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INTERPRETIVE guIdaNcE oN ThE NoTIoN of

Dctptcptonn hottuNdER INTERNaTIoNal humaNITaRIaN law

nils Melzer, egal adviser, cc

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INTERPRETIVE guIdaNcE oN ThE NoTIoN of

Dct

ptcptonn hottuNdER INTERNaTIoNal humaNITaRIaN law

nils Melzer, egal adviser, cc

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2 DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES

CONTENTS

FOREWORD 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 8

INTRODUCTION 9

1. purse ad ature the terretive Guidae 9

2. Te issue ivilia artiiati i hstilities 11

3. Key legal questis 12

PART1:RECOMMENDATIONSOFTHEICRC 15

PART2:RECOMMENDATIONSANDCOMMENTARY 19

A. THECONCEPTOFCIvILIAN 20

I. THECONCEPTOFCIvILIANININTERNATIONALARMEDCONFLICT 201. Mutual exlusiveess the ets ivilia,

armed res ad leve en masse 20

2. rmed res 21

3. eve e masse 25

4. clusi 26

II. THECONCEPTOFCIvILIANINNON-INTERNATIONALARMEDCONFLICT27

1. Mutual exlusiveess the ets ivilia,

armed res ad rgaized armed grus 27

2. tate armed res 30

3. orgaized armed grus 31

4. clusi 36

III. PRIvATECONTRACTORSANDCIvILIANEMPLOYEES 371. partiular difulties related t rivate tratrs ad

ivilia emlyees 37

2. teratial armed it 38

3. n-iteratial armed it 39

4. clusi 40

B. THECONCEPTOFDIRECTPARTICIPATION

INHOSTILITIES 41

Iv. DIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIESASASPECIFICACT 43

1. Basi mets the ti diret artiiati i hstilities 43

2. estriti t sei ats 44

3. clusi 45

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CONTENTS 3

v. CONSTITUTIvEELEMENTSOFDIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES 46

1. Tresld arm 47

2. Diret ausatin 51

3. Belligerent nexus 58

4. cnlusin 64

vI. BEGINNINGANDENDOFDIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES 65

1. prearatry measures 65

2. Delyment and return 67

3. cnlusin 68

C. MODALITIESGOvERNINGTHELOSS

OFPROTECTION 69

vII. TEMPORALSCOPEOFTHELOSSOFPROTECTION 70

1. civilians 70

2. Members rganized armed grus 71

3. cnlusin 73

vIII.PRECAUTIONSANDPRESUMPTIONSINSITUATIONSOFDOUBT 74

1. Te requirement easible reautins 74

2. presumtin ivilian rtetin 75

3. cnlusin 76

IX. RESTRAINTSONTHEUSEOFFORCEINDIRECTATTACK 77

1. pribitins and restritins laid dwn in seif

rvisins h 77

2. Te riniles military neessity and umanity 783. cnlusin 82

X. CONSEqUENCESOFREGAININGCIvILIANPROTECTION 83

1. ak immunity rm dmesti rseutin 83

2. obligatin t reset h 84

3. cnlusin 85

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FOREWORD

the rein ivilians is ne he main gals inernainal

humaniarian law. pursuan is rules n he ndu hsiliies, he

ivilian ulain and individual ivilians enjy general rein

agains he ees hsiliies. rdingly, he law bliges he aries

an armed nli disinguish, a all imes, beween he ivilian

ulain and mbaans and dire erains nly agains miliaryarges. als rvides ha ivilians may n be he bje deliberae

aak. n he same vein, humaniarian law mandaes ha ivilians mus

be humanely reaed i and when hey fnd hemselves in he hands he

enemy. this verarhing nrm inds exressin in many rvisins

humaniarian law, inluding hse rhibiing any rm vilene lie,

as well as rure r ruel, inhuman r degrading reamen.

Unusual as i may seem day, he mrehensive rein ivilians

was n always a main us inernainal humaniarian law. s rigins,

a leas in erms reay rules, lie a a ime when ivilian ulains were

largely sared rm he dire ees hsiliies and aual fghing was

arried u nly by mbaans. n 1864, when he frs Geneva cnvenin

was aded, armies aed n balefelds wih learly drawn rnlines.

was he suering sldiers, en ens husands hem wh

lay wunded r dying aer a miliary engagemen, ha needed be

alleviaed. only laer, when ehnlgial innvains in weanry sared

ausing massive ivilian suering and asualies in war, did he rein ivilians als need be addressed.

over ime, and ariularly aer he end Wrld War, he law als had

regulae he nsequenes mre and mre requen dire ariiain

by ivilians in hsiliies. tw siuains were emblemai: irs, wars

nainal liberain in whih gvernmen res aed agains irregular

armed rmains ighing r he reedm lnized ulains.

n 1977, ddiinal prl regnized ha suh wars uld undererain irumsanes be deemed inernainal in haraer. send

siuain has beme revalen and remains grea nern day: armed

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FOREWORD 5

nlis n an inernainal haraer waged beween gvernmen

res and rganized nn-ae armed grus, r beween suh grus, r

liial, enmi, r her reasns. hardly needs be said ha hese

yes ni, in whih ars he ivilian ulain are eeively

ransrmed in ghing res, and in whih ivilians are als he main

viims, ninue ause unld lss lie, injury and desruin.

nernainal humaniarian law has addressed he rend wards inreased

ivilian ariiain in hsiliies by rviding a basi rule, und in

bh ddiinal prls he Geneva cnvenins, ursuan whih

ivilians benei rm rein agains dire aak unless and r

suh ime as hey ake a dire ar in hsiliies. is he meaning his

nin dire ariiain in hsiliies ha he resen nerreive

Guidane seeks exlain. n examining he nin dire ariiain

in hsiliies he cc n nly had ae lngsanding dilemmas ha

had surrunded is raial aliain (e.g., an a ersn be a reed

armer by day and a argeable igher a nigh?), bu als had grale

wih mre reen rends ha urher underlined he need r lariy. one

suh rend has been a marked shi in he ndu hsiliies in ivilian

ulain enres, inluding ases urban warare, haraerized by

an unreedened inermingling ivilians and armed ars. nher

has been he inreased usuring reviusly radiinal miliary

unins a range ivilian ersnnel suh as rivae nrars rivilian gvernmen emlyees, whih has made disinguishing beween

hse wh enjy rein rm dire aak and hse wh d n ever

mre diful. hird, ariularly wrrying rend has been he ailure

ersns direly ariiaing in hsiliies, wheher ivilians r members

armed res r grus, adequaely disinguish hemselves rm he

ivilian ulain.

the nerreive Guidane rvides a legal reading he nin dire ariiain in hsiliies wih a view srenghening he

imlemenain he rinile disinin. n rder r he rhibiin

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direting attaks against ivilians t be ully bserved, it is neessary that

the armed res parties t an armed nit whether internatinal r

nn-internatinal be distinguished rm ivilians, and that ivilians wh

never take a diret part in hstilities be distinguished rm thse wh d s

n an individual, spradi r unrganized basis nly. Te present text seeks

t ailitate these distintins by prviding guidane n the interpretatin

internatinal humanitarian law relating t the ntin diret

partiipatin in hstilities. n s ding, it examines three questins: wh is

nsidered a ivilian r the purpses the priniple distintin, what

ndut amunts t diret partiipatin in hstilities and what mdalities

gvern the lss prtetin against diret attak.

Te respnses prvided and the resulting interpretatins inluded in the

nterpretive Guidane takle ne the mst difult, but as yet unreslved

issues internatinal humanitarian law. Te cc initiated reetin n

the ntin diret partiipatin in hstilities based bth n the need t

enhane the prtetin ivilians in pratie r humanitarian reasns

and n the internatinal mandate it has been given t wrk r the better

understanding and aithul appliatin internatinal humanitarian law.

n this ntext, it is apprpriate that three bservatins be made: First,

the nterpretive Guidane is an expressin slely the ccs views.

While internatinal humanitarian law relating t the ntin diret

partiipatin in hstilities was examined ver several years with a grup

eminent legal experts, t whm the cc wes a huge debt gratitude,

the psitins enuniated are the ccs alne. end, while reeting the

ccs views, the nterpretive Guidane is nt and annt be a text a

legally binding nature. only tate agreements (treaties) r tate pratie

llwed ut a sense legal bligatin n a ertain issue (ustm) anprdue binding law. Tird, the Guidane des nt purprt t hange the

law, but prvides an interpretatin the ntin diret partiipatin in

hstilities within existing legal parameters.

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FOREWORD 7

Te presen ex inerpres he nin f dire pariipain in hsiliies

fr he purpses f he ndu f hsiliies nly. thus, apar frm

prviding guidane n when and fr hw lng a persn is nsidered

have ls prein frm dire aak, i des n address he

nsequenes f dire pariipain in hsiliies ne he r she finds

himself r herself in he adversarys hands. oher rules f inernainal

humaniarian law hen gvern, frems amng hem being he already

menined priniple f humane reamen.

Unfrunaely, here seems be lile reasn believe ha he urren

rend wards inreased ivilian pariipain in hsiliies will weakenver ime. tday, mre han ever, i is f he ums imprane ha

all feasible measures be aken preven he expsure f he ivilian

ppulain errneus r arbirary argeing based, amng her

hings, n reliable guidane as hw he priniple f disinin

shuld be implemened in he hallenging and mplex irumsanes f

nemprary warfare. By presening his nerpreive Guidane, he cc

hpes make a nribuin ensuring ha hse wh d n ake a

dire par in hsiliies reeive he humaniarian prein ha hey are

eniled under inernainal humaniarian law.

Dr. Jakob Kellenberger

President of the International Committee of the Red Cross

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Te prese erpreive Guidae siues a isiuial publiai

f he eraial cmmiee f he ed crss (cc). is he ume

f a exper press dued by he cc frm 2003 2008.

the epualizai, drafig, ad publiai f he erpreive

Guidae wuld have bee pssible wihu he mmime adribuis f may idividuals, ly sme f whm a be haked

here. our persal graiude ges, firs f all, Dr. nils Melzer, egal

dviser a he cc, wh has bee respsible fr he exper press

sie 2004 ad wh is he auhr f he erpreive Guidae ad ms

bakgrud dumes ad exper meeig reprs prdued durig ha

press. We wuld als like express ur ms rdial graiude he

expers, all f whm pariipaed i he exper meeigs i heir persal

apaiy ad wihu whse mmime, experise, ad experiee

his larifiai press uld have bee brugh a suessful

lusi. Fially, we wuld like sierely hak all ur lleagues

a he cc wh ribued he ex f he erpreive Guidae

hrugh heir mmes, prvided valuable suppr i he rgaizai

ad fllw-up f he exper meeigs, r helped wih he publiai f he

erpreive Guidae.

