed rces ad er armed grus
r uis rgaized uder a cmmad ressible e ae.45
b)determinationofmembership
leas as ar as regular armed rces are ccered, membersi i ae
armed rces is geerally deed by dmesic law ad exressed rug
rmal iegrai i ermae uis disiguisable by uirms,
isigia ad equime. te same alies were armed uis lice,
brder guard, r similar uirmed rces are icrraed i e armed
rces. Members regularly csiued rces are civilias, regardless
eir idividual cduc r e uci ey assume wii earmed rces. Fr e urses e ricile disici, membersi
i regular ae armed rces ceases, ad civilia reci is resred,
we a member disegages rm acive duy ad re-iegraes i civilia
lie, weer due a ull discarge rm duy r as a deacivaed reservis.
Jus as i ieraial armed clic, membersi i irregular ae
armed rces, suc as miliia, vlueer r aramiliary grus, geerally is
regulaed by dmesic law ad ca ly be reliably deermied e
basis e same ucial crieria a aly rgaized armed grus
-ae aries e cfic.46
3.ORGANIzEDARMEDGROUPS
a)Basicconcept
orgaized armed grus belgig a -ae ary a armed
clic iclude b disside armed rces ad er rgaized armed
grus. Disside armed rces esseially csiue ar a aes armed
45 ccrdig Be et al., New Rules for Victims of Armed Conicts: Commentary on the Two 1977 Protocols
Addit ional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 (Te hague: Mar ius nij, 1982), . 672, e erms
rgaized ad uder ressible cmmad i r. 1 [1] p iereial ly [] recgize e esseial
cdiis rescribed uder ar . 43 prcl : a e armed rce be liked e e aries
e cfic; a ey be rgaized; ad a ey be uder ressible cmmad.
46 ee abve eci .2.(c) ad belw eci .3.(b).
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32 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
res tat ave tured agaist te gvermet.47 oter rgaized armed
grus reruit teir members rimarily rm te ivilia ulati but
devel a sufiet degree military rgaizati t dut stilities
beal a arty t te it, albeit t always wit te same meas,
itesity ad level sistiati as tate armed res.
bt ases, it is ruial r te rteti te ivilia ulati t
distiguis a -tate arty t a it (e.g., a isurgey, a rebelli,
r a seessiist mvemet) rm its armed res (i.e., a rgaized
armed gru).48 s wit tate arties t armed its, -tate arties
mrise bt igtig res ad surtive segmets te iviliaulati, su as litial ad umaitaria wigs. Te term rgaized
armed gru, wever, reers exlusively t te armed r military wig
a -tate arty: its armed res i a utial sese. Tis distiti
as imrtat sequees r te determiati membersi i a
rgaized armed gru as sed t ter rms ailiati wit, r
surt r, a -tate arty t te it.
b)determinationofmembership
Dissident armed forces: ltug members dissidet armed res are
lger members tate armed res, tey d t beme ivilias
merely beause tey ave tured agaist teir gvermet. t least t te
extet, ad r as lg as, tey remai rgaized uder te strutures
te tate armed res t wi tey rmerly belged, tese strutures
suld tiue t determie idividual membersi i dissidet armed
res as well.
Other organized armed groups: Mre diiult is te et membersi i rgaized armed grus ter ta dissidet armed
res. Membersi i tese irregularly stituted grus as basis
i dmesti law. t is rarely rmalized trug a at itegrati ter
ta takig u a ertai uti r te gru; ad it is t sistetly
47 ee Commentary AP(abve n 10), 4460.
48 ltug rt . 1 p reers t armed its betwee tate armed res ad dissidet armed res
r ter rgaized armed grus, te atual arties t su a it are, urse, te hig ctratig
party ad te sig -tate arty, ad t teir resetive armed res.
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THECONCEPTOFCIVILIANS 33
exressed trug unirms, ixed distintive signs, r identiiatin
ards. n view te wide variety ultural, litial, and military
ntexts in wi rganized armed grus erate, tere may be varius
degrees afliatin wit su grus tat d nt neessarily amunt t
membersi witin te meaning h. n ne ase, ailiatin may
turn n individual ie, in anter n invluntary reruitment, and in
yet anter n mre traditinal ntins lan r amily.49 n ratie,
te inrmal and landestine strutures mst rganized armed grus
and te elasti nature membersi render it artiularly diiult t
distinguis between a nn-tate arty t te nit and its armed res.
s as been swn abve, in h gverning nn-internatinal armed
nit, te net rganized armed gru reers t nn-tate armed
res in a stritly untinal sense. Fr te ratial urses te
rinile distintin, terere, membersi in su grus annt
deend n abstrat afliatin, amily ties, r ter riteria rne t errr,
arbitrariness r abuse. nstead, membersi must deend n weter
te ntinuus untin assumed by an individual rresnds t tat
lletively exerised by te gru as a wle, namely te ndut
stilities n beal a nn-tate arty t te nlit.50 cnsequently,
under h, te deisive riterin r individual membersi in an
rganized armed gru is weter a ersn assumes a ntinuus untin
r te gru invlving is r er diret artiiatin in stilities
(ereaer: ntinuus mbat untin).51 cntinuus mbat untin
des nt imlyde jure entitlement t mbatant rivilege.52 ater, it
49 Bakgrund D. Dph 2005, W V-V, p. 15.
50 on te lletive r individual nature ntinuus mbat unt in, see ert Dph 2008, . 55 .
