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Linda Darling-Hammond, Maria E. Hyler, and Madelyn Gardner, with assistance from Danny Espinoza
Effective Teacher Professional Development
JUNE 2017
Effective Teacher Professional Development
Linda Darling-Hammond, Maria E. Hyler, and Madelyn Gardner, with assistance from Danny Espinoza
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The appropriate citation for this report is: Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., Gardner, M. (2017). Effective Teacher Professional Development. Palo Alto, CA: Learning Policy Institute.
This report can be found online at https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/teacher-prof-dev.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution—NonCommercial 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank their LPI colleagues Jessica Cardichon and Kathryn Bradley for their contributions to the research and writing of this paper. We also thank Naomi Spinrad and Penelope Malish for their editing and design contributions to this project, and Lisa Gonzales for overseeing the editorial process. Without the generosity of time and spirit of all of the aforementioned, this work would not have been possible.
The S. D. Bechtel, Jr. Foundation and the Sandler Foundation have provided operating support for the Learning Policy Institute’s work in this area.
External Reviewers
This report benefited from the insights and expertise of two external reviewers: Laura Desimone, Associate Professor, Education Policy, Penn Graduate School of Education; and Michael Fullan, former Dean of the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto. We thank them for the care and attention they gave the report. Any remaining shortcomings are our own.
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................................... ii
Executive Summary.................................................................................................................................. v
Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................1
Defining Effective Professional Development ................................................................................2
This Study ......................................................................................................................................2
Goals and Outline of This Report ..................................................................................................3
Design Elements of Effective Professional Development ..................................................................4
Content Focus ..................................................................................................................................5
Active Learning .................................................................................................................................7
Collaboration ....................................................................................................................................9
Use of Models and Modeling ....................................................................................................... 11
Coaching and Expert Support ...................................................................................................... 12
Feedback and Reflection .............................................................................................................. 14
Sustained Duration ....................................................................................................................... 15
Realizing the Promise of Professional Learning Communities ...................................................... 17
The Benefits of Analyzing Student Work and Student Data ........................................................ 17
Learning From Professional Communities Beyond the School ................................................... 18
Creating the Conditions for Effective Professional Development: Opportunities and Challenges ............................................................................................................. 20
School Level ................................................................................................................................ 20
System Level ............................................................................................................................... 21
Conclusions and Policy Implications .................................................................................................. 23
Implications for Policy ................................................................................................................. 23
Implications for Implementation and Practice ............................................................................ 24
Appendix A: Methodology .................................................................................................................... 25
Appendix B: Summary of Studies Reviewed for This Report .......................................................... 27
Appendix C: Elements of Effective Professional Development by Study ...................................... 48
Endnotes ................................................................................................................................................. 53
About the Authors ................................................................................................................................. 64
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LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT v
Executive Summary
Teacher professional learning is of increasing interest as one way to support the increasingly complex skills students need to learn in preparation for further education and work in the 21st century. Sophisticated forms of teaching are needed to develop student competencies such as deep mastery of challenging content, critical thinking, complex problem-solving, effective communication and collaboration, and self-direction. In turn, effective professional development (PD) is needed to help teachers learn and refine the pedagogies required to teach these skills.
However, research has shown that many PD initiatives appear ineffective in supporting changes in teacher practices and student learning. Accordingly, we set out to discover the features of effective PD. This paper reviews 35 methodologically rigorous studies that have demonstrated a positive link between teacher professional development, teaching practices, and student outcomes. We identify the features of these approaches and offer rich descriptions of these models to inform those seeking to understand the nature of the initiatives.
Defining and Studying Effective Professional DevelopmentWe define effective professional development as structured professional learning that results in changes in teacher practices and improvements in student learning outcomes. To define features of effective PD, we reviewed studies meeting our methodological criteria (see Appendix A) that emerged from our extensive search of the literature over the last three decades. We coded each of the studies to identify the elements of effective PD models.
Using this methodology, we found seven widely shared features of effective professional development. Such professional development:
Is content focused: PD that focuses on teaching strategies associated with specific curriculum content supports teacher learning within teachers’ classroom contexts. This element includes an intentional focus on discipline-specific curriculum development and pedagogies in areas such as mathematics, science, or literacy.
Incorporates active learning: Active learning engages teachers directly in designing and trying out teaching strategies, providing them an opportunity to engage in the same style of learning they are designing for their students. Such PD uses authentic artifacts, interactive activities, and other strategies to provide deeply embedded, highly contextualized professional learning. This approach moves away from traditional learning models and environments that are lecture based and have no direct connection to teachers’ classrooms and students.
Supports collaboration: High-quality PD creates space for teachers to share ideas and collaborate in their learning, often in job-embedded contexts. By working collaboratively, teachers can create communities that positively change the culture and instruction of their entire grade level, department, school and/or district.
Uses models of effective practice: Curricular models and modeling of instruction provide teachers with a clear vision of what best practices look like. Teachers may view models that include lesson plans, unit plans, sample student work, observations of peer teachers, and video or written cases of teaching.
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Provides coaching and expert support: Coaching and expert support involve the sharing of expertise about content and evidence-based practices, focused directly on teachers’ individual needs.
Offers feedback and reflection: High-quality professional learning frequently provides built-in time for teachers to think about, receive input on, and make changes to their practice by facilitating reflection and soliciting feedback. Feedback and reflection both help teachers to thoughtfully move toward the expert visions of practice.
Is of sustained duration: Effective PD provides teachers with adequate time to learn, practice, implement, and reflect upon new strategies that facilitate changes in their practice.
Our research shows that effective professional learning incorporates most or all of these elements. We also examine professional learning communities (PLCs) as an example of a PD model that incorporates several of these effective elements and supports student learning gains. This collaborative and job-embedded PD can be a source of efficacy and confidence for teachers, and can result in widespread improvement within and beyond the school level.
Creating Conditions for Effective Professional Development: Opportunities and ChallengesResearch has established that the educational system within which PD occurs has implications for its effectiveness. Specifically, conditions for teaching and learning both within schools and at the broader, system level can inhibit the effectiveness of PD. For example, inadequate resourcing for PD—including needed curriculum materials—frequently exacerbates inequities and hinders school improvement efforts. Failure to align policies toward a coherent set of practices is also a major impediment, as is a dysfunctional school culture. Implementing effective PD well also requires responsiveness to the needs of educators and learners and to the contexts in which teaching and learning will take place.
Implications for Policy and Practice Examples of PD that have been successful in raising student achievement can help policymakers and practitioners better understand what quality teacher professional learning looks like. Policy can help support and incentivize the kind of evidence-based PD described here. For instance:
1. Policymakers could adopt standards for professional development to guide the design, evaluation, and funding of professional learning provided to educators. These standards might reflect the features of effective professional learning outlined in this report as well as standards for implementation.
2. Policymakers and administrators could evaluate and redesign the use of time and school schedules to increase opportunities for professional learning and collaboration, including participation in professional learning communities, peer coaching and observations across classrooms, and collaborative planning.
3. States, districts, and schools could regularly conduct needs assessments using data from staff surveys to identify areas of professional learning most needed and desired
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by educators. Data from these sources can help ensure that professional learning is not disconnected from practice and supports the areas of knowledge and skills educators want to develop.
4. State and district administrators could identify and develop expert teachers as mentors and coaches to support learning in their particular area(s) of expertise for other educators.
5. States and districts can integrate professional learning into the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) school improvement initiatives, such as efforts to implement new learning standards, use student data to inform instruction, improve student literacy, increase student access to advanced coursework, and create a positive and inclusive learning environment.
6. States and districts can provide technology-facilitated opportunities for professional learning and coaching, using funding available under Titles II and IV of ESSA to address the needs of rural communities and provide opportunities for intradistrict and intraschool collaboration.
7. Policymakers can provide flexible funding and continuing education units for learning opportunities that include sustained engagement in collaboration, mentoring, and coaching, as well as institutes, workshops, and seminars.
In the end, well-designed and implemented PD should be considered a essential component of a comprehensive system of teaching and learning that supports students to develop the knowledge, skills, and competencies they need to thrive in the 21st century. To ensure a coherent system that supports teachers across the entire professional continuum, professional learning should link to their experiences in preparation and induction, as well as to teaching standards and evaluation. It should also bridge to leadership opportunities to ensure a comprehensive system focused on the growth and development of teachers.
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Introduction
As demands for deeper and more complex student learning have intensified, practitioners, researchers, and policymakers have begun to think more systematically about how to improve teachers’ learning from recruitment, preparation, and support, to mentoring and other leadership opportunities. Sophisticated forms of teaching are needed to develop 21st century student competencies, such as deep mastery of challenging content, critical thinking, complex problem-solving, effective communication and collaboration, and self-direction. In turn, opportunities are needed for teachers to learn and refine the pedagogies required to teach these skills.
However, major questions remain about how teachers can learn these skills and how PD can play a role in improving teacher practice. Recent research on PD has underscored the importance of these questions, given the mixed findings often generated.1 For example, one recent study of four districts serving a largely low-income student population found that even with large financial investments in teacher PD, both teacher practice (according to teacher evaluations) and student learning (according to state assessments) saw little change. The study found that teacher evaluations stayed the same, or declined in the span of 2-3 years, while more than $18,000 of PD money per teacher was spent in these districts. In spite of their findings, the authors of the four-district study did not recommend dropping investment in teacher PD. Instead, recommendations included redefining what it means to help teachers improve, reevaluating current professional learning and support programs,and reinventing how we support effective teaching at scale.2
It is certainly true that PD does not always lead to professional learning, despite its intent.3 Fullan (2007) argues that external approaches to instructional improvement are rarely “powerful enough, specific enough, or sustained enough to alter the culture of the classroom and school.”4 Indeed, research on PD in the United States found that most teachers receive PD of short duration (less than eight hours on a topic, usually in afterschool workshops) and that, during the No Child Left Behind Era, there was an increase in this short-term approach and a decline in access to more sustained professional learning approaches.5 In addition, some school contexts pose equity challenges related to the potential impact of PD on student learning (e.g., poor leadership, inadequate resources, or countervailing school or district mandates).6
At the same time, a growing number of rigorous studies establish that well-designed PD can, when effectively implemented, lead to desirable changes in teacher practice and student outcomes. These studies build on an expansive body of research that has previously described positive outcomes from professional learning using teacher and student self-reports or observational designs.7 As states and districts work to create new structures and strategies for PD, it is useful to evaluate what this research has to say about the kinds of professional learning that improve instruction and student achievement.
Sophisticated forms of teaching are needed to develop 21st century student competencies.
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Defining Effective Professional Development In this review, we define effective professional development as structured professional learning that results in changes to teacher knowledge and practices, and improvements in student learning outcomes. We conceptualize professional learning as a product of both externally provided and job-embedded activities that increase teachers’ knowledge and help them change their instructional practice in ways that support student learning. Thus, formal PD represents a subset of the range of experiences that may result in professional learning.
This StudyIn this paper, we examine the research on professional learning that has proven effective in changing teachers’ practices and improving student outcomes to identify elements prevalent in successful PD models. To define features of effective professional development, we reviewed 35 studies that emerged from our extensive search of the literature over the last three decades which met our methodological criteria: They featured a careful experimental or comparison group design, or they analyzed student outcomes with statistical controls for context variables and student characteristics. (Appendix A details our methodology and Appendix B details each reviewed study.) We coded each of the studies to generate the elements of effective PD models. Appendix C indicates the elements exhibited by each of the PD model(s) featured in each study.
We recognize that this methodology has limitations. Because studies of professional development typically examine comprehensive models that incorporate many elements, this paper does not seek to draw conclusions about the efficacy of individual program components. Rather, it offers rich descriptions of the combined characteristics of PD that research has found to positively relate to student outcomes.
We are also unable to comment on the studies of PD that do not appear to yield positive results on student achievement. Although many studies lack the rigorous controls needed to draw inferences about outcomes, there are a number of well-designed studies of PD that share some of the features we highlight here but did not find positive effects. We located six studies with strong methodologies that failed to find impacts on student learning. Several found positive influences on teacher knowledge and/or practices but not on the measure of student outcomes used.8 These measures of student outcomes were sometimes designed to evaluate the specific goals of the PD and sometimes were a more generic commercial instrument or state test.
Authors noted a number of potential reasons for their findings, including lack of implementation fidelity in the conduct of the PD,9 lack of opportunity for teachers to implement what they learned in the PD in their classrooms,10 and teacher turnover that reduced many teachers’ access to the PD.11 In one study, Garet and colleagues (2016) make a critically important point when they note that the content of PD could be misdirected—that, is not focused on the actual teaching knowledge and skills that are needed to support student learning.12 It is obviously most important that what teachers are taught reflects the practices that can actually make a positive difference for student learning. That is, the content of professional development matters, along with its form.
This paper offers rich descriptions of the combined characteristics of professional development that research has found to positively relate to student outcomes.
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Another crucial element is the knowledge that teachers bring to the PD experience—and whether it is sufficient to support their learning of particular pedagogical strategies. In one interesting case, where mathematics PD was conducted in a district that had very large numbers of uncredentialed teachers, researchers found positive effects on student learning only for those teachers who began with a higher level of content knowledge, signaling that the effectiveness of PD may depend in part on how solid a content foundation teachers have with which to absorb its lessons.13 These and other considerations may influence the effectiveness of PD, even when it may share some of the features we identify here. Although it is beyond the scope of this paper to unpack why specific initiatives have proved less than fully successful, we identify barriers to the implementation of effective PD as identified by researchers later in this paper.
Goals and Outline of This ReportOur primary goal is to illuminate the features of PD that have been found to be effective, in hopes that this analysis can help inform policymakers and practitioners responsible for designing, planning, and implementing potentially productive opportunities for teacher learning.
We aim to provide practitioners, researchers, and policymakers with a research-based understanding of the kinds of PD that can lead to powerful professional learning, instructional improvement, and deeper student learning. By examining information about the nature of effective PD, policymakers and practitioners can begin to evaluate the needs of the systems in which teachers learn and do their work and consider how teachers’ learning opportunities can be more effectively supported.
In the sections that follow, we first review the elements of effective PD initiatives identified through our review of recent literature, offering examples from specific studies and PD models. We then explore how the currently popular phenomenon of professional learning communities—often superficially implemented—can be effectively organized. Next, we provide an overview of the broader conditions that support or inhibit effective teacher PD in the United States, drawing on the broader PD literature. We conclude with considerations for policy and practice.
We aim to provide a research-based understanding of the kinds of PD that can lead to powerful professional learning, instructional improvement, and deeper student learning.
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Design Elements of Effective Professional Development
In recent decades, a “new paradigm” for PD has emerged from research that distinguishes powerful opportunities for teacher learning from the traditional, one-day, “drive by” workshop model.14 The research on effective PD has begun to create a consensus about key principles in the design of learning experiences that can impact teachers’ knowledge and practices.15 The ongoing expansion of this literature provides an opportunity to build upon this consensus with new insights, particularly given the increased prevalence of rigorous research designs in PD studies that boost confidence in the validity of findings.