International Committee of the Red CrossFebruary 2009

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INTRODUCTION 9

INTRODUCTION

1.PURPOSEANDNATUREOFTHEINTERPRETIvEGUIDANCE

Te purpose o e nerpreive Guidane is o provide reommendaions

onerning e inerpreaion o inernaional umaniarian law (h)

as ar as i relaes o e noion o dire pariipaion in osiliies.

ordingly, the10recommendationsmadebytheInterpretive

Guidance,aswellastheaccompanyingcommentary,donotendeavourtochangebindingrulesofcustomaryortreatyIHL,butreflect

theICRCsinstitutionalpositionastohowexistingIHLshouldbe

interpreted in lig o e irumsanes prevailing in onemporary

armed onfis.

te nerpreive Guidane draws on a variey o soures inluding, irs

and oremos, e rules and priniples o usomary and reay h

and, were neessary, e travaux prparatoires o reaies, inernaional

jurisprudene, miliary manuals, and sandard works o legal dorine.

ddiionally, i draws on e weal o maerials produed in e ourse

o an exper proess, joinly iniiaed by e cc and e tMc sser

nsiue wi e aim o lariying e noion o dire pariipaion in

osiliies under h.1 Five inormal exper meeings were ondued

rom 2003 o 2008 in te hague and Geneva, ea bringing ogeer

40 o 50 legal expers rom aademi, miliary, governmenal, and non-

governmenal irles, all o wom pariipaed in eir privae apaiy.2

te nerpreive Guidane is widely inormed by e disussions eld

during ese exper meeings bu does no neessarily refe a unanimous

view or majoriy opinion o e expers . endeavours o propose a

balaned and praial soluion a akes ino aoun e wide variey

1 ll maerials produed in e ourse o e exper proess, su as repors, bakground doumens e.,

will be available a: www.ir.org.

2 For more inormaion on e exper proess, see e doumen

Overview of the ICRCs Expert Process (2003-2008).

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o onerns involved and, a e same ime, ensures a lear and oeren

inerpreaion o e law onsisen wi e purposes and priniples

o h. Ultimately,theresponsibilityfortheInterpretiveGuidance

isassumedbytheICRCasaneutralandindependenthumanitarian

organizationmandatedbytheinternationalcommunityofStatesto

promoteandworkforabetterunderstandingofIHL.3 loug a legally

binding inerpreaion o h an only be ormulaed by a ompeen

judiial organ or, olleively, by e aes emselves, e cc opes a

e ompreensive legal analysis and e areul balane o umaniarian

and miliary ineress underlying e nerpreive Guidane will render

e resuling reommendaions persuasive or aes, non-ae aors,praiioners, and aademis alike.

te nerpreive Guidane onsiss o 10 reommendaions, ea o

wi summarizes e ccs posiion on e inerpreaion o h on

a pariular legal quesion, and a ommenary explaining e bases o

ea reommendaion. trougou e ex, pariularly were major

divergenes o opinion persised among e expers, oonoes reer o

e passages o e exper meeing repors and bakground doumens

were e relevan disussions were reorded. Thesectionsand

recommendationsoftheInterpretiveGuidancearecloselyinterrelated

andcanonlybeproperlyunderstoodifreadasawhole. ikewise, e

examples oered rougou e nerpreive Guidane are no absolue

saemens on e legal qualifaion o a pariular siuaion or ondu,

bu mus be read in good ai, wiin e preise onex in wi ey

are menioned and in aordane wi generally reognized rules and

priniples o h. Tey an only illusrae e priniples based on wi

e relevan disinions oug o be made, bu anno replae a areulassessmen o e onree irumsanes prevailing a e relevan ime

and plae.

3 ee, e.g., r. 5 [2] () and (g) aues o e nernaional ed cross and ed cresen Movemen.

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INTRODUCTION 11

asly, i sould be empasized a e nerpreive Guidance examines

theconceptofdirectparticipationinhostilitiesonlyforthepurposes

oftheconductofhostilities. s conclusions are no inended o serve as

a basis or inerpreing h regulaing e saus, rigs and proecions

o persons ouside e conduc o osiliies, suc as ose deprived o

eir libery. Moreover, aloug e nerpreive Guidance is concerned

wi h only, itsconclusionsremainwithoutprejudicetoananalysis

ofquestionsrelatedtodirectparticipationinhostilitiesunderother

applicablebranchesofinternationallaw,suchashumanrightslawor

thelawgoverningtheuseofinterstateforce(jus ad bellum).

2.THEISSUEOFCIvILIANPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES

te primary aim o h is o proec e vicims o armed conlic and

o regulae e conduc o osiliies based on a balance beween miliary

necessiy and umaniy. e ear o h lies e principle o disincion

beween e armed orces, wo conduc e osiliies on beal o e

paries o an armed confic, and civilians, wo are presumed no o direcly

paricipae in osiliies and mus be proeced agains e dangers arising

rom miliary operaions. Trougou isory, e civilian populaion as

always conribued o e general war eor o paries o armed confics,

or example roug e producion and supply o weapons, equipmen,

ood, and seler, or roug economic, adminisraive, and poliical

suppor. however, suc aciviies ypically remained disan rom e

baleield and, radiionally, only a small minoriy o civilians became

involved in e conduc o miliary operaions.

ecen decades ave seen is paern cange signicanly. coninuous

si o e conduc o osiliies ino civilian populaion cenres as ledo an increased inermingling o civilians wi armed acors and as

aciliaed eir involvemen in aciviies more closely relaed o miliary

operaions. ven more recenly, e increased ousourcing o radiionally

miliary uncions as insered numerous privae conracors, civilian

inelligence personnel, and oer civilian governmen employees ino e

realiy o modern armed confic. Moreover, miliary operaions ave oen

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aained an unreedened level o omlexiy, involving e oordinaion

o a grea variey o inerdeenden uman and enial resoures in

dieren loaions.

ll o ese ases o onemorary warare ave given rise o onusion

and unerainy as o e disinion beween legiimae miliary arges

and ersons roeed agains dire aaks. tese diiulies are

aggravaed were armed aors do no disinguis emselves rom e

ivilian oulaion, or examle during underover miliary oeraions or

wen aing as armers by day and gers by nig. s a resul, ivilians

are more likely o all viim o erroneous or arbirary argeing, wilearmed ores unable o roerly ideniy eir adversary run an

inreased risk o being aaked by ersons ey anno disinguis rom

e ivilian oulaion.

3.KEYLEGALqUESTIONS

Tis rend underlines e imorane o disinguising no only beween

ivilians and e armed ores, bu also beween ivilians wo do and,

reseively, do no ake a dire ar in osiliies. Under h, e

one o dire ariiaion in osiliies reers o ondu wi, i

arried ou by ivilians, susends eir roeion agains e dangers

arising rom miliary oeraions.4 Mos noably, or e duraion o eir

dire ariiaion in osiliies, ivilians may be direly aaked as

i ey were ombaans. Derived rom rile 3 ommon o e Geneva

convenions, e noion o aking a dire or aive ar in osiliies

is ound in many rovisions o h. however, desie e serious legal

onsequenes involved, neier e convenions nor eir ddiional

proools rovide a deiniion o dire ariiaion in osiliies. tissiuaion alls or e lariaion o ree quesions under h aliable

in bo inernaional and non-inernaional armed onfi:

4 For e uroses o is nerreive Guidane, e rases dire ariia ion in osiliies,

aking a dire ar in osiliies and direly ariiaing in osiliies will be used synonymously.

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INTRODUCTION 13

Who is considered a civilian for the purposes of the principle of distinction?

the answer o his quesion deermines he irle o ersons who are

roeed agains dire aak unless and or suh ime as hey direly

ariiae in hosiliies.5

What conduct amounts to direct participation in hostilities?

Te answer o his quesion deermines he individual ondu ha leads

o he susension o a ivilians roeion agains dire aak.6

What modalities govern the loss of protection against direct attack?

the answer o his quesion will eluidae issues suh as he duraiono he loss o roeion agains dire aak, he reauions and

resumions in siuaions o doub, he rules and riniles governing

he use o ore agains legiimae miliary arges, and he onsequenes

o regaining roeion agains dire aak.

5 Te saus, righs, and roeions o ersons ouside he ondu o hosiliies does no deend

on heir qualifaion as ivilia ns bu on he reise ersonal soe o aliaion o he rovisions

onerring he relevan saus, righs, and roeions (e.g., rs 4 Gc , 4 Gc V, 3 Gc -V, 75 p ,

and 4 o 6 p ).

6 For he sake o simliiy, when disussing he onsequenes o ivil ian dire ar iiaion in hosiliies,

he nerreive Guidane will generally reer o loss o roeion agains dire aaks. Unless saed

oherwise, his erminology inludes also he susension o ivilian roeion agains oher dangers

arising rom miliar y oeraions (rs 51 [1], [3] p and 13 [1], [3] p ). Tis enails, or examle, ha

ivilians direly ariiaing in hosiliies may no only be direly aaked hemselves, bu also do no

have o be aken ino aoun in he roorionaliy assessmen when miliary objeives in heir

roximiy are aaked.

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Part1:

ReCommendTIonS

ofTHeICRC

concerningtheinterpretationofinternationalhumanitarianlaw

relatingtothenotionofdirectparticipationinhostilities

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I. THeConCePTofCIvILIan

InInTeRnaTIonaLaRmedConfLICT

For the uroses o the rincile o distinction in international armed confict, all

ersons who are neither members o the armed orces o a arty to the confict nor

articiants in a leve en masse are civilians and, thereore, entitled to rotection

against direct attack unless and or such time as they take a direct art in hostilities.

II. THeConCePTofCIvILIanInnon-InTeRnaTIonaL

aRmedConfLICT

For the uroses o the rincile o distinction in non-international armed confict,

all ersons who are not members o tate armed orces or organized armed grous

o a arty to the confict are civilians and, thereore, entitled to rotection against

direct attack unless and or such time as they take a direct art in hostilities. n non-international armed confict, organized armed grous constitute the armed orces

o a non-tate arty to the confict and consist only o individuals whose continuous

unction it is to take a direct art in hostilities (continuous combat unction).

III. PRIvaTeConTRaCToRSandCIvILIanemPLoyeeS

private contractors and emloyees o a arty to an armed confict who are civilians

(see above and ) are entitled to rotection against direct attack unless and or

such time as they take a direct art in hostilities. Teir activities or location may,

however, exose them to an increased risk o incidental death or injury even i they

do not take a direct art in hostilities.

