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ENLIGHTENMENT AND REVOLUTION
Scientific Revolution
1. Dawn of Modern Science
a. The Old Viewi. Geocentric Theory
1. The belief that the earth was the center of the universe and everything revolved around the earth
2. 1st proposed by Aristotle and then expanded upon by Ptolemy
3. Supported by the Church
b. New Viewpointsi. Scientific Revolution
1. People began to challenge traditional authorities
2. Theories about the natural world and developed procedures to test those ideas
ii. Reasons for new ideas1. Exploration2. Scientists began to examine the natural
world
c. The Scientific Methodi. Scientists developed a new approach to
investigation and discovery, the Scientific Method
ii. Consists of 5 basic steps1. Identify a problem2. Form a hypothesis that can be tested
a. Hypothesis is a proposed answer to the research question and is based on previous knowledge
3. Performed experiments to test the hypothesis
4. Record the results of the experiments5. Analyze the results of the experiments
to form a conclusion that either proves or disproves the hypothesis
iii. Two Important Scholars1. Francis Bacon
a. Believed only true way to gain scientific knowledge was through observing, measuring, explaining and verifying
2. Rene Descartesa. Placed emphasis
on reasonb. Everything
should be doubted until it is explained by reason
2. Discoveries in Astronomy, Physics and Math
a. Copernicusi. 1st Scientist to complete
model of the solar system that combined physics, astronomy and mathematics
ii. Published his book “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres”
1. He knew the church would oppose his work
2. Concerned over weakness of his theory
iii. Copernicus died in 1542
b. Brahe and Kepler
i. Brahe1. 1572, wrote a book
explaining the new object that appeared in Denmark’s sky
2. Proved that the object was a star
3. Called it a supernova4. Was given money to
build two conservatories by King Frederick II of Denmark
5. Developed his own system of planetary movementa. Believed not only
the earth but the other 5 known planets revolved around the sun
6. Hired an assistant, Johannes Kepler when he moved to Prague
ii. Johannes Kepler1. Published
Brahe’s results on the measurements of the orbit of Mars after his death
2. 1st astronomer to prove that planets orbit in ovals or elipses
c. Galileo Galilei
i. Built the first telescope in 1609
ii. 1st to observe Saturn, craters on the moon, sunspots, moons of Jupiter and discovered that the Milky Way is made up of stars
iii. Wrote a book about his discoveries called “Starry Messenger”
d. Sir Isaac Newton
i. English scientistsii. Came up with the
Universal Law of Gravity
1. States that gravity affects objects in the universe as well as on earth
iii. Developed new kind of mathematics: Calculus
3. Discoveries in Biology and Chemistry
a. Biologyi. Andres Vesalius
1. Became known for his work in anatomy
2. Published “On the Workings of the Human Body” in 1543
ii. William Harvey1. Observed and
explained the workings of the human heart
2. Described how blood and the circulatory system functioned
iii. Antony van Leeuwenhoek1. Invented the
first microscope2. First to describe
the appearance of bacteria, red blood cells, yeast and other microorganisms
b. Chemistry
i. Robert Boyle1. Often called the Father
of Modern Chemistry2. 1st to define an element3. “The Skeptical Chemist”
describes matter as a cluster of tiny particles
4. Most significant contribution to chemistry was Boyle’s Law
a. Describes how temperature, volume and pressure affect gases
ii. Antione-Laurent Lavoisier1. Developed methods for
precise measurements2. Discovered Law of
Conservation of Massa. Proved matter could not
be created or destroyed
3. Recognized and named oxygen
4. Introduced the metric system
5. 1st periodic table of elements (33)
4. Science and Society
a. Science and Churchi. The church had been the primary source
for knowledge and learningii. Conflicts between the Church and science
1. Church explained the world through inspiration and revealed truth
2. Science sought to explain the world through the accumulation of facts and logical reasoning
iii. Church vs. Galileo1. Galileo published a book “Dialogue
Concerning Two Chief World Systems”a. Book supported both Copernicus and
Ptolemy
2. Pope Urban VII ordered Galileo to stand trial
3. April 1633- Galileo reluctantly agreed that he would not use Copernican theory in his work
4. Galileo was put under house arrest and remained under it until he died
b. Science and Art
i. Artist learned human anatomy so they could paint the body
ii. Artist experimented with paints and nature of light
iii. Used mathematics to create compositions of perfect balance
iv. Mathematics and Physics helped in achieving great architecture and engineering achievements
c. Science and Community
i. Scientific Revolution had firmly established a new way of thinking about the physical world
ii. Scientific Revolution would lead others to seek new understandings about society
The Enlightenment
1. The Age of Reason
a. Enlightenmenti. By 1600s philosophers began to view
reason as the best way to understand truth
ii. People believed reason could be used to solve all human problems
iii. This period of optimism and possibility is known as the Age of Reason or Enlightenment
2. New Views on Governmenta. Thomas Hobbes
i. Wrote “Leviathan”ii. Believed people were
selfish and greedyiii. Believed governments
were needed to impose order
iv. Advocated the idea of a social contract
1. Idea that people give up certain freedoms in exchange for peace, safety and order that government could provide
b. John Lockei. Wrote “Two
Treatises of Government”
ii. Believed people were naturally happy, tolerant and reasonable
iii. Believed people were born with natural rights: life, liberty, and property
iv. Purpose of government is to protect people’s natural rights
v. Government got its power by the consent of the people
vi. People had the right to overthrow government if it failed to protect its citizen’s natural rights
c. Jean-Jacques Rousseaui. Wrote “The
Social Contract”ii. He believed
that people were born basically good
iii. Believed society corrupted people
