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Fundamental Object-Control Skills of
Childhood
Chapter 14
McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2012 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved.
14-2
When the child is able to ambulate freely, the hands
are free to use in a new fundamental skill ~
object-control
14-3
Overarm ThrowingOne of the most complex fundamental movementsCan be divided into 3 phases
Preparatory phaseAll movements directed away from the intended line of projection
Execution phaseAll movements performed in the direction of the throw
Follow-throughAll movements following the release of the projectile
14-4
Developmental Stages of Throwing
M. Wild (1938)Four developmental stages of throwing
See Table 14-1
TrendsMovement progresses from an anterior-posterior plane to a horizontal planeThe base of support changes from a stationary to a shifting position
14-5
Developmental Stages of Throwing
Langendorfer (1980)
Notice the lack of a preparatory backswing in Step 1
In Step 2, note howthe ball is brought upbeside the head withupward humerus flexionand exaggerated elbowflexion
14-6
Developmental Stages of Throwing
Option 1 is a circularoverhead preparatorymovementwith elbow extended
Option 2 is a preparatoryphase using a lateral swing backward
14-7
Developmental Stages of Throwing
Option 3 uses asimple vertical lift of the throwing arm
By the second grade, boys predominantlyuse Step 4
14-8
Developmental Stages of Throwing
Roberton (1978) presents longitudinal evidence for developmental stages within the humerus, forearm, and trunk components for the overarm throw“Development within component parts may proceed at different rates in the same individual or at different rates in different individuals.”
14-9
Developmental Stages of Throwing
Seefeldt, Reuschlein, and Vogel (1972)Note large gender differences in throwing developmentNote the age at which 60% of boys exhibit a Stage 5 throwing patternNote the lag in development for girls
14-10
Developmental Stages of Throwing
Throwing motion is posterior-anterior in directionFeet do not moveLittle trunk rotation
Stage 1
14-11
Developmental Stages of Throwing
More rotation of the bodyPerformer may step forwardArm brought forward in transverse plane
Stage 2
14-12
Developmental Stages of ThrowingNote the ipsilateral arm-leg actionBall is placed into throwing position above the shoulder by a vertical and posterior motion of the arm at the time that the ipsilateral leg is moving forward
Stage 3
14-13
Developmental Stages of Throwing
Movement is contralateralLittle or no rotation of the hips and spine during wind-upStride forward provides a wide base of support
Stage 4
14-14
Developmental Stages of Throwing
Mature movement patternAge at which 60% of boys and girls are able to perform at a specific developmental level
Stage 5
Age at which 60% of boys and girls are able to perform at a specific level
14-15
Developmental Performance Trends for Overarm Throwing
Study techniques for performanceThrow for distanceThrow for accuracyMeasurement of throwing velocity
Annual improvement regardless of study techniqueBoys and men outperform girls and women at all ages
14-16
Factors that Influence Overarm Throwing Performance
InstructionKnowledgeInstructional cuesBall sizeAngle of ball release
14-17
Factors that Influence Overarm Throwing Performance
InstructionDoes instruction facilitate development or is improvement due to the year-to-year improvement of the fundamental skill?