Although research on the effectiveness of PD has been mixed, positive findings have stimulated a general consensus about typical components of high-quality professional learning for teachers.16 This consensus, articulated by Desimone (2009) and others, holds that effective PD possesses a robust content focus, features active learning, is collaborative and aligned with relevant curricula and policies, and provides sufficient learning time for participants. Our review confirms and expands upon this five-part framework, providing additional specificity about the types of active and collaborative practices that underlie powerful teacher PD.
Using the methodology detailed in Appendix A, we identify seven characteristics of effective PD. Specifically, we find that it:
1. Is content focused2. Incorporates active learning utilizing adult learning theory3. Supports collaboration, typically in job-embedded contexts4. Uses models and modeling of effective practice5. Provides coaching and expert support6. Offers opportunities for feedback and reflection7. Is of sustained duration
Successful PD models generally feature a number of these components simultaneously. The Reading Recovery program, described in detail in the box that follows, is an example of one program that possesses all seven elements and has been found to generate positive student gains. Other effective programs may possess most but not all of the seven features.
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The section continues with a description of each characteristic with supporting literature and examples. Additional information about each study described in this section is available in Appendix B.
Content FocusProfessional learning that has shown an impact on student achievement is focused on the content that teachers teach. Content-focused PD generally treats discipline-specific curricula such as mathematics, science, or literacy. It is most often job embedded, meaning the PD is situated in teachers’ classrooms with their students, as opposed to generic PD delivered externally or divorced from teachers’ school or district contexts. This type of PD can provide teachers the opportunity to study their students’ work,25 test out new curriculum with their students,26 or study a particular element of pedagogy or student learning in the content area.27 Ideally, the PD is aligned with school and district priorities, providing a coherence for teachers, as opposed to having PD compete with differing school and district priorities.28
Effective Professional Development in Practice: Reading Recovery
Reading Recovery is an example of a professional development model that has demonstrated effectiveness in supporting student learning gains in dozens of studies over several decades on multiple continents.17 Reading Recovery was originally designed to provide individualized interventions for struggling readers in New Zealand, and has since been widely implemented in the U.K., Canada, and Australia. It was first implemented in the U.S. in 1984, and grew to serve a peak number of 152,000 students nationwide in the 2000–01 school year.18 In 2010, the Ohio State University—the U.S. seat of Reading Recovery—received a $45 million federal i3 grant to fund the expansion of Reading Recovery. The university partnered with 19 universities across the U.S. to recruit and train teachers and schools to participate in the Reading Recovery program. The i3 grant supported teacher PD for 3,747 teachers, who served 387,450 students in one-to-one lessons, classroom teaching, or small-group instruction.19
The Reading Recovery theory of change asserts the critical role of the teacher in identifying students’ strengths and needs, and facilitating their learning by providing appropriate opportunities to acquire and use new reading skills.20 The teacher’s practice is highly diagnostic and grounded in a substantial knowledge base about the learning-to-read process for diverse learners, as well as a sophisticated set of teaching skills applied in an individualized fashion for each learner. The basis of the Reading Recovery PD model is similarly informed by a very deliberate approach to acquiring and applying knowledge that is individualized to the needs of the teacher.
To prepare teachers to play this critical role, Reading Recovery provides intensive PD that incorporates all seven of the elements of effective PD. In groups of 8 to 12, teachers complete a yearlong graduate-level training course taught by a literacy coach. This sustained training involves model lesson observation, teacher demonstration of effective teaching techniques, and frequent collaborative discussion between participants. After the training course, faculty from the partnering university support teachers in their classrooms and facilitate program implementation within their area.21 Additional, ongoing PD for these teachers includes a minimum of six sessions with a Reading Recovery teacher leader and colleagues; opportunities for interaction and collaboration with school leaders and colleagues; and ongoing access to conferences and training institutes.22
A 2016 evaluation of the i3 funded initiative found that students who participated in the U.S. expansion of Reading Recovery significantly outperformed students in the control groups on measures of overall reading, reading comprehension, and decoding.23 Moreover, these gains were nearly three times as large as average gains for similar broad instructional interventions. This effect translates to Reading Recovery students in the study gaining an additional 1.55 months of learning compared to the national growth average for 1st graders. Of particular interest during the i3 scale-up study was the performance of English language learners (ELLs) and rural students. Results indicated that there was a similarly large positive impact on their performance.24 These findings suggest that the Reading Recovery PD program is capable of positively impacting student achievement on a large scale and can help drive equitable learning outcomes for ELL and rural students.
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Thirty-one of the 35 studies we reviewed featured a specific content focus as part of the PD model. Among the PD models without a specific content focus, two focused on specific pedagogies that were not discipline specific,29 and one study focused on supporting teachers in promoting inquiry-based learning and leveraging technology in support of standards-based instruction.30 A final study provided insufficient description of the PD to determine whether or not the PD was content specific.31
One study of PD for upper elementary teachers, which focused on helping teachers analyze science teaching and improve pedagogy, illustrates job-embedded and content-focused PD. Roth et al. (2011) studied teachers participating in The Science Teachers Learning from Lesson Analysis (STeLLA) program.32 The project focused on both science content and pedagogy using a video-based analysis-of-teaching PD model. The PD began with a three-week summer institute focused on science content taught by faculty at a local university. Teachers in the STeLLA program also engaged in video analysis of teaching during the summer institute. In follow-up sessions throughout the school year, teachers utilized Student Thinking and Science Content Storyline Lenses, creating PD that was both content specific and classroom based. The Student Thinking portion of the PD focused on understanding students’ ideas for use in planning, teaching, and analysis of teaching—particularly in anticipating student thinking to assist teachers in responding to students’ ideas and misunderstandings in productive ways. The Science Content Storyline portion of the PD focused on the sequencing of science ideas and how they are linked to help students construct a coherent “story” that makes sense to them. STeLLA teachers met in small groups facilitated by a program leader and discussed video cases of teaching that could include video(s) of one classroom, student and teacher interviews, teacher materials, and student work samples.33
STeLLA teachers also taught a set of four to six model lessons themselves and analyzed their teaching using a structured protocol. Half of a study group would teach the lessons to their students, and the entire group would collaboratively analyze the teaching and student work, and revise the lessons for the other half to use. The roles would then switch and the second half of the group would teach the lessons in their classrooms, followed by collaborative analysis and subsequent revision. The analysis was highly scaffolded by the PD facilitators. STeLLA groups met for 58 hours of analysis throughout the school year, in addition to 44 hours during the three-week summer session for a total of 102 hours. Roth et al. (2011) studied this group of teachers in comparison to a group of teachers who only attended the science content portion of the PD program.34 The content-only teachers received just the 44 hours of PD, and it was not explicitly connected to their classroom contexts.
Results of the study showed that teachers who participated in the STeLLA program had students who achieved greater learning gains than comparison students whose teachers received content training only, as determined by pre- and post-test science content exams. Statistical analyses linked these gains in student learning with teachers’ science content knowledge, teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge about student thinking, and teachers’ ability to create a cohesive science content storyline. STeLLA teachers outperformed the content-only teachers and, moreover, were able to retain their content learning whereas content-only teachers were not.35 A second randomized study of the STeLLA
Ideally, the PD is aligned with school and district priorities, providing a coherence for teachers, as opposed to having PD compete with differing school and district priorities.
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program similarly found positive effects for students of participating teachers.36 This study, similar to other studies in this review, suggests that PD that treats only content learning is not as effective as PD that links content learning to pedagogies supporting teachers’ students and practice.37
Teacher professional learning that is context specific, job embedded, and content based is particularly important for addressing the diverse needs of students (and thus teachers) in differing settings. For example, in one study of PD for elementary science teachers in an urban school district, teachers of Latinx students learned science content as well as conversational Spanish and strategies for using culturally relevant pedagogies.38 In another program targeting teachers of Latinx dual-language learners, monolingual teachers were provided with a range of instructional strategies to support children’s primary language development in Spanish.39 The key features of focusing on students’ culture and language in these content- and context-specific PD models illustrate teacher professional learning opportunities designed for teaching content to specific student populations with targeted strategies to support their achievement.
Active LearningThe design of PD experiences must address how teachers learn, as well as what teachers learn. Trotter (2006) outlines several theories of learning and adult development and identifies themes that are relevant for designing teacher PD.
• Adults come to learning with experiences that should be utilized as resources for new learning.
• Adults should choose their learning opportunities based on interest and their own classroom experiences/needs.
• Reflection and inquiry should be central to learning and development.40
These themes provide a general framing that helps to explain why teacher PD that incorporates active learning experiences is effective in supporting student learning and growth. “Active learning” suggests moving away from traditional learning models that are generic and lecture based toward models that engage teachers directly in the practices they are learning and, preferably, are connected to teachers’ classrooms and students. Active learning, in sharp contrast to sit-and-listen lectures, engages educators using authentic artifacts, interactive activities, and other strategies to provide deeply embedded, highly contextualized professional learning. Active learning is also an “umbrella” element that often incorporates the elements of collaboration, coaching, feedback, and reflection and the use of models and modeling.
Opportunities for “sense-making” activities are important.41 Such activities often involve modeling the sought-after practices and constructing opportunities for teachers to analyze, try out, and reflect on the new strategies.42 Active learning opportunities allow teachers to transform their teaching and not simply layer new strategies on top of the old, a hallmark of adult learning theory.43
Adults come to learning with experiences that should be utilized as resources for new learning.
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Greenleaf et al. (2011) describe an active teacher professional learning model that improved student science learning.44 California high school biology teachers participated in PD integrating academic literacy and biology instruction through a program called Reading Apprenticeship. The PD was inquiry based, subject focused, collaborative, and designed to address teachers’ conceptual understandings as well as pedagogical content knowledge. Each session was designed to immerse the teachers in the types of learning activities and environments they would then create for their students. Teachers engaged in activities to simulate their own discipline expertise in relation to literacy, and they also engaged in analysis of texts to identify potential literacy challenges to learners.45
In addition, teachers analyzed student work, videotaped classroom lessons, and studied cases of student literacy learning designed to foster high expectations of student learning. Metacognitive routines such as think-alouds and reading logs for science investigations were used in PD sessions. Teachers also practiced classroom routines to build student engagement and student collaboration (e.g., “think-pair-share,” jigsaws, text-based student discussion, and problem solving). An important part of the PD was a metacognitive reflection after each session that focused on the session’s impact on teachers’ learning and potential impact on their students’ development.46
The program employed 10 sessions over the course of a year. An initial five-day institute took place the first summer of the study, followed by two follow-up days of PD during year 1 and a final three-day PD follow-up the summer after the academic year. During the study year, participants engaged in collaboration on a listserv that fostered the exchange of resources and ideas and was moderated by PD coaches. This multimodal, active learning PD model resulted in student achievement equivalent to a year’s reading growth compared with students of teachers assigned to a control group. Students of treatment teachers also performed better than their counterparts in control classrooms on state assessments in English language arts and biology.47
The opportunity for teachers to engage in the same learning activities they are designing for their students is often utilized as a form of active learning. Several studies in this review highlighted PD programs that had teachers engage as learners through the use of curriculum and materials that they would then employ with their students. For instance, Buczynski and Hansen (2010) describe how 4th through 6th grade teachers had the opportunity to participate in “constructivist, hands-on experiences” through the use of science kits.48 These were the same science kits that teachers would then go on to use in their classrooms with their students. Similarly, teachers in a study by Heller et al. (2012) completed the same scientific investigations they analyzed in written teaching cases.49 In other studies, pedagogical and content experts would “teach” model lessons with teachers engaging as learners.50 Additionally, two studies incorporated role-playing as a part of teachers “practicing” lessons with their peers to better understand students and their learning.51
Overall, 34 of the 35 studies incorporated some element of active learning in the design of the PD, while one study did not provide enough description of the PD model to ascertain whether active learning was present.
The opportunity for teachers to engage in the same learning activities they are designing for their students is often utilized as a form of active learning.
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CollaborationAs schools have increasingly structured teaching as a collaborative community endeavor, it makes sense that teacher collaboration is an important feature of well-designed PD.52 “Collaboration” can span a host of configurations—from one-on-one or small-group interactions to schoolwide collaboration to exchanges with other professionals beyond the school.
In a program studied by Allen et al. (2011), teachers collaborated with a one-on-one coach.53 In this study, Virginia high school teachers enrolled in My Teaching Partner-Secondary, a web-mediated coaching program designed to improve teacher-student interactions. Teachers participated in an initial training workshop followed by twice-monthly coaching from a remote mentor. For each coaching session, teachers were asked to submit short videos of their practice, reflect on their teaching, and respond to questions from their coach regarding the relationship between teacher practice and student engagement. Each reflection was followed by a 20- to 30-minute phone conference with the coach. Teachers also attended monthly booster workshops and were given access to an annotated video library for the duration of the program.54
Overall, the program offered 20 hours of in-service training over 13 months, in addition to the focused work teachers were doing in their classrooms to design and reflect on their practice. Students whose teachers had participated in the program the previous school year demonstrated gains in student achievement relative to the control group, with student learning gains equivalent to an average increase from the 50th to 59th percentile.55 A replication study featuring an extended, two-year version of the My Teaching Partner-Secondary model found similar promising results.56 This model of PD is especially promising for teachers who may be in remote or rural schools and may not have access to professional learning opportunities more readily available in suburban or urban areas.
Other studies have looked at collaboration at the school level.57 One New Zealand study focused on schoolwide PD efforts in 195 schools spread across four cohorts of teachers.58 Teachers in these schools participated in a flexible whole-school professional development model designed to improve student literacy, particularly for low-performing students. Each of the participating schools selected a focus on reading or writing for the duration of the two-year project and was assigned an expert literacy facilitator to provide PD for teachers and school leaders.
Facilitators visited each school biweekly to conduct classroom observations, model literacy instruction, provide coaching and feedback, and engage in discussion and other activities with school staff. Facilitators also trained a literacy leader at each school who provided additional support for colleagues. The project provided resources such as classroom observation and facilitation tools, as well as training and feedback for the expert facilitators throughout the two years. Students attending schools participating in the project outperformed achievement expectations relative to a nationally normed sample, especially in writing. Students in schools with a focus on improving writing improved at 2.9 to 3.5 times the expected rate. Students in schools with a focus on improving reading improved at 1.4 to 1.6 times the expected rate.59
As schools have increasingly structured teaching as a collaborative community endeavor, it makes sense that teacher collaboration is an important feature of well-designed PD.