Iv. dIReCTPaRTICIPaTIonInHoSTILITIeS

aSaSPeCIfICaCT

Te notion o direct articiation in hostilities reers to secic acts carried out by

individuals as art o the conduct o hostilities between arties to an armed confict.

v. ConSTITUTIveeLemenTSofdIReCTPaRTICIPaTIonInHoSTILITIeS

n order to qualiy as direct articiation in hostilities, a secic act must meet the

ollowing cumulative criteria:

1. Te act must be likely to adversely aect the military oerations or military caacity

o a arty to an armed confict or, alternatively, to infict death, injury, or destruction

on ersons or objects rotected against direct attack (threshold o harm), and

2. there must be a direct causal link between the act and the harm likely to result

either rom that act, or rom a coordinated military oeration o which that actconstitutes an integral art (direct causation), and

3. the act must be specically designed to directly cause the required threshold o harm

in support o a party to the confict and to the detriment o another (belligerent nexus).

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vI. BeGInnInGandendofdIReCTPaRTICIPaTIon

InHoSTILITIeS

Measures preparatory to the exeution o a speii at o diret partiipation in

hostilities, as well as the deployment to and the return rom the loation o its

exeution, onstitute an integral part o that at.

vII. TemPoRaLSCoPeofTHeLoSSofPRoTeCTIon

civilians lose protetion against diret attak or the duration o eah spei at

amounting to diret partiipation in hostilities, whereas members o organized

armed groups belonging to a non-tate party to an armed onlit ease to be

ivilians (see above ), and lose protetion against diret attak, or as long as they

assume their ontinuous ombat untion.

vIII.PReCaUTIonSandPReSUmPTIonS

InSITUaTIonSofdoUBT

ll easible preautions must be taken in determining whether a person is a ivilian

and, i so, whether that ivilian is diretly partiipating in hostilities. n ase o

doubt, the person must be presumed to be proteted against diret attak.

IX. ReSTRaInTSonTHeUSeoffoRCeIndIReCTaTTaCk

n addition to the restraints imposed by international humanitarian law on spei

means and methods o warare, and without prejudie to urther restritions that

may arise under other appliable branhes o international law, the kind and degree

o ore whih is permissible against persons not entitled to protetion against

diret attak must not exeed what is atually neessary to aomplish a legitimate

military purpose in the prevailing irumstanes.

X. ConSeqUenCeSofReGaInInGCIvILIanPRoTeCTIon

nternational humanitarian law neither prohibits nor privileges ivilian diret

partiipation in hostilities. When ivilians ease to diretly partiipate in hostilities,or when members o organized armed groups belonging to a non-tate party to an

armed onfit ease to assume their ontinuous ombat untion, they regain ull

ivilian protetion against diret attak, but are not exempted rom proseution or

violations o domesti and international law they may have ommitted.

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Part2:

ReCommendTIonS

ndCommenTRy

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For te uroses o te riile o distitio, te deitio o ivilia

reers to tose ersos wo ejoy immuity rom diret attak uless

ad or su time as tey take a diret art i ostilities.7 Were h

rovides ersos oter ta ivilias wit immuity rom diret attak,

te loss ad restoratio o rotetio is govered by riteria similar to,

but ot eessarily idetial wit, diret artiiatio i ostilities.8

Beore iterretig te otio o diret artiiatio i ostilities itsel,

it will tereore be eessary to lariy te oet o ivilia uder h

aliable i iteratioal ad o-iteratioal armed ofit.

I. THCCPTCIILIIITRTILRCLICT

A.THECONCEPTOFCIvILIAN

orthepurposesoftheprincipleofdistinctionininternationalarmedconflict,all

personswhoareneithermembersofthearmedforcesofapartytotheconflictnor

participantsinaleve en masseareciviliansand,therefore,entitledtoprotectionagainst

directattackunlessandforsuchtimeastheytakeadirectpartinhostilities.

1.MUTUALEXCLUSIvENESSOFTHECONCEPTSOFCIvILIAN,ARMEDFORCESANDleve en masse

ordig to dditioal protool (p ),9 i situatios o iteratioal

armed olit, ivilias are deied egatively as all ersos wo

are eiter members o te armed ores o a arty to te olit or

7 rts 51 [3] p ; 13 [3] p . ee also hekaerts / Doswald-Bek, customary teratioal humaitaria

aw, Volume : ules (cambridge Uiversity press, 20 05), ule 6 [ereaer: customary h]. egardig

te termiology o loss o rotetio agaist diret attaks used i te terretive Guidae see above n 6.

8 For examle, medial ad religious ersoel o te armed ores lose teir rotetio i ase o ostile

or armul ats outside teir rivileged utio (rts 21 Gc , 11 [2] p ; customary h, above n 7,

Vol. , ule 25). combatats hors de combatlose teir rotetio i tey ommit a ostile at or attemt

to esae (rt . 41 [2] p ).

9 s o 1 november 2008, 168 tates were arty to p . t te same time, te ratiat io o Gc -V was

vir tua lly uiversal (194 tates arty).

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THECONCEPTOFCIVILIANS 21

ariias i a leve en masse.10 Wile reay h redaig ddiial

prl des exressly dee ivilias, e ermilgy used i e

hague egulais (h V ) ad e ur Geeva cveis (Gc -V)

evereless suggess a e es ivilia, armed res, ad

leve en masse are muually exlusive, ad a every ers ivlved

i, r aeed by, e du siliies alls i e ese ree

aegries.11 er wrds, uder all isrumes gverig ieraial

armed li, e e ivilia is egaively delimied by e

deiis armed res ad leve en masse,12 b wi sall i

e llwig be mre lsely examied.

2.ARMEDFORCES

a)Basicconcept

rdig ddiial prl , e armed res a ary e

li mrise all rgaized armed res, grus ad uis wi

are uder a mmad ressible a ary r e du is

subrdiaes.13 rs glae, is brad ad uial e armed

res seems wider a a uderlyig e hague egulais ad e

Geeva cveis. lug ese reaies d exressly deie

10 r. 50 [1] p . rdig cusmary h, abve n 7, Vl. , ule 5, is deii ivilia rees

usmary h i ieraial armed i. Te aegries vered by r. 4 [1], [2] ad [3] Gc are

iluded i e geera l deii armed res i r. 43 [1] p . ee als adz e a l. (eds.),

cmmeary e ddiial prls 8 Jue 1977 e Geeva cveis 12 ugus 1949

(Geeva: cc, 1987), 1916 . [ereaer : cmmear y p].

11 Fr examle, r. 22 [2] e Brussels Delarai (1874) ad r. 29 h V (1907) reer ivil ias

i radisii sldiers. imilarly, as eir iles sugges, e Geeva cveis (1949) usee geeri aegry ivilia erss (Gc V) as mlemeary members e armed res

(Gc ad Gc ). ve ug e se aliai ea vei des exaly rresd

e geeri aegries meied i eir reseive iles, e aegries ivilia ad armed res

are learly used as muua lly exlusive i all ur veis. Fr examle, Gc , Gc ad Gc V reer

ivilia wuded, sik a d siwreked (r. 22 [5] Gc ; r . 35 [4] Gc ; rs 20, 21, 22 Gc V)

as sed e geeri aegries reed by Gc ad Gc , amely e wuded, sik ad

siwreked e armed res (iles Gc ad Gc ). imilarly, r. 57 Gc V reers miliary

wuded ad sik as sed e geeri aegry reed by Gc V, amely ivilia erss. oer

rvisis e veis als use e erm ivil ia as sed miliary (r. 30 [2] Gc :

miliary r ivilia media l ui; r. 32 Gc V: ivilia r miliary ages; r. 144 [1] Gc V: miliary

ad ivil isrui; r. 93 [2] Gc : ivilia lig, resumably as sed miliary uirm;

rs 18, 19, 20, 57 Gc V: ivilia sials, resumably as sed mi liary sials; r . 144 [2] Gc

V: ivilia, miliary, lie r er auriies) r mbaas ad -mbaas (r. 15 Gc

V). ne ese isrumes suggess e exisee addiial aegries erss w wuld quali y

eier as ivilia s, r as members e armed res r as ariia s i a leve en masse.

12 frmaive als Commentary AP(abve n 10), 1914. Te eraial crimial tribual r e rmer

Yugslavia (ctY) deed e e ivi lias r siuais ieraial armed i as erss

w are , r lger, members e armed res (ctY, Prosecutor v. Blaskic, case n. t-95-14-t,

Judgme 3 Mar 2000, 180). Fr e releva disussi durig e exer meeigs see: er Dph

2005, . 43 ., 58, 74; er Dph 2006, . 10, 12 ., 19 .; er Dph 2008, . 35, 37.

13 r . 43 [1] p ; Customary IHL, abve n 7, Vl. , ule 4.

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armed res, ey require a members miliias ad vlueer rs

er a e regular armed res regized as su i dmesi law

ulil ur requiremes: (a) ressible mmad; (b) ixed disiive

sig regizable a a disae; () arryig arms ely; ad (d) eraig

i ardae wi e laws ad usms war.14 rily seakig,

wever, ese requiremes siue diis r e s-aure

eileme irregular armed res mbaa rivilege ad riser-

-war saus ad are siuive elemes e armed res a

ary a i.

tus, wile members irregular armed res ailig ulil e urrequiremes may be eiled mbaa rivilege ad riser-

-war saus aer aure,15 i des llw a ay su ers mus

eessarily be exluded rm e aegry armed res ad regarded as

a ivilia r e urses e du siliies.16 o e rary, i

wuld radi e lgi e riile disii lae irregular

armed res uder e mre reive legal regime arded e

ivilia ulai merely beause ey ail disiguis emselves rm

a ulai, arry eir arms ely, r du eir erais

i ardae wi e laws ad usms war. Terere, eve uder e

erms e hague egulais ad e Geeva cveis, all armed

ars swig a sufie degree miliary rgaizai ad belgig

a ary e i mus be regarded as ar e armed res

a ary.17

14 r. 1 h V ; rs 13 [1], [2], [3] ad [6] Gc ad Gc ; r. 4 [1], [2], [3] ad [6] Gc .

15 e ccs view, i ieraial armed i, ay ers ailig quali y r riser--war saus

uder r. 4 Gc mus be arded e udameal guaraees se u i r. 75 p , wi ave

aaied usmary aure ad, subje e aialiy requiremes r. 4 Gc V, als remais a

reed ers wii e meaig Gc V.

16 s illusraed by e reame sies (rs 29-31 h V ; r. 46 p ) ad er mbaas ailig

disiguis emselves as required by h (r . 44 p ), lss eileme mbaa rivilege

r riser--war saus des eessari ly lead lss membersi i e armed res.

17 Wile e revailig ii durig e 2006 exer meeig was surive is ierreai,

sme ers were exressed a is ara uld be misudersd as reaig a aegry erss

reed eier by Gc r by Gc V (er Dph 2006, . 15 .). Fr e ccs sii i is

rese see, e.g., abve n 15.