51 on te qualiatin ndut as diret arti iatin in stilities, see belw etin V.
52 cmbatant rivilege, namely te rigt t diret ly art iiate in stilit ies wit immunity rm dmesti
rseutin r lawul ats war, is arded nly t members te armed res arties t an
internatinal armed nit (exet medial and relig ius ersnnel), as well as t artiiants in a leve en
masse (rts 1 and 2 h V ; rt. 43 [1] p ). ltug all riv ileged mbatants ave a rigt t diret ly
artiiate in stilities, tey d nt neessarily ave a untin requiring tem t d s (e.g. ks,
administ rative ersnnel). cnversely, individuals w assume ntinuus mbat untin utside te
rivileged ategries ersns, as well as in nn-internatinal armed nit, are nt entitled t
mbatant rivilege under h (see als belw etin X).
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34 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
disinguises members o e organized iging ores o a non-ae
ary rom ivilians wo direly ariiae in osiliies on a merely
sonaneous, soradi, or unorganized basis, or wo assume exlusively
oliial, adminisraive or oer non-omba unions.53
coninuous omba union requires lasing inegraion ino an
organized armed grou aing as e armed ores o a non-ae ary o
an armed onfi. Tus, individuals wose oninuous union involves
e rearaion, exeuion, or ommand o as or oeraions amouning
o dire ariiaion in osiliies are assuming a oninuous omba
union. n individual reruied, rained and equied by su a grouo oninuously and direly ariiae in osiliies on is beal an be
onsidered o assume a oninuous omba union even beore e or se
rs arries ou a osile a. Tis ase mus be disinguised rom ersons
omarable o reserviss wo, aer a eriod o basi raining or aive
membersi, leave e armed grou and re-inegrae ino ivilian lie. u
reserviss are ivilians unil and or su ime as ey are alled bak o
aive duy.54
ndividuals wo oninuously aomany or suor an organized
armed grou, bu wose union does no involve dire ariiaion
in osiliies, are no members o a grou wiin e meaning o h.
nsead, ey remain ivilians assuming suor unions, similar o
rivae onraors and ivilian emloyees aomanying ae armed
ores.55 tus, reruiers, rainers, inaniers and roagandiss may
oninuously onribue o e general war eor o a non-ae ary,
bu ey are no members o an organized armed grou belonging o a
ary unless eir union addiionally inludes aiviies amouning odire ariiaion in osiliies.56 Te same alies o individuals wose
53 During e exer meeings, e revail ing view was a ersons ease o be ivilians wiin
e meaning o h or as long as ey oninuously assume a un ion involving dire ar iiaion
in osiliies (oninuous omba un ion) or an organized a rmed grou belonging o a ary o
a non-inernaional armed onfi (xer paer Dph 2004 (pro. M. Boe); eor Dph 2005, . 43 .,
48 ., 53 ., 63 ., 82 .; eor Dph 2006, . 9 ., 20 ., 29-32, 66 .; eor Dph 2008, . 46 -60).
54 ee also above eions .2.() and .2.(b) and, more generally, below eion V.2.
55 ee below eion .
56 egarding e qualiaion o reruiing and raining, naning and roaganda as dire ariiaion
in osil iies, see below eions V.2.(a) and (b); V.1.
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THECONCEPTOFCIVILIANS 35
unctin is limited t te urcasing, smuggling, manuacturing and
maintaining weans and ter equiment utside seciic military
eratins r t te cllectin intelligence ter tan a tactical
nature.57 ltug suc ersns may accmany rganized armed
grus and rvide substantial surt t a arty t te cnlict, tey
d nt assume cntinuus cmbat unctin and, r te urses te
rincile distinctin, cannt be regarded as members an rganized
armed gru.58 s civilians, tey beneit rm rtectin against direct
attack unless and r suc time as tey directly articiate in stilities,
even tug teir activities r lcatin may increase teir exsure t
incidental deat r injury.