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Such collaborative approaches have been found to be effective in promoting school change that extends beyond individual classrooms.60 When whole grade levels, departments, or schools are involved, they provide a broader base of understanding and support at the school level. Teachers create a collective force for improved instruction and serve as support groups for each other’s work on their practice. Collective work in trusting environments provides a basis for inquiry and reflection into teachers’ own practices, allowing teachers to take risks, solve problems, and attend to dilemmas in their practice.61
Other studies focused on districtwide collaborative PD in efforts to bring larger-scale improvements to teaching and learning.62 For example, in one Texas district, teachers engaged in on-site, small-group PD to promote inquiry-based, literacy-integrated instruction to improve English learners’ science and reading achievement.63 Through the program, teachers and paraprofessionals participated in workshops where they reviewed upcoming lessons, discussed science concepts with peers, engaged in reflections on student learning, participated in inquiry activities as learners, and received instruction in strategies for teaching English learners. Researchers also provided teachers with lesson plans that incorporated strategies for effective instruction of English learners. Teachers met biweekly for collaborative, three-hour sessions, receiving six hours of PD per month; paraprofessionals met monthly for three hours. The program also included a focus on new and enhanced instructional activities for English learners.
Students who received enhanced instructional activities and whose teachers received PD demonstrated significantly higher science and reading achievement than students who were engaged in business-as-usual instruction. Treatment students also earned passing and commended scores on district science benchmarks at higher rates than control group students.64 By focusing on improving the practice of teachers of English language learners, this kind of collaborative, districtwide PD can have important implications for improving the equity of whole systems.
Technology-facilitated PD such as the web-mediated coaching program studied by Allen et al. (2011) can also foster cyber collaboration,65 which can be effective in improving student achievement.66 Landry et al. (2009), for example, describe a well-designed online PD program that improved early literacy outcomes for young children.67 In that study, described in additional detail later in the Feedback and Reflection section, early childhood educators participated in a facilitated online course on language and literacy instruction. The interactive course included videos models, message boards, and opportunities to practice skills in small groups. In this case, technology facilitated the incorporation of collaboration and other effective PD elements, such as active learning and modeling, in the professional learning design.
Overall, 32 of 35 studies we reviewed incorporated some element of collaboration to support teacher professional learning, while three studies did not provide sufficient description to determine whether or not collaboration was a part of the model design. When PD utilizes effective collaborative structures for teachers to problem-solve and learn together, it can positively contribute to student achievement.
Such collaborative approaches have been found to be effective in promoting school change that extends beyond individual classrooms.
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Use of Models and ModelingPD that utilizes models of effective practice has proven successful at promoting teacher learning and supporting student achievement. Curricular and instructional models and modeling of instruction help teachers to have a vision of practice on which to anchor their own learning and growth. The various kinds of modeling can include
• video or written cases of teaching,• demonstration lessons,• unit or lesson plans,• observations of peers, and• curriculum materials including sample assessments and student work samples.
All 35 studies reviewed here included curricular models and/or modeling of effective instruction in the delivery of content and pedagogical learning for teachers. For example, Heller et al. (2012) conducted a randomized experimental design of three intervention groups and one control group to study the effects of PD on elementary students’ learning in science.68 The PD focused on pedagogical science content knowledge for elementary teachers, utilizing three different interventions, all of which proved successful in improving student achievement.
One group of teachers analyzed written teaching cases, drawn from actual classrooms and written by teachers. Thus, the PD was an “analysis of practice” approach that incorporated models for student work analysis, student teacher dialogue analysis, and teacher thinking and behaviors. A second group analyzed their own students’ work in relation to their teaching. Teachers in this intervention experienced carefully structured, collaborative analysis of their own students’ work, which required that they teach a unit. Discussion protocols for the analysis of student work were employed that focused teachers’ analysis on student understanding of content. These teachers took turns bringing in student work samples and formative assessment tasks that they analyzed collaboratively. Teachers also had access to a “task bank” of formative assessment model items they could use with their students. A third group utilized metacognitive analysis of their own learning experience in the form of reflective discussions about their own learning processes as they engaged in science content activities.
The course was designed to help teachers identify concepts they found challenging to learn, examine the logic behind their own common misunderstandings of the content, and analyze the roles of hands-on investigations, discourse, and inquiry in science learning. Expert staff developers delivered a series of three courses (the PD was delivered in 8 three-hour sessions, for a total of 24 contact hours with a facilitator).69
Findings of this study showed that students of teachers who participated in any of the PD opportunities had significantly greater learning gains on science tests than students whose teachers did not participate (with average gains of 19-22 percentage points compared to 13 points for control students). These effects were maintained a year later. Student justification of correct answers in year 1 of the study showed significant improvement from pre- to post-test for those students whose
Curricular and instructional models and modeling of instruction help teachers to have a vision of practice on which to anchor their own learning and growth.
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teachers analyzed student work samples (which incorporated the use of model assessments, as noted above). In the follow-up year, teachers who utilized cases of teaching also had significantly higher answer justification scores. Those teachers who focused on metacognitive analysis of their own learning experience showed no student gains in written justification of correct answers. The findings of this study are notable because the strongest effects on written justifications of answers, a task more complex than identifying correct answers on a content exam, are connected to the PD that focused on models of effective practice, including curricula and instruction, in combination with student work analysis and classroom pedagogical practice.70
The importance of providing professional learning in conjunction with model curriculum and classroom materials should not be underestimated. Several studies in this review compared groups of teachers who had access to curriculum with no support to those teachers who received curriculum with additional support. For example, Kleickmann et al. (2016) found that teachers who utilized educational curriculum materials alone had lower student achievement than those teachers who had access to those materials and expert support combined with collaborative active learning opportunities that focused heavily on sequencing and presenting science concepts to facilitate student learning.71
Doppelt et al. (2009) reported similar findings.72 Teachers in this study participated in content-based collaborative inquiry sessions as support for a new 8th-grade science curriculum focused on electronics. Teachers participated in active learning based on the new curriculum—they engaged in the model lessons just as their students would. In addition, they spent much time in the workshops reflecting on instructional activities in their classrooms. They shared student work and instructional materials, actively discussing and reflecting on instruction. Students whose teachers used the new curriculum and participated in PD had statistically greater achievement than those students whose teachers used the new curriculum with no PD. Even more significant, achievement for students of those teachers who continued to use the older standard curriculum was greater than that of those students whose teachers used the new curriculum with no PD.73 That suggests that students were better off if their teachers did not attempt to utilize new curricular materials without effective PD supporting them.
Coaching and Expert SupportThe previous sections foreshadowed the role experts can have in helping to guide and facilitate teachers’ learning in the context of their practice. In their work with educators, experts—typically educators themselves—often play this critical role by employing the types of professional learning strategies outlined above, such as modeling strong instructional practices or supporting group discussion and collaborative analysis of student work. Such coaches may also share expertise about content and evidence-based practices, as well.
The practice of providing coaching or other expert support for educators was identified in 30 of the 35 studies reviewed. Four of the studies did not specify who delivered the PD or whether expert support was offered. In one case, coaching and expert support were not offered as part of the PD:
The importance of providing professional learning in conjunction with model curriculum and classroom materials should not be underestimated.
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Shaha and Ellsworth (2013) describe a web-based PD platform with opportunities for teachers to engage with PD content through objective-setting, videos, forums, and communities, without specified expert support.74
One common structure for providing expert support is one-on-one coaching in the context of a teacher’s own classroom.75 Experts also shared their knowledge as facilitators of group workshops76 or as remote mentors utilizing technology to communicate with educators.77 Individuals with a variety of backgrounds can fill the role of expert; in the reviewed studies, coaches and other experts ranged from specially trained master teachers78 and instructional leaders79 to researchers and university faculty.81 For example, Roth et al. (2011) relied on both program leaders to facilitate small-group learning and university-based scientists to teach science content to educators.81
The coaching model studied by Powell and colleagues (2010) offers an example of expert support that contributed to student learning gains.82 The PD was designed to provide early childhood educators with individualized feedback to improve early literacy instruction. Educators attended an initial two-day orientation that introduced program content and fostered relationship building between coaches and educators. Educators then participated in biweekly coaching sessions with a university-based literacy coach, in person or remotely.
Across both formats, coaches and teachers worked together to choose a specific instructional practice on which to focus each session. Coaches then observed the teachers’ practice and provided both supportive and constructive feedback. On-site coaches observed educators for approximately 90 minutes, then the two met for 30 minutes to debrief the observation and provide oral and written feedback, including recommendations to improve practice. For remote coaching, educators shared 15-minute video clips and coaches provided detailed written feedback, supported by links to video exemplars and other materials available through the program. The semester-long program included 16 hours of workshops and seven coaching sessions.83
A two-year randomized control trial found that classrooms led by educators who participated in this coaching model demonstrated larger gains and higher performance on a valid and widely used early childhood classroom quality assessment than did control group classrooms. Children whose teachers participated in the early literacy coaching program showed significantly larger gains and better performance on a number of early language and literacy skills than did those whose teachers had not participated.84
Recent literature also suggests that coaching or other expert scaffolding can support the effective implementation of new curricula, tools, and approaches by educators.85 This is consistent with earlier research providing evidence that teachers who receive coaching are more likely to enact desired teaching practices and apply them more appropriately than those receiving more traditional PD.86 Taken together, the literature demonstrates that expert supporters can play a critical role in creating effective PD.
Coaching or other expert scaffolding can support the effective implementation of new curricula, tools, and approaches by educators.
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Feedback and ReflectionFeedback and reflection are two other powerful tools found in effective PD; they are often employed during mentoring and coaching but are not limited to these spaces. As noted earlier, feedback and reflection are critical components of adult learning theory. Professional development models associated with gains in student learning frequently provide built-in time for teachers to think about, receive input on, and make changes to their practice by providing intentional time for feedback and/or reflection. While feedback and reflection are two distinct practices, they work together to help teachers move thoughtfully toward the expert visions of practice that they may have learned about or seen modeled during PD.
Thirty-four of the 35 reviewed studies specified that PD included efforts to support educators in reflecting on their practice; one study offered no data about reflections on practice. Greenleaf and colleagues (2011) documented one approach to incorporating reflection into PD models.87 After high school biology teachers participated in literacy activities as learners, they participated in a debrief, describing the elements of the activity that extended their literacy learning and considering implications and adaptations of the pedagogy for their classrooms. This reflection process was designed to bolster teachers’ own learning and to support their teaching literacy in science.
In addition, 24 studies outlined processes for providing educators with feedback on their practice. (The remaining 11 did not specify whether feedback was provided to participants). Landry and colleagues (2009) describe multiple opportunities for educators to receive feedback in a program targeting early childhood educators’ ability to promote children’s language and literacy development.88 In the program, which was implemented across four states, educators enrolled in a facilitated online course focused on language and literacy instruction, eCIRCLE. The course included videos of model lessons, online coursework and knowledge assessments, and opportunities to plan lessons and practice skills in small groups and in teachers’ own classrooms. The course also offered interactive message boards that were moderated by expert facilitators. Teachers participated in four hours of this coursework per month throughout the school year. Participating educators also received a supplemental curriculum on preschool language and literacy skills and were encouraged to monitor children’s language and literacy progress using a standardized tool. In addition, some educators participated in biweekly onsite mentoring sessions with the expert facilitators. For those educators receiving mentoring, mentors first observed teacher practice, then facilitated reflective follow-up and provided both positive and constructive feedback to educators using a structured format. Whether through online forums or in-person coaching, teachers participating in the program were offered opportunities to receive feedback from specially trained experts.89
The researchers’ randomized controlled study of the program found that students of teachers who received PD through the program demonstrated greater gains in phonological awareness, an important emergent literacy skill, than students of those who did not.90 Researchers also found that students of teachers who received both expert mentoring and feedback on children’s progress experienced the greatest gains on a variety of language and literacy outcomes.
Professional development models associated with gains in student learning frequently provide built-in time for teachers to think about, receive input on, and make changes to their practice.
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In effective PD programs, the practices of generating feedback and supporting reflection often include opportunities to share both positive and constructive reactions to authentic instances of teacher practice, such as lesson plans, demonstration lessons, or videos of instruction.91 These activities are frequently undertaken in the context of a coaching session92 or a group workshop facilitated by an expert.93 In a few cases, feedback was shared among teachers.94 In each of these settings, effective PD programs leveraged feedback and opportunities for reflection to create richer environments for teacher learning.
Sustained DurationProviding PD that exhibits the aforementioned characteristics and results in meaningful professional learning requires time and quality implementation. Though research has not yet identified a clear threshold for the duration of effective PD models, it does indicate that meaningful professional learning that translates to changes in practice cannot be accomplished in short, one-off workshops.95 The traditional episodic and fragmented approach to PD does not afford the time necessary for learning that is “rigorous” and “cumulative.”96 Professional development that is sustained, offering multiple opportunities for teachers to engage in learning around a single set of concepts or practices, has a greater chance of transforming teaching practices and student learning.
None of the PD initiatives described in this review occurred in the context of a single, isolated encounter.97 The programs instead typically spanned weeks, months, or even academic years, with ongoing engagement in learning by teachers. These findings are consistent with previous literature on the duration of effective PD, which suggests that professional learning must be sustained to have an impact.98 Beyond the findings of many studies of individual PD programs, Wenglinsky (2000) found in an analysis of National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) data that spanned many different teacher experiences across the country that stronger instructional practices in mathematics and science were associated with professional development that was extended and sustained.99 In a review of literature, Yoon et al. (2007) identified nine studies of PD using experimental or quasi-experimental designs and found that the effective PD models examined in these studies offered an average of 49 hours of development per year, with an associated average boost in student achievement of 21 percentile points.100
Thirty-one of the 35 studies we reviewed explicitly described PD that was sustained over time through recurring workshops, coaching sessions, or engagement with online platforms; the remaining four studies did not specify a particular format or duration. The most common model for PD among these studies was participation in an initial, intensive workshop, followed by applications in the classroom and additional development days or coaching sessions to extend and reinforce educator learning.101 For example, teachers participating in the middle school science PD program described by Penuel et al. (2011) attended a two-week summer workshop, followed by ongoing work in their classrooms supported by four development days throughout the school year.102 Several other studies engaged teachers in formal coursework that followed a traditional academic schedule.103
The traditional episodic and fragmented approach to PD does not afford the time necessary for learning that is rigorous and cumulative.
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Another common strategy is to engage teachers in multiple sessions of a similar structure, often over a semester or school year, to promote meaningful professional learning.104 The program described by Heller et al. (2012) included 8 three-hour sessions in which certain ideas about science instruction were taught and discussed, while teachers also engaged in related activities in their classrooms between the sessions. The model studied by Doppelt et al. (2009) was delivered in five workshops, each lasting four hours.105 Between workshop classes, the teachers implemented related activities, which were grist for their reflections and discussion in the workshops. Although these models varied in the overall duration of the PD and the distribution of hours across the program, all provided opportunities for learning across multiple engagements, along with the ongoing connected learning that occurred for teachers within their classrooms as they applied the curriculum ideas and teaching strategies they were working on in the course or workshop series.