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b)meaningandsignicanceofbelongingtoapartytotheconict

order or orgaized armed grous o qualiy as armed ores uder h,

ey mus belog o a ary o e ofi. Wile is requireme is made

exually exlii oly or irregular miliias ad volueer ors, iludig

orgaized resisae movemes,18 i is imlied werever e reaies reer

o e armed ores o a ary o e ofi.19 Te oe o belogig

o requires a leas a de facto relaiosi bewee a orgaized armed

grou ad a ary o e oli. tis relaiosi may be oiially

delared, bu may also be exressed roug ai agreeme or olusive

beaviour a makes lear or wi ary e grou is gig.20 Wiou

ay doub, a orgaized armed grou a be said o belog o a ae iis odu is aribuable o a ae uder e ieraioal law o ae

resosibiliy.21 Te degree o orol required o make a ae resosible

or e odu o a orgaized armed grou is o seled i ieraioal

law.22 raie, i order or a orgaized armed grou o belog o

a ary o e oli, i aears esseial a i odu osiliies o

beal ad wi e agreeme o a ary.23

Grous egagig i orgaized armed violee agais a ary o a

ieraioal armed oli wiou belogig o aoer ary o e

same oli ao be regarded as members o e armed ores o a

ary o a oli, weer uder ddiioal proool , e hague

egulaios, or e Geeva coveios. tey are us ivilias uder

ose ree isrumes.24 y oer view would disard e dioomy

18 ee rs 13 [2] Gc ad Gc ad r. 4 [2] Gc .

19 ee, e.g. r. 3 h V ; r. 4 [1] Gc ; r. 43 p .20 pie (ed.), Commentary on the Tird Geneva Convention Relative to the reatment of Prisoners ofWar

(Geeva: cc, 1960), . 57 [ereaer: Commentary GC III].21 ee also eor Dph 2006, . 16.

22 For e basi osiios i is rese, see, mos oably, cJ,Military and Paramilitary Activities in andAgainst Nicaragua (Nicaragua. v. United States of America), Judgme o 27 Jue 1986 (Meris), 115; ctY,

Prosecutor v. adic, case no. t-94-, Judgme o 15 July 1999 (eals camber), 145; cJ,Applicationof the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.Serbia and Montenegro), Judgme o 27 February 2007, 413; c, eor o e Geera l ssembly o ework o is 53rd sessio (2001), Un Do. /56/10, Dra rile 8, commea ry 5.

23 ee also below n 26.

24 Tis was e revailig oiio durig e exer meeigs (eor Dph 2006, . 16 .; eor Dph 2008,

. 43 .). For ree aioal ase law refeig is osiio see: sraeli hig cour o Jusie,

Te Public Committee Against orture et al. v. Te Government of Israel et al., (hcJ 769/02), Judgme o13 Deember 2006, 26, were e cour eld a, uder h goverig ieraioal armed ofi,

ideede palesiia armed grous oeraig i a oex o belligere ouaio eessarily

qualied as ivilia s. Wi regard o e emoral soe o loss o roeio or members o su grous,

e cour evereless oluded a: a ivilia wo as joied a erroris orgaizaio wi as beome

isome, ad i e ramework o is role i a orgaiza io e ommis a ai o osili ies, wi sor

eriods o res bewee em, loses is immuiy rom aakor su ime as e is ommiig e ai

o as. deed, regardig su a ivilia, e res bewee osiliies is oig oer a rearaio or

e ex osiliy (ibid., 39).

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i all armed fis bewee e armed forces of the parties to the conict

ad e civilian population; i wuld als radi e deiii

ieraial armed lis as rais bewee aes ad

bewee aes ad -ae ars.25 orgaized armed grus eraig

wii e brader ex a ieraial armed li wiu

belgig a ary a li uld sill be regarded as aries

a searae -ieraial armed li rvided a e vilee

reaes e required resld.26 Weer e idividuals are ivilias r

members e armed res a ary e fi wuld e ave

be deermied uder h gverig -ieraial armed fis.27

asly, i suld be ied u a rgaized armed vilee ailig

qualiy as a ieraial r -ieraial armed fi remais a

issue law ereme, weer e ererars are viewed as riers,

errriss, iraes, gagsers, sage-akers r er rgaized rimials.28

25 ee als er Dph 2006, . 16 ., 52 .; er Dph 2008, . 43 . Fr aes ary ddiial prl ,

e law gverig ieraial armed fis als alies armed fis bewee aes ad aial

liberai mvemes wii e meaig rile 1 [4] p .

26 rdig Commentary GC III(abve n 20), . 57: esisae mvemes mus be gig beal

apary e fi i e sese r. 2 , erwise e rvisis r. 3 relaig -ieraial

fis are aliable, sie su miliias ad vlueer rs are eiled syle emselves apary

e fi . Te travaux prparatoires are sile e ssible arallel exisee ieraial ad

-ieraial ases wii e greaer ex e same armed fi. Fr e releva

disussi durig e exer meeigs, see er Dph 2005, . 10; er Dph 2006, . 17 . ad 53 .;

er Dph 2008, . 43 . suld be ed a ieral disurbaes ad esis, su as ris, islaed

ad sradi as vilee ad er as a similar aure (r. 1 [2] p ) d rea e resld

rraed armed vilee, wi is required r e emergee a searae -ieraial

armed fi (ctY, Prosecutor v. Tadic, case n. t-94-1-72, Deisi e Deee Mi r

erlury eal Jurisdii 2 ober 1995, 70).

27 ee belw ei .

28 ee er Dph 2006, . 16; er Dph 2008, . 44, 49.

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c)determinationofmembership

For e regular armed ores o aes, individual membersi is generally

regulaed by domesi law and exressed roug ormal inegraion ino

ermanen unis disinguisable by uniorms, insignia, and equimen.

te same alies were armed unis o olie, border guard, or similar

uniormed ores are inororaed ino ae armed ores. Members o

regularly onsiued ores are no ivilians, regardless o eir individual

ondu or e union ey assume wiin e armed ores. For e

uroses o e rinile o disinion, membersi in regular ae

armed ores eases, and ivilian roeion is resored, wen a member

disengages rom aive duy and re-inegraes ino ivilian lie, weerdue o a ull disarge rom duy or as a deaivaed reservis.

Membersi in irregular armed ores, su as miliias, voluneer ors, or

resisane movemens belonging o a ary o e oni, generally is no

regulaed by domesi law and an only be reliably deermined on e basis

o unional rieria, su as ose alying o organized armed grous in

non-inernaional armed oni.29

3.Leve en masse

s ar as e leve en masse is onerned, all relevan insrumens are based

on e same deniion, wi reers o e inabians o a non-ouied

erriory wo, on e aroa o e enemy, sonaneously ake u arms

o resis e invading ores wiou aving ad ime o orm emselves

ino regular armed unis, rovided ey arry arms oenly and rese

e laws and usoms o war.30 pariians in a leve en masse are e only

armed aors wo are exluded rom e ivilian oulaion aloug, by

deniion, ey oerae sonaneously and lak sufien organizaion andommand o qualiy as members o e armed ores. ll oer ersons

wo direly ariiae in osiliies on a merely sonaneous, soradi or

unorganized basis mus be regarded as ivilians.

29 ee below eion .3.(b) and, wi regard o rivae onraors, eion .2.

30 r. 2 h V ; r. 4 [6] Gc . ee also e reerene o r. 4 [6] Gc in r. 50 [1] p .

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4.CONCLUSION

For the purposes o the principle o distinction in international armed

conlict, all persons who are neither members o the armed orces o a

party to the confict nor participants in a leve en masse are civilians and,

thereore, entitled to protection against direct attack unless and or such

time as they take a direct part in hostilities. Membership in irregularly

constituted militia and volunteer corps, including organized resistance

movements, belonging to a party to the confict must be determined based

on the same unctional criteria that apply to organized armed groups in

non-international armed confict.

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II. THCCPTCIILII-ITRTILRCLICT

orthepurposesoftheprincipleofdistinctioninnoninternationalarmedconict,all

personswhoarenotmembersofStatearmedforcesororganizedarmedgroupsofaparty

totheconflictareciviliansand,therefore,entitledtoprotectionagainstdirectattack

unlessandforsuchtimeastheytakeadirectpartinhostilities.Innoninternational

armedconict,organizedarmedgroupsconstitutethearmedforcesofanonStateparty

totheconictandconsistonlyofindividualswhosecontinuousfunctionitistotakea

directpartinhostilities(continuouscombatfunction).

1.MUTUALEXCLUSIvENESSOFTHECONCEPTSOFCIvILIAN,

ARMEDFORCESANDORGANIzEDARMEDGROUPS

a)Lackofexpressdenitionsintreatylaw

treay h goverig o-ieraioal armed oli uses e erms

ivilia, armed ores ad orgaized armed group wiou expressly

deig em. Tese oeps mus ereore be ierpreed i good ai

i aordae wi e ordiary meaig o be give o em i eir

oex ad i e lig o e obje ad purpose o h.31

Wile i is geerally reogized a members o ae armed ores i

o-ieraioal armed oli do o qualiy as ivilias, reay law,

ae praie, ad ieraioal jurisprudee ave o uequivoallyseled weer e same applies o members o orgaized armed groups

(i.e. e armed ores o o-ae paries o a armed ofi).32 Beause

orgaized armed groups geerally ao qualiy as regular armed ores

uder aioal law, i mig be empig o olude a membersip i

su groups is simply a oiuous orm o ivilia dire pariipaio

31 r. 31 [1] Viea coveio o e aw o treaies.

32 ee Customary IHL, above n 7, Vol. , p. 19.

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i siliies. rdigly, members rgaized armed grus wuld be

regarded as ivilias w, wig eir iuus dire ariiai

i siliies, lse rei agais dire aak r e eire durai

eir membersi. hwever, is ara wuld seriusly udermie

e eual iegriy e aegries erss uderlyig e

riile disii, ms ably beause i wuld reae aries

-ieraial armed fis wse eire armed res remai ar

e ivilia ulai.33 s e wrdig ad lgi rile 3 Gc

-V ad ddiial prl (p ) reveals, ivilias, armed res,

ad rgaized armed grus e aries e li are muually

exlusive aegries als i -ieraial armed fi.

b)rticle3commontotheGenevaConventions

lug rile 3 Gc -V geerally is sidered gver e

du siliies, is wrdig allws erai lusis be draw

wi regard e geeri disii bewee e armed res ad e

ivilia ulai i -ieraial armed li. Ms ably,

rile 3 Gc -V rvides a ea pary e li mus ard

rei erss akig aive ar i e siliies, iludig

members armed res w ave laid dw eir arms ad se laed

hors de combat.34 tus, b ae ad -ae aries e li

ave armed res disi rm e ivilia ulai.35 tis assage

als makes lear a members su armed res, i ras er

erss, are sidered as akig aive ar i e siliies ly

e ey ave disegaged rm eir gig ui (ave laid dw

eir arms) r are laed hors de combat; mere susesi mba

is isuiie. rile 3 Gc -V us imlies a e ivilia

mrisig se idividuals w d bear arms beal a ary e fi.36

33 o e dager exedig e e dire ariiai i siliies beyd sei as, see als

belw ei V.2. Durig e exer meeigs, e ara based iuus dire ariiai

i siliies was riiized as blurrig e disii made by h bewee lss rei based

du (ivilias) ad saus r u i (members armed res r rgaized armed g rus).

ee Bakg rud D. Dph 2004, . 36; Bakgrud D. Dph 2005, W V-V, . 10; er Dph 2005,

. 44, 48, 50. ee als e disussis i er Dph 2006, . 20 .; er Dph 2008, . 46 .

