Evolving directions in language learning strategies: The...

Evolving directions in language learning

strategies: The interplay between self-regulation and learner strategies in teaching

and research

Heath Rose

Department of Education The University of Oxford

Contentoftoday’stalk

Evolvingmodels

Evolvingdefinitions

Evolvingresearch

Futureevolution

Drawingonthreeprojects

Astudyofkanjilearning(Rose2013;Rose&Harbon2013,

Rose,2017)

Astudyonevolvingdefinitions

(Thomas&Rose,2019;Thomaset

al.2019)

Papersonresearchimpactofself-regulation(Rose2012,Roseetal.,2018)

EVOLVINGMODELSOFSTRATEGIES:FROM‘THEGOODLANGUAGELEARNER’TOTHE‘SELF-REGULATEDLEARNER’

PartOne

LLSasanindividualdifference

Acommonobservationisthatnotonlyaresomelanguagelearnersmoresuccessfulthanothers,butalsothatgoodlanguagelearnerssometimesdodifferentthingsthanpoorerlanguagelearners.Thetermcommonlyusedinsecondlanguageacquisitionliteraturetorefertowhatlearnersdothatunderliesthesedifferencesislearningstrategies.(GassandSelinker2009:439)

SeminalresearchbyJoanRubin

Thedifferentialsuccessofsecond/foreignlanguagelearnerssuggestsaneedtoexamineindetailwhatstrategiessuccessfullanguagelearnersemploy.Inadditiontotheneedofresearchonthistopic,itissuggestedthatteacherscanalreadybegintohelptheirlesssuccessfulstudentstoimprovetheirperformancebypayingmoreattentiontolearnerstrategiesalreadyseenasproductive(Rubin,1975:41).

Earlywork•  AfterRubin’s(1975)examinationoflearningstrategies,researchbegantoinvestigateawiderangeofdifferentstrategiesfordifferentaspectsoflanguagelearning,suchasoverallstrategies,vocabularylearningstrategies,cognitivestrategiesandsocialstrategies(see,forexample,Bialystok,1979;Hosenfeld,1976;Naimanetal.,1975;Selinger,1977).

•  ThisworkleadtothedevelopmentofthefirsttaxonomyoflanguagelearningstrategiesbyRubin(1981).

•  GrenfellandMacaro(2007:11)havesinceobservedRubin’staxonomywasalistof“whatmightbetermedacademicorstudyskills.”

Firsttheory-driventaxonomy?

•  Researchcontinuedintothe1980s,withparticularemphasisoncognitivestrategiesforESLlearning(seeChamot&Kupper,1989;Chamot&O'Malley,1987;O'Malley,etal.,1985)

•  ThisledtotheO’MalleyandChamot(1990)classificationoflanguagelearningstrategies,whichwasunderpinnedbyAnderson’sworkincognitivepsychology.

O’Malley&Chamot(1990)

Metacognitivestrategies,whichinvolvedthinkingabout(or

knowledgeof)thelearningprocess,planningforlearning,monitoringlearningwhileitistakingplace,orself-evaluationoflearningafterthe

taskhadbeencompleted.

Cognitivestrategies,whichinvokedmentalmanipulationor

transformationofmaterialsortasks,intendedtoenhance

comprehension,acquisition,orretention.

Social/affectivestrategies,whichconsistedofusingsocial

interactionstoassistinthecomprehension,learningorretentionofinformation.

“Affectivestrategiesareoflessinterestinananalysissuchasourswhichattemptstoportraystrategiesinacognitivetheory.