n ractice, te rincile distinctin must be alied based n
inrmatin wic is ractically available and can reasnably be regarded
as reliable in te revailing circumstances. cntinuus cmbat unctin
may be enly exressed trug te carrying unirms, distinctive
signs, r certain weans. Yet it may als be identiied n te basis
cnclusive beaviur, r examle were a ersn as reeatedly directly
articiated in stilities in surt an rganized armed gru in
circumstances indicating tat suc cnduct cnstitutes a cntinuus
unctin rater tan a sntaneus, sradic, r temrary rle assumed
r te duratin a articular eratin. Watever criteria are alied
in imlementing te rincile distinctin in a articular cntext, tey
must allw t reliably distinguis members te armed rces a nn-
tate arty t te cnfict rm civilians w d nt directly articiate in
stilities, r w d s n a merely sntaneus, sradic r unrganized
basis.59 s will be swn, tat determinatin remains subject t all easible
recautins and t te resumtin rtectin in case dubt.60
57 egarding te qualicatin as direct articiatin in stilities urcasing, smuggli ng, transrt ing,
manuacturing and maintaining weans, exlsives and equiment, as well as cllecting
and rviding intelligence, see belw ectins V.1.(a); V.2.(a), (b) and (g); V.1.
58 obviusly, suc lack membersi des nt exclude tat civilian surters rganized armed grus
may incur criminal resnsibility r teir activities under natinal and, in te case internatinal crimes,
als internatinal law. ee belw ectin X.
59 ee als ert Dph 2006, . 25 .; ert Dph 2008, . 49-57.
60 ee belw ectin V.
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36 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
4.CONCLUSION
For the purposes o the principle o distinction in non-international
armed conlict, all persons who are not members o tate armed orces
or organized armed groups o a party to the conlict are civilians and,
thereore, entitled to protection against direct attack unless and or such
time as they take a direct part in hostilities. n non-international armed
conlict, organized armed groups constitute the armed orces o a non-
tate party to the confict and consist only o individuals whose continuous
unction it is to take a direct part in hostilities (continuous combat
unction).
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THECONCEPTOFCIVILIANS 37
III.PRICRCRSCIILIPLS
Privatecontractorsandemployeesofapartytoanarmedconictwhoarecivilians(see
aboveIandII)areentitledtoprotectionagainstdirectattackunlessandforsuchtime
astheytakeadirectpartinhostilities.Teiractivitiesorlocationmay,however,expose
themtoanincreasedriskofincidentaldeathorinjuryeveniftheydonottakeadirect
partinhostilities.
1.PARTICULARDIFFICULTIESRELATEDTOPRIvATE
CONTRACTORSANDCIvILIANEMPLOYEES
n reent deades, arties t armed nfits ave inreasingly emlyed
rivate ntratrs and ivilian emlyees in a variety untins
traditinally errmed by military ersnnel.61 Generally seaking,
weter rivate ntratrs and emlyees a arty t an armed nfit
are ivilians witin te meaning h and weter tey diretly
artiiate in stilities deends n te same riteria as wuld aly t
any ter ivilian.62 Te seial rle su ersnnel requires tat tese
determinatins be made wit artiular are and wit due nsideratin
r te gegrai and rganizatinal lseness many rivate
ntratrs and ivilian emlyees t te armed res and te stilities.
t suld als be nted tat te urse te distintin between ivilians
and members te armed res may nt be idential under dmesti
and internatinal law. Deending n natinal legislatin, membersiin te armed res may ave administrative, jurisditinal, and ter
nsequenes irrelevant t te rinile distintin in te ndut
stilities. Under h, te rimary nsequenes membersi in
te armed res are te exlusin rm te ategry ivilian and, in
61 Tis trend led t an initiative by te wiss gvernment, in eratin wit te cc, t address te issue
rivate military and seurity manies. Tis initiative resulted in teMntreux Dument n pertinent
nternatinal egal obligatins and Gd praties r tates elated t oeratins private Military and
eurity cmanies During rmed cnfit 17 etember 2008, agreed un by 17 artiiating tates.
62 on te net ivil ian, see abve etins and . on te net diret art iiatin in stilities ,
see belw etins V t V.
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38 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
internatinal armed nfit, te rigt t diretly artiiate in stilities
n beal a arty t te nlit (mbatant rivilege). Were te
nets ivilian and armed res are deined r te urse te
ndut stilities, te relevant standards must be derived rm h.63
Te great majrity rivate ntratrs and ivilian emlyees urrently
ative in armed nlits ave nt been inrrated int tate armed
res and assume untins tat learly d nt invlve teir diret
artiiatin in stilities n beal a arty t te nlit (i.e. n
ntinuus mbat untin).64 Terere, under h, tey generally me
witin te deinitin ivilians.65
ltug tey are tus entitled trtetin against diret attak, teir rximity t te armed res and
ter military bjetives may exse tem mre tan ter ivilians t te
dangers arising rm military eratins, inluding te risk inidental
deat r injury.66
n sme ases, wever, it may be extremely diiult t determine te
ivilian r military nature ntratr ativity. Fr examle, te line
between te deene military ersnnel and ter military bjetives
against enemy attaks (diret artiiatin in stilities) and te
rtetin tse same ersns and bjets against rime r vilene
unrelated t te stilities (law enrement / deene sel r ters) may
be tin. t is terere artiularly imrtant in tis ntext t bserve
te general rules h n reautins and resumtins in situatins
dubt.67
2.INTERNATIONALARMEDCONFLICT
civilians, inluding tse rmally autrized t amany te armedres and entitled t risner-war status un ature, were never
meant t diretly artiiate in stilities n beal a arty t te
63 ee ert Dph 2005, . 74 .