One benefit of sustained PD may be the opportunity for teachers to continue their learning outside the formal meetings of the program, whether in their own classroom, in collaboration with colleagues, or by less formal means. As Darling-Hammond et al. (2009) argue: “The duration of professional development appears to be associated with stronger impact on teachers and student learning—in part, perhaps, because such sustained efforts typically include applications to practice, often supported by study groups and/or coaching.”106 By returning to PD settings over time, teachers have an opportunity to refine and apply their understanding of material in their classrooms.
For example, the two-year PD model studied by Johnson and Fargo (2014) engaged teachers in intensive summer workshops as well as ongoing learning during the school year to enhance science instruction for Spanish-speaking elementary school students.107 The program began with a two-week summer workshop that included graduate-level coursework on teaching elementary science, as well as an orientation to a new, inquiry-based science curriculum and strategies for culturally relevant pedagogy. Teachers’ learning from this intensive workshop was reinforced through occasional release days and monthly grade-level workshops with professional learning communities. These additional sessions supported teachers in deepening their learning and provided space for ongoing support in implementing the new curriculum. This cycle was repeated in the second year, with an additional summer workshop and continued release days.108
This model not only offered teachers the opportunity to return repeatedly to the PD material over the course of a semester, but also to apply their learning within the context of their classroom between workshops. By promoting learning over time, both within and between sessions, PD that is sustained may lead to many more hours of learning than is indicated by seat time alone.
By promoting learning over time, both within and between sessions, PD that is sustained may lead to many more hours of learning than is indicated by seat time alone.
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Realizing the Promise of Professional Learning Communities
This review has so far offered rich descriptions of professional development models that have incorporated various elements of effective PD. One currently popular model is the use of Professional Learning Communities (PLCs). While many professional learning community efforts have been poorly implemented and superficial in their design and impact, there is evidence that PLCs can, when implemented with a high degree of quality, support improvements in practice, along with student learning gains. Well-implemented PLCs provide ongoing, job-embedded learning that is active, collaborative, and reflective.
This section moves beyond our review of effective PD models to explore the growing body of research about the conditions under which PLCs can be an effective strategy for supporting ongoing teacher learning within and across schools.
The Benefits of Analyzing Student Work and Student DataThe examination of student work is often a focus of productive professional learning communities. Analyzing student work collaboratively gives teachers opportunities to develop a common understanding of what good work is, what common misunderstandings students have, and what instructional strategies may or may not be working and for whom.109 For example, a study investigating three high-achieving schools that have continuously beaten the odds on standardized tests found that teachers’ use of multiple student data sources to collectively reflect upon and improve instructional practices in team meetings contributed to increases in student achievement.110
While qualitative studies have sought to examine how professional communities are formed and how they operate, several large-scale studies have illustrated how collaborative, job-embedded, professional learning that is focused on student performance has resulted in changed practices and improved student achievement.111 In a comprehensive five-year study of 1,500 restructuring schools, Newman and Wehlage (1997) analyzed three sets of data (School Restructuring Study, National Educational Longitudinal Study, and Study of Chicago School Reform) to understand how various reforms influence improved educational experiences for students.112 In their findings, the authors linked successful professional learning communities to reduced dropout rates among students; lower absenteeism rates; and academic achievement gains in mathematics, science, history, and reading. Another finding had important implications for school equity: The particular characteristics of strong professional communities—shared intellectual purpose and a sense of collective responsibility for student learning—reduced the “traditionally strong relationship between socioeconomic status and achievement gains in mathematics and science.”113
Analyzing student work collaboratively gives teachers opportunities to develop a common understanding of what instructional strategies may or may not be working and for whom.
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Learning From Professional Communities Beyond the SchoolPositive effects of professional communities that operate beyond the school level have also been documented by a number of researchers.114 These are often organized via networks that connect teachers around subject matter or other shared educational concerns. Lieberman and Wood (2002) reported on the work of the National Writing Project (NWP), one of the most successful teacher networks, to understand how teacher learning in a community can be a source of efficacy and confidence in the process of adopting new practices.115 The NWP, initially called the Bay Area Writing Project, began in 1973 as a partnership in California between the University of California, Berkeley, and local school districts. It has grown to more than 185 sites in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.116 The heart of the model is the local school-university partnerships, which operate as autonomous sites to support context-specific strengths and meet context-specific challenges. “These sites are designed to be robust professional and social communities that occupy an intermediary or ‘third space,’ neither wholly of the university nor wholly of the school districts.”117
Despite the autonomy of the local sites, there are common design features and core principles that guide each site and are aligned with all the elements outlined above. The national network focuses on supporting the success of each local site. NWP local sites first focus on creating community among a small group of teachers during a five-week summer institute in which teachers engage in writing, share their work, and critique their peers. In the process of making their work public and critiquing others, teachers learn how to make implicit rules and expectations explicit, and how to give and receive constructive feedback for students. These summer institutes are held at each site and run by “teacher consultants” who are trained and supported by the national network.118
The summer institutes, which were designed to promote risk-taking and collaboration, provide a foundation for ongoing learning for teachers once they have left. These ongoing professional learning programs are collaboratively designed by schools and universities and led by teacher consultants, NWP veteran teachers. In addition, NWP provides many ways to promote active, collaborative learning within and across sites; newsletters, annual conferences, and opportunities to lead workshops are catalysts for the continuous engagement of teachers, creating the intersection of professional learning communities within the school and across the profession.119
An important aspect of the NWP’s success is the inclusion of program research starting from the very first summer institute. NWP collects internal, site-based, practitioner-directed research, as well as external, national, and independent research that directs the evolution of its work. The following box offers study results from the NWP College Ready Writers Program.
Teacher learning in a community can be a source of efficacy and confidence in the process of adopting new practices.
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Effective Professional Development in Practice: National Writing Project’s College-Ready Writers Program
The College-Ready Writers Program (CRWP) is a National Writing Project program that focuses specifically on the argument writing of students in grades 7 through 10 by introducing teachers to new instructional practices based on higher standards for college- and career-ready writing. A two-year random assignment study of the program’s implementation in 12 local Writing Project sites has demonstrated its promise for supporting student learning.120
SRI conducted the study of CRWP in 22 high-poverty rural districts across 10 states—Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, New York, Oklahoma, South Carolina, and Tennessee. Despite such geographical and contextual diversity, the CRWP was implemented with a high degree of fidelity. The study design randomly assigned 44 high-poverty rural districts to either the CRWP program or a control group. The CRWP components included: PD of at least 90 hours over two years with supports that included demonstration lessons, coaching, co-designing learning tasks, co-planning, curricular resources including lesson units for argument writing, and formative assessment tools to help teachers focus on student learning. In contrast, the control group engaged in “business as usual” PD.121
The program succeeded in supporting both teacher and student learning despite the challenges that high-poverty rural districts often face for implementing effective PD. CRWP was found to have a positive, statistically significant impact on three of four attributes of student writing: content, structure, and stance. The remaining attribute, writing conventions, was marginally significant. Authors of the study note, “… this study of teacher professional development is one of the largest and most rigorous to find evidence of an impact on student academic outcomes,” indicating the power of high-quality PD to affect student achievement improvements at scale.122
There are several characteristics of the CRWP that distinguish it from many other programs and which align with research on quality PD. Three key elements are:
1. A sustained focus on learning over time with explicit modeling, engagement in, and feedback about pedagogical writing strategies.
2. A teacher-driven system that is enacted with collaboration at the center of the professional learning work.
3. Active learning focused on classroom practices with student work at the center.
Additionally, this PD is focused on a particularly complex task—using nonfiction text as the evidence for writing a well-reasoned argument.
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Creating the Conditions for Effective Professional Development: Opportunities and Challenges
This review of research on professional development models that have positively impacted student learning has aimed to identify and illustrate professional learning elements in order to help shine light on powerful teacher learning experiences. Examples of PD that have raised student achievement can help policymakers and practitioners better understand what goes into quality teacher professional learning. This review does not explain, however, why some well-designed PD does not improve student achievement.123 In this section, we consider studies both within and beyond the scope of our review to explore factors that support or complicate the implementation of effective PD. We find that conditions for teaching and learning both within schools and at the broader systems level can inhibit the effectiveness of teacher PD.
School Level Several researchers have sought to understand why some PD has proven insufficient to affect teaching practice and raise student achievement in schools.124 In their study of 4th to 6th grade teachers, Bucznyski and Hansen (2010) discussed several barriers to the implementation of PD.125 They challenge the notion that PD is only as effective as a teacher’s will to employ the knowledge and skills gained. They note, “… teachers that are willing to implement professional development practices in the classroom often face hurdles that are beyond their control.”126 Teachers may also face hurdles that are within their control, but which are difficult, if not impossible, to attend to, given the challenging nature of their specific school environments.
Among these barriers are a lack of time allotted to teaching curriculum that uses the newly acquired knowledge and skills; the need to teach mandated curriculum on a pacing guide; challenges of teaching English learners without specific PD to address students’ learning needs; a lack of resources (such as curriculum materials, technology, or science equipment); and classroom management issues. Of these barriers, the study’s authors noted that lack of resources was the largest barrier to PD implementation, commenting that teachers often have to pay for their own materials for their classrooms. As a result,
[w]hen funds are out of pocket for teachers, a financial divide is in place for students of more affluent teachers and students of teachers whose own financial resources are limited. Other resources provided by schools, such as technology, are also limited.127
One teacher in the study noted on a survey, “Having to locate, borrow, or purchase items for an experiment is time consuming and not always possible.”128
These barriers affect students and teachers in a wide range of contexts; they are of particular concern for schools and districts located in high-poverty neighborhoods where financial constraints
Examples of PD that have raised student achievement can help policymakers and practitioners better understand what goes into quality teacher professional learning.
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are often particularly acute. The researchers recommend that teachers be given strategies during PD to proactively address possible obstacles as they arise.129
Johnson and Fargo (2010) echoed these equity challenges, discussing the specific obstacles to applying the lessons of PD in urban schools.130 They note, “Teachers in urban schools often get caught up in the many distractions occurring on a daily basis and struggle to engage learners who are often distracted by complicated lives outside of school.”131 Crises such as school closings and the uncertainty of employment were cited as examples of the type of “turbulence” that urban science teachers faced in the course of acquiring and implementing new learning from PD opportunities.132 These examples also demonstrate how the obstacles faced by teachers in schools may actually be manifestations of broader issues that stem from systemic problems. In the case of limited funding, for example, the learning experiences of teachers as well as students are influenced by broader policy about resource allocation.
System Level Challenges to implementing effective PD extend beyond the school and classroom. A New America report from Tooley and Connally (2016) identified system-level obstacles to effective PD and concluded that there are four overarching areas where improvement is needed to facilitate increased effectiveness of PD.
1. Identifying PD needs: Teacher PD is often determined without understanding what teachers need. This shortfall is frequently exacerbated by a lack of shared vision around what excellent teaching entails. In addition, preparation and training for principals and instructional leaders often fail to address how leaders can identify and organize needs-based PD. Without systems in place to ensure teachers’ needs are being identified and met, PD will not be as effective as it should be.
2. Choosing approaches most likely to be effective: As noted in this review, there is a reasonably strong consensus about the kind of professional learning opportunities likely to yield student achievement. Still, a great deal of PD is implemented that does not meet these standards. “One-off” workshops are easy to schedule and require less time and human capital to implement than evidence-based approaches. Teacher contracts and state recertification requirements also tend to encourage these models by emphasizing seat time as the metric for gauging engagement with PD.
3. Implementing approaches with quality and fidelity: Even when educators have knowledge of effective PD models, implementation presents its own obstacles. For example, a school or district may create a program that includes coaching for teachers. However, it is not sufficient to simply designate coaches and have them available for teachers; many other variables affect coaches’ effectiveness. The authors note, “The coach’s expertise in the teachers’ grade span, subject, and/or school context; the depth of observation, feedback, and suggestions for things to try differently; the authority of a coach to recommend next steps; time and accountability for teachers to follow through with recommended next steps” have implications for the success of the program.133 Other implementation barriers include the lack of an integrated, coherent approach to instruction and insufficient capacity.
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4. Assessing PD outcomes: Few schools, districts, or state education agencies have created good systems of tracking PD, let alone systems for analyzing the quality and impact of PD. Without a sense of what is working and why, it is hard to adopt and implement professional learning for teachers that is evidence based and designed to address potential obstacles.134
Even in the case of well-designed PD, these obstacles can impede the effectiveness of professional learning and hinder its impact on student learning and achievement. The challenges with implementing and scaling evidence-based practices underscore that translating promising PD research into practice remains one area ripe for improvement.
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Conclusions and Policy Implications
Professional development is an important strategy for ensuring that educators are equipped to support deep and complex student learning in their classrooms. However, research shows great variation in the extent to which PD programs accomplish this goal. This paper has examined recent studies of successful PD models that report student learning gains. We identify seven common design elements of these effective PD approaches.
1. They are content focused. 2. They incorporate active learning strategies.3. They engage teachers in collaboration.4. They use models and/or modeling.5. They provide coaching and expert support.6. They include time for feedback and reflection.7. They are of sustained duration.
Across the reviewed studies, these elements have been combined in a variety of ways to support teachers’ professional learning. Indeed, none of the successful programs featured attributes in isolation: As Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) note, the combination of these elements creates a collaborative culture that results in a form of collective professional capital that leverages much more productive, widespread improvement in an organization than would be possible if teachers worked alone in egg-crate classrooms.135 Regardless of the specific model employed, PD should be well designed, incorporating elements of effective PD, as we have described. It should also be linked to identified teacher needs, should ensure that teachers have a say in the type of learning they require to best support their students, and should be regularly evaluated so that quality can be continually improved.
Implications for PolicySupporting and incentivizing the kind of evidence-based PD we have reviewed here could be facilitated by changes in policy. For example:
• Policymakers could adopt standards for professional development to guide the design, evaluation, and funding of professional learning provided to educators. These standards might reflect the features of effective professional learning outlined in this report as well as standards for implementation.136
• Policymakers and administrators could evaluate and redesign the use of time and school schedules to increase opportunities for professional learning and collaboration, including participation in professional learning communities, peer coaching and observations across classrooms, and collaborative planning.
• States, districts, and schools could regularly conduct needs assessments using data from staff surveys to identify areas of professional learning most needed and desired by educators. Data from these sources can help ensure that professional learning is not disconnected from practice and supports the areas of knowledge and skills educators want to develop.
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• State and district administrators could identify and develop expert teachers as mentors and coaches to support learning in their particular area(s) of expertise for other educators.