Instruction significantly affects changes in throwing technique, but not greater horizontal ball velocities
14-18
Factors that Influence Overarm Throwing Performance
InstructionAn “increased range of motion instruction” program can increase the stride length component of the overarm throwA training program designed to improve throwing pattern can be effective in improving girls’ foot action and pelvic-spine rotation, but not arm action, throwing distance, or ball velocity
14-19
Factors that Influence Overarm Throwing Performance
KnowledgeAwkward throwers possess significantly less declarative knowledge than more talented throwersKnowledge of throwing influences performance
14-20
Factors that Influence Overarm Throwing Performance
Instructional cuesIdentification of critical cues facilitates throwing performance
Critical cues“Take a long step toward the target with the opposite foot of your throwing arm”“Take your arm straight down, then stretch it way back to make an ‘L’ with the arm”“Watch the target and release the ball when you see your fingers”
14-21
Factors that Influence Overarm Throwing Performance
Ball sizeWhen ball diameter is scaled up, a transitional point is reached where the performer resorts to a less mature throwing pattern in the backswing and forearm componentsAs diameter increases, there is a transition from one-handed grasping to two-handed graspingBall size and hand width are important in throwing performance
14-22
Factors that Influence Overarm Throwing Performance
Angle of ball releaseIn those using an “arm-dominated” throwing pattern, the ball is released too early resulting in an upward trajectory (490)
May be linked to poor grasp, ball weight, and ball size
A mature throwing pattern angle of release is 150
14-23
Accounting for Gender Differences in Overarm Throwing
The greatest gender differences for all fundamental skills is found with throwingSuccess in distance throwing of boys is associated with
HeredityArm muscle mass
Sociocultural factorsMale adult in the home
14-24
Accounting for Gender Differences in Overarm Throwing
Success in distance throwing for girls is associated with
Greater weight, more body fat, large joint diameter, and greater arm and leg mass compared to smaller and weaker female counterparts
14-25
Accounting for Gender Differences in Overarm Throwing
The best predictors of throwing development in girls are
Participation in sportPresence of an older brother in the household
The best predictors of throwing development in boys are
Father’s sport involvementFather-son skill play
14-26
Catching The action of bringing an airborne object under control by using the hands and arms
14-27
Developmental Aspects: Two-Handed Catching
First attempt to stop a rolling object is to sit on floor with legs spread apart
Legs trap ballHands trap ball
First attempt at an airborne object is passiveTosser throws ball so the child can use the outstretched arms and body to catch
14-28
Developmental Aspects: Two-Handed Catching
2-year-old 5-year-old 15-year-old
Focuses on the tosser, not the ballMaintains a static positionReacts too late
Can anticipate some of the ball’s changing flight patternCan focus on thrower, ball, and own hands Movements are correct, but are carried out in slow motion
Can predict the ball’s flightCarries out preparatory sequences to catch the ballMovements are smooth
14-29
Developmental Aspects: Two-Handed Catching
This 6-year-old child is showing fear in reaction to a thrown ballSeefeldt speculates that fear of a projectile is learned from earlier failures
14-30
Developmental Sequences for Two-Handed Catching
Arms are directly in front with elbows extended; palms facing upward and inwardArms and hands attempt to secure the ball by holding it against the chest
Stage 1
14-31
Developmental Sequences for Two-Handed Catching
Elbows are slightly flexedArms encircle the ball against the chestArm action initiated before ball contact
Stage 2
14-32
Developmental Sequences for Two-Handed Catching
Substage 1: child uses chest as first contact pointSubstage 2: child attempts to catch ball with hands
Stage 3
14-33
Developmental Sequences for Two-Handed Catching
Child prepares to receive the ball by flexing the elbows and presenting the arms ahead of the frontal planeBall is caught with the hands alone
Stage 4
14-34
Developmental Sequences for Two-Handed Catching
Many children encounter difficulty when they are required to move toward the object
Stage 5
Age at which 60% of boys and girls are able to perform at a specific level
14-35
Developmental Aspects: One-Handed Catching
Little scientific evidence exists regarding a child’s ability to catch with one hand
Boys typically outperform girlsBall location is a factor
Young children can orient hands in all directions for a catch, but lack experience in finger closure
One-handed catching is less successful than two-handed
14-36
Constraints on the Development of Catching
Ball sizeBall and background colorBall velocityTrajectory angelVision and viewing timeInstructionKnowledge and experienceCatching on the runCatching with a glove
14-37
Constraints on the Development of Catching
Ball sizeProduct oriented evaluation: Larger balls improve young children’s catching performanceProcess oriented evaluation: Smaller balls are more conducive to successful catching (Isaacs, 1980)
More mature catch
14-38
Constraints on the Development of Catching
Rating Maturation Level
0 Initial body contact; subject makes no attempt to catch ball
1 Arm and/or body contact, miss: Initial attempt to contact is made on the arms and/or body, and the ball is missed
2 Arm and/or body contact, save: Initial contact is on the arms and/or body, and the ball is retained
3 Hand contact, miss: Initial contact is made by the hands, but the ball is then dropped immediately or dropped following arm or body contact
4 Hand contact, assisted catch: Initial contact is made by the hands. The ball is juggled but retained by using arms and/or body for assistance
5 Hand contact, clean catch: The ball is contacted and retained by the hands only. The ball may be brought into the body on the follow-through after control is gained by the hands
14-39
Constraints on the Development of Catching
Ball and background colorBlue and yellow balls are caught successfully more often then white ballsBlue balls against white background elicit the highest successFor both boys and girls, using preferred color of ball results in greater catching success
14-40
Constraints on the Development of Catching
Ball velocityImportant in predicting direction of projectileCatching performance decreases as ball velocity increases (25 ft/s to 33 ft/s)
14-41
Constraints on the Development of Catching
Trajectory angleAngle of projection does not significantly affect a child's catching abilityOn average, 440 projection angle elicits success in catchingUnskilled children are more successful when ball is projected at 340 angle
14-42
Constraints on the Development of Catching
Vision and viewing timeA slowly moving ball through space is preferred when working with inexperienced catchers
Beach ballWhiffle ballSponge ball
14-43
Constraints on the Development of Catching
InstructionOnly one study has examined catching instruction on one-handed catching8-year-old child trained over 7 days
Catching ability improved to the level of a child 2 years older
14-44
Constraints on the Development of Catching
Knowledge and experienceKnowledge of catching can influence performanceProcedural knowledge is higher in nondisabled children; higher in ambulatory disabled vs. nonambulatory disabled peersDeclarative knowledge does not differ significantly among the various groups
14-45
Constraints on the Development of Catching
Knowledge and experience“…declarative and procedural knowledge do not develop at the same rate and that catching experience may foster the acquisition of procedural knowledge, even though a deficit in declarative knowledge may be evident.”