64 on te net ntinuus mbat untin, see abve etin .3.(b).
65 ert Dph 2005, . 80.
66 ert Dph 2006, . 34 .
67 ee belw etin V.
68 o te ategries ersns entitled t risner--war status under rt. 4 [1] t [6] Gc , tse desribed
in rt. 4 [4] Gc (ivilia ns amanying te armed res) and rt. 4 [5] Gc (ivil ian rew members
te merant marine r ivil ai rra) are ivil ians (rt. 50 [1] p ). s any ter ivilians, tey are
exluded rm te ategries entitled t mbatant rivilege, namely members te armed res and
artiiants in a leve en masse (rt. 43 [1] and [2], 50 [1] p ; rts 1 and 2 h V ) and, terere, d nt
ave a rigt t diretly artiiate in stilities wit immunity rm dmesti rseutin. ee als belw
etin X, as well as te brie disussin in ert Dph 2006, . 35 .
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THECONCEPTOFCIVILIANS 39
cnlic.68 s lng as ey are n incrraed in e armed rces,
rivae cnracrs and civilian emlyees d n cease be civilians
simly because ey accmany e armed rces and r assume uncins
er an e cnduc siliies a wuld radiinally ave
been errmed by miliary ersnnel. Were suc ersnnel direcly
ariciae in siliies wiu e exress r aci aurizain e
ae ary e cnfic, ey remain civilians and lse eir recin
agains direc aack r suc ime as eir direc ariciain lass.69
dieren cnclusin mus be reaced r cnracrs and emlyees
w, all inens and urses, ave been incrraed in e armedrces a ary e cnfic, weer rug a rmal rcedure under
nainal law r de facto by being given a cninuus cmba uncin.70
Under h, suc ersnnel wuld becme members an rganized
armed rce, gru, r uni under a cmmand resnsible a ary
e cnfic and, r e urses e rincile disincin, wuld n
lnger qualiy as civilians.71
3.NON-INTERNATIONALARMEDCONFLICT
Te abve bservains als aly, mutatis mutandis, in nn-inernainal
armed cnlics. tus, r suc ime as rivae cnracrs assume a
cninuus cmba uncin r an rganized armed gru belnging
a nn-ae ary, ey becme members a gru.72 tereically,
69 er Dph 2005, . 82.
70 on e cnce cninuus cmba uncin, see abve ecin .3.(b). on e subsidiary uncinal
deerminain membersi secically in inernainal armed cnfic, see abve ecin .3.(c).
71 Te revail ing view exressed during e exer meeings was a, r e urses e cnduc
siliies, rivae cnracrs and emlyees aurized by a ae direcly ariciae in siliies
n is beal wuld cease be civil ians and becme members is armed rces under h, regardless
rmal incrrain. was ned a, rm e isrical letters of marque and reprisalissued
rivaeers e mdern cmbaan rivilege, direc ariciain in siliies wi e auriy a
ae as always been regarded as legi imae and, as suc, exem rm dmesic rsecuin. ee er
Dph 2003, . 4 .; er Dph 2004, . 11 ., 14; xer paer Dph 2004 (pr. M. cmi), . 8 .;
er Dph 2005, . 74 . and 80 .; Backgrund Dc. Dph 2005, W V-X, . 17.
72 ee er Dph 2005, . 81 .
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40 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
rivae miliary comanies could even become indeenden non-ae
aries o a non-inernaional armed conlic.73 privae conracors and
civilian emloyees wo are neier members o ae armed orces nor
members o organized armed grous, owever, mus be regarded as
civilians and, ereore, are roeced agains direc aack unless and or
suc ime as ey direcly ariciae in osiliies.
4.CONCLUSION
Weer rivae conracors and emloyees o a ary o e conlic
qualiy as civilians wiin e meaning o h and weer ey direcly
ariciae in osiliies deends on e same crieria as are alicableo any oer civilian. te geograic and organizaional closeness o
suc ersonnel o e armed orces and e osiliies require a is
deerminaion be made wi aricular care. Tose wo qualiy as civilians
are eniled o roecion agains direc aack unless and or suc ime
as ey direcly ariciae in osiliies, even oug eir aciviies and
locaion may exose em o an increased risk o incidenal injury and
dea. Tis does no rule ou e ossibiliy a, or uroses oer an
e conduc o osiliies, domesic law mig regulae e saus o rivae
conracors and emloyees diferenly rom h.