• States and districts can integrate professional learning into ESSA school improvement initiatives, such as efforts to implement new learning standards, use student data to inform instruction, improve student literacy, increase student access to advanced coursework, and create a positive and inclusive learning environment.
• States and districts can provide technology-facilitated opportunities for professional learning and coaching, using funding available under Titles II and IV of ESSA to address the needs of rural communities and provide opportunities for intradistrict and intraschool collaboration.
• Policymakers can provide flexible funding and continuing education units for learning opportunities that include sustained engagement in collaboration, mentoring, and coaching, as well as institutes, workshops, and seminars.
Implications for Implementation and PracticeAt the same time, well-designed programs must also be implemented well to be effective. Even the best designed PD may fail to produce desired outcomes if it is poorly implemented due to barriers such as
• inadequate resources, including needed curriculum materials;• lack of shared vision about what high-quality instruction entails;• lack of time for planning and implementing new instructional approaches;• conflicting requirements, such as scripted curriculum or pacing guides; and• lack of adequate foundational knowledge on the part of teachers.
Common obstacles to PD should be anticipated and planned for during both the design and implementation phases of PD. Implementing PD well also requires responsiveness to the needs of educators and learners and to the contexts in which teaching and learning will take place.
In the end, well-designed and implemented PD should be considered an essential component of a comprehensive system of teaching and learning that supports students to develop the knowledge, skills, and competencies they need to thrive in the 21st century. To ensure a coherent system that supports teachers across the entire professional continuum, professional learning should link to their experiences in preparation and induction, as well as to teaching standards and evaluation. It should also bridge to leadership opportunities to ensure a comprehensive system focused on the growth and development of teachers.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 25
Appendix A: Methodology
This paper builds upon an earlier review of effective teacher professional development by Darling-Hammond et al. (2009). To identify elements that are prevalent in effective PD, we reviewed the empirical literature on models that have demonstrated benefits for student learning. Our review includes studies from recent decades that use rigorous methodologies to demonstrate a positive link between teacher PD and student outcomes.
Specifically, each study included in the review either employs an experimental or quasi-experimental comparison group, or uses appropriate statistical modeling and hypothesis testing to estimate the effect of teacher PD on students’ academic outcomes, with controls for context variables and student characteristics. The review includes studies that find positive, statistically significant effects of PD on student achievement. All studies included in the review appear in peer-reviewed journals, or represent rigorous, large-scale research studies submitted to federal agencies and subject to review.
We drew on Darling-Hammond et al.’s (2009) survey to identify articles published before 2010 with methodologies and findings to qualify for inclusion in the current review. We paired this approach with a thorough scan of more recent literature, using database searches to identify studies published from 2010 on that meet the criteria for inclusion. Researchers used keyword searches to cull relevant literature from Google Scholar, ERIC, EBSCO, JSTOR, and SAGE in early fall of 2016 and again in spring 2017. Key terms used in these searches include: “teacher professional development,” “professional learning,” “student outcomes,” and “student achievement.” Although we endeavored to undertake an exhaustive search of recent literature, it is possible that relevant studies have been excluded because they were not catalogued under any of the key search terms used. Appendix B details each of the 35 studies that surfaced using this method that met our methodological criteria, eight from Darling-Hammond et al. (2009) and 27 from the broader scan of recent literature.
We then reviewed these studies and qualitatively coded them for program features and characteristics. To begin this process, a researcher generated a list of deductive codes based on previous literature, including Darling-Hammond et al. (2009) and Desimone (2009). Deductive codes included, for example, collaboration and 50+ hour duration. After an initial reading of the papers in the review, researchers refined and expanded coding to include features that emerged from the studies, including sustained duration, opportunities for feedback, and reflection on practice. Researchers created decision rules for each of the refined codes and engaged in ongoing discussion throughout the coding process to ensure inter-coder reliability.
At times, the defined elements of effective PD can overlap. For example, collaboration can be both an active learning strategy and an element unto itself. However, it is possible to engage in active learning without structured collaboration and it is possible to engage in forms of collaboration, such as discussing a theory or idea, that do not involve active applications.
Appendix C provides an overview of the elements that were exhibited by the PD model(s) featured in each study. Two studies that otherwise met the criteria for inclusion in the review were excluded from Appendix C because they contain insufficient detail regarding the PD model to enable qualitative coding of the program elements. These studies—Wenglinsky (2000) and Desimone et al. (2013)—analyze large-scale data sets spanning a variety of contexts and, as a result, provide limited descriptions of the PD provided to teachers. However, these studies provide important evidence
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 26
regarding the effectiveness of PD, so are retained in Appendix B and referred to where relevant in the body of the paper. They have been omitted from Appendix C and the counts of the prevalence of each element in the text due to limited details regarding the PD to which teachers were exposed.
We recognize that this methodology is not without limitations. Because studies of PD typically examine comprehensive models that incorporate many elements, this paper does not seek to draw conclusions about the efficacy of individual program components. We are also unable to comment on the elements of PD models that did not yield positive results on student achievement. It is conceivable that these ineffective models share one or more elements with those highlighted in this study and yet fail to produce positive effects on student achievement, perhaps due to weaknesses in content, design, or implementation. However, it is beyond the scope of this paper to detail why specific programs are unsuccessful. Rather, the study seeks to describe the characteristics of PD that research has been found to have positive relationships with student outcomes. Although the paper dedicates a section to obstacles and challenges to implementation, this remains an area worth further investigation.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 27
App
endi
x B
: Sum
mar
y of
Stu
dies
Rev
iew
ed fo
r Thi
s R
epor
t
Not
e: E
S is
use
d to
den
ote
effe
ct s
izes
.
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Aki
ba, M
. & L
iang
, G. (
2016
). E
ffec
ts o
f tea
cher
pro
fess
iona
l lea
rnin
g ac
tivi
ties
on
stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t gr
owth
. The
Jou
rnal
of E
duca
tion
al R
esea
rch,
109
(1),
99
–110
.
Des
crip
tion
: Res
earc
hers
ana
lyze
d th
ree
year
s of
resu
lts fr
om th
e Te
ache
rs’
Opp
ortu
nity
to L
earn
(TO
TL) s
urve
y of
mid
dle
scho
ol m
athe
mat
ics
teac
hers
in
Mis
sour
i. An
alys
is fo
cuse
s on
wha
t typ
es o
f pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t, as
de
fined
by
the
surv
ey (s
tand
ard
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t, te
ache
r col
labo
ratio
n,
univ
ersi
ty c
ours
es, p
rofe
ssio
nal c
onfe
renc
es, i
nfor
mal
com
mun
icat
ion,
and
in
divi
dual
lear
ning
) are
ass
ocia
ted
with
stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t gro
wth
.
Met
hodo
logy
: Thr
ee-y
ear d
escr
iptiv
e su
rvey
ana
lysi
s•
n=4
67 m
iddl
e sc
hool
mat
hem
atic
s te
ache
rs in
91
Mis
sour
i sch
ools
• S
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent m
easu
red
usin
g th
e M
isso
uri A
sses
smen
t Pro
gram
in
mat
hem
atic
s
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t gro
wth
rate
s w
ere
posi
tivel
y as
soci
ated
with
sc
hool
ave
rage
am
ount
s of
par
ticip
atio
n in
teac
her c
olla
bora
tion,
pro
fess
iona
l co
nfer
ence
s, a
nd in
form
al c
omm
unic
atio
n w
ith c
olle
ague
s. C
ontr
ollin
g fo
r stu
dent
ch
arac
teris
tics
and
teac
her q
ualifi
catio
ns, a
one
-hou
r inc
reas
e in
the
scho
ol
aver
age
amou
nt o
f tea
cher
col
labo
ratio
n w
as a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith a
.01
incr
ease
in
the
annu
al g
row
th ra
te in
stu
dent
mat
h sc
ores
ove
r the
thre
e ye
ars.
A o
ne-h
our
incr
ease
in th
e sc
hool
ave
rage
am
ount
of t
each
er p
artic
ipat
ion
in p
rofe
ssio
nal
conf
eren
ces
and
info
rmal
com
mun
icat
ion
wer
e as
soci
ated
with
incr
ease
s in
the
annu
al g
row
th ra
te o
f .15
and
.23
resp
ectiv
ely.
Alle
n, J
. P.,
Pian
ta, R
. C.,
Gre
gory
, A.,
Mik
ami,
A. Y
., &
Lun
, J. (
2011
). A
n in
tera
ctio
n-ba
sed
appr
oach
to e
nhan
cing
sec
onda
ry s
choo
l ins
truc
tion
and
st
uden
t ac
hiev
emen
t. S
cien
ce, 3
33(6
045
), 1
034–
1037
.
Des
crip
tion
: Tea
cher
s en
rolle
d in
My
Teac
hing
Par
tner
–Sec
onda
ry, a
web
-med
iate
d co
achi
ng p
rogr
am d
esig
ned
to im
prov
e te
ache
r-stu
dent
inte
ract
ions
. Tea
cher
s pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
an
initi
al tr
aini
ng w
orks
hop
follo
wed
by
twic
e-m
onth
ly c
oach
ing
from
a re
mot
e m
ento
r. Fo
r eac
h co
achi
ng s
essi
on, t
each
ers
wer
e as
ked
to s
ubm
it sh
ort v
ideo
s of
thei
r pra
ctic
e, re
flect
on
thei
r tea
chin
g, a
nd re
spon
d to
que
stio
ns
from
thei
r coa
ch re
gard
ing
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
teac
her p
ract
ice
and
stud
ent
enga
gem
ent.
Each
refle
ctio
n w
as fo
llow
ed b
y a
20- t
o 30
-min
ute
phon
e co
nfer
ence
w
ith th
e co
ach.
Tea
cher
s al
so a
tten
ded
mon
thly
“bo
oste
r” w
orks
hops
and
wer
e gi
ven
acce
ss to
an
anno
tate
d vi
deo
libra
ry fo
r the
dur
atio
n of
the
prog
ram
. Ove
rall,
th
e pr
ogra
m o
ffer
ed 2
0 ho
urs
of in
-ser
vice
trai
ning
ove
r 13
mon
ths
in a
dditi
on to
th
e tim
e te
ache
rs s
pent
wor
king
on
the
prog
ram
’s c
once
pts
in th
eir c
lass
room
s.
Met
hodo
logy
: Tw
o-ye
ar ra
ndom
ized
con
trol
led
tria
l•
n=7
8 se
cond
ary
scho
ol te
ache
rs a
nd 2
,237
sec
onda
ry s
tude
nts
in 1
2 Vi
rgin
ia
scho
ols
• S
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent m
easu
red
by V
irgin
ia s
tate
sta
ndar
dize
d te
sts
in re
leva
nt
subj
ect
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s w
hose
teac
hers
par
ticip
ated
in th
e pr
ogra
m th
e pr
evio
us
scho
ol y
ear d
emon
stra
ted
gain
s in
stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t of .
22 s
tand
ard
devi
atio
ns
(equ
ival
ent t
o an
ave
rage
incr
ease
from
the
50th
to 5
9th
perc
entil
e) re
lativ
e to
st
uden
ts w
hose
teac
hers
had
not
par
ticip
ated
.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 28
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Alle
n, J
. P.,
Haf
en, C
. A.,
Gre
gory
, A. C
., M
ikam
i, A
. Y.,
& P
iant
a, R
. (20
15).
En
hanc
ing
seco
ndar
y sc
hool
inst
ruct
ion
and
stud
ent
achi
evem
ent:
Rep
licat
ion
and
exte
nsio
n of
the
My
Teac
hing
Par
tner
–Sec
onda
ry in
terv
enti
on. J
ourn
al o
f Res
earc
h on
Edu
cati
onal
Effe
ctiv
enes
s 8(
4):
475
–489
.
Des
crip
tion
: Tea
cher
s pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
My
Teac
hing
Par
tner
–Sec
onda
ry, a
web
-m
edia
ted
coac
hing
pro
gram
to im
prov
e te
ache
r-stu
dent
inte
ract
ions
in th
e cl
assr
oom
. Te
ache
rs p
artic
ipat
ed in
an
initi
al h
alf-d
ay tr
aini
ng w
ith m
aste
r tea
cher
s fr
om
the
rese
arch
team
who
wou
ld g
o on
to p
rovi
de re
mot
e co
achi
ng fo
r the
dur
atio
n of
the
prog
ram
. Thi
s in
itial
wor
ksho
p fo
cuse
d on
the
dim
ensi
ons
of h
igh-
qual
ity
stud
ent-t
each
er in
tera
ctio
ns, s
uch
as te
ache
r sen
sitiv
ity a
nd re
gard
for s
tude
nt
pers
pect
ives
, and
incl
uded
vid
eos
of e
xem
plar
y pr
actic
e. O
ver t
he n
ext t
wo
acad
emic
ye
ars,
teac
hers
eng
aged
in 1
2 re
mot
e co
achi
ng c
ycle
s fo
cuse
d on
stu
dent
-teac
her
rela
tions
hips
, cla
ssro
om o
rgan
izat
ion,
and
inst
ruct
iona
l sup
port
. In
each
coa
chin
g cy
cle,
teac
hers
sha
red
a vi
deo
of a
typi
cal l
esso
n w
ith th
eir c
oach
, who
cho
se s
hort
se
gmen
ts o
f the
less
on to
hig
hlig
ht fo
r ana
lysi
s an
d di
scus
sion
. Coa
ches
sha
red
thes
e se
gmen
ts w
ith te
ache
rs, w
ho w
ere
aske
d to
exa
min
e th
eir o
wn
prac
tice,
st
uden
t res
pons
es to
thei
r pra
ctic
e, a
nd th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n te
ache
r pra
ctic
e an
d st
uden
t rea
ctio
ns. T
his
refle
ctio
n w
as fo
llow
ed b
y a
20- t
o 30
-min
ute
phon
e co
nfer
ence
focu
sed
on in
stru
ctio
nal s
trat
egie
s to
str
engt
hen
inte
ract
ions
with
st
uden
ts. T
his
coac
hing
cyc
le o
ccur
red
ever
y 6
wee
ks. T
he 2
-yea
r pro
gram
con
clud
ed
with
a fi
nal b
oost
er w
orks
hop.
Met
hodo
logy
: Str
atifi
ed ra
ndom
ized
con
trol
led
tria
l•
n=
86 s
econ
dary
sch
ool t
each
ers
and
1,19
4 se
cond
ary
stud
ents
in a
div
erse
ur
ban
scho
ol d
istr
ict.
• S
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent m
easu
red
by V
irgin
ia s
tate
sta
ndar
dize
d te
sts
in th
e su
bjec
t are
as ta
ught
by
the
part
icip
atin
g te
ache
rs.