34 r. 3 Gc -V.

35 rdig Commentary GC III(abve n 20), . 37: eakig geera lly, i mus be regized a e

fis reerred i r. 3 are armed fis, wiarmed res eier side egaged isiliies

fis, i sr, wi are i may reses similar a ieraial war [].

36 rdig pie (ed.), Commentary on the Fourth Geneva Convention Relative to the Protec tion

of Civilian Persons in Time of War(Geeva: cc, 1958), . 40: rile 3 as a ex remely wide eld

aliai ad vers members e armed res as well as erss w d ake a r i e

siliies. is isae, wever, e rile aurally alies rs ad rems ivilias a is

ele w d bear arms.

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c)dditionalProtocolII

Wile dditial prtl 37 as a sigiiatly arrwer se

aliati ad uses terms dieret rm tse i rtile 3 Gc -V, te

geeri ategrizati erss is te same i bt istrumets. 38 Durig

te Dilmati ceree 1974-77, Dra rtile 25 [1] p deed

te et ivilia as iludig aye w is t a member te

armed res r a rgaized armed gru.39 ltug tis artile was

disarded alg wit mst ter rvisis te dut stilities

i a last miute ert t simliy te prtl, te al text tiues

t relet te rigially rsed et ivilia. rdig t te

prtl, armed res, dissidet armed res, ad ter rgaizedarmed grus ave te uti ad ability t arry ut sustaied ad

erted military eratis;40 wereas te ivilia ulati ad

idividual ivilias sall ejy geeral rteti agaist te dagers

arisig rm military eratis arried ut by tese res uless ad

r su time as tey take a diret art i stilities.41

d)Reconciliationofterminology

n ddiional proocol , he erm armed forces is resriced o ae

armed forces, whereas he armed forces of non-ae aries are referred o

as dissiden armed forces or oher organized armed grous. the noion

37 s 1 nvember 2008, 164 tates were arty t p .

38 Fr te ig tresld aliati dditial prtl , see rt. 1 [1] p .

39 Dra rt. 25 [1] p was adted by sesus i te Tird cmmittee 4 ril 1975 (o.., Vl. XV,

. 320, cDDh/215/ev.1). ee al s te ccs cmmetary (otber 1973) te rigial versi rt.

25 [1] te Dra p submitted t te Dilmati ceree 1974 t 1977: [] st sidrs

mme ivils tus les tres umais qui se truvet sur le territire due partie tra tate se drule

u fit arm au ses de lartile remier et qui e t as artie des res armes u grues arms.

40 rt. 1 [1] p .

41 rt. 13 [1] ad [3] p . Tis iterretati is urter surted by te resetive texts i wi

te prtl reers t ivilia s (rts 13, 14, 17 p ) ad te ivilia ulati (title part V p ;

rts 5 [1] (b) ad (e), 13, 14, 15, 17 ad 18 p ).

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o armed ores in rile 3 Gc -V, on he oher hand, inludes all hree

aegories juxaosed in rile 1 [1] p , namely ae armed ores,

dissiden armed ores, and oher organized armed grous. thus, similar

o siuaions o inernaional armed onfi, he one o ivilian in non-

inernaional armed onfi is negaively delimied by he deniion o armed

ores (rile 3 Gc -V) or, exressed in he erminology o ddiional

proool , o ae armed ores, dissiden armed ores and oher

organized armed grous.42 For he uroses o his nerreive Guidane,

he armed ores o aes ary o a non-inernaional armed onli are

reerred o as ae armed ores, whereas he armed ores o non-ae

aries are desribed as organized armed grous.43

Where no saedoherwise, he one o organized armed grou inludes boh dissiden

armed ores and oher organized armed grous (rile 1 [1] p ).

2.STATEARMEDFORCES

a)Basicconcept

tere is reas assume a aes ary b ddiial

prls desired disi deiiis ae armed res i siuais

ieraial ad -ieraial armed li. rdig e

travaux prparatoires r ddiial prl , e e armed

res a hig craig pary i rile 1 [1] p was ieded

be brad eug ilude armed ars w d eessarily qualiy

as armed res uder dmesi law, su as members e aial

guard, usms, r lie res, rvided a ey d, i a, assume

e ui armed res.44 Tus, marable e e armed

res i ddiial prl , ae armed res uder ddiial

42 frmaive ctY, Prosecutor v. Martic, case n. t-95-11-, Judgme 8 ober 20 08, 300-302. Tis

was e revail ig view als dur ig e exer mee igs (see er Dph 2005, . 43 .; er Dph 2006,

. 20 .; er Dph 2008, . 46 .).

43 ne a e e rgaized armed gru is als used i h gverig ieraial armed i

desribe rgaized armed ars er a e regular armed res wi erae uder a mmad

ressible a ary e i ad, erere, qualiy as ar e armed res a ary (r. 43

[1] p ; see abve ei ).

44 ee Commentary AP(abve n 10), 4462: Te ermarmed res e hig craig pary suld be

udersd i e brades sese. a, is erm was se i reeree ers suggesed su as,

r examle,regula r armed res, i rder ver all e armed res, iludig se iluded i

e deii e army i e aial legislai sme uries (aial guard, usms, lie

res r ay er simila r re), reerrig o.., Vl. X, . 94, cDDh / /238/ev.1. o e eia l

qualiai lie res as ar e armed res a ary e i, see als e disussi

i er Dph 2005, . 11; er Dph 2006, . 43, 52 .; er Dph 2008, . 54, 64, 68 .

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prcl iclude b e regular armed rces ad er armed grus

r uis rgaized uder a cmmad ressible e ae.45

b)determinationofmembership

leas as ar as regular armed rces are ccered, membersi i ae

armed rces is geerally deed by dmesic law ad exressed rug

rmal iegrai i ermae uis disiguisable by uirms,

isigia ad equime. te same alies were armed uis lice,

brder guard, r similar uirmed rces are icrraed i e armed

rces. Members regularly csiued rces are civilias, regardless

eir idividual cduc r e uci ey assume wii earmed rces. Fr e urses e ricile disici, membersi

i regular ae armed rces ceases, ad civilia reci is resred,

we a member disegages rm acive duy ad re-iegraes i civilia

lie, weer due a ull discarge rm duy r as a deacivaed reservis.

Jus as i ieraial armed clic, membersi i irregular ae

armed rces, suc as miliia, vlueer r aramiliary grus, geerally is

regulaed by dmesic law ad ca ly be reliably deermied e

basis e same ucial crieria a aly rgaized armed grus

-ae aries e cfic.46

3.ORGANIzEDARMEDGROUPS

a)Basicconcept

orgaized armed grus belgig a -ae ary a armed

clic iclude b disside armed rces ad er rgaized armed

grus. Disside armed rces esseially csiue ar a aes armed

45 ccrdig Be et al., New Rules for Victims of Armed Conicts: Commentary on the Two 1977 Protocols

Addit ional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 (Te hague: Mar ius nij, 1982), . 672, e erms

rgaized ad uder ressible cmmad i r. 1 [1] p iereial ly [] recgize e esseial

cdiis rescribed uder ar . 43 prcl : a e armed rce be liked e e aries

e cfic; a ey be rgaized; ad a ey be uder ressible cmmad.

46 ee abve eci .2.(c) ad belw eci .3.(b).

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res tat ave tured agaist te gvermet.47 oter rgaized armed

grus reruit teir members rimarily rm te ivilia ulati but

devel a sufiet degree military rgaizati t dut stilities

beal a arty t te it, albeit t always wit te same meas,

itesity ad level sistiati as tate armed res.

bt ases, it is ruial r te rteti te ivilia ulati t

distiguis a -tate arty t a it (e.g., a isurgey, a rebelli,

r a seessiist mvemet) rm its armed res (i.e., a rgaized

armed gru).48 s wit tate arties t armed its, -tate arties

mrise bt igtig res ad surtive segmets te iviliaulati, su as litial ad umaitaria wigs. Te term rgaized

armed gru, wever, reers exlusively t te armed r military wig

a -tate arty: its armed res i a utial sese. Tis distiti

as imrtat sequees r te determiati membersi i a

rgaized armed gru as sed t ter rms ailiati wit, r

surt r, a -tate arty t te it.

b)determinationofmembership

Dissident armed forces: ltug members dissidet armed res are

lger members tate armed res, tey d t beme ivilias

merely beause tey ave tured agaist teir gvermet. t least t te

extet, ad r as lg as, tey remai rgaized uder te strutures

te tate armed res t wi tey rmerly belged, tese strutures

suld tiue t determie idividual membersi i dissidet armed

res as well.

Other organized armed groups: Mre diiult is te et membersi i rgaized armed grus ter ta dissidet armed

res. Membersi i tese irregularly stituted grus as basis

i dmesti law. t is rarely rmalized trug a at itegrati ter

ta takig u a ertai uti r te gru; ad it is t sistetly

47 ee Commentary AP(abve n 10), 4460.

48 ltug rt . 1 p reers t armed its betwee tate armed res ad dissidet armed res

r ter rgaized armed grus, te atual arties t su a it are, urse, te hig ctratig

party ad te sig -tate arty, ad t teir resetive armed res.

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exressed trug unirms, ixed distintive signs, r identiiatin

ards. n view te wide variety ultural, litial, and military

ntexts in wi rganized armed grus erate, tere may be varius

degrees afliatin wit su grus tat d nt neessarily amunt t

membersi witin te meaning h. n ne ase, ailiatin may

turn n individual ie, in anter n invluntary reruitment, and in

yet anter n mre traditinal ntins lan r amily.49 n ratie,

te inrmal and landestine strutures mst rganized armed grus

and te elasti nature membersi render it artiularly diiult t

distinguis between a nn-tate arty t te nit and its armed res.

s as been swn abve, in h gverning nn-internatinal armed

nit, te net rganized armed gru reers t nn-tate armed

res in a stritly untinal sense. Fr te ratial urses te

rinile distintin, terere, membersi in su grus annt

deend n abstrat afliatin, amily ties, r ter riteria rne t errr,

arbitrariness r abuse. nstead, membersi must deend n weter

te ntinuus untin assumed by an individual rresnds t tat

lletively exerised by te gru as a wle, namely te ndut

stilities n beal a nn-tate arty t te nlit.50 cnsequently,

under h, te deisive riterin r individual membersi in an

rganized armed gru is weter a ersn assumes a ntinuus untin

r te gru invlving is r er diret artiiatin in stilities

(ereaer: ntinuus mbat untin).51 cntinuus mbat untin

des nt imlyde jure entitlement t mbatant rivilege.52 ater, it

49 Bakgrund D. Dph 2005, W V-V, p. 15.

50 on te lletive r individual nature ntinuus mbat unt in, see ert Dph 2008, . 55 .