Forthepurposesofdiscussion,however,wepresentaclassificationschemethatincludesthefullrangeofstrategiesidentifiedintheliterature”(O’Malley&Chamot,1990:44)

RebeccaOxford(1989-2001)

Cognitive Mnemonic Metacognitive

Compensatory Affective Social

Thistaxonomyreignssupreme

•  Itcreatedanexplosioninthenumberofpublishedpapersonstrategyresearch

•  Itisstillbyfarthemostwidelyusedframeworkinstrategyresearch,despiteOxford’sowntheoreticalupdatesin2011(Roseetal.,2018)

•  Ithassomewhatovershadowedthemanymodelsdevelopedforskill-specificlanguagelearning:reading,listening,vocabularylearning,kanjilearning,etc

Criticalperspectivesontheory1.  Theconceptualizationoflearningstrategiesis‘rather

inconsistentandelusive’(Dörnyei&Skehan2003,p.608)2.  The‘termhasbeenusedinfartoobroadasense,including

anumberofdifferentthingsthatdonotnecessarilybelongtogether’(Dörnyei&Skehan2003,p.610)

3.  Lackofconsenuswhetherlearnerstrategiesconsistofknowledge,intention,action,orallthree(Macaro2006)

4.  Paststudieshaveattemptedtodescribeandquantifystrategiesratherthantoincorporatethemintoamodelofpsycholinguisticprocessing(Ellis1997)

Abandonstrategyresearch?

•  Dörnyeiandhiscollaboratorshavebeenparticularlyvocalthattheconceptofstrategiesbeabandonedinplaceofself-regulation,whichtheyargueisamorestablefield(Dörnyei2005;Dörnyei&Skehan2003;Tsengetal.2006).

•  Self-regulationisarguedtoexamineunderlyingintentionsthatmanifestinstrategyuse,ratherthanexaminingtheactualstrategiesthemselves.

Whatisself-regulation?•  Thestrategiesusedtocontrol(regulate)behaviour–  Theycanhelpinthepursuitofalong-termgoal–  Theycanhelptomonitoryourresponsetoobstacles,andstimuli

– Havebeenusedextensivelyinpsychology(drugaddiction,fitnessetc)

•  Inlanguagelearning:–  Self-regulationisthedegreetowhichlearnersareactiveparticipantsandareproactiveintheirpursuitoflanguagelearning(Dörnyei,2005).

Delayofgratification

•  Theabilitytoforegoimmediategratificationforalarger,moreimportantfuturegoal.

DelayofGratification:TheStandfordMarshmellowExperiments(Mischel)

DelayofGratification

Whenchildrenweretrackedlaterinlife,•  Thosewhocoulddelaygratification:

– HadhigherverbalandmathSATscores– Werebetterabletoconcentrate– Werebetterabletocopewithfrustrationandstress

– Hadgreatercognitiveandsocialcompetenceratings

Self-regulationinlanguagelearning

•  Self-regulationinlanguagelearningreferstotheprocessesthelearnerusestoexercisecontroloverlearning

•  Dörnyei(2005)positsthatself-regulationis“amultidimensionalconstruct,includingcognitive,metacognitive,motivational,behavioral,andenvironmentalprocessesthatlearnerscanapplytoenhanceacademicachievement”indifferentlearningcontexts(p.101).

Self-regulation(Dornyei2005:113)

•  Commitmentcontrolstrategiesforhelpingpreserveorincreaselearner’sgoalcommitment.

•  Metacognitivecontrolstrategiesformonitoringandcontrollingconcentrationandforcurtailingunnecessaryprocrastination.

•  Satiationcontrolstrategiesforeliminatingboredomandaddingextraattractionorinteresttothetask.

•  Emotioncontrolstrategiesformanagingdisruptiveemotionalstatesormoodsandforgeneratingemotionsthatareconducivetoimplementingone’sintentions.

•  Environmentalcontrolstrategiesfortheeliminationofnegativeenvironmentalinfluencesbymakinganenvironmentanallyinthepursuitofadifficultgoal.

CriticismsdonotmeantheendofLLS

•  LLSandself-regulationarelookingattwodifferentpartsofthelearningprocess(Gao,2007)

Twocompatible,notcompeting,paradigms

•  Gao(2006)arguedthatself-regulationislookingattheinitialdrivingforces,whilelearningstrategiesexaminetheoutcomeoftheseforces.– Weinstein,AceeandJung,(2011,p.47)describingself-regulationas“boththeglueandtheenginethathelpsstudentmanagetheirstrategiclearning”

•  Someresearchershaveintegratednotionsofself-regulationintoexistingparadigmsofstrategies(Oxford,2011).