Find
ings
: At t
he e
nd o
f the
two-
year
pro
gram
, stu
dent
s w
hose
teac
hers
pa
rtic
ipat
ed d
emon
stra
ted
gain
s in
ach
ieve
men
t equ
ival
ent t
o an
ave
rage
in
crea
se fr
om th
e 50
th to
59th
per
cent
ile re
lativ
e to
stu
dent
s w
hose
teac
hers
ha
d no
t par
ticip
ated
(ES
= 0.
48).
Ant
onio
u, P
. & K
yria
kide
s, L
. (20
13).
A d
ynam
ic in
tegr
ated
app
roac
h to
teac
her
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t: Im
pact
and
sus
tain
abili
ty o
f the
eff
ects
on
impr
ovin
g te
ache
r beh
avio
r and
stu
dent
out
com
es. T
each
ing
and
Teac
her E
duca
tion
, 29,
1–
12.
Des
crip
tion
: Tea
cher
s pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
PD
usi
ng e
ither
the
Dyn
amic
Inte
grat
ed
Appr
oach
(DIA
) or t
he H
olis
tic A
ppro
ach
(HA)
. Usi
ng th
e D
IA, t
each
ers’
ski
lls w
ere
eval
uate
d an
d as
sign
ed to
one
of fi
ve d
evel
opm
enta
l sta
ges,
with
eac
h st
age
focu
sing
on
incr
easi
ngly
com
plex
teac
hing
ski
lls. T
he H
olis
tic A
ppro
ach
exam
ines
att
itude
s,
belie
fs, a
nd p
ract
ices
not
lim
ited
to s
tage
s an
d sk
ills.
Tea
cher
s at
tend
ed n
ine
mon
thly
ses
sion
s th
roug
hout
the
scho
ol y
ear.
The
DIA
gro
up s
essi
ons
cons
iste
d of
as
sign
ing
teac
hers
’ dev
elop
men
tal s
tage
s an
d co
llabo
ratin
g an
d cr
eatin
g in
divi
dual
ac
tion
plan
s. B
etw
een
each
PD
ses
sion
, tea
cher
s im
plem
ente
d th
eir p
lans
in th
eir
clas
sroo
ms,
rece
ived
feed
back
, and
revi
sed
thei
r pla
ns. T
each
ers
in th
e H
A gr
oup
refle
cted
and
dis
cuss
ed a
pro
blem
bas
ed o
n at
titud
e, b
elie
fs, a
nd p
ract
ice.
The
re
mai
ning
ses
sion
s w
ere
used
to c
reat
e, d
iscu
ss im
plem
enta
tion,
and
adj
ust a
n ac
tion
plan
with
col
leag
ues.
Eac
h m
onth
ly s
essi
on la
sted
3-4
hou
rs in
dur
atio
n to
talin
g 27
-36
hour
s. B
oth
grou
ps c
ompl
eted
a to
tal o
f 88
.5 h
ours
of P
D.
Met
hodo
logy
: Ran
dom
ized
con
trol
led
tria
l•
n=1
23 3
rd- t
o 6t
h-gr
ade
teac
hers
in C
ypru
s sc
hool
s an
d 13
1 st
uden
ts•
Crit
erio
n-re
fere
nce
mat
h te
sts
Find
ings
: Ove
rall,
the
achi
evem
ent o
f stu
dent
s w
hose
teac
hers
em
ploy
ed D
IA
was
0.3
4 st
anda
rd d
evia
tions
hig
her t
han
thos
e in
the
HA
grou
p.St
uden
ts o
f tea
cher
s at
sta
ges
1 an
d 2
scor
ed lo
wer
(-0.
52 a
nd -0
.24
stan
dard
de
viat
ions
resp
ectiv
ely)
than
thos
e of
teac
hers
at s
tage
3. S
tude
nts
of te
ache
rs
at s
tage
4 h
ad th
e hi
ghes
t ach
ieve
men
t gai
ns. S
tude
nts
of te
ache
rs in
sta
ge
4 of
the
DIA
gro
up s
core
d 0.
32 s
tand
ard
devi
atio
ns h
ighe
r tha
n st
uden
ts o
f te
ache
rs a
t sta
ge 3
.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 29
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Buc
zyns
ki, S
. & H
anse
n, C
. B. (
2010
). Im
pact
of p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent
on
teac
her p
ract
ice;
unc
over
ing
conn
ecti
ons.
Tea
cher
and
Tea
cher
Edu
cati
on, 2
6,
599–
607.
Des
crip
tion
: Tea
cher
PD
focu
sed
on in
tegr
ated
, inq
uiry
-bas
ed in
stru
ctio
n in
el
emen
tary
cla
ssro
oms.
An
Inqu
iry
Lear
ning
Par
tner
ship
(ILP
) was
form
ed b
etw
een
two
urba
n sc
hool
dis
tric
ts, a
sci
ence
mus
eum
, and
a u
nive
rsity
to d
evel
op
the
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t pro
gram
for 4
th- t
o 6t
h-gr
ade
trad
e te
ache
rs.
The
co-d
esig
ned
PD c
onsi
sted
of s
tand
ards
-bas
ed c
onte
nt a
nd in
quir
y-ba
sed
stra
tegi
es. P
D c
onsi
sted
of l
ectu
res
on s
ubje
ct m
atte
r by
univ
ersi
ty p
rofe
ssor
s pa
ired
with
con
stru
ctiv
ist,
hand
s-on
exp
erie
nces
for t
each
ers
with
sci
ence
kits
an
d de
mon
stra
tion
of in
quir
y pr
actic
es. S
cien
ce c
onte
nt w
as ta
ught
by
univ
ersi
ty
facu
lty, w
hile
ped
agog
y se
ssio
ns w
ere
led
by th
e IL
P di
rect
or a
nd d
istr
ict r
esou
rce
teac
hers
. Ped
agog
y se
ssio
n to
pics
wer
e id
entifi
ed a
s fo
rmat
ive
asse
ssm
ent,
use
of s
tude
nt s
cien
ce n
oteb
ooks
, unp
acki
ng s
tand
ards
, tea
chin
g En
glis
h le
arne
rs,
adap
ting
curr
icul
um, b
est p
ract
ices
, and
add
ress
ing
the
achi
evem
ent g
ap. P
D w
as
adm
inis
tere
d du
ring
a 35
-hou
r, w
eekl
ong
sum
mer
inst
itute
. In
addi
tion,
teac
hers
at
tend
ed a
t lea
st s
even
of 2
9 av
aila
ble
seve
n-ho
ur S
atur
day
cont
ent s
essi
ons
over
th
e co
urse
of a
n ac
adem
ic y
ear.
Met
hodo
logy
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal s
tudy
with
in a
n ex
plor
ator
y ca
se s
tudy
• n
=118
vet
eran
4th
- to
6th-
grad
e te
ache
rs a
cros
s tw
o ur
ban
dist
ricts
’ lo
w-p
erfo
rmin
g sc
hool
s an
d 1,
964
5th-
grad
e st
uden
ts•
Stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t mea
sure
d by
sco
res
on 2
005
and
2006
Cal
iforn
ia
Stan
dard
s Te
sts
(CST
s) fr
om g
rade
5 a
nd fr
om lo
cal a
sses
smen
ts
Find
ings
: In
one
dist
rict,
amon
g pa
rtic
ipat
ing
teac
hers
’ stu
dent
s, 9
% m
ore
scor
ed p
rofic
ient
or a
dvan
ced
on th
e CS
T in
200
6 th
an in
200
5, c
ompa
red
to
a 2%
gai
n fr
om te
ache
rs w
ho d
id n
ot p
artic
ipat
e in
PD
. In
the
seco
nd d
istr
ict,
the
scor
es o
f par
ticip
atin
g te
ache
rs’ s
tude
nts
wer
e st
able
whi
le th
ose
of
nonp
artic
ipat
ing
teac
hers
dec
lined
, sho
win
g a
4% d
rop
in th
e pe
rcen
t sco
ring
profi
cien
t or a
dvan
ced.
The
gre
ates
t gai
ns in
stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t occ
urre
d at
si
tes
whe
re m
ultip
le te
ache
rs w
ere
invo
lved
in th
e PD
.
Buy
sse,
V.,
Cas
tro,
C. C
., &
Pei
sner
-Fei
nber
g, E
. (20
10).
Eff
ects
of a
pro
fess
iona
l de
velo
pmen
t pr
ogra
m o
n cl
assr
oom
pra
ctic
es a
nd o
utco
mes
for L
atin
o du
al
lang
uage
lear
ners
. Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Res
earc
h Q
uart
erly
25
: 194
–206
.
Des
crip
tion
: Nue
stro
s N
iños
Ear
ly L
angu
age
and
Lite
racy
Pro
gram
is a
rese
arch
-bas
ed
PD p
rogr
am fo
cuse
d on
eff
ectiv
e in
stru
ctio
nal p
ract
ices
to p
rom
ote
lang
uage
and
lit
erac
y sk
ills
for p
re-k
chi
ldre
n in
gen
eral
, and
Lat
inx
dual
lang
uage
lear
ners
(DLL
s)
in p
artic
ular
. The
PD
was
des
igne
d fo
r mon
olin
gual
teac
hers
who
use
d En
glis
h as
th
e la
ngua
ge o
f ins
truc
tion
and
was
str
uctu
red
as a
thre
e-da
y in
stitu
te c
ondu
cted
ov
er s
ever
al w
eeks
, with
follo
w-u
p se
ssio
ns th
roug
hout
the
cour
se o
f the
yea
r. Th
e in
stitu
te c
onta
ined
six
mod
ules
focu
sed
on to
pics
of l
itera
cy a
nd D
LLs.
Tea
cher
s w
ere
also
pro
vide
d w
ith a
rang
e of
inst
ruct
iona
l str
ateg
ies
and
sugg
estio
ns fo
r spe
cific
ac
com
mod
atio
ns to
faci
litat
e th
e de
velo
pmen
t of c
hild
ren’
s pr
imar
y la
ngua
ge in
Sp
anis
h. F
ollo
w-u
p se
ssio
ns w
ith b
iling
ual L
atin
x co
nsul
tant
s su
ppor
ting
lear
ning
co
mm
uniti
es o
f tea
cher
s to
ok p
lace
ove
r the
sch
ool y
ear.
Dur
ing
the
lear
ning
co
mm
uniti
es, t
each
ers
wor
ked
colla
bora
tivel
y to
cre
ate
less
on p
lans
and
vie
w
reco
rdin
gs o
f the
mse
lves
and
oth
ers
teac
hing
to re
fine
and
impr
ove
thei
r ow
n in
stru
ctio
nal s
trat
egie
s fo
r Lat
inx
DLL
chi
ldre
n. C
onsu
ltant
s al
so m
et w
ith te
ache
rs
one-
on-o
ne.
Met
hodo
logy
: Ran
dom
ized
con
trol
led
tria
l •
n=5
5 te
ache
rs a
nd 1
93 p
re-k
Lat
inx
dual
lang
uage
lear
ners
in N
orth
Ca
rolin
a’s
Mor
e at
Fou
r Pre
-Kin
derg
arte
n Pr
ogra
m•
Stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t mea
sure
d in
Eng
lish
and
Span
ish
on th
e W
oodc
ock
Lang
uage
Pro
ficie
ncy
Bat
tery
-Rev
ised
: Eng
lish
and
Span
ish
Form
s; th
e Pe
abod
y Pi
ctur
e Vo
cabu
lary
Tes
t and
cor
resp
ondi
ng T
est d
e Vo
cabu
lario
en
Emag
enes
Pea
body
; the
Pho
nolo
gica
l Aw
aren
ess
Task
s; N
amin
g Le
tter
s; a
nd
Whe
re’s
My
Tedd
y St
ory
and
Prin
t Con
cept
s
Find
ings
: Tea
cher
s’ g
ener
al la
ngua
ge a
nd li
tera
cy p
ract
ices
and
thos
e sp
ecifi
c to
Lat
ino
ELLs
mea
sura
bly
impr
oved
. For
out
com
es a
sses
sed
in S
pani
sh, t
here
w
ere
sign
ifica
ntly
gre
ater
gai
ns fo
r chi
ldre
n in
the
inte
rven
tion
grou
p th
an in
the
cont
rol g
roup
on
the
Phon
olog
ical
Aw
aren
ess
(ES=
.69)
and
Rhy
me
mat
chin
g (E
S=.6
8) ta
sks.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 30
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Cam
pbel
l, P.
F. &
Mal
kus,
N. N
. (20
11).
The
impa
ct o
f ele
men
tary
mat
hem
atic
s co
ache
s on
stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t. T
he E
lem
enta
ry S
choo
l Jou
rnal
, 111
(3),
43
0–45
4.
Des
crip
tion
: The
stu
dy o
utlin
es th
e pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent m
athe
mat
ics
coac
hes
rece
ived
to d
eliv
er o
nsite
, who
le-s
choo
l tea
cher
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t in
elem
enta
ry s
choo
ls. C
oach
es re
ceiv
ed s
peci
aliz
ed tr
aini
ng in
five
cou
rses
focu
sing
on
mat
hem
atic
s co
nten
t, m
athe
mat
ics
peda
gogy
, and
edu
catio
nal l
eade
rshi
p th
at
wer
e de
sign
ed fo
r the
pro
gram
and
pro
vide
d th
roug
h lo
cal u
nive
rsiti
es. C
ours
es
wer
e co
-taug
ht b
y m
athe
mat
icia
ns, a
nd m
athe
mat
ics
educ
ator
s an
d co
ache
s w
ere
prov
ided
acc
ess
to c
ours
e m
ater
ials
, vid
eo e
xem
plar
s, a
nd c
ase
stud
ies.
Coa
ches
’ co
urse
wor
k w
as c
ompl
eted
ove
r tw
o ye
ars.
Dat
a fr
om th
e st
udy
indi
cate
that
coa
ches
’ pr
imar
y ac
tiviti
es in
thei
r pla
cem
ent s
choo
ls in
clud
ed c
oach
ing
teac
hers
and
su
ppor
ting
asse
ssm
ent.
Met
hodo
logy
: Thr
ee-y
ear r
ando
miz
ed c
ontr
olle
d tr
ial
• n
=36
elem
enta
ry s
choo
ls in
urb
an a
nd u
rban
-edg
e sc
hool
dis
tric
ts
• S
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent m
easu
red
by V
irgin
ia’s
sta
tew
ide
stan
dard
ized
ac
hiev
emen
t tes
t in
mat
hem
atic
s
Find
ings
: Ass
igni
ng e
lem
enta
ry m
athe
mat
ics
coac
hes
impr
oved
stu
dent
ac
hiev
emen
t in
grad
es 3
-5 b
y .14
to .1
9 st
anda
rd d
evia
tions
in e
ach
grad
e le
vel.
Stro
nger
eff
ects
on
achi
evem
ent w
ere
obse
rved
in g
rade
s 4
and
5 th
an
in g
rade
3. T
he p
rese
nce
of a
mat
hem
atic
s co
ach
did
not h
ave
a si
gnifi
cant
im
pact
on
stud
ent a
chie
vem
ent d
urin
g th
e fir
st y
ear o
f pla
cem
ent.