73 Ibid.
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THECONCEPTOFDIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES 41
B.THECONCEPTOF
DIRECTPARTICIPATION
INHOSTILITIES
treay h does no deine dire ariiaion in osiliies, nor
does a lear inerreaion o e one emerge rom ae raie
or inernaional jurisrudene. te noion o dire ariiaion inosiliies mus ereore be inerreed in good ai in aordane wi
e ordinary meaning o be given o is onsiuen erms in eir onex
and in lig o e obje and urose o h.74
Were reay law reers o osiliies, a noion is inrinsially linked o
siuaions o inernaional or non-inernaional armed onfi.75 Tereore,
e one o dire ariiaion in osiliies anno reer o ondu
ourring ouside siuaions o armed onli, su as during inernal
disurbanes and ensions, inluding rios, isolaed and soradi as
o violene and oer as o a similar naure.76 Moreover, even during
armed onli, no all ondu onsiues ar o e osiliies.77 is
e urose o e resen aer o ideniy e rieria a deermine
weer and, i so, or ow long a ariular ondu amouns o dire
ariiaion in osiliies.
n raie, ivilian ariiaion in osiliies ours in various orms and
degrees o inensiy and in a wide variey o geograial, ulural, oliial,and miliary onexs. Tereore, in deermining weer a ariular ondu
74 r. 31 [1] Vienna convenion on e aw o treaies.
75 Te one o osiliies is requenly used in reaies regulaing siuaions o inernaional and
non-inernaional armed onfi, or examle in e ollowing onex s: oening o osiliies, ondu
o osiliies, as o osiliy, ersons (no) aking ar in osiliies, ees o osiliies, susension o
osiliies, end o osiliies. ee tile and r. 1 h ; tile eion h V ; r. 3 [1] Gc -V; r. 17 Gc ;
r. 33 Gc ; tile eion and rs 21 [3], 67, 118, 119 Gc ; rs 49 [2], 130, 133, 134, 135 Gc V;
rs 33, 34 , 40, 43 [2], 45, 47, 51 [3], 59, 60 p a nd tile par V, eion p ; rs 4 and 13 [3] p ; r s
3 [1] [3] and 4 W proool.
76 ording o r. 1 [2] p , su siuaions do no onsiue armed onfis.
77 n a, armed onfi an arise wiou any ourrene o osiliies, namely roug a delaraion
o war or e ouaion o erriory wiou armed resisane (r. 2 Gc -V). Furermore, onsiderable
orions o h deal wi issues oer an e ondu o osiliies , mos noably e exerise o ower
and auoriy over ersons and erriory in e ands o a ar y o e onfi.
ee also eor Dph 2005, . 13, 18 .
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42 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
amouts to direct articiatio i ostilities, due cosideratio must be give
to te circumstaces revailig at te relevat time ad lace.78 neverteless,
te imortace o te circumstaces surroudig eac case sould ot divert
attetio rom te act tat direct articiatio i ostilities remais a legal
cocet o limited elasticity tat must be iterreted i a teoretically soud
ad coeret maer refectig te udametal riciles o h.
78 ee also below ectio V. ee urter: eort Dph 2006, . 25 ., 70 .
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THECONCEPTOFDIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES 43
I.IRCTPRTICIPTIIHSTILITISSSPCIICCT
Thenotionofdirectparticipationinhostilitiesreferstospecificactscarriedoutby
individualsaspartoftheconductofhostilitiesbetweenpartiestoanarmedconict.
1.BASICCOMPONENTSOFTHENOTIONOFDIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
Te oio o dire ariiaio i osiliies esseially omrises wo
elemes, amely a o osiliies ad a o dire ariiaio
erei.79 Wile e oe o osiliies reers o e (olleive)
resor by e aries o e oi o meas ad meods o ijurig e
eemy,80 ariiaio i osiliies reers o e (idividual) ivolveme
o a erso i ese osiliies.81 Deedig o e qualiy ad degree o
su ivolveme, idividual ariiaio i osiliies may be desribed
as dire or idire. Te oio o dire ariiaio i osiliies as
evolved rom e rase akig o aive ar i e osiliies used i
rile 3 Gc -V. loug e glis exs o e Geeva coveios
ad ddiioal proools use e words aive 82 ad dire,83
reseively, e osise use o e rase participent directement i
e equally auei Fre exs demosrae a e erms dire ad
aive reer o e same qualiy ad degree o idividual ariiaio i
osiliies.84 Furermore, as e oio o akig a dire ar i osiliies
79 eor Dph 2005, . 17; Bakgroud Do. Dph 2005, W -, . 2.
