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From Fantasy to Action
Gabriele OettingenNew York University/University of
Hamburg
Positive Thinking is Positive: Self-Help Literature
Norman Vincent Peale The Power of Positive Thinking (1985-1994)
Napoleon Hill Success of Positive Thinking (2005)
Mathias Matuschka The Happy-End Universe (2004)
Annemarie Trixner (2003) Be Happy, You will Succeed!
Expectation versus Fantasy
Mental Contrasting of Fantasy and Reality
Intervention and Individual Differences
Overview
Overview
Positive Thinking:
Expectations versus Fantasies
Expectations versus Fantasies
Expectations: Probability judgments
Fantasies: Free thoughts
James, 1890, p. 283
Everyone knows the difference
between imagining a thing and
believing in its existence,
between supposing a proposition
and acquiescing in its truth.
Positive Expectations
… reflect past success
… signal that acting is worthwhile and necessary
… predict more motivation
Positive Fantasies
… independent of past success
… fail to signal that action is worthwhile and necessary
… predict less motivation
Entering Professional Life
How probable do you think it is
that you’ll find an adequate
position in your field?
not at allprobable
very probable
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
After my graduation a member of the research group is leaving, the vacant position gets advertised, and I succeed to take over the position due to my achievements in the past and my ability to fit in.
Work in a biochemical laboratory
.0
-.10
-.20
-.30
-.40
-.50
.10
.20
.30
.40
.50
Par
tial
Cor
rela
tion
Coe
ffic
ient
Entering Professional Life as Predicted by Expectation and Fantasy
.41 .33
-.04
-.40-.29-.39
Number of Job Offers
Amount of Salary
Number of Applications
p < .001
p < . 05
p < .01
p < .05
p < .01
Expectation
FantasyOettingen & Mayer (2002, Study 1). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1198-1212.
Recovery from Hip Replacement Surgery
How likely do you think it is, that 2 weeks after surgery you will be able to go for a brief walk using an assistive cane?
How likely do you think it is, that 2 weeks after surgery you will be walking on stairs up and down with the help of an assistive cane?
not at all likely very likely
1 2 3 4 5
not at all likely very likely
1 2 3 4 5
At the end of your hospital stay you want to buy a newspaper in the hospital shop ...
I am walking on the stair-ways downwards without help, and I walk easily and quickly to the newspaper stand.How positive were these thoughts or images?
not at all positive
very positive
How negative were these thoughts or images?
1 2 3 4 5
not at all negative
very negative
1 2 3 4 5
At the end of your hospital stay you want to buy a newspaper in the hospital shop ...
I am trying to walk to the door first, using my cane. But how shall I open the door? Uh, and then walking until the elevator? How would I ever do it? How positive were this thoughts or images?
not at all positive
very positive
How negative were this thoughts or images?1 2 3 4 5
not at all negative
very negative
1 2 3 4 5
Negative Fantasy (Recovery)
.0
-.10
-.20
-.30
-.40
-.50
.10
.20
.30
.40
.50
Recovery from Hip Replacement Surgery as Predicted by Expectation and Fantasy
.27 .37 .30
-.31-.36-.43
p < .05
p < . 01p < .05
p < .05p < .01
p < .001
Oettingen & Mayer (2002, Study 4). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1198-1212.
Hip Joint Motion
Walking on Stairs
General Recovery
Par
tial
Cor
rela
tion
Coe
ffic
ien
t
Expectation
Fantasy
Supportive Evidence
Academic/vocational:
Health:
Interpersonal relations:
Finding a romantic partner
Obesity
Academic achievement
Professional achievement
Chronic disease: Asthma, Colitis, CancerHip replacement surgery
Age groups
Domains
Cultures
Measures of Fantasy
Measures of Motivation & Success
Findings are Replicated Across Different
Turning Fantasies into Goals:
Mentally Contrasting Fantasies
with Reality
Negative Reality
Mental Contrasting
Mental Contrasting
Positive Future
Expectations are Activated
Strong Goal Setting
No Goal Setting
Oettingen (2000). Social Cognition, 18, 101-129.
Indulging
Indulging
Positive Future
Expectations are not
Activated
ModerateGoal
Setting
Oettingen (2000). Social Cognition, 18, 101-129.