•  Itispossibletolookatalearningtaskthroughbothlenses:thisisdirectionItookin2007

アイルランド共和国（アイルランドきょうわこく、アイルランド語:Éire、英語:Ireland、またはアイルランドは、北大西洋のアイルランド島に存在する立憲共和制国家である。北東に英国北 アイルランドと接する。首都はアイルランド島中東部の都市ダブリン。ナショナルカラーは緑。独立時の経緯によりアイルランド島の北東部北アイルランド六州は英国を構成するが、アイルランド共和国は1998年のベルファスト合意以前は全島の領有権を主張していた。2005年の英エコノミスト誌の調査では最も住みやすい国に選出されている。

Strategiclearningofkanji(Rose,2013;Rose&Harbon,2013)

アイルランド共和国（アイルランドきょうわこく、アイルランド語:Éire、英語:Ireland）、またはアイルランドは、北大西洋のアイルランド島に存在する立憲共和制国家である。北東に英国北 アイルランドと接する。首都はアイルランド島中東部の都市ダブリン。ナショナルカラーは緑。独立時の経緯によりアイルランド島の北東部北アイルランド六州は英国を構成するが、アイルランド共和国は1998年のベルファスト合意以前は全島の領有権を主張していた。2005年の英エコノミスト誌の調査では最も住みやすい国に選出されている。

アイルランド共和国（アイルランドきょうわこく、アイルランド語:Éire、英語:Ireland）、またはアイルランドは、北大西洋のアイルランド島に存在する立憲共和制国家である。北東に英国北 アイルランドと接する。首都はアイルランド島中東部の都市ダブリン。ナショナルカラーは緑。独立時の経緯によりアイルランド島の北東部北アイルランド六州は英国を構成するが、アイルランド共和国は1998年のベルファスト合意以前は全島の領有権を主張していた。2005年の英エコノミスト誌の調査では最も住みやすい国に選出されている。

Literacyforthesecondlanguagelearner

•  Kanjiisamajorobstacleforsecondlanguagelearners(Bourke,1996)

•  ItisthecauseofhighdropoutratesinJapaneselanguagecoursesatuniversities(Kato,2002)

•  IttakesthreetofourtimesaslongtoreachthesamelevelofproficiencyinJapanesethanotherEuropeanlanguagelanguages,partlybecauseofgrammaticaldifferencesinlanguagebutlargelybecauseofkanji.(Everson,2011)

•  Literacymayneverbeachieved(largefluent,butilliterateforeigncommunityinJapan)

Kanji:Fittingasquarepeginaroundhole

e.g.Kanjidonotsuitalanguagewhoseverbsandadjectivesconjugate

木

白

父

穴

語

流

部

青

黒

母

六

言五口

泳河汗池

B

Blue/calm

CognitivestrategiesàEncoding…

Self-regulationinkanjilearning

Breakdown in 

commitment control (Goal setting) 

 Lack of progress toward goals 

leads to negative affect   

Breakdown in  

emotional control (Stress, frustration, self‐criticism) 

Affect leads to re‐assessment 

of believability of goals  

Boredom

 leads to re‐

assessment of 

desirability of goals 

Magn

itude an

d 

length

 of goals leads 

to bored

om 

 Lack of short‐term goals leads 

to procrastination     In

ability to con

trol 

procrastin

ation lead

s 

to negative affect 

Procrastination leads to re‐

assessment of achievability of 

goals 

Breakdown in  

satiation control (Boredom) 

Breakdown in 

metacognitive control (Procrastination) 

Boredom leads to 

procrastination 

Somepracticalimplications

•  Highlightstheimportanceofsettingbelievable,achievable,conceivableanddesirablegoals(McCombsandPope,1994).Teacherscanassistin– settinggoals–  testingpreviousknowledge–  trackingprogress

•  Highlightstheimportanceofself-evaluationandself-efficacybeliefs(Zimmerman,2000).