51 on te qualiatin ndut as diret arti iatin in stilities, see belw etin V.

52 cmbatant rivilege, namely te rigt t diret ly art iiate in stilit ies wit immunity rm dmesti

rseutin r lawul ats war, is arded nly t members te armed res arties t an

internatinal armed nit (exet medial and relig ius ersnnel), as well as t artiiants in a leve en

masse (rts 1 and 2 h V ; rt. 43 [1] p ). ltug all riv ileged mbatants ave a rigt t diret ly

artiiate in stilities, tey d nt neessarily ave a untin requiring tem t d s (e.g. ks,

administ rative ersnnel). cnversely, individuals w assume ntinuus mbat untin utside te

rivileged ategries ersns, as well as in nn-internatinal armed nit, are nt entitled t

mbatant rivilege under h (see als belw etin X).

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disinguises members o e organized iging ores o a non-ae

ary rom ivilians wo direly ariiae in osiliies on a merely

sonaneous, soradi, or unorganized basis, or wo assume exlusively

oliial, adminisraive or oer non-omba unions.53

coninuous omba union requires lasing inegraion ino an

organized armed grou aing as e armed ores o a non-ae ary o

an armed onfi. Tus, individuals wose oninuous union involves

e rearaion, exeuion, or ommand o as or oeraions amouning

o dire ariiaion in osiliies are assuming a oninuous omba

union. n individual reruied, rained and equied by su a grouo oninuously and direly ariiae in osiliies on is beal an be

onsidered o assume a oninuous omba union even beore e or se

rs arries ou a osile a. Tis ase mus be disinguised rom ersons

omarable o reserviss wo, aer a eriod o basi raining or aive

membersi, leave e armed grou and re-inegrae ino ivilian lie. u

reserviss are ivilians unil and or su ime as ey are alled bak o

aive duy.54

ndividuals wo oninuously aomany or suor an organized

armed grou, bu wose union does no involve dire ariiaion

in osiliies, are no members o a grou wiin e meaning o h.

nsead, ey remain ivilians assuming suor unions, similar o

rivae onraors and ivilian emloyees aomanying ae armed

ores.55 tus, reruiers, rainers, inaniers and roagandiss may

oninuously onribue o e general war eor o a non-ae ary,

bu ey are no members o an organized armed grou belonging o a

ary unless eir union addiionally inludes aiviies amouning odire ariiaion in osiliies.56 Te same alies o individuals wose

53 During e exer meeings, e revail ing view was a ersons ease o be ivilians wiin

e meaning o h or as long as ey oninuously assume a un ion involving dire ar iiaion

in osiliies (oninuous omba un ion) or an organized a rmed grou belonging o a ary o

a non-inernaional armed onfi (xer paer Dph 2004 (pro. M. Boe); eor Dph 2005, . 43 .,

48 ., 53 ., 63 ., 82 .; eor Dph 2006, . 9 ., 20 ., 29-32, 66 .; eor Dph 2008, . 46 -60).

54 ee also above eions .2.() and .2.(b) and, more generally, below eion V.2.

55 ee below eion .

56 egarding e qualiaion o reruiing and raining, naning and roaganda as dire ariiaion

in osil iies, see below eions V.2.(a) and (b); V.1.

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unctin is limited t te urcasing, smuggling, manuacturing and

maintaining weans and ter equiment utside seciic military

eratins r t te cllectin intelligence ter tan a tactical

nature.57 ltug suc ersns may accmany rganized armed

grus and rvide substantial surt t a arty t te cnlict, tey

d nt assume cntinuus cmbat unctin and, r te urses te

rincile distinctin, cannt be regarded as members an rganized

armed gru.58 s civilians, tey beneit rm rtectin against direct

attack unless and r suc time as tey directly articiate in stilities,

even tug teir activities r lcatin may increase teir exsure t

incidental deat r injury.

n ractice, te rincile distinctin must be alied based n

inrmatin wic is ractically available and can reasnably be regarded

as reliable in te revailing circumstances. cntinuus cmbat unctin

may be enly exressed trug te carrying unirms, distinctive

signs, r certain weans. Yet it may als be identiied n te basis

cnclusive beaviur, r examle were a ersn as reeatedly directly

articiated in stilities in surt an rganized armed gru in

circumstances indicating tat suc cnduct cnstitutes a cntinuus

unctin rater tan a sntaneus, sradic, r temrary rle assumed

r te duratin a articular eratin. Watever criteria are alied

in imlementing te rincile distinctin in a articular cntext, tey

must allw t reliably distinguis members te armed rces a nn-

tate arty t te cnfict rm civilians w d nt directly articiate in

stilities, r w d s n a merely sntaneus, sradic r unrganized

basis.59 s will be swn, tat determinatin remains subject t all easible

recautins and t te resumtin rtectin in case dubt.60

57 egarding te qualicatin as direct articiatin in stilities urcasing, smuggli ng, transrt ing,

manuacturing and maintaining weans, exlsives and equiment, as well as cllecting

and rviding intelligence, see belw ectins V.1.(a); V.2.(a), (b) and (g); V.1.

58 obviusly, suc lack membersi des nt exclude tat civilian surters rganized armed grus

may incur criminal resnsibility r teir activities under natinal and, in te case internatinal crimes,

als internatinal law. ee belw ectin X.

59 ee als ert Dph 2006, . 25 .; ert Dph 2008, . 49-57.

60 ee belw ectin V.

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4.CONCLUSION

For the purposes o the principle o distinction in non-international

armed conlict, all persons who are not members o tate armed orces

or organized armed groups o a party to the conlict are civilians and,

thereore, entitled to protection against direct attack unless and or such

time as they take a direct part in hostilities. n non-international armed

conlict, organized armed groups constitute the armed orces o a non-

tate party to the confict and consist only o individuals whose continuous

unction it is to take a direct part in hostilities (continuous combat

unction).

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III.PRICRCRSCIILIPLS

Privatecontractorsandemployeesofapartytoanarmedconictwhoarecivilians(see

aboveIandII)areentitledtoprotectionagainstdirectattackunlessandforsuchtime

astheytakeadirectpartinhostilities.Teiractivitiesorlocationmay,however,expose

themtoanincreasedriskofincidentaldeathorinjuryeveniftheydonottakeadirect

partinhostilities.

1.PARTICULARDIFFICULTIESRELATEDTOPRIvATE

CONTRACTORSANDCIvILIANEMPLOYEES

n reent deades, arties t armed nfits ave inreasingly emlyed

rivate ntratrs and ivilian emlyees in a variety untins

traditinally errmed by military ersnnel.61 Generally seaking,

weter rivate ntratrs and emlyees a arty t an armed nfit

are ivilians witin te meaning h and weter tey diretly

artiiate in stilities deends n te same riteria as wuld aly t

any ter ivilian.62 Te seial rle su ersnnel requires tat tese

determinatins be made wit artiular are and wit due nsideratin

r te gegrai and rganizatinal lseness many rivate

ntratrs and ivilian emlyees t te armed res and te stilities.

t suld als be nted tat te urse te distintin between ivilians

and members te armed res may nt be idential under dmesti

and internatinal law. Deending n natinal legislatin, membersiin te armed res may ave administrative, jurisditinal, and ter

nsequenes irrelevant t te rinile distintin in te ndut

stilities. Under h, te rimary nsequenes membersi in

te armed res are te exlusin rm te ategry ivilian and, in

61 Tis trend led t an initiative by te wiss gvernment, in eratin wit te cc, t address te issue

rivate military and seurity manies. Tis initiative resulted in teMntreux Dument n pertinent

nternatinal egal obligatins and Gd praties r tates elated t oeratins private Military and

eurity cmanies During rmed cnfit 17 etember 2008, agreed un by 17 artiiating tates.

62 on te net ivil ian, see abve etins and . on te net diret art iiatin in stilities ,

see belw etins V t V.

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internatinal armed nfit, te rigt t diretly artiiate in stilities

n beal a arty t te nlit (mbatant rivilege). Were te

nets ivilian and armed res are deined r te urse te

ndut stilities, te relevant standards must be derived rm h.63

Te great majrity rivate ntratrs and ivilian emlyees urrently

ative in armed nlits ave nt been inrrated int tate armed

res and assume untins tat learly d nt invlve teir diret

artiiatin in stilities n beal a arty t te nlit (i.e. n

ntinuus mbat untin).64 Terere, under h, tey generally me

witin te deinitin ivilians.65

ltug tey are tus entitled trtetin against diret attak, teir rximity t te armed res and

ter military bjetives may exse tem mre tan ter ivilians t te

dangers arising rm military eratins, inluding te risk inidental

deat r injury.66

n sme ases, wever, it may be extremely diiult t determine te

ivilian r military nature ntratr ativity. Fr examle, te line

between te deene military ersnnel and ter military bjetives

against enemy attaks (diret artiiatin in stilities) and te

rtetin tse same ersns and bjets against rime r vilene

unrelated t te stilities (law enrement / deene sel r ters) may

be tin. t is terere artiularly imrtant in tis ntext t bserve

te general rules h n reautins and resumtins in situatins

dubt.67

2.INTERNATIONALARMEDCONFLICT

civilians, inluding tse rmally autrized t amany te armedres and entitled t risner-war status un ature, were never

meant t diretly artiiate in stilities n beal a arty t te

63 ee ert Dph 2005, . 74 .

64 on te net ntinuus mbat untin, see abve etin .3.(b).

65 ert Dph 2005, . 80.

66 ert Dph 2006, . 34 .

67 ee belw etin V.

68 o te ategries ersns entitled t risner--war status under rt. 4 [1] t [6] Gc , tse desribed

in rt. 4 [4] Gc (ivilia ns amanying te armed res) and rt. 4 [5] Gc (ivil ian rew members

te merant marine r ivil ai rra) are ivil ians (rt. 50 [1] p ). s any ter ivilians, tey are

exluded rm te ategries entitled t mbatant rivilege, namely members te armed res and

artiiants in a leve en masse (rt. 43 [1] and [2], 50 [1] p ; rts 1 and 2 h V ) and, terere, d nt

ave a rigt t diretly artiiate in stilities wit immunity rm dmesti rseutin. ee als belw

etin X, as well as te brie disussin in ert Dph 2006, . 35 .