Dwelling
DwellingExpectations
are not Activated
ModerateGoal
SettingNegative Reality
Oettingen (2000). Social Cognition, 18, 101-129.
Typical Experiment
Independent Variables
• Measure: Expectations
• Manipulate: Goal-setting strategies
Dependent Variables
• Goal commitment and achievement
Exemplary Experiment: Interpersonal Concern
Interpersonal Concern
improve relationship to partner get to know better someone I like get along with my mother
How likely do you think it is that
the named problem will have a
happy ending?
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Aspects of Positive Future
not being lonely anymore feelings of being loved feelings of being needed
Aspects of Negative Reality
feelings of insecurity feelings of unattractiveness being too emotional
Inducing the Three Self-Regulation Strategies
of Goal-Setting
Mental Contrasting
Write down on the line below the second positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.
feelings of being lovedNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Positive Future
Mental Contrasting
Write down on the line below the second negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .
feelings of unattractivenessNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Positive Future
Negative Reality
Mental Contrasting
Write down on the line below the first positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.
not being lonely anymoreNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Positive Future
Negative Reality
Positive Future
Mental Contrasting
Write down on the line below the first negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .
feelings of insecurityNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Negative Reality
Positive Future
Negative Reality
Positive Future
Indulging
Write down on the line below the fourth positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.
being well-balancedNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Positive Future
Indulging
Write down on the line below the third positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.
feelings of being neededNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Positive Future
Positive Future
Indulging
Write down on the line below the second positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.
feelings of being lovedNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Positive Future
Positive Future
Positive Future
Indulging
Write down on the line below the first positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.
not being lonely anymoreNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Positive Future
Positive Future
Positive Future
Positive Future
Dwelling
Write down on the line below the fourth negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .
being too funkyNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Negative Reality
Dwelling
Write down on the line below the third negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .
being too emotionalNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Negative Reality
Negative Reality
Dwelling
Write down on the line below the second negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .
feelings of unattractivenessNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Negative Reality
Negative Reality
Negative Reality
Dwelling
Write down on the line below the first negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .
feelings of insecurityNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Negative Reality
Negative Reality
Negative Reality
Negative Reality
Reverse Contrasting
Write down on the line below the second negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .
feelings of unattractivenessNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Negative Reality
Reverse Contrasting
Write down on the line below the second positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.
feelings of being lovedNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Positive Future
Negative Reality
Reverse Contrasting
Write down on the line below the first negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .
feelings of insecurityNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Positive Future
Negative Reality
Negative Reality
Reverse Contrasting
Write down on the line below the first positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.
not being lonely anymoreNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.
Positive Future
Negative Reality
Positive Future
Negative Reality
Interpersonal ConcernFeeling Energized
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Oettingen, Pak & Schnetter (2001, Study 3). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736-753.
Low Expectation
High Expectation
Control group
Mental contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Dwelling on negative reality
18
15
12
9
6
3
0
Oettingen, Pak & Schnetter (2001, Study 3). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736-753.
Interpersonal ConcernImmediacy of Action
Low Expectation
High Expectation
Control group
Mental contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Dwelling on negative reality
Exemplary Experiment: Improving in Mathematics
How likely do you think it is
that you will improve in
mathematics?
1 2 3 4 5
very unlikely
very likely
Aspects of Positive Future
passing final exams feelings of pride being qualified for the job
Aspects of Negative Reality
being lazy being absent-minded distraction by other students
MathematicsFeeling Energized
Low Expectation
High Expectation
2
1
3
4
5
Oettingen, Pak, & Schnetter (2001, Study 4). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736-753.
Mental contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Dwelling on negative reality
2
1
3
4
5
MathematicsEffort
Oettingen, Pak, & Schnetter (2001, Study 4). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736-753.
Low Expectation
High Expectation
Mental contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Dwelling on negative reality
MathematicsAchievement (Course Grades)
5
4
3
6
1
2
Oettingen, Pak, & Schnetter (2001, Study 4). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736-753.