Sometheoreticalimplications?

Notoneinstanceofenvironmentalcontrolwasreportedinthestudywhereitwasnotbeingusedtoregulateanotherformofmotivationcontrol.Suchresultsindicateenvironmentalcontrolmaynotbeaseparatecategoryofcontrolinitself,butaself-regulatorymechanismorstrategytocontrolotherformsofmotivation.

Dualresearchnottheonlypath:Threecategoriesofresearch(Roseetal.,

2018)

1. Embraceself-regulationtheoryin

research

Utilizetraditionallanguagelearner

strategyconstructswithacknowledgementof

criticisms

Hybridresearchthatexploresboth;orexploresrelationshipsbetweenstrategiesandregulatory

processes

e.g.validationofself-regulation(Mizumoto&

Takeuchi,2012)

e.g.ArdashevaandTretter’s

(2013)adaptationofthe

SILL

e.g.(WritingItems(strategies)withinstructures(the‘glueand

engine’)(Teng&Zhang,2016)

e.g.myownresearch(a2-in-1

approach)

EVOLVINGDEFINITIONS:MOVEMENTSTOWARDSLEARNERAGENCY

PartTwo

Evolvingdefinitions

ThedefinitionoflanguagelearningstrategieshasdevelopedovertheyearssinceRubin’soriginalinvestigationinthefield.•  Rubin(1981:42)defineslanguage-learningstrategiesas“thetechniquesordevicesthatalearnermayusetoacquirelanguage.”

•  Afurtherdefinitionis“thespecialthoughtsorbehaviorsthatindividualsusetohelpthemcomprehend,learn,orretainnewinformation”(O’Malley&Chamot,1990:1).

Awidelyadopteddefinition

Languagelearningstrategiesare“thoughtsandactions,consciouslychosenandoperationalizedbylanguagelearners,toassistthemincarryingoutamultiplicityoftasksfromtheveryonsetoflearningtothemostadvancedlevelsoftarget-languageperformance”Cohen(2012,p.136)

Issues?

•  Thereiscontentionoverdefinitions•  Strategieshavebeendefinedasspecialthoughts,behaviors,techniquesanddevices– Definitionsoflearningstrategiesare‘adhocandatheoretical’(Ellis1994,p.533)

•  Strategieshavebeenperceivedascognitive,metacognitive,psychological,affective,andsocial–  Thereishasbeennocoherentagreementonthedefiningcriteriaforalanguagelearningstrategy,whichisstillthesituationtoday(Tsengetal.2006)

Criticism

Dornyei(2005)notedthat:•  “Intheabsenceofatightdefinition,itisunclearwhatdifferentresearchersmeanbythetermlanguagelearningstrategy(p.188)”

StrivingforConsensus

•  Oxford(2017)conductedacontentanalysisofdefinitionsforlanguagelearningstrategiesandsemanticallyrelatedwords/phrases

•  Thirty-threeexistingdefinitionswerecompiledanalyzed,andcoded

•  Usingthefindings,sheproposedanewdefinition

Oxford(2017)

L2learningstrategiesarecomplex,dynamicthoughtsandactions,selectedandusedbylearnerswithsomedegreeofconsciousnessinspecificcontextsinordertoregulatemultipleaspectsofthemselves(suchascognitive,emotional,andsocial)forthepurposeof(a)accomplishinglanguagetasks;(b)improvinglanguageperformanceoruse;and/or(c)enhancinglong-termproficiency.(p.48)

Oxford(2017)

L2learningstrategiesarecomplex,dynamicthoughtsandactions,selectedandusedbylearnerswithsomedegreeofconsciousnessinspecificcontextsinordertoregulatemultipleaspectsofthemselves(suchascognitive,emotional,andsocial)forthepurposeof(a)accomplishinglanguagetasks;(b)improvinglanguageperformanceoruse;and/or(c)enhancinglong-termproficiency.(p.48)