14-46
Constraints on the Development of Catching
Catching on the runSince it is easier to catch a ball directed toward the child, teachers/coaches should use caution when paring up inexperienced and experienced catchers
14-47
Constraints on the Development of Catching
Catching with a gloveA glove can alter the nature of errors typically observed in bare-handed catchingGlove catching is easier as ball moves toward a larger target and is caught over a larger surface areaHand strength is important
To squeeze glove
14-48
Striking A fundamental movement in which a designated body part or some implement is used to project an object
Bare hand against volleyballBaseball ballTennis racquet
14-49
Developmental Aspects of One- and Two-Handed Striking
The initial patterns in striking are similar to those observed in throwingForward step is likely to be with homolateral legLater, child will step forward with contralateral leg
14-50
14-51
Developmental Aspects of One- and Two-Handed Striking
Motion is posterior-anterior in directionElbows are fully flexedFeet remain stationary
Stage 1
14-52
Developmental Aspects of One- and Two-Handed Striking
Feet are stationary or right or left foot may receive the weightUnitary rotation of hip and trunkBat moves in transverse plane
Stage 2
14-53
Developmental Aspects of One- and Two-Handed Striking
Shift of weight to the front-supporting foot in an ipsilateral patternTrunk rotation-derotation decreasedBat is swung in an oblique-vertical plane
Stage 3
14-54
Developmental Aspects of One -and Two-Handed Striking
Mature striking pattern
Stage 4
Age at which 60% of boys and girls are able to perform at a specific level
14-55
Stationary Ball BouncingAt advanced levels, a person bounces or dribbles a ball using the hand to push the ball repeatedly downwardInexperienced performers use one or two hands to strike the ballStriking is one of the developmental stages of dribbling
14-56
Stationary Ball BouncingThe inexperienced dribbler slaps at the ball
14-57
Stationary Ball BouncingThe mature dribbler fully extends the armRetracts the arm when contact is madeHand maintains contact with the ball
14-58
Kicking Another form of strikingThe foot is used to give impetus to the ballPlace kicking involves kicking a ball from the ground or a tee
14-59
KickingPerformer is usually near the ballThigh of kicking leg moves forwardKnee extension occurs after contact
Stage 1
14-60
KickingHyperextension at hip and flexion at kneeKicking leg moves forward with knee flexedArm-leg opposition occurs during kickForce of kick usually not sufficient to move the body forward
Stage 2
14-61
KickingOne or more steps taken on approachKicking foot stays nears surface as it approaches ballKnee begins to extend prior to contactArm-leg opposition
Stage 3
14-62
KickingMature kicking pattern
Stage 4
Age at which 60% of boys and girls are able to perform at a specific level
14-63
PuntingPunting involves striking an airborne ball with the foot
14-64
PuntingBall may be held in both hands as the punting foot lifts forward and upward to push the ballBall may be tossed up; ball may be bouncedFlexion at the hip and knee from stationary start
Stage 1
14-65
PuntingStationary startBall held in both hands and dropped or tossed forwardNonsupport leg is flexedKicking force is more upward
Stage 2
14-66
PuntingForward motion Ball released forward and downward directionKnee flexed at 900
Follow-through will carry punter forward
Stage 3
14-67
PuntingRapid approach with culminating leapBall contacted at or below knee heightMomentum of swinging leg carries the punter off the ground
Stage 4
14-68
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