Low Expectation
High Expectation
Mental contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Dwelling on negative reality
Supportive Evidence
Academic/vocational:
Health:
Interpersonal relations:
Problem solving
Cigarette reduction
Vocational training Combining work and family lifeStudying abroad
Learning a foreign language
Impression formationMathematics
Social responsibility
Help seeking
Professional relations
Cultures
Time Spans
Settings
Paradigms
Measures of Goal Commitment
Findings are Replicated Across
Dealing with Negative Feedback: Recall of Information
on Relevant Shortcomings
warm cold
fragile strong
passive active
dependent independent
jealous faithful
impatient patient
1. Please estimate the characteristics of this woman by circling the appropriate number.
Please look at this picture for a minute.Then answer – without much thought – the following question.
4. What will this person do in the next five minutes? Please jot down what came to your mind when you were looking at the picture.
Please look at this picture for a minute.Then answer – without much thought – the following question.
Negative Feedback
in challenging situations you are tense.
when interacting with other people you are reserved.
in stressful situations you react impulsively.
Negative Feedback
(Cued-recall)
6. others think you are a … person.
5. in stressful situations you react … impulsively
4. when interacting with other people you are ... reserved
3. in challenging situations you are ... tense
2. towards others you behave ...
1. in interpersonal interactions you are …
Cued-recall
Recall of Negative Feedback
Low Expectation
HighExpectation
1 -
2 -
0 -
3 -
Mental Contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Dwelling on negative reality
Pak & Oettingen (2007).
Dealing with Negative Feedback: Sustaining a Sense of Competence
Regarding your Social CompetenceSocial Competence your test result was
1818 points (0 = lowest to 60 = highest)
Your test result as compared to the female population (age from 20 to 35 years) is at a
very lowvery low level. Persons with comparable results usually have
conflictualconflictual and disharmoniousdisharmonious interpersonal relationships.
Your result:0: very bad
10: very good
persuasive power
communication
cooperation
openness
self confidence
problem solving
33
22
33
44
33
33
Your result comprises points achieved on the items below, measuring your social competence.
How would you estimate your
social competence?
very low very high
How would you estimate your
interpersonal intelligence?
Please list a number from 0 to 100
Subjective CompetenceChange After Negative Feedback
-1 -
1 -
0 -
Low Expectation
HighExpectation
Mental Contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Dwelling on negative reality
Pak & Oettingen (2007).
Dealing with Negative Feedback: Optimistic Attributions
Optimistic Attributions after Negative Feedback
Please rate the cause along the following dimensions.
permanent
What is the major cause of your performance in the test?
the unusual context
something about me
something about many or all situations
transient
something about other people or events
something about this particular situation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The cause is …
Dickhäuser & Stiensmeier-Pelster, 2000, adjusted from Peterson et al., 1982
Optimistic Attributions after Negative Feedback
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Low Expectation
High Expectation
Mental Contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Pak & Oettingen (2007).
Procedural Transfer: Performance on RAVEN Test
1
3
5
7
9
Procedural Transfer Number of Solved Raven Items
Low Expectation
High Expectation
Mental Contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Dwelling on negative reality
2
4
6
8
Coping with Chronic Stress:Improving Communication
with Patients’ Relatives
How confident are you, that you can
improve your relationship with
patients’ relatives?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
not at allconfident
very confident
Aspects of Positive Future
contentment affection evenness of temper
Aspects of Impeding Reality
lack of time too many patients impatience
Coping with Chronic StressEffort to Improve Communication
1
2
3
5
6
7
4
0
Low Expectation
High Expectation
Mental contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Dwelling on negative reality
Oettingen, Mayer, Schmidt, & Brinkmann (2007, Study 2).
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Coping with Chronic StressRemedial Action to Improve Communication
Low Expectation
High Expectation
Mental contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Dwelling on negative reality
Oettingen, Mayer, Schmidt, & Brinkmann (2007, Study 2).
Coping with Acute Stress:Giving a Talk in Front of an
Evaluative Audience
How well would you like to do in
your talk?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
sufficient excellent
How confident is it that you achieve
your desired level of performance
as indicated in question # 1?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
veryunlikely
very likely
Aspects of Positive Future
Aspects of positive future
(
Giving a Talk in Front of an Evaluative Audience)
good for my self esteem overcoming my shyness
good exercise
Aspects of Impeding Reality
not being prepared to be dressed unsuitable
that stupid camera
Performance (
Giving a Talk in Front of an Evaluative Audience
)
Mental contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Low Expectation
High Expectation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Coping with an Acute StressorPerformance
Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 1).