Tracingthechronologicaltrajectory(earlier)

Earlydefinitionsappearlargelysimplistic.Theyusephrasesthatdonotimplyanintegrationofself-directednesswithlanguagelearningstrategies:•  whichalearnermayuse(Rubin,1975);•  employedbythelanguagelearner(Stern,1983);•  thatalearnerengagesin(Weinstein&Mayer,1986);•  thatstudentstake(Chamot,1987);•  usedbythelearner(Chamot,etal.,1988);•  whichstudentsuse(Chamot&Kiipper,1989);•  whichlearnersuse(Oxford,1989);•  thatindividualsuse(O’Malley&Chamot,1990);and•  usedbylanguagelearners(Okada,Oxford,&Abo,1996)

Tracingthechronologicaltrajectory(later)

Assumedself-directedness(self-regulation,agency,autonomy)•  selectedbythelearner(Cohen,1998);•  selectedbylearners(Gao,2003);•  chosenbylearners(Griffiths,2008;Griffiths&Oxford,2014);•  thatlearnerschoose(Oxford,2011);•  chosenandoperationalizedbylearners(Cohen,2011);•  thatcanbeemployedautonomously(Plonsky,2011);•  chosenbylearnersforthepurposeofregulating(Griffiths,

2013);•  chosenbyalanguagelearner(Gregersen&MacIntyre,2014);•  chosenbylearners(Griffiths,2017);and•  selectedandusedbylearners(Oxford,2017)

ImplicitConceptualizations(Thomasetal,2019)

•  pre-1997vspost-1997(Cohen,1998;theelementofchoice)

•  PREcorpus-13texts(86,432words)•  POSTcorpus-20texts(184,202words)•  TwokeywordlistsofthePREandPOSTcorporaranked

byalog-likelihoodkeynessstatisticweregeneratedbyAntConc(Anthony,2014)

•  ThekeywordlistsextractedimportantconceptswhichweresignificantlymorefrequentinPREcomparedtothePOST,andthePOSTcomparedtothePRE

(Thomas,Rose,Pojanapunya,forthcoming)

EmergentkeywordsinthePREandPOSTcorpusassociatedwithdifferencesinstrategyresearch

KeywordsinthePRE-corpus,comparedtoPOSTcorpus

KeywordsinthePOST-corpus,comparedtoPREcorpus

wordsindicatinggeneralconcernsoflanguagelearning

comprehension,strategies,techniques,inferencing,recall,memory,elaboration,implicit,explicit,solving,monitoring,guessing,notetaking,andinferences

regulation,meta,regulated,autonomy,style,sociocultural,self,metastrategies,independent,identity,styles,behavior,control,regulation,sociocultural,metastrategies

wordsindicatingactors/agentsinlanguagelearning

students,readers,children,teachers,teacher,child

learners

wordsindicatinglearningprocesses/activities

teaching,training,taught,direct,practice,presented,trained,reading,described,identifying,instruction

interaction,interactive

(Thomas,Rose,Pojanapunya,2019)

Whatdoesthismean?

•  Notsurprising•  Agrowinginterestinself-regulatedlearningineducationalpsychologyinthe1990s(e.g.Zimmerman,1990)

•  Criticismsincrease,moreconceptsgetpulledin:– self-regulation,agency,autonomy,self-efficacy,mindsets,resilience,hope,andinternalattributions

Strategiesasdynamic

(Thomas&Rose,2019,p.253)

“Manylearnersdonotindependentlyachieveself-regulation,andthepresenceofothersinmetacognitivedecision-makingappearstobeindispensable.Otherscanbridgetheprocessfromother-regulationtoco-regulationtoself-regulation,andultimatelyL2internalization”(Takeuchi&Ikeda,2018,p.98)

[*concludedfromstudyof132Japaneseuniversityover9weeks]

Sitswellwithlongheldnotionsinstrategyinstruction:ThatisInstructionrequiresguided

practiceandteachersupportbeforestudentscanusestrategiesindependently(seeGunning&Oxford,2014)