Car
pent
er, T
. P.,
Fenn
ema,
E.,
Pete
rson
, P. L
., C
hian
g, C
., &
Loe
f, M
. (19
89).
U
sing
kno
wle
dge
of c
hild
ren’
s m
athe
mat
ics
thin
king
in c
lass
room
teac
hing
: An
expe
rim
enta
l stu
dy. A
mer
ican
Edu
cati
onal
Res
earc
h Jo
urna
l 26(
4):
499
–531
.
Des
crip
tion
: Ear
ly e
lem
enta
ry s
choo
l tea
cher
s pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
a m
onth
long
sum
mer
w
orks
hop
desi
gned
to e
nhan
ce th
eir u
nder
stan
ding
of c
hild
ren’
s m
athe
mat
ical
th
inki
ng. U
nive
rsity
facu
lty le
d th
e w
orks
hop,
whi
ch w
as fo
cuse
d on
rese
arch
abo
ut
child
ren’
s ap
proa
ches
to a
dditi
on a
nd s
ubtr
actio
n an
d pr
inci
ples
for i
ts a
pplic
atio
n in
the
clas
sroo
m. P
artic
ipat
ion
in th
e w
orks
hop
earn
ed te
ache
rs th
ree
univ
ersi
ty
cred
its a
nd e
ntai
led
atte
ndan
ce a
t lec
ture
s an
d in
volv
emen
t in
a va
riety
of a
ctiv
e-le
arni
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties
such
as
grou
p di
scus
sion
s an
d w
orks
hops
, uni
t pla
nnin
g, a
nd
shar
ed a
naly
sis
of c
urric
ular
mat
eria
ls. T
each
ers
also
rece
ived
free
tim
e to
wor
k on
pr
ojec
ts o
f the
ir ch
oosi
ng, i
ndiv
idua
lly o
r with
col
leag
ues
and
wor
ksho
p le
ader
s as
pa
rtic
ipan
ts p
refe
rred
. Fol
low
ing
the
wor
ksho
p, te
ache
rs m
et w
ith w
orks
hop
lead
ers
one
time;
teac
hers
als
o ha
d co
ntin
ued
acce
ss to
a re
sour
ce p
erso
n af
filia
ted
with
the
prog
ram
thro
ugho
ut th
e ye
ar. O
vera
ll, th
e w
orks
hop
prov
ided
80
hour
s of
pro
fess
iona
l de
velo
pmen
t.
Met
hodo
logy
: Ran
dom
ized
con
trol
led
tria
l•
n=4
0 1s
t-gra
de te
ache
rs in
24
Wis
cons
in s
choo
ls a
nd a
bout
480
1st
-gra
de
stud
ents
•
At p
re-te
st, s
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent w
as m
easu
red
usin
g th
e Io
wa
Test
of B
asic
Sk
ills
(ITB
S). A
t pos
t-tes
t, re
sear
cher
s us
ed IT
BS
and
othe
r sta
ndar
dize
d an
d re
sear
cher
-des
igne
d m
athe
mat
ics
item
s.
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s of
teac
hers
who
par
ticip
ated
in th
e w
orks
hop
outp
erfo
rmed
st
uden
ts o
f tea
cher
s w
ho d
id n
ot o
n th
ree
of s
ix m
easu
res
of m
athe
mat
ics
achi
evem
ent,
incl
udin
g on
e m
easu
re o
f com
puta
tion
and
two
mea
sure
s of
pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng. T
hese
stu
dent
s w
ere
also
mor
e in
clin
ed to
be
mor
e co
gniti
vely
gu
ided
in th
eir b
elie
fs a
bout
mat
hem
atic
al le
arni
ng a
nd to
repo
rt g
reat
er
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
mat
hem
atic
s.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 31
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Des
imon
e, L
., Sm
ith,
T.,
& P
hilli
ps, K
. (20
13).
Lin
king
stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t gr
owth
to p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent
part
icip
atio
n an
d ch
ange
s in
inst
ruct
ion:
A
long
itud
inal
stu
dy o
f ele
men
tary
stu
dent
s an
d te
ache
rs in
Tit
le I
scho
ols.
Tea
cher
s C
olle
ge R
ecor
d, 1
15(5
), 1
–46.
This
art
icle
focu
sed
on tw
o ty
pes
of p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent:
cont
ent-f
ocus
ed
and
part
icip
atio
n-fo
cuse
d (ti
me
spen
t on
mat
h in
stru
ctio
n). U
sing
dat
a fr
om th
e Lo
ngitu
dina
l Eva
luat
ion
of S
choo
l Cha
nge
and
Perf
orm
ance
(LES
CP),
auth
ors
aim
ed to
an
swer
: 1) t
o w
hat e
xten
t do
teac
hers
’ sel
f-rep
orte
d to
pic
cove
rage
and
em
phas
is o
n m
emor
izat
ion
and
solv
ing
nove
l pro
blem
s, a
nd ti
me
spen
t on
mat
hem
atic
s in
stru
ctio
n pr
edic
t stu
dent
gro
wth
? D
oes
a te
ache
r’s ti
me
spen
t on
mat
hem
atic
s in
stru
ctio
n an
d em
phas
is o
n m
emor
izat
ion
and
solv
ing
nove
l pro
blem
s pr
edic
t stu
dent
gro
wth
? an
d 2)
to
wha
t ext
ent d
oes
teac
her p
artic
ipat
ion
in c
onte
nt-fo
cuse
d pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent
pred
ict t
he a
spec
ts o
f ins
truc
tion
in th
e fir
st q
uest
ion
to b
e re
late
d to
incr
ease
s in
st
uden
ts’ a
chie
vem
ent g
ains
in m
athe
mat
ics?
To
wha
t ext
ent d
oes
part
icip
atio
n in
co
nten
t-foc
used
PD
pre
dict
if a
teac
her w
ill s
pend
mor
e tim
e on
mem
oriz
atio
n or
nov
el
prob
lem
-sol
ving
and
rela
te to
stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t in
mat
hem
atic
s. R
esea
rche
rs
anal
yzed
teac
hers
’ ins
truc
tiona
l pra
ctic
e an
d pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent
over
thre
e ye
ars
and
stud
ent a
cade
mic
gro
wth
ove
r tho
se th
ree
year
s.
Met
hodo
logy
: Thr
ee-y
ear q
uasi
-exp
erim
enta
l stu
dy u
sing
hie
rarc
hica
l lin
ear
mod
elin
g•
n=4
57 3
rd- t
o 5t
h-gr
ade
teac
hers
and
4,8
03 s
tude
nts
in 7
1 hi
gh-p
over
ty
scho
ols
• S
tude
nt o
utco
mes
mea
sure
d by
SAT
-9 te
sts
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
gro
wth
was
15%
of a
sta
ndar
d de
viat
ion
slow
er th
an
aver
age
for s
tude
nts
who
se te
ache
rs fo
cuse
d on
bas
ic to
pics
and
15%
of a
st
anda
rd d
evia
tion
fast
er th
an a
vera
ge fo
r stu
dent
s w
hose
teac
hers
focu
sed
on a
dvan
ced
topi
cs. G
row
th w
as 7
.5%
of a
sta
ndar
d de
viat
ion
slow
er th
an
aver
age
for s
tude
nts
who
se te
ache
rs e
mph
asiz
ed m
emor
izin
g fa
cts.
Tea
cher
s w
ho p
artic
ipat
ed in
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t tha
t foc
used
on
mat
h co
nten
t or
inst
ruct
iona
l str
ateg
ies
in m
athe
mat
ics
(in Y
ear 1
) wer
e m
ore
likel
y to
teac
h in
w
ays
asso
ciat
ed w
ith s
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent g
row
th; f
or e
xam
ple,
they
wer
e 11
%
of a
sta
ndar
d de
viat
ion
mor
e lik
ely
to te
ach
adva
nced
topi
cs.
Dop
pelt
, Y.,
Schu
nn C
. D.,
Silk
, E. M
., M
ehal
ik, M
. M.,
Rey
nold
s, B
., &
War
d, E
. (2
009
). E
valu
atin
g th
e im
pact
of f
acili
tate
d le
arni
ng c
omm
unit
y ap
proa
ch to
pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent
on te
ache
r pra
ctic
e an
d st
uden
t ac
hiev
emen
t. R
esea
rch
in S
cien
ce a
nd T
echn
olog
ical
Edu
cati
on, 2
7(3
), 3
39–3
54.
Des
crip
tion
: Tea
cher
s pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
con
tent
-bas
ed c
olla
bora
tive
inqu
iry (C
BCI
) se
ssio
ns in
ord
er to
rece
ive
supp
ort f
or a
new
8th
-gra
de s
cien
ce c
urric
ulum
focu
sed
on
elec
tron
ics.
Tw
o se
ssio
ns o
ccur
red
prio
r to
impl
emen
tatio
n; tw
o du
ring;
and
the
final
w
orks
hop
occu
rred
aft
er th
e im
plem
enta
tion
as a
fina
l refl
ectio
n on
the
unit.
Tea
cher
s w
ere
enga
ged
in a
ctiv
ity le
arni
ng s
ituat
ed in
the
curr
icul
um—
they
act
ually
eng
aged
in
the
less
ons
just
as
thei
r stu
dent
s w
ould
. In
addi
tion,
they
spe
nt m
uch
time
in th
e w
orks
hops
refle
ctin
g on
inst
ruct
iona
l act
iviti
es in
thei
r cla
ssro
oms.
The
y sh
ared
stu
dent
w
ork
and
inst
ruct
iona
l mat
eria
ls, a
ctiv
ely
disc
ussi
ng a
nd re
flect
ing
on in
stru
ctio
n.
In y
ear 1
of t
he s
tudy
, cur
ricul
um d
esig
ners
led
the
PD. Y
ear 2
, tea
cher
lead
ers
from
th
e fir
st c
ohor
t led
the
PD. K
ey e
lem
ents
of t
he P
D w
ere
the
oppo
rtun
ity fo
r tea
cher
s to
dis
cuss
stu
dent
s’ u
nder
stan
ding
s, c
olle
ct a
nd a
naly
ze d
ata,
sha
re re
sults
with
co
lleag
ues,
and
pro
blem
-sol
ve in
stru
ctio
nal s
olut
ions
col
labo
rativ
ely.
In to
tal,
teac
hers
pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
five
four
-hou
r wor
ksho
p se
ssio
ns.
Met
hodo
logy
: Tw
o-ye
ar q
uasi
-exp
erim
enta
l stu
dy
• n
=23
8th-
grad
e sc
ienc
e te
ache
rs in
a m
id-s
ized
urb
an s
choo
l dis
tric
t •
Stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t was
mea
sure
d by
a s
ix-q
uest
ion
know
ledg
e te
st in
yea
r 1
and
a 20
-que
stio
n kn
owle
dge
test
in y
ear 2
of t
he s
tudy
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s w
hose
teac
hers
par
ticip
ated
in th
e PD
had
an
adva
ntag
e in
ach
ieve
men
t ove
r tho
se w
hose
teac
hers
did
not
. Stu
dent
s w
hose
teac
hers
us
ed th
e ne
w c
urric
ulum
and
par
ticip
ated
in P
D h
ad s
igni
fican
tly g
reat
er
achi
evem
ent t
han
thos
e st
uden
ts w
hose
teac
hers
use
d th
e ne
w c
urric
ulum
w
ith n
o PD
(ES=
1.17
). Th
is re
mai
ned
true
for s
tude
nts
who
se te
ache
rs
cont
inue
d to
use
the
new
cur
ricul
um.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 32
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Fink
elst
ein,
N.,
Han
son,
T.,
Hua
ng, C
. W.,
Hir
schm
an, B
., &
Hua
ng, M
. (20
10).
Eff
ects
of p
robl
em b
ased
eco
nom
ics
on h
igh
scho
ol e
cono
mic
s in
stru
ctio
n. F
inal
re
port
. Nat
iona
l Cen
ter f
or E
duca
tion
Eva
luat
ion
and
Reg
iona
l Ass
ista
nce,
NC
EE
2010
–400
2.
Des
crip
tion
: PD
focu
sed
on th
e Pr
oble
m B
ased
Eco
nom
ics
curr
icul
um d
evel
oped
by
the
Buc
k In
stitu
te fo
r Edu
catio
n on
12t
h-gr
ader
s’ c
onte
nt k
now
ledg
e m
easu
red
by
the
Test
of E
cono
mic
Lite
racy
and
a p
erfo
rman
ce ta
sk a
s op
pose
d to
a tr
aditi
onal
le
ctur
e an
d te
xtbo
ok fo
rmat
. The
pro
blem
-bas
ed a
ppro
ach
allo
ws
stud
ents
to
reas
on th
roug
h an
d so
lve
a re
al-w
orld
pro
blem
thro
ugh
inqu
iry-
base
d pe
dago
gy.
Cont
rol g
roup
and
inte
rven
tion
teac
hers
taug
ht tw
o co
nsec
utiv
e se
mes
ters
(fal
l and
sp
ring)
of e
cono
mic
s. In
terv
entio
n te
ache
rs ta
ught
the
Prob
lem
Bas
ed E
cono
mic
s cu
rric
ulum
, whi
le th
e co
ntro
l gro
up ta
ught
the
typi
cal c
ours
e. O
nly
stud
ent d
ata
for
the
sprin
g w
ere
incl
uded
in th
e an
alys
is. I
nter
vent
ion
teac
hers
taug
ht fi
ve o
f the
nin
e m
odul
es in
the
prob
lem
-bas
ed c
urric
ulum
. Int
erve
ntio
n te
ache
rs p
artic
ipat
ed in
a
five-
day
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t wor
ksho
p to
bec
ome
fam
iliar
with
the
mod
ule
and
peda
gogi
cal s
trat
egie
s. T
hey
wer
e tr
aine
d by
cur
rent
and
form
er e
cono
mic
s te
ache
rs.
On
four
occ
asio
ns th
roug
hout
the
sem
este
r, on
ce a
t the
beg
inni
ng a
nd th
roug
hout
th
e m
odul
e co
mpl
etio
n, te
ache
rs p
artic
ipat
ed in
a g
roup
con
fere
nce
call
with
de
velo
pers
and
the
stud
y te
am to
dis
cuss
pro
gres
s an
d ch
alle
nges
and
get
feed
back
. Te
ache
rs a
lso
had
the
abili
ty to
cal
l and
em
ail B
uck
Inst
itute
sta
ff th
roug
hout
the
impl
emen
tatio
n. T
he P
D to
ok p
lace
for o
ne a
cade
mic
sch
ool y
ear—
a fiv
e-da
y tr
aini
ng
and
perio
dic
chec
k-in
s th
roug
hout
the
scho
ol y
ear.