Mental contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Low Expectation
High Expectation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Coping with an Acute StressorSelf-Evaluation
Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 1).
Coping with an Acute StressorFeeling Energized
Effort (
Giving a Talk in Front of an Evaluative Audience
)
Low Expectation
High Expectation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Mental contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 1).
Mediating Processes of Mental Contrasting: Feeling Energized
(
Expectation .42**
.24
.50*** .34*
* p < .05, ** p < .01 , *** p < .01
Performance
Feeling Energized
Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 1).
Energization as a Mediator: Performance
Sobel-Test: z = 2.05*
Expectation .69***
.50***
.50*** .38***
Feeling Energized
Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Studie 1).
Sobel-Test: z = 2.84**
Self-Evaluation
* p < .05, ** p < .01 , *** p < .01
Energization as a Mediator: Self-Evaluation
Mediating Processes of Mental Contrasting :
Systolic Blood Pressure Change
Time Table (Mental Contrasting)
Measure ofSBP
Start of the Experiment
Positive Future
Positive Future
1. Aspect 3. Aspect
Negative Reality
2. Aspect
Negative Reality
4. Aspect
Time Table (Indulging)
Measure ofSBP
Start of the Experiment
Positive Future
Positive Future
1. Aspect 3. Aspect2. Aspect 4. Aspect
Positive Future
Positive Future
BSP Change (in mmHG)
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
Low Expectation
High Expectation Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, &
Hagenah (2007, Study 2).
Mental contrasting
Indulging in positive future
BSP Change as a Mediator: Goal Commitment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 2).
Mediation by BSP Change:
Sobel-Test: z = 1.76 (p < .10)
Low Expectation
High Expectation
Mental contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Mediating Processes of Mental Contrasting : If-Then Plans
Number of If-Then Plans
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Mental contrasting
Dwelling on negative reality
Control group
Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 3).
Low Expectation
High Expectation
Number of If-Then Plans as a Mediator: Goal Commitment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Mental Contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Dwelling on negative reality
Control group
Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 3).
Mediation by If-Then Plans:
Sobel-Test: z = 1.73 (p < .10)
Low Expectation
High Expectation
Mental Contrasting of Negative
Future with Positive Reality and Prevention Goals:
Smoking Cessation
How likely do you think it is that
you will reduce your cigarette
consumption or that you will stop
smoking?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
not at all likely
very likely
Aspects of Negative Future
cancer bad model for children lifelong addiction
Aspects of Positive Reality
healthy lungs pretty skin physical endurance
Mental Contrasting of Negative Fantasy
Negative Future
Positive Reality
Negative Future
Positive Reality
Indulging in Negative Fantasy
Negative Future
Negative Future
Negative Future
Negative Future
Dwelling on Positive Reality
Positive Reality
Positive Reality
Positive Reality
Positive Reality
Smoking CessationImmediacy of Action
Low Expectation
High Expectation Oettingen, Mayer & Thorpe (2007).
18
16
14
12
8
6
4
10 Mental contrasting
Indulging in negative future
Dwelling on positive reality
Translational Research
Interventions
Development
Mental States
Interventions: Success in Everyday Life
Indulging in positive fantasies
Mental contrasting
Interventions:Mental Contrasting as Meta-Cognitive Strategy
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Time Management
Ease of Deciding
Project Completion
Project Relinquishment
Oettingen, Mayer, Schmidt, & Brinkmann (2007, Study 3).