Self-RegulationandAutonomy•  MakandWong(2018)•  Qualitativeanalysisofdatacollectedoveroneacademicyear

•  Theeffectofusingportfolioassessmentfornurturingself-regulationdevelopmentamongelementarystudentsinHongKong

•  “[T]heabilitytoself-regulaterequiresscaffolding”(p.12)

•  Learnersmaybeunlikelytocontinuetheirlearning“unlesscareweretakentofacilitatetheinternalizationofregulationthroughsupportofthelearner’sautonomy,competence,andrelatedness”(p.57)

Weneedmoreresearchlikethis–intheclassroom–whichlooksattheabilityof‘others’toscaffoldself-regulatedlearningstrategiestohelp

studentsmovealongthestrategycontinuum

EVOLVINGRESEARCH:ENTERINGANIMPROVEDERAOFSTRATEGYRESEARCH

PartThree

StrategyInventoryforLanguageLearning

•  StrategyInventoryofLanguageLearning(SILL)—aquestionnairethatcouldbeusedbylearnerstomeasuretheirownstrategyuseandtoincreasetheirawarenessoflanguagelearningstrategiesutilizedbyotherlanguagelearners.

•  SILLis“withoutdoubtthemostwidelyusedinstrumentinlanguagelearnerstrategyresearch”(Whiteetal.,2007:95).

Cautionsoverquestionnaires

•  “theactuallanguagelearningstrategymeasurespresentedinthevariousstudiestendnottohavesufficientpsychometricproperties.”–  TheSILLscalesarenotcumulativeandcomputingmeanscoresisnotjustifiablepsychometrically(Dornyei2006).

–  “themorethebetterisnotalwaysthecaseinstrategyuse”(Yamamorietal.,2003)

– Needtodistinguish‘stateaspects’and’trait-aspects’ofstrategiesinquestionnaires(Mizumoto,2018)

Criticism:SILL•  BUT…AsAmerstorfer(2019)contests:“TheSILLhasnot

expiredyet,butperhapsneedsamoderntouch,forinstance,intheformofadaptationorcombinationwithotherresearchmethods”–  SeeArdasheva&Tretter(2013)

•  Mizumoto(2018)agreesthat“state-like”specificbehaviourscanbemeasuredbyquestionnaires,butresearchersneedtobecarefulwhethertotreatthemassingle-itemormulti-itemscales:–  Teachersarestilldrawntomeasuresthatcapturequantityof

strategiesavailabletolearners

Othermeasures•  MotivatedStrategiesforLearningQuestionnaire(MSLQ)

wasdevelopedbyateamofresearchers(Pintrichetal.1991).Usedwidelyineducationalpsychology.

•  LanguageStrategyUseInventory(Cohenetal.2006),sometimesreferredtoastheLanguageStrategyUseSurvey,wasdevelopedtohaveamorepracticalfocus.

•  SurveyofReadingStrategies(SORS)(Mokharti&Sheorey2002):thissurveyisanexampleofanattempttomoveawayfromaone-size-fits-allquestionnaire

•  MetacognitiveAwarenessListeningQuestionnaire(MALQ):specificallymeasuresstrategiesdeployedinlisteningtasks

•  VocabularyLearningQuestionnaire:developedbyGuandJohnson(1996)

Selfregulation&vocabulary(Tseng,Dornyei&Schmitt,2006)

Self-regulation&vocabularylearning•  InstrumentdevelopedbyTsengetal.(2006)

– SRCVoc•  Confirmedinanumberofsubsequentstudiestobearobustinstrument– Mizumoto&Takeuchi(2012)– Ziegler(2015)