80 ee r. 22 h V (eio o hosili ies). treay law does o esablis uiorm ermiology
or e odu o osiliies bu reers, aar rom osi liies, also o warare (tile par , eio
ad r. 35 [1] p ), miliary oera ios (r. 53 Gc V; r. 51 [1] p ; r. 13 [1] p ), or simly
oeraios (r. 48 p ).
81 ee rs 43 [2] p ; 45 [1] ad [3] p ; 51 [3] p ; 67 [1] (e) p ; 13 [3] p .
82 r. 3 Gc -V.
83 r s 51 [3] p ; 43 [2] p ; 67 [1] (e) p ad 13 [3] p .
84 Tis was e revailig view also durig e exer meeigs (eor Dph 2005, . 29; eor Dph 2006,
. 62). Te eraioal crimial tribual or wada (ct) afrmed e syoymous meaig
o e oios o aive ad dire ariiaio i osiliies: ct, Prosecutor v. Akayesu,
case no. ct-96-4-t, Judgme o 2 eember 1998, 629. rs sig, i may aear a e
prearaory commiee or e sablisme o a eraioal crimial cour (cc) imlied a
disiio bewee e erms aive ad dire i e oex o e reruime o ildre we
i exlaied a: Te wordsusig adariiae ave bee adoed i order o over bo dire
ariiaio i omba ad also aive ariiaio i miliary aiviies liked o omba. rily
seakig, owever, e commiee made a disiio bewee omba ad miliary aiviies liked o
omba, o bewee aive ad dire ariiaio.
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44 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
is used syymusly i te dditial prtls ad , it suld be
iterreted i te same maer i iteratial ad -iteratial
armed fit.85
2.RESTRICTIONTOSPECIFICACTS
treaty h, idividual dut tat stitutes art te stilities
is desribed as diret artiiati i stilities, regardless weter
te idividual is a ivilia r a member te armed res.86 Weter
idividuals diretly artiiate i stilities a staeus, sradi,
r urgaized basis r as art a tiuus uti assumed r a
rgaized armed re r gru belgig t a arty t te fit maybe deisive r teir status as ivilias, but as ifuee te se
dut tat stitutes diret artiiati i stilities. Tis illustrates
tat te ti diret artiiati i stilities des t reer t a
erss status, uti, r ailiati, but t is r er egagemet
i seii stile ats.87 essee, te et stilities uld be
desribed as te sum ttal all stile ats arried ut by idividuals
diretly artiiatig i stilities.88
Were ivilias egage i stile ats a ersistetly reurret basis, it
may be temtig t regard t ly ea stile at as diret artiiati
i stilities, but eve teir tiued itet t arry ut useiied
stile ats i te uture.89 hwever, ay extesi te et diret
artiiati i stilities beyd sei ats wuld blur te distiti
made i h betwee temporary, activity-based loss of protection (due
85 Tis was te revailig view als durig te exert meetigs (Bakgrud D. Dph 2004, . 30;
ert Dph 2004, . 15 .; ert Dph 2005, . 13). o urse, tis des t exlude tat sme
te sequees, artiularly wit regard t immuity rm rseuti r avig diretly artiiated
i stilities, may be regulated dieretly r te varius ategries erss ivlved i iteratial
$ad -iteratial armed fits.
86 ee rts 43 [2] p ; 51 [3] p ; 67 [1] (e) p ; 13 [3] p .
87 Tis was te revailig view als durig te exert meetigs (see ert Dph 2004, . 24 .; ert Dph
2005, . 17-24; ert Dph 2006, . 37 .; ert Dph 2008, . 33 .).
88 Fr urses tis terretive Guidae, te ti stile at reers t a sei at qualiyi g
as diret artiiati i stilities. rdig t Commentary AP(abve n 10), 1943, t seems tat
te wrdstilities vers t ly te time tat te ivilia atually makes use a wea, but als,
r examle, te time tat e is arryig it, as well as situatis i wi e udertakes stile ats witut
usig a wea. Verri, Dictionary of the International Law of Armed Conict(Geeva: cc, 1992), . 57,
dees stilit ies as: ats vilee by a belligeret agaist a eemy i rder t ut a ed t is
resistae ad imse bediee, ad alm, Dictionnaire de droit international public (Bruxelles:
Bruylat, 2001), . 550 (hostilits): Ensemble des actes oensifs ou dfensifs et des oprations militaires
accomplis par un belligrant dans le cadre dun conit arm. ee als te use te term stile at i
rts 41 [2] ad 42 [2] p . o te meaig ad iterrelati te tis stilities ad st ile
ats, see ur ter: ert Dph 2004, . 24 .; ert Dph 2005, . 17-24; ert Dph 2006, . 37 .