Interventions: Enhancing Health Behaviors
Lifestyle Intervention by Self-Regulation of Action (LISA)
Intervention group: Information + MCII(Mental contrasting/Implementation Intentions)
Control group: Information
Time Table
52 3 41
Diary
Time after the intervention
Intervention
Control group: Information
MCII-group: Information + MCII
1 week 1 month 2 months 4 months
My sport concern: exercycling in the evening
The very best: feeling balanced
Hindrance: tiredness, bad mood
Key: Overcome/Prevent/Seize Oportunity
If I come home at 7 pm , then I take my i-pod and situation (when and where) behavior
exercycle
My nutrition concern: eat today 2 portions of fruits and 3 portions of vegetables
The very best: well-being
Hindrance: no fruits and vegetable at home
Key: Overcome/Prevent/Seize Opportunity
If I leave for the office at 8 am , then I pick up fruits and
vegetables on the way
situation (when and where) behavior
Ihr erster Tag Wochentag: Datum: 0 3
Bewegung Ernährung Genussmittel
Uhr-zeit
Ausdauer-training
Anderer Sport
Bewegung im Alltag
Obst & Gemüse
Süßes Fett-armes
Fettes Alkohol Rauchen
6 7 8 9
10 11
6-12 Uhr
__ __ Anzahl
gerauchte Zigaretten
12 13 14 15 16 17
12-18 Uhr
__ __ Anzahl
gerauchte Zigaretten
18 19 20 21 22 23
24-6
18-6 Uhr
__ __ Anzahl
gerauchte Zigaretten
Diary (LISA)
Exercise Diet Substitutes
aerobicexercise
otherexercise
dailyexercise
time fruits &vegetables
sweets lowfat
highfat
alcohol smoking
weekday: date:
numberof smokedcigarettes
numberof smokedcigarettes
6-12 am
12-6 pm
6-12 pm
0
30
60
90
120
Min
utes
per
Wee
k
Stadler, Oettingen, & Gollwitzer (2005).
Enhancing Health BehaviorExercise
Intervention
F(1,214) = 9.65, p .01
15
45
75
105
Intervention group
Control group
1 week 1 month 2 months 4 months
Intervention group
Control group
-1.0
-0.5
0
0.5
1.0
Ser
v ing
s p e
r W
eek
(mea
n z-
scor
es)
Stadler, Oettingen, & Gollwitzer (2005).
Enhancing Health BehaviorHealthy Nutrition
1 week 1 month 2 months 4 months
Intervention
F(1,224) = 5.13, p .05
Mental Contrasting as
Intervention:
Improving Self-Discipline
and Self-Esteem
Time Table
Intervention
Control group: Description of a picture
MCII group : MCII (mentally and in writing)
1 weeklater
day 1 day 2 day 3 day 4 day 5 day 6 day 7
MCII-Intervention
A todays pressing concern : clearing up my desk
The very best: relief
Hindrance: I‘m not in mood for it
If
start sorting my documents.
Situation Handlung
, then I immediately
I‘m not in mood for clearing my desk this evening
time management (“I kept my appointments easily”)
project completion (“How many projects did you complete?”)
feeling on top of things (“How often did you feel in control?”)
Self-Dicipline
Self-Esteem
“I have high self-esteem”
Robins, Hendin, & Trzesniewski (2001).
never very often
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
not very true of me very true of me
Improving Self-Discipline
37
39
41
43
Self
-Dis
cipl
ine
Baseline After one week35
MCII group
Control group
M = 36.4
M = 38.2
M = 42.0
M = 37.2
Oettingen, Barry, Guttenberg, & Gollwitzer (2007).
Improving Self-Esteem
4.5
5
Self
-Est
eem
Baseline After one week4
MCII group
Control group
M = 4.25
M = 4.5
M = 4.75
M = 4.45
Oettingen, Barry, Guttenberg, & Gollwitzer (2007).
Mental Contrasting as Intervention:
Preparation for an Exam
Time Table
May
July October
Distribution of the workbooks
Collection of the workbooks
Intervention
Control group: Writing an essay
MCII group : MCII (mentally and in writing)
Preparation for an ExamNumber of Test Questions Completed
125
150
175
200
225
Num
ber
of t e
st q
uest
ions
MCII group Control group
Duckworth, Grant, Loew, Oettingen, & Gollwitzer (2007).
Mental Contrasting as
Intervention:
Chronic Back Pain Patients
0
25
35
45
Num
ber
of a
chi e
ved
lif t
s in
2 m
i nut
es
Schramm, Oettingen, Dahme & Klinger (2007).
Physical Capacity of Chronic Back Pain Patients
3 weekslater
3 months later
Intervention
20
30
40
50
MCII group
Control group
100
120
140
Erg
o m
eter
test
(m
axim
al a
chi e
ved
wat
tage
)
Schramm, Oettingen, Dahme & Klinger (2007).