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cnlic.68 s lng as ey are n incrraed in e armed rces,

rivae cnracrs and civilian emlyees d n cease be civilians

simly because ey accmany e armed rces and r assume uncins

er an e cnduc siliies a wuld radiinally ave

been errmed by miliary ersnnel. Were suc ersnnel direcly

ariciae in siliies wiu e exress r aci aurizain e

ae ary e cnfic, ey remain civilians and lse eir recin

agains direc aack r suc ime as eir direc ariciain lass.69

dieren cnclusin mus be reaced r cnracrs and emlyees

w, all inens and urses, ave been incrraed in e armedrces a ary e cnfic, weer rug a rmal rcedure under

nainal law r de facto by being given a cninuus cmba uncin.70

Under h, suc ersnnel wuld becme members an rganized

armed rce, gru, r uni under a cmmand resnsible a ary

e cnfic and, r e urses e rincile disincin, wuld n

lnger qualiy as civilians.71

3.NON-INTERNATIONALARMEDCONFLICT

Te abve bservains als aly, mutatis mutandis, in nn-inernainal

armed cnlics. tus, r suc ime as rivae cnracrs assume a

cninuus cmba uncin r an rganized armed gru belnging

a nn-ae ary, ey becme members a gru.72 tereically,

69 er Dph 2005, . 82.

70 on e cnce cninuus cmba uncin, see abve ecin .3.(b). on e subsidiary uncinal

deerminain membersi secically in inernainal armed cnfic, see abve ecin .3.(c).

71 Te revail ing view exressed during e exer meeings was a, r e urses e cnduc

siliies, rivae cnracrs and emlyees aurized by a ae direcly ariciae in siliies

n is beal wuld cease be civil ians and becme members is armed rces under h, regardless

rmal incrrain. was ned a, rm e isrical letters of marque and reprisalissued

rivaeers e mdern cmbaan rivilege, direc ariciain in siliies wi e auriy a

ae as always been regarded as legi imae and, as suc, exem rm dmesic rsecuin. ee er

Dph 2003, . 4 .; er Dph 2004, . 11 ., 14; xer paer Dph 2004 (pr. M. cmi), . 8 .;

er Dph 2005, . 74 . and 80 .; Backgrund Dc. Dph 2005, W V-X, . 17.

72 ee er Dph 2005, . 81 .

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rivae miliary comanies could even become indeenden non-ae

aries o a non-inernaional armed conlic.73 privae conracors and

civilian emloyees wo are neier members o ae armed orces nor

members o organized armed grous, owever, mus be regarded as

civilians and, ereore, are roeced agains direc aack unless and or

suc ime as ey direcly ariciae in osiliies.

4.CONCLUSION

Weer rivae conracors and emloyees o a ary o e conlic

qualiy as civilians wiin e meaning o h and weer ey direcly

ariciae in osiliies deends on e same crieria as are alicableo any oer civilian. te geograic and organizaional closeness o

suc ersonnel o e armed orces and e osiliies require a is

deerminaion be made wi aricular care. Tose wo qualiy as civilians

are eniled o roecion agains direc aack unless and or suc ime

as ey direcly ariciae in osiliies, even oug eir aciviies and

locaion may exose em o an increased risk o incidenal injury and

dea. Tis does no rule ou e ossibiliy a, or uroses oer an

e conduc o osiliies, domesic law mig regulae e saus o rivae

conracors and emloyees diferenly rom h.

73 Ibid.

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THECONCEPTOFDIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES 41

B.THECONCEPTOF

DIRECTPARTICIPATION

INHOSTILITIES

treay h does no deine dire ariiaion in osiliies, nor

does a lear inerreaion o e one emerge rom ae raie

or inernaional jurisrudene. te noion o dire ariiaion inosiliies mus ereore be inerreed in good ai in aordane wi

e ordinary meaning o be given o is onsiuen erms in eir onex

and in lig o e obje and urose o h.74

Were reay law reers o osiliies, a noion is inrinsially linked o

siuaions o inernaional or non-inernaional armed onfi.75 Tereore,

e one o dire ariiaion in osiliies anno reer o ondu

ourring ouside siuaions o armed onli, su as during inernal

disurbanes and ensions, inluding rios, isolaed and soradi as

o violene and oer as o a similar naure.76 Moreover, even during

armed onli, no all ondu onsiues ar o e osiliies.77 is

e urose o e resen aer o ideniy e rieria a deermine

weer and, i so, or ow long a ariular ondu amouns o dire

ariiaion in osiliies.

n raie, ivilian ariiaion in osiliies ours in various orms and

degrees o inensiy and in a wide variey o geograial, ulural, oliial,and miliary onexs. Tereore, in deermining weer a ariular ondu

74 r. 31 [1] Vienna convenion on e aw o treaies.

75 Te one o osiliies is requenly used in reaies regulaing siuaions o inernaional and

non-inernaional armed onfi, or examle in e ollowing onex s: oening o osiliies, ondu

o osiliies, as o osiliy, ersons (no) aking ar in osiliies, ees o osiliies, susension o

osiliies, end o osiliies. ee tile and r. 1 h ; tile eion h V ; r. 3 [1] Gc -V; r. 17 Gc ;

r. 33 Gc ; tile eion and rs 21 [3], 67, 118, 119 Gc ; rs 49 [2], 130, 133, 134, 135 Gc V;

rs 33, 34 , 40, 43 [2], 45, 47, 51 [3], 59, 60 p a nd tile par V, eion p ; rs 4 and 13 [3] p ; r s

3 [1] [3] and 4 W proool.

76 ording o r. 1 [2] p , su siuaions do no onsiue armed onfis.

77 n a, armed onfi an arise wiou any ourrene o osiliies, namely roug a delaraion

o war or e ouaion o erriory wiou armed resisane (r. 2 Gc -V). Furermore, onsiderable

orions o h deal wi issues oer an e ondu o osiliies , mos noably e exerise o ower

and auoriy over ersons and erriory in e ands o a ar y o e onfi.

ee also eor Dph 2005, . 13, 18 .

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amouts to direct articiatio i ostilities, due cosideratio must be give

to te circumstaces revailig at te relevat time ad lace.78 neverteless,

te imortace o te circumstaces surroudig eac case sould ot divert

attetio rom te act tat direct articiatio i ostilities remais a legal

cocet o limited elasticity tat must be iterreted i a teoretically soud

ad coeret maer refectig te udametal riciles o h.

78 ee also below ectio V. ee urter: eort Dph 2006, . 25 ., 70 .

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I.IRCTPRTICIPTIIHSTILITISSSPCIICCT

Thenotionofdirectparticipationinhostilitiesreferstospecificactscarriedoutby

individualsaspartoftheconductofhostilitiesbetweenpartiestoanarmedconict.

1.BASICCOMPONENTSOFTHENOTIONOFDIRECTPARTICIPATIONINHOSTILITIES

Te oio o dire ariiaio i osiliies esseially omrises wo

elemes, amely a o osiliies ad a o dire ariiaio

erei.79 Wile e oe o osiliies reers o e (olleive)

resor by e aries o e oi o meas ad meods o ijurig e

eemy,80 ariiaio i osiliies reers o e (idividual) ivolveme

o a erso i ese osiliies.81 Deedig o e qualiy ad degree o

su ivolveme, idividual ariiaio i osiliies may be desribed

as dire or idire. Te oio o dire ariiaio i osiliies as

evolved rom e rase akig o aive ar i e osiliies used i

rile 3 Gc -V. loug e glis exs o e Geeva coveios

ad ddiioal proools use e words aive 82 ad dire,83

reseively, e osise use o e rase participent directement i

e equally auei Fre exs demosrae a e erms dire ad

aive reer o e same qualiy ad degree o idividual ariiaio i

osiliies.84 Furermore, as e oio o akig a dire ar i osiliies

79 eor Dph 2005, . 17; Bakgroud Do. Dph 2005, W -, . 2.

80 ee r. 22 h V (eio o hosili ies). treay law does o esablis uiorm ermiology

or e odu o osiliies bu reers, aar rom osi liies, also o warare (tile par , eio

ad r. 35 [1] p ), miliary oera ios (r. 53 Gc V; r. 51 [1] p ; r. 13 [1] p ), or simly

oeraios (r. 48 p ).

81 ee rs 43 [2] p ; 45 [1] ad [3] p ; 51 [3] p ; 67 [1] (e) p ; 13 [3] p .

82 r. 3 Gc -V.

83 r s 51 [3] p ; 43 [2] p ; 67 [1] (e) p ad 13 [3] p .

84 Tis was e revailig view also durig e exer meeigs (eor Dph 2005, . 29; eor Dph 2006,

. 62). Te eraioal crimial tribual or wada (ct) afrmed e syoymous meaig

o e oios o aive ad dire ariiaio i osiliies: ct, Prosecutor v. Akayesu,

case no. ct-96-4-t, Judgme o 2 eember 1998, 629. rs sig, i may aear a e

prearaory commiee or e sablisme o a eraioal crimial cour (cc) imlied a

disiio bewee e erms aive ad dire i e oex o e reruime o ildre we

i exlaied a: Te wordsusig adariiae ave bee adoed i order o over bo dire

ariiaio i omba ad also aive ariiaio i miliary aiviies liked o omba. rily

seakig, owever, e commiee made a disiio bewee omba ad miliary aiviies liked o

omba, o bewee aive ad dire ariiaio.

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is used syymusly i te dditial prtls ad , it suld be

iterreted i te same maer i iteratial ad -iteratial

armed fit.85

2.RESTRICTIONTOSPECIFICACTS

treaty h, idividual dut tat stitutes art te stilities

is desribed as diret artiiati i stilities, regardless weter

te idividual is a ivilia r a member te armed res.86 Weter

idividuals diretly artiiate i stilities a staeus, sradi,

r urgaized basis r as art a tiuus uti assumed r a

rgaized armed re r gru belgig t a arty t te fit maybe deisive r teir status as ivilias, but as ifuee te se

dut tat stitutes diret artiiati i stilities. Tis illustrates

tat te ti diret artiiati i stilities des t reer t a

erss status, uti, r ailiati, but t is r er egagemet

i seii stile ats.87 essee, te et stilities uld be

desribed as te sum ttal all stile ats arried ut by idividuals

diretly artiiatig i stilities.88

Were ivilias egage i stile ats a ersistetly reurret basis, it

may be temtig t regard t ly ea stile at as diret artiiati

i stilities, but eve teir tiued itet t arry ut useiied

stile ats i te uture.89 hwever, ay extesi te et diret

artiiati i stilities beyd sei ats wuld blur te distiti

made i h betwee temporary, activity-based loss of protection (due

85 Tis was te revailig view als durig te exert meetigs (Bakgrud D. Dph 2004, . 30;

ert Dph 2004, . 15 .; ert Dph 2005, . 13). o urse, tis des t exlude tat sme

te sequees, artiularly wit regard t immuity rm rseuti r avig diretly artiiated

i stilities, may be regulated dieretly r te varius ategries erss ivlved i iteratial

$ad -iteratial armed fits.