89 ert Dph 2006, . 28 .; ert Dph 2008, . 35-40. Fr a similar argumet made i reet dmesti
ase law, see: srael hcJ, PCATI v. Israel, abve n 24, 39.
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THECONCEPTOFDIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES 45
dire ariiain in siliies), and continuous, status or function-
based loss of protection (due mbaan saus r ninuus mba
unin).90 n raie, nusing e disin regimes by wi h
gverns e lss rein r ivilians and r members ae
armed res r rganized armed grus wuld rvke insurmunable
evideniary rblems. Tse nduing siliies already ae e diful
ask disinguising beween ivilians w are and ivilians w are n
engaged in a seii sile a (dire ariiain in siliies), and
disinguising b ese rm members rganized armed grus
(ninuus mba unin) and ae armed res. n erainal
realiy, i wuld be imssible deermine wi a suiien degree reliabiliy weer ivilians n urrenly rearing r exeuing a sile
a ave reviusly dne s n a ersisenly reurren basis and weer
ey ave e ninued inen d s again. Basing ninuus lss
rein n su seulaive rieria wuld ineviably resul in errneus
r arbirary aaks agains ivilians, us undermining eir rein
wi is a e ear h.91 cnsequenly, in ardane wi e bje
and urse h, e ne dire ariiain in siliies mus
be inerreed as resried sei sile as.92
3.CONCLUSION
te nin dire ariiain in siliies reers seii sile
as arried u by individuals as ar e ndu siliies beween
aries an armed nli. mus be inerreed synnymusly in
siuains inernainal and nn-inernainal armed nli. te
reay erms dire and aive indiae e same qualiy and degree
individual ariiain in siliies.
90 ee als abve, ein .3. on e disin emral ses e lss rein r rganized armed
ars and ivilians, see belw ein V.
91 er Dph 2008, . 36-42 .
92 Tis als was e revailing view during e exer meeings (see er Dph 2006, . 38).
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46 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
Inordertoqualifyasdirectparticipationinhostilities,aspecificactmustmeetthe
followingcumulativecriteria:
1. theactmustbelikelytoadverselyaectthemilitaryoperationsormilitarycapacity
ofapartytoanarmedconictor,alternatively,toinictdeath,injury,ordestruction
onpersonsorobjectsprotectedagainstdirectattack(thresholdofharm),and
2. theremustbeadirectcausallinkbetweentheactandtheharmlikelytoresulteitherfromthatact,orfromacoordinatedmilitaryoperationofwhichthatactconstitutes
anintegralpart(directcausation),and
3. theactmustbespecicallydesignedtodirectlycausetherequiredthresholdofharm
insupportofapartytotheconflictandtothedetrimentofanother(belligerent
nexus).
cts amunting t direct articiatin in stilities must meet tree
cumulative requirements: (1) a tresld regarding te arm likely t
result rm te act, (2) a relatinsi direct causatin between te
act and te exected arm, and (3) a belligerent nexus between te act
and te stilities cnducted between te arties t an armed cnfict.93
ltug tese elements are very clsely interrelated, and altug tere
may be areas verla between tem, eac tem will be discussed
searately ere.
93 on te cumulative nature tese requirements, see als ert Dph 2006, . 40 ., 43 ., 49 .
. CSTITUTILTSIRCTPRTICIPTIIHSTILITIS
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THECONCEPTOFDIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES 47
1.THRESHOLDOFHARM
Inordertoreachtherequiredthresholdofharm,aspecicactmustbelikelytoadversely
affectthemilitaryoperationsormilitarycapacityofapartytoanarmedconflictor,
alternatively,toinflictdeath,injury,ordestructiononpersonsorobjectsprotected
againstdirectattack.
For a secic ac o qualiy as direc ariciaio i osiliies, e arm
likely o resul rom i mus aai a cerai resold.94 tis resold
ca be reaced eier by causig arm o a secically miliary aure or
by ificig dea, ijury, or desrucio o ersos or objecs roeced
agais direc aack. Te qualicaio o a ac as direc ariciaio does
o require e materialization o arm reacig e resold bu merely
e objecive likelihooda e ac will resul i suc arm. Tereore, e
releva resold deermiaio mus be based o likely arm, a is
o say, arm wic may reasoably be execed o resul rom a ac i e
revailig circumsaces.95
a)dverselyaectingthemilitaryoperationsormilitary
capacityofapartytotheconict
We a ac may reasoably be execed o cause arm o a secically
military nature, e resold requireme will geerally be saisied
regardless o quaiaive graviy. is coex, miliary arm souldbe ierreed as ecomassig o oly e ilicio o dea, ijury,
or desrucio o miliary ersoel ad objecs,96 bu esseially ay
cosequece adversely aecig e miliary oeraios or miliary
caaciy o a ary o e cofic.97
94 Backgroud Doc. Dph 2004, . 27 .; Backgroud Doc. Dph 2005, W -, . 6.
95 Backgroud Doc. Dph 2004, . 25; eor Dph 2005, . 33.
96 Te use o weaos or oer meas o commi acs o violece agais uma ad maerial eemy orces is
robably e mos ucoroversial examle o direc ariciaio i osiliies (Customary IHL, above n 7,
Vol. , ule 6, . 22).