3 weeks later
3 months later
Intervention
110
130
150
MCII group
Control group
Physical Capacity of Chronic Back Pain Patients
Meta-cognitive strategies
Cost effective in teaching + application
Across domains
Across samples
Strengths of the MCII Intervention
Development
Measuring Spontaneous Use of Mental Contrasting
Please write down one of your named aspects. Think about this aspect and depict the respective events or experiences in your thoughts as intensively as possible. Choose the aspect that first comes into your mind.
Elaboration (Interindividual Differences)
Frequency of the Spontaneous Use of Mental Contrasting
Mental Contrasting (N = 55) was chosen more frequently than
Indulging (N = 34),
Reverse Contrasting (N = 30),
Dwelling (N = 21),
χ²(3, N = 140) = 17.77, p < .001
Spontaneous use of Mental Contrasting and Goal Commitment (Anticipated Dissappointment)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Low Expectation
High Expectation
Mental contrasting
Indulging in positive future
Dwelling on negative reality
Reverse contrasting
Oettingen & Mayer (2007, Study 1).
Contextual Influences
You Take A Tour Through a Coal Mine...
…suddenly a deafening sound erupts around you… You find yourself standing in total darkness, enveloped in dust. …You realize you are trapped…
Two Conditions (Contextual Influences)
Priming: Ideal Course
Priming: Obstacle
Priming: Ideal Course
Your flashlight starts to flicker. You screw the cap on tighter and the flashlight stays lit.
Priming: Obstacle
Your flashlight starts to flicker. You screw the cap on tighter, but the flashlight goes out.
Contextual Influences of Mental Contrasting
10
20
30
40
Num
ber
of p
art i
cipa
nts
Priming: Obstacle Priming: Ideal Course0
Oettingen & Mayer (2007, Study 2).
Mental contrasting
Indulging in positive future
N = 26
N = 18N = 16
N = 25
χ²(1, N = 85) = 3.74, p < .09
Socialization: School Children
Design
Spontaneous mental contrasting
Self-assessment
Assessment of the child
Children
Mothers
A major goal I have in my courses is to perform really well.
In school I am focused on demonstrating my intellectual ability.
Children
Mothers
A major goal my son/daughter has in his or her courses is to perform really well.
In school my son/daughter is focused on demonstrating his or her intellectual ability.
Grant & Dweck (2003).
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
School children‘s achievement goal orientation
Mental Contrasting
No Mental Contrasting
Mot
her
s‘ e
stim
atio
n o
f s
tud
ents
‘ ac
hie
vem
ent
goal
ori
enta
tion
1 72 3 4 5 6Oettingen & Mayer (2007, Study 3).
School Children:
Socialization Influences: Match in Goal Orientation
1 2 3 4 5 6
2
3
4
1
6
5
Oettingen & Mayer (2007, Study 3).
Mot
her
s‘ e
stim
atio
n o
f s
tud
ents
‘ la
st y
ears
gra
des
School children‘s estimation of their ownlast year`s grades
Mental Contrasting
No Mental Contrasting
School children:
Socialization Influences: Match in Grades
Socialization and Mental Contrasting: Students
Responsive Parenting
Achievement (GPA)
Mental Contrasting
.45**
.39*
.35* .32*
* p < .05, ** p < .01 Grant, Oettingen, & Gollwitzer (2005, Study 3).
Socialization Influences of Mental Contrasting: Students
Mental States and Mental Contrasting: Alcohol
t (58) = 2.48, p < .05
Alcohol and Mental Contrasting
0
5
10
15
20
25
Tim
e (s
ec)
Sevincer & Oettingen (2005).
Alcohol
Placebo
Conclusion
Positive fantasies
Mental contrasting
Interventions
One needs serenity to accept the things one cannot change, courage
to change the things one can change, and wisdom to know the
difference.
Thank you to:
Christina BardongHeather BarryBabette BrinkmannAngela DuckworthHeidi GrantKatie GuttenbergMeike Hagenah Hanna JanetzkeAylin LenbetSolvig Lorenz
Annette LosertDoris MayerHyeon-ju PakKaroline SchnetterChristiane SchreiberTimur SevincerGertraud Stadler
The research was supported by:
Karl Heinz Ditze- Stiftung
Karl Heinz Ditze- Stiftung
From Fantasy to Action
Gabriele OettingenNew York University/University of
Hamburg
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