86 ee rts 43 [2] p ; 51 [3] p ; 67 [1] (e) p ; 13 [3] p .

87 Tis was te revailig view als durig te exert meetigs (see ert Dph 2004, . 24 .; ert Dph

2005, . 17-24; ert Dph 2006, . 37 .; ert Dph 2008, . 33 .).

88 Fr urses tis terretive Guidae, te ti stile at reers t a sei at qualiyi g

as diret artiiati i stilities. rdig t Commentary AP(abve n 10), 1943, t seems tat

te wrdstilities vers t ly te time tat te ivilia atually makes use a wea, but als,

r examle, te time tat e is arryig it, as well as situatis i wi e udertakes stile ats witut

usig a wea. Verri, Dictionary of the International Law of Armed Conict(Geeva: cc, 1992), . 57,

dees stilit ies as: ats vilee by a belligeret agaist a eemy i rder t ut a ed t is

resistae ad imse bediee, ad alm, Dictionnaire de droit international public (Bruxelles:

Bruylat, 2001), . 550 (hostilits): Ensemble des actes oensifs ou dfensifs et des oprations militaires

accomplis par un belligrant dans le cadre dun conit arm. ee als te use te term stile at i

rts 41 [2] ad 42 [2] p . o te meaig ad iterrelati te tis stilities ad st ile

ats, see ur ter: ert Dph 2004, . 24 .; ert Dph 2005, . 17-24; ert Dph 2006, . 37 .

89 ert Dph 2006, . 28 .; ert Dph 2008, . 35-40. Fr a similar argumet made i reet dmesti

ase law, see: srael hcJ, PCATI v. Israel, abve n 24, 39.

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dire ariiain in siliies), and continuous, status or function-

based loss of protection (due mbaan saus r ninuus mba

unin).90 n raie, nusing e disin regimes by wi h

gverns e lss rein r ivilians and r members ae

armed res r rganized armed grus wuld rvke insurmunable

evideniary rblems. Tse nduing siliies already ae e diful

ask disinguising beween ivilians w are and ivilians w are n

engaged in a seii sile a (dire ariiain in siliies), and

disinguising b ese rm members rganized armed grus

(ninuus mba unin) and ae armed res. n erainal

realiy, i wuld be imssible deermine wi a suiien degree reliabiliy weer ivilians n urrenly rearing r exeuing a sile

a ave reviusly dne s n a ersisenly reurren basis and weer

ey ave e ninued inen d s again. Basing ninuus lss

rein n su seulaive rieria wuld ineviably resul in errneus

r arbirary aaks agains ivilians, us undermining eir rein

wi is a e ear h.91 cnsequenly, in ardane wi e bje

and urse h, e ne dire ariiain in siliies mus

be inerreed as resried sei sile as.92

3.CONCLUSION

te nin dire ariiain in siliies reers seii sile

as arried u by individuals as ar e ndu siliies beween

aries an armed nli. mus be inerreed synnymusly in

siuains inernainal and nn-inernainal armed nli. te

reay erms dire and aive indiae e same qualiy and degree

individual ariiain in siliies.

90 ee als abve, ein .3. on e disin emral ses e lss rein r rganized armed

ars and ivilians, see belw ein V.

91 er Dph 2008, . 36-42 .

92 Tis als was e revailing view during e exer meeings (see er Dph 2006, . 38).

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Inordertoqualifyasdirectparticipationinhostilities,aspecificactmustmeetthe

followingcumulativecriteria:

1. theactmustbelikelytoadverselyaectthemilitaryoperationsormilitarycapacity

ofapartytoanarmedconictor,alternatively,toinictdeath,injury,ordestruction

onpersonsorobjectsprotectedagainstdirectattack(thresholdofharm),and

2. theremustbeadirectcausallinkbetweentheactandtheharmlikelytoresulteitherfromthatact,orfromacoordinatedmilitaryoperationofwhichthatactconstitutes

anintegralpart(directcausation),and

3. theactmustbespecicallydesignedtodirectlycausetherequiredthresholdofharm

insupportofapartytotheconflictandtothedetrimentofanother(belligerent

nexus).

cts amunting t direct articiatin in stilities must meet tree

cumulative requirements: (1) a tresld regarding te arm likely t

result rm te act, (2) a relatinsi direct causatin between te

act and te exected arm, and (3) a belligerent nexus between te act

and te stilities cnducted between te arties t an armed cnfict.93

ltug tese elements are very clsely interrelated, and altug tere

may be areas verla between tem, eac tem will be discussed

searately ere.

93 on te cumulative nature tese requirements, see als ert Dph 2006, . 40 ., 43 ., 49 .

. CSTITUTILTSIRCTPRTICIPTIIHSTILITIS

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1.THRESHOLDOFHARM

Inordertoreachtherequiredthresholdofharm,aspecicactmustbelikelytoadversely

affectthemilitaryoperationsormilitarycapacityofapartytoanarmedconflictor,

alternatively,toinflictdeath,injury,ordestructiononpersonsorobjectsprotected

againstdirectattack.

For a secic ac o qualiy as direc ariciaio i osiliies, e arm

likely o resul rom i mus aai a cerai resold.94 tis resold

ca be reaced eier by causig arm o a secically miliary aure or

by ificig dea, ijury, or desrucio o ersos or objecs roeced

agais direc aack. Te qualicaio o a ac as direc ariciaio does

o require e materialization o arm reacig e resold bu merely

e objecive likelihooda e ac will resul i suc arm. Tereore, e

releva resold deermiaio mus be based o likely arm, a is

o say, arm wic may reasoably be execed o resul rom a ac i e

revailig circumsaces.95

a)dverselyaectingthemilitaryoperationsormilitary

capacityofapartytotheconict

We a ac may reasoably be execed o cause arm o a secically

military nature, e resold requireme will geerally be saisied

regardless o quaiaive graviy. is coex, miliary arm souldbe ierreed as ecomassig o oly e ilicio o dea, ijury,

or desrucio o miliary ersoel ad objecs,96 bu esseially ay

cosequece adversely aecig e miliary oeraios or miliary

caaciy o a ary o e cofic.97

94 Backgroud Doc. Dph 2004, . 27 .; Backgroud Doc. Dph 2005, W -, . 6.

95 Backgroud Doc. Dph 2004, . 25; eor Dph 2005, . 33.

96 Te use o weaos or oer meas o commi acs o violece agais uma ad maerial eemy orces is

robably e mos ucoroversial examle o direc ariciaio i osiliies (Customary IHL, above n 7,

Vol. , ule 6, . 22).

97 Durig e exer meeigs, ere was wide agreeme a e causaio o miliary arm as ar o e

osiliies did o ecessarily resuose e use o armed orce or e causaio o dea, ijur y or

desrucio (eor Dph 2005, . 14), bu esseially icluded all acs a adverse ly aec or aim o

adversely aec e eemys ursuace o is miliary objec ive or goal (eor Dph 2005, . 22 ., 31).

Te cocers exressed by some exers a e crierio o adversely aecig miliary oeraios or

miliary caaciy was oo wide ad vague ad could be misudersood o auorize e killig o civilias

wiou ay miliary ecessiy are addressed below i ecio X (see eor Dph 2006, . 41 .).

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For examle, beyod te killig ad woudig o military ersoel

ad te ausatio o ysial or utioal damage to military objets,

te military oeratios or military aaity o a arty to te ofit a

be adversely aeted by sabotage ad oter armed or uarmed ativities

restritig or disturbig deloymets, logistis ad ommuiatios.

dverse eets may also arise rom aturig or oterwise establisig

or exerisig otrol over military ersoel, objets ad territory to

te detrimet o te adversary. For istae, deyig te adversary

te military use o ertai objets, equimet ad territory,98 guardig

atured military ersoel o te adversary to revet tem beig oribly

liberated (as oosed to exerisig autority over tem),99

ad learigmies laed by te adversary100 would rea te required tresold o

arm. letroi itereree wit military omuter etworks ould also

suie, weter troug omuter etwork attaks (cn) or omuter

etwork exloitatio (cn),101 as well as wiretaig te adversarys ig

ommad102 or trasmittig tatial targetig iormatio or a attak.103

98 eort Dph 2005, . 11, 29.

99 Te revailig view durig te exert meetigs was tat guardig atured military ersoel was a lear

ase o diret artiiatio i ostil ities (Bakgroud Do. Dph 2004, . 9; eort Dph 2005, . 15 .).

neverteless, to te extet ratially ossible, te guardig o atured military ersoel as a measo revetig teir liberatio by te eemy sould be distiguised rom te exerise o admiistrative,

judi ial a d dis iliary autor ity over tem wile i te ower o a ar ty to te ofit, ilud ig i ase

o riots or esaes, wi are ot art o a ostile military oeratio. Tis uaed distit io was ot

disussed durig te exert meetigs. ee also te disussio o exerise o ower or autority over

ersos or territory, below nn 163-165 ad aomayig text.

100 eort Dph 2005, . 31.

101 cn ave bee tetatively deed as oeratios to disrut, dey, degrade, or destroy iormatio

residet i omuters ad omuter etworks, or te omuter ad etworks temselves (Bakgroud

Do. Dph 2003, . 15 ., wit reerees) ad may be oduted over log dista es troug radio waves

or iteratioal ommuiatio etworks. Wile tey may ot ivolve diret ysial damage, te

resultig system malutios a be devastatig. cn, amely te ability to gai aess to iormatio

osted o iormatio systems ad te ability to make use o te system itsel (ibid., wit reerees),

toug ot o a diret destrutive ature, ould ave equally sigiat military imliatios. Durig te

exert meetigs, cn ausig military arm to te adversary i a situatio o armed ofit were learly

regarded as art o te osti lities (eort Dph 2005, . 14).

102 ee eort Dph 2005, . 29.

103 Durig te exer t meetigs, te examle was give o a ivilia woma wo reeatedly eeked ito

a buildig were troos ad take over i order to idiate teir ositio to te attakig eemy ores.

Te deisive riterio or te qualiat io o er odut as diret a rtiiatio i ostilit ies was eld to be

te imortae o te trasmitted iormatio or te diret ausatio o arm ad, tus, or te exeutio

o a orete military oeratio. ee eort Dph 2004, . 5.

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e same ime, e du a ivilia a be ierreed as

adversely aeig e miliary erais r miliary aaiy a ary

e li simly beause i ails positively ae em. tus,

e reusal a ivilia llabrae wi a ary e li as a

irma, su r lku wuld rea e required resld

arm regardless e mivais uderlyig e reusal.

b)Infictingdeath,injuryordestructiononpersons

orobjectsprotectedagainstdirectattack

eii as may siue ar e siliies eve i ey are

likely adversely ae e miliary erais r miliary aaiy a ary e fi. e absee su miliary arm, wever, a

sei a mu

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ICRC_002_0990