iv. Argued government should work for the common good of the people not for the wealthy few
v. Believed individuals should give up some freedoms for the benefit of the community as a whole
d. Baron de Montesquieui. Wrote “The Spirit of
the Laws”ii. Believed the best form
of government included separation of powers
iii. It would keep an individual or group from abusing its power
iv. This concept would become an important part of the structure of later democratic governments
3. New Views on Society
a. Voltairei. Attacked
injustice where ever he saw it
ii. Struggled for justice, religious tolerance and liberty during his entire life
b. Diderot and the Encyclopediai. Complied human
knowledge into a single work called the Encyclopedia
a. Purpose was to promote knowledge
ii. French leaders attacked the Encyclopedia because it criticized the church, the government and the legal system
c. Mary Wollstonecrafti. English writerii. Demanded
equal rights for women
iii. Argued that if men and women had equal education, they would be equal in society
d. Adam Smithi. Wrote “Wealth of
Nations”ii. Argued that
business activities should take place in a free market
iii. Believed in laissez-faire economics
1. An economic system that worked without government regulation
4. Enlightenment Ideas Spreada. Prussia
i. Frederick II1. Believed that his duty
was to rule with absolute power in order to build Prussia’s strength
2. Introduced Reformsi. Established system
of elementary education for all Prussian children
ii. Abolished tortureiii. Supported most
forms of religious tolerance
iv. Reduced censorship
3. Reforms were limited though Did not extend religious freedom for the
Jews Opposed serfdom but did not abolish it
b. Russia
i. Catherine the Great1. Reforms
a. Drafted a constitution and law code
i. Never passed
b. Intended to free the serfs but never did
2. Had no intention of giving up power and ruled as a tyrant
c. Austria
i. Joseph II1. Reforms
a. Eliminated torture and the death penalty
b. Provided free food and medicine to the poor
c. Granted religious tolerance to Protestants and Jews
d. Abolished serfdom and required that laborers be paid for their work
The American Revolution
1. Change and Crisis
a. Opposing British Policiesi. The Stamp Act
1. Passed in 17652. Required colonists to pay a tax for an official
stamp on all newspapers, legal documents, and other public papers
3. Outraged colonists; boycotted English goods4. 1766- Stamp Act is repealed
ii. 1767- imposed new taxes
iii. Boston Massacre1. Incident
involving British soldiers and Boston colonists
2. Result 5 colonists were killed
iv. Boston Tea Party1. Led by Samuel Adams and the Sons of
Liberty2. Dumped British tea into Boston Harbor to
protest the Tea Act3. Britain responded by passing the
Intolerable Acts
v. 1774, Colonist called the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia to list grievances against British government
Samuel Adams Sons of Liberty
b. Revolution Begins
i. Lexington and Concord1. Colonist hid weapons in the countryside
and British troops marched to find them2. British met colonial militia on April 19,
1775a. Started the American Revolution
ii. Colonist were divided1. Patriots- supported the revolution2. Loyalists- supported the king
iii. Thomas Paine1. Wrote pamphlet
“Common Sense”
2. Argued colonies had matured to the point that they no longer need British rule
c. Declaring Independence
i. 1776, The Second Continental Congress met
1. Formed to write a document declaring the colonies’ independence
2. Members included John Adams, Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin
John Adams
Thomas Jefferson Benjamin Franklin
ii. Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence1. July 4, 1776- The Second Continental
Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence
d. The Revolutionary War
i. Second Continental Congress assigned George Washington as the commanding general of the army in June 1775
ii. War began poorly for the Britishi. Forced to evacuate Boston
iii. British later defeat Washington in the Battle of Long Island
1. Drove continental army into New Jersey2. Washington crosses the Delaware River and
beat the British at Trenton
iv. 17771. Washington had defeats in New Jersey and
Pennsylvania2. Washington spent a deadly winter at Valley
Forge3. British were winning battles in the summer
1777 in upstate New York4. October- Americans won the Battle of Saratoga5. Benjamin Franklin went to Paris to ask for help
from the Frencha. This alliance would be the turning point of the war
v. British decide to divide the colonies in twovi. September 1781, French and American
armies surrounded the British under Lord Cornwallis in Yorktown, Virginia1. Cornwallis would surrender to Washington on
October 19, 1781
vii. September 1783, The British formally recognized the independence of the United States by signing the Treaty of Paris
George Washington Lord Cornwallis
2. Forming a New Government
a. The Articles of Confederationi. Established the first form of government
in the new United States in 1781ii. National government was made weak to
avoid abuses in poweriii. Government was too weak to govern
effectively
b. The Constitutioni. 1787, delegates met at a Constitutional
convention in Philadelphia to revise the Articles
ii. They wrote the U.S. Constitution insteadiii. Constitution was written by James
Madison1. Signed in 17872. Went to the states to be ratified3. Went into effect in 1789
iv. Constitution created a federal system of government1. Divided power between the federal and
state government2. Divides the national government’s powers
a. 3 Branch of Governmenti. Executive – Presidential
1. Carries out the laws
ii. Judicial1. Interprets the laws
iii. Legislative1. Makes laws2. Consists of two houses
a. House of Representatives (lower)b. Senate (upper)
3. System of check and balances ensures no branch of government is too powerful
C. Bill of Rights
i. Some felt the Constitution failed to protect individual rights
ii. Wanted protection of these rights added
iii. Bill of Rights are the first 10 amendments to the Constitution
iv. Guaranteed equality, or due process, of law
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