97 Durig e exer meeigs, ere was wide agreeme a e causaio o miliary arm as ar o e
osiliies did o ecessarily resuose e use o armed orce or e causaio o dea, ijur y or
desrucio (eor Dph 2005, . 14), bu esseially icluded all acs a adverse ly aec or aim o
adversely aec e eemys ursuace o is miliary objec ive or goal (eor Dph 2005, . 22 ., 31).
Te cocers exressed by some exers a e crierio o adversely aecig miliary oeraios or
miliary caaciy was oo wide ad vague ad could be misudersood o auorize e killig o civilias
wiou ay miliary ecessiy are addressed below i ecio X (see eor Dph 2006, . 41 .).
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48 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES
For examle, beyod te killig ad woudig o military ersoel
ad te ausatio o ysial or utioal damage to military objets,
te military oeratios or military aaity o a arty to te ofit a
be adversely aeted by sabotage ad oter armed or uarmed ativities
restritig or disturbig deloymets, logistis ad ommuiatios.
dverse eets may also arise rom aturig or oterwise establisig
or exerisig otrol over military ersoel, objets ad territory to
te detrimet o te adversary. For istae, deyig te adversary
te military use o ertai objets, equimet ad territory,98 guardig
atured military ersoel o te adversary to revet tem beig oribly
liberated (as oosed to exerisig autority over tem),99
ad learigmies laed by te adversary100 would rea te required tresold o
arm. letroi itereree wit military omuter etworks ould also
suie, weter troug omuter etwork attaks (cn) or omuter
etwork exloitatio (cn),101 as well as wiretaig te adversarys ig
ommad102 or trasmittig tatial targetig iormatio or a attak.103
98 eort Dph 2005, . 11, 29.
99 Te revailig view durig te exert meetigs was tat guardig atured military ersoel was a lear
ase o diret artiiatio i ostil ities (Bakgroud Do. Dph 2004, . 9; eort Dph 2005, . 15 .).
neverteless, to te extet ratially ossible, te guardig o atured military ersoel as a measo revetig teir liberatio by te eemy sould be distiguised rom te exerise o admiistrative,
judi ial a d dis iliary autor ity over tem wile i te ower o a ar ty to te ofit, ilud ig i ase
o riots or esaes, wi are ot art o a ostile military oeratio. Tis uaed distit io was ot
disussed durig te exert meetigs. ee also te disussio o exerise o ower or autority over
ersos or territory, below nn 163-165 ad aomayig text.
100 eort Dph 2005, . 31.
101 cn ave bee tetatively deed as oeratios to disrut, dey, degrade, or destroy iormatio
residet i omuters ad omuter etworks, or te omuter ad etworks temselves (Bakgroud
Do. Dph 2003, . 15 ., wit reerees) ad may be oduted over log dista es troug radio waves
or iteratioal ommuiatio etworks. Wile tey may ot ivolve diret ysial damage, te
resultig system malutios a be devastatig. cn, amely te ability to gai aess to iormatio
osted o iormatio systems ad te ability to make use o te system itsel (ibid., wit reerees),
toug ot o a diret destrutive ature, ould ave equally sigiat military imliatios. Durig te
exert meetigs, cn ausig military arm to te adversary i a situatio o armed ofit were learly
regarded as art o te osti lities (eort Dph 2005, . 14).
102 ee eort Dph 2005, . 29.
103 Durig te exer t meetigs, te examle was give o a ivilia woma wo reeatedly eeked ito
a buildig were troos ad take over i order to idiate teir ositio to te attakig eemy ores.
Te deisive riterio or te qualiat io o er odut as diret a rtiiatio i ostilit ies was eld to be
te imortae o te trasmitted iormatio or te diret ausatio o arm ad, tus, or te exeutio
o a orete military oeratio. ee eort Dph 2004, . 5.
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THECONCEPTOFDIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES 49
e same ime, e du a ivilia a be ierreed as
adversely aeig e miliary erais r miliary aaiy a ary
e li simly beause i ails positively ae em. tus,
e reusal a ivilia llabrae wi a ary e li as a
irma, su r lku wuld rea e required resld
arm regardless e mivais uderlyig e reusal.
b)Infictingdeath,injuryordestructiononpersons
orobjectsprotectedagainstdirectattack
eii as may siue ar e siliies eve i ey are
likely adversely ae e miliary erais r miliary aaiy a ary e fi. e absee su miliary arm, wever, a
sei a mu
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