Item Learning experience Stronglyagree

Agree Partlyagree

Slightlydisagree

Disagree Stronglydisagree

1. Once the novelty of learning vocabulary is gone,I easily become impatient with it.

œ œ œ œ œ œ

2. When I feel stressed about vocabulary learning,I know how to reduce this stress.

œ œ œ œ œ œ

3. When I am studying vocabulary and the learningenvironment becomes unsuitable, I try to sort outthe problem.

œ œ œ œ œ œ

4. When learning vocabulary, I have special techniquesto achieve my learning goals.

œ œ œ œ œ œ

5. When learning vocabulary, I have special techniquesto keep my concentration focused.

œ œ œ œ œ œ

6. I feel satisfied with the methods I use to reduce thestress of vocabulary learning.

œ œ œ œ œ œ

7. When learning vocabulary, I believe I can achievemy goals more quickly than expected.

œ œ œ œ œ œ

8. During the process of learning vocabulary, I feelsatisfied with the ways I eliminate boredom.

œ œ œ œ œ œ

9. When learning vocabulary, I think my methods ofcontrolling my concentration are effective.

œ œ œ œ œ œ

10. When learning vocabulary, I persist until I reachthe goals that I make for myself.

œ œ œ œ œ œ

11. When it comes to learning vocabulary, I have myspecial techniques to prevent procrastination.

œ œ œ œ œ œ

12. When I feel stressed about vocabulary learning,I simply want to give up.

œ œ œ œ œ œ

13. I believe I can overcome all the difficulties relatedto achieving my vocabulary learning goals.

œ œ œ œ œ œ

98

SELF-R

EGULATIO

NIN

VOCABULARYACQUISITIO

N

at Bodleian Library on December 7, 2015 http://applij.oxfordjournals.org/ Downloaded from

Astate-basedfocusneednotbelostinmulti-itemscales:Forexample,Mizumoto(2018)praisesTsengandSchmitt’s(2008)questionnairewhichexploremasteryinvocabularylearning,shiftingthescaleitemfocusfromquantitytoquality,andusingmultipleitemstoexplore

thesameconstruct…

Istherea‘problem’withquestionnaires??

•  Theremaybealackofreliabilityofstudiesusingquestionnaires,astheyarenotsamplespecific.

•  Aqualitativeapproachisrecommendedtomeasurelanguagelearningstrategiesmorerichly(Woodrow,2005)

Think-alouds

•  Gu(2014,p.74)claimsthatitis‘widelyagreedthatvariousversionsofthinkingaloudarethemostdirectandthereforebesttoolsavailableinexaminingtheon-goingprocessesandintentionsasandwhenlearninghappens’.

•  Hyland(2010,p.197)supportsthisnotioninhisassertionthatthinkaloudtechniqueshavebeenextremelyproductiveintheinvestigationofthewritingstrategiesthatstudentsdeploywhencomposing,planning,andrevisingtexts.

Retrospectiveinterviews

•  Takeuchietal.(2007,p.94)makethefollowingobservation:“Asthefieldmovestowardsadeeperunderstandingofstrategyuseinfluencedbyparticularcultural,contextual,andindividualfactors,retrospectiveinterviewsre-emergeasanimportanttoolprovidingopportunitiesforexplorationandelaborationofaspectsofstrategyuse.”

Stimulatedrecall

•  Tsengetal.(2006),observethatstimulatedrecallisahighlypromisingbutyetunder-utilizeddatacollectiontechnique–  Ihavefoundthat,whenusedeffectively,stimulatedrecalldataaremorerevealingandmorereliablethanotherself-reportinstruments,suchasquestionnairesandinterview

Technologicaladvances•  Eye-trackingisbecomingincreasinglypopularinappliedlinguisticsresearchtoexploretopicsthatweretraditionallydoneviathinkaloudprotocols(ConklinandPellicer-Sánchez,2017):–  Eye-trackingtechnologycanaddnewinsightintostrategicprocesseswhenlearningreading

•  Keystrokelogging“logsandtimestampskeystrokes,pauses,cutting,pasting,anddeletingandmouseactivity,allowingtheresearchertoreconstructtextproductionprocesses”(Hyland,2016:118-119):–  Keystrokeloggingcanaddnewinsightintostrategicbehaviouralpracticeswhenwriting

Systematicreview(Roseetal.,2018)

•  18predominatelyquantitative(11exclusivelyso)–  Ardasheva(2016)usedtests,achievementscores,astrategy,motivationandbackgroundquestionnaire

•  6exclusivelyqualitative–  Lam’s(2015)studyofHongKongeselearnersusedstimulatedrecall,interviews,learnerhistoriesandtextanalysis

•  Questionnairesthemostprevalentdatacollection:–  theSILLin11studies,MSLQin4studies,andSRCVocin3studies

•  Qualitativedataweremorevariedbutoftennotreportedsystematically

FUTUREEVOLUTION:IMPLICATIONSFORTEACHINGANDRESEARCH

PartFour

1.Opportunitiesfortheoreticaldevelopment

•  Veryfewresearchershavelookedatskill-specificself-regulationbeyondvocabularylearning,despiteevidencethatthisisafruitfulendeavor

•  Veryfewresearchershaveexploredself-regulationfromothertheoreticalstandpoints

Ranalli(2012),makesthefollowingassertion:

Source:Dornyei&Ryan,2015

*RuiZhang

2.Resolving(?)definitionalissues

Gu(2012)contends:“Thedefinitionquibbleisgoingbeyondtheadvancementofknowledgeindelineatingconceptualboundaries.”(Gu,2012)•  Likeanyfield,itmaybeuptoresearcherstoadoptdefinitionsthatsuittheirneeds:– SLAresearchersmaypreferSR-likeconstructs– TESOLresearchersmaypreferproduct-likeconstructs

• Wecannotdismisstheimportanceofteachersandstudentsdesireforteachable/learnable‘strategies’

Bringingbackspacefortheclassroom

•  AsaTESOLresearcher,Iprefertokeepmydefinition‘basic’fornowtoallowforbreadthinexplorationsofdynamicchangeinstrategyuse:–  ‘thoughtsandactionsusedbylearnerswithsomedegreeofconsciousnessforpurposesassociatedwithlanguagelearning’(Thomas&Rose2019)

3.Opportunitiesformethodologicalinnovation

•  Ofthe556articlespublishedonLLS,16percentmetrigorousresearchcriteria(HadwinandWinne,1996:711)–  Roseetal.(2018)didn’tlookatallstudies,butexclusionprocesspaintsa

similarpicture–  Needmoresystematicreviewsandmeta-analysestomakestrong

recommendationsofmethodology•  Eye-trackinginstrategyresearchhasnotbeenutilizedasmuchas

inotherareasofSLA•  Westillneedabodyofgoodqualitativeresearch(despitecallsfor

over15yearsforthis)•  Maturationinthefieldofadvancedquantitativedataanalysis

opensupavenuestoexplorestrategiesinrelationtootherkeyconstructsandalsoasadynamicconstructitself(seecallsbyPlonsky;Mizumoto)

Wheretonow?

(1) continuevis-à-vishistoricalmethodsàthisdoesnotharnesstheadvancementsinthefielddrivenbycriticism

(2) abandonlanguagelearnerstrategyresearchinfavourofself-regulationàlossofresearchbase;lossofcognitivestrategies;lossofteachablestrategiesas‘products’

(3) acknowledgeself-regulationwithinconceptualizationsoflanguagelearnerstrategiesre-conceptualizelanguagelearnerstrategy

(4) continuelanguagelearnerstrategyresearchwithsensitivitytocriticisms

Wheretonow?

(1) continuevis-à-vishistoricalmethodsàthisdoesnotharnesstheadvancementsinthefielddrivenbycriticism

(2) abandonlanguagelearnerstrategyresearchinfavourofself-regulationàlossofresearchbase;lossofcognitivestrategies;lossofteachablestrategiesas‘products’

(3) acknowledgeself-regulationwithinconceptualizationsoflanguagelearnerstrategiesre-conceptualizelanguagelearnerstrategy

(4) continuelanguagelearnerstrategyresearchwithsensitivitytocriticisms

Thankyou…ifyouwanttoreadmore…

www.heathrose.net

orfindmeonResearchGate