Met
hodo
logy
: With
in-s
choo
l ran
dom
ized
con
trol
led
tria
l•
n=6
4 11
th- a
nd 1
2th-
grad
e ec
onom
ics
teac
hers
and
4,3
50 s
tude
nts
in
Ariz
ona
and
Calif
orni
a •
Stu
dent
out
com
es m
easu
red
by T
est o
f Eco
nom
ic L
itera
cy (T
EL) a
nd a
pe
rfor
man
ce ta
sk a
sses
smen
t
Find
ings
: Tea
cher
s w
ho p
artic
ipat
ed in
the
PD a
nd h
ad s
uppo
rt in
Pro
blem
B
ased
Eco
nom
ics
had
stud
ents
who
sco
red
0.27
sta
ndar
d de
viat
ions
hig
her
on th
e TE
L (o
n av
erag
e go
t 2.6
test
item
s co
rrec
t) th
an te
ache
rs w
ho h
ad n
ot
part
icip
ated
in th
e PD
.
Gal
lagh
er, H
. A.,
Woo
dwor
th, K
. R.,
& A
rsha
n, N
. L. (
2017
). Im
pact
of t
he N
atio
nal
Wri
ting
Pro
ject
’s C
olle
ge-R
eady
Wri
ters
Pro
gram
in h
igh-
need
rura
l dis
tric
ts. J
ourn
al
of R
esea
rch
on E
duca
tion
al E
ffect
iven
ess,
1-2
6.
Des
crip
tion
: The
Nat
iona
l Writ
ing
Proj
ect’s
(NW
P) C
olle
ge-R
eady
Writ
ers
Prog
ram
(C
RW
P) p
rovi
ded
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t to
impr
ove
teac
hing
abo
ut a
rgum
ent
writ
ing
at th
e se
cond
ary
leve
l. Th
e pr
ogra
m u
sed
a th
ree-
part
app
roac
h th
at in
clud
ed
colla
bora
tive
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t, su
ppor
t for
the
impl
emen
tatio
n of
new
cu
rric
ular
reso
urce
s, a
nd fo
rmat
ive
asse
ssm
ent.
Teac
hers
eng
aged
in c
omm
uniti
es
of p
ract
ice
that
incl
uded
ana
lysi
s of
stu
dent
wor
k; p
artic
ipat
ed in
min
i uni
ts th
at
posi
tione
d th
e te
ache
rs a
s le
arne
rs; a
nd c
o-pl
anne
d an
d co
-taug
ht N
WP’
s ar
gum
ent
writ
ing
curr
icul
um, o
bser
ved
dem
onst
ratio
n le
sson
s, a
nd e
ngag
ed in
refle
ctio
n on
th
eir p
ract
ice
with
teac
her c
onsu
ltant
s. F
orm
ativ
e as
sess
men
ts p
rovi
ded
rapi
d fe
edba
ck a
nd s
ugge
sted
nex
t ste
ps to
impr
ove
teac
her p
ract
ice.
The
pro
gram
pr
ovid
ed a
ppro
xim
atel
y 90
hou
rs o
f pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t ove
r tw
o ye
ars.
NW
P pr
ovid
ed tr
aini
ng a
nd s
uppo
rt fo
r dis
tric
t lea
ders
, inc
ludi
ng o
ne-o
n-on
e ph
one
calls
an
d si
te v
isits
, thr
ough
out t
he p
rogr
am.
Met
hodo
logy
: Tw
o-ye
ar d
istr
ict-r
ando
miz
ed c
ontr
olle
d tr
ial a
naly
zed
usin
g m
ultil
evel
mod
els
• n
=329
teac
hers
in 4
4 ru
ral,
high
-nee
d di
stric
ts a
cros
s 10
sta
tes
• S
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent m
easu
red
usin
g an
on-
dem
and
argu
men
t writ
ing
asse
ssm
ent
Find
ings
: Tea
cher
par
ticip
atio
n in
the
prog
ram
was
ass
ocia
ted
with
pos
itive
ef
fect
s on
the
qual
ity o
f stu
dent
writ
ing.
Res
earc
hers
doc
umen
ted
posi
tive,
st
atis
tical
ly s
igni
fican
t eff
ects
on
thre
e ou
t of f
our s
tude
nt w
ritin
g at
trib
utes
m
easu
red:
con
tent
(ES=
.20
), st
ruct
ure
(ES=
.20
), an
d st
ance
(ES=
.15)
. The
re
mai
ning
att
ribut
e, w
ritin
g co
nven
tions
, was
mar
gina
lly s
igni
fican
t (ES
=.1
2).
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 33
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Ger
sten
, R.,
Dim
ino,
J.,
Jaya
nthi
, M.,
Kim
, J. S
., &
San
toro
, L. E
. (20
10).
Tea
cher
st
udy
grou
p: Im
pact
of t
he p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent
mod
el o
n re
adin
g in
stru
ctio
n an
d st
uden
t ou
tcom
es in
firs
t gr
ade
clas
sroo
ms.
Am
eric
an E
duca
tion
al R
esea
rch
Jour
nal 4
7(no
. 3):
694
–739
.
Des
crip
tion
: The
focu
s of
this
stu
dy w
as a
Tea
cher
Stu
dy G
roup
(TSG
) PD
mod
el w
ith
a fo
cus
on 1
st-g
rade
teac
hers
’ rea
ding
com
preh
ensi
on a
nd v
ocab
ular
y in
stru
ctio
n.
Teac
hers
in th
e TS
Gs
met
to d
iscu
ss re
adin
gs o
n re
sear
ch-b
ased
for t
each
ing
“at-r
isk”
st
uden
ts a
nd h
ow to
impl
emen
t the
str
ateg
ies
into
thei
r ow
n te
achi
ng. T
each
ers
colla
bora
tivel
y pl
anne
d le
sson
s us
ing
stra
tegi
es th
ey re
ad a
nd d
iscu
ssed
. Tea
cher
s ac
tivel
y en
gage
d in
faci
litat
or-g
uide
d pr
oble
m-s
olvi
ng d
iscu
ssio
ns a
nd a
pplie
d le
arni
ng
activ
ities
usi
ng a
recu
rsiv
e pr
oces
s: (1
) deb
rief p
revi
ous
appl
icat
ion
of th
e re
sear
ch,
(2) w
alk
thro
ugh
the
rese
arch
, (3)
wal
k th
roug
h th
e le
sson
, and
(4) u
se c
olla
bora
tive
plan
ning
. Thi
s PD
took
pla
ce o
ver 1
6 se
ssio
ns (t
wic
e a
mon
th) O
ctob
er to
Jun
e. T
he
sess
ions
last
ed a
ppro
xim
atel
y 75
min
utes
eac
h. In
bet
wee
n se
ssio
ns, t
each
ers
prac
ticed
and
refle
cted
upo
n th
e st
rate
gies
in th
eir c
lass
room
s.
Met
hodo
logy
: Ran
dom
ized
con
trol
led
tria
l•
n=8
1 1s
t-gra
de te
ache
rs a
nd 4
68 s
tude
nts
from
thre
e la
rge
urba
n sc
hool
di
stric
ts a
cros
s th
ree
stat
es•
Stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t in
com
preh
ensi
on a
nd v
ocab
ular
y ac
hiev
emen
t wer
e m
easu
red
by th
ree
Dyn
amic
Indi
cato
rs o
f Bas
ic E
arly
Lite
racy
Ski
lls (D
IBEL
S)
test
s, tw
o su
btes
ts o
f the
Woo
dcoc
k D
iagn
ostic
Rea
ding
Bat
tery
(WD
RB),
and
for a
sub
set o
f par
ticip
ants
, the
Cal
iforn
ia A
chie
vem
ent T
est.
Find
ings
: Pos
itive
eff
ects
of t
he tr
eatm
ent w
ere
foun
d on
teac
hers
’ kno
wle
dge
and
prac
tices
in th
e TS
G s
ampl
e. C
ontr
ollin
g fo
r ini
tial p
erfo
rman
ce o
n le
tter
flu
ency
mea
sure
s, te
ache
r kno
wle
dge
and
prac
tice
fact
ors
wer
e si
gnifi
cant
ly
and
posi
tivel
y re
late
d to
all
of th
e st
uden
t out
com
e m
easu
res.
Des
pite
sm
all
sam
ple
size
s, s
igni
fican
t diff
eren
ces
betw
een
the
trea
tmen
t and
con
trol
gro
ups
on re
adin
g ou
tcom
es e
mer
ged
on th
e Ca
lifor
nia
Achi
evem
ent T
est (
ES=
.20
), an
d m
argi
nally
sig
nific
ant e
ffec
ts w
ere
foun
d on
stu
dent
s’ o
ral v
ocab
ular
y (E
S=.4
4). E
ffec
ts w
ere
notic
eabl
e (.2
1, .2
1, a
nd .2
3), t
houg
h no
n-si
gnifi
cant
, fo
r the
Let
ter-W
ord
Iden
tifica
tion,
Rea
ding
Voc
abul
ary,
and
Ora
l Rea
ding
Fl
uenc
y su
btes
ts, r
espe
ctiv
ely.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 34
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Gre
enle
af, C
. L.,
Han
son,
T. L
., R
osen
, R.,
Bos
card
in, D
. K.,
Her
man
, J.,
& S
chne
ider
, S.
A. (
2011
). In
tegr
atin
g lit
erac
y an
d sc
ienc
e in
bio
logy
: tea
chin
g an
d le
arni
ng
impa
cts
of re
adin
g ap
pren
tice
ship
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t. A
mer
ican
Edu
cati
onal
R
esea
rch
Jour
nal,
48(3
), 6
47–7
17.
Des
crip
tion
: Hig
h sc
hool
bio
logy
teac
hers
par
ticip
ated
in p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent
inte
grat
ing
acad
emic
lite
racy
and
bio
logy
inst
ruct
ion
thro
ugh
Read
ing
Appr
entic
eshi
p.
The
prog
ram
was
inqu
iry-b
ased
, sub
ject
-focu
sed,
col
labo
rativ
e, a
nd d
esig
ned
to
addr
ess
teac
hers
’ con
cept
ual u
nder
stan
ding
s as
wel
l as
peda
gogi
cal c
onte
nt
know
ledg
e. T
he s
essi
ons
wer
e de
sign
ed to
imm
erse
teac
hers
in th
e ty
pes
of le
arni
ng
activ
ities
and
env
ironm
ents
they
wou
ld th
en c
reat
e fo
r the
ir st
uden
ts. T
hey
enga
ged
in a
ctiv
ities
to s
imul
ate
thei
r ow
n di
scip
line
expe
rtis
e in
rela
tion
to li
tera
cy, a
nd th
ey
also
eng
aged
in a
naly
sis
of te
xts
to id
entif
y po
tent
ial l
itera
cy c
halle
nges
to le
arne
rs.
In a
dditi
on, t
each
ers
anal
yzed
stu
dent
wor
k, v
ideo
tape
d cl
assr
oom
less
ons,
and
st
udie
d ca
ses
of s
tude
nt li
tera
cy le
arni
ng d
esig
ned
to fo
ster
hig
h ex
pect
atio
ns o
f st
uden
t lea
rnin
g. M
etac
ogni
tive
rout
ines
suc
h as
thin
k-al
ouds
and
read
ing
logs
for
scie
nce
inve
stig
atio
ns w
ere
also
use
d in
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t ses
sion
s. In
the
sess
ions
, tea
cher
s pr
actic
ed c
lass
room
rout
ines
to b
uild
stu
dent
eng
agem
ent)
, stu
dent
co
llabo
ratio
n (e
.g.,
thin
k-pa
ir-sh
are,
jigs
aws,
and
text
-bas
ed s
tude
nt d
iscu
ssio
n an
d pr
oble
m- s
olvi
ng (e
.g.,
text
ann
otat
ion)
. Met
acog
nitiv
e re
flect
ion
afte
r eac
h se
ssio
n fo
cuse
d on
the
impa
ct o
f the
se s
essi
ons
on te
ache
rs’ l
earn
ing
and
pote
ntia
l im
pact
on
thei
r stu
dent
s’ d
evel
opm
ent.
The
10 p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent s
essi
ons
took
pla
ce o
ver t
he c
ours
e of
a y
ear.
An
initi
al fi
ve-d
ay in
stitu
te to
ok p
lace
the
first
sum
mer
of t
he s
tudy
. Thi
s w
as fo
llow
ed b
y tw
o fo
llow
-up
days
of p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent d
urin
g ye
ar 1
, and
a fi
nal t
hree
-day
fo
llow
-up
occu
rred
the
sum
mer
follo
win
g th
e ac
adem
ic y
ear.
Dur
ing
the
stud
y ye
ar,
part
icip
ants
eng
aged
in c
olla
bora
tion
on a
list
serv
mod
erat
ed b
y pr
ofes
sion
al
deve
lopm
ent c
oach
es, i
nclu
ding
the
exch
ange
of r
esou
rces
.
Met
hodo
logy
: Gro
up-ra
ndom
ized
exp
erim
enta
l stu
dy u
tiliz
ing
hier
arch
ical
line
ar
mod
elin
g •
n=1
05 C
alifo
rnia
hig
h sc
hool
bio
logy
teac
hers
in u
nder
serv
ed p
ublic
hig
h sc
hool
s•
Stu
dent
lear
ning
mea
sure
d us
ing
Calif
orni
a st
ates
test
s of
Eng
lish
lang
uage
ar
ts, r
eadi
ng c
ompr
ehen
sion
, and
bio
logy
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s in
trea
tmen
t cla
ssro
oms
perf
orm
ed b
ette
r tha
n co
ntro
ls
on s
tate
sta
ndar
dize
d as
sess
men
ts in
Eng
lish
lang
uage
art
s (E
S=0.
23),
read
ing
com
preh
ensi
on (E
S=0.
24),
and
biol
ogy
(ES=
0.28
). Tr
eatm
ent c
lass
es
perf
orm
ed a
bout
a y
ear a
head
of t
he c
ontr
ol c
lass
es a
t the
end
of t
he s
tudy
. Ef
fect
siz
es fo
r whi
te s
tude
nts
in tr
eatm
ent c
lass
room
s ra
nged
from
0.3
3 to
0.
40 a
nd fo
r Eng
lish
lear
ners
from
0.1
8 to
0.2
3. P
ositi
ve im
pact
s w
ere
also
fo
und
on E
LA a
nd b
iolo
gy te
st s
core
s of
Lat
inx
stud
ents
, alth
ough
thes
e w
ere
not s
tatis
tical
ly s
igni
fican
t. N
o si
gnifi
cant
test
sco
re d
iffer
ence
s w
ere
foun
d fo
r Afr
ican
Am
eric
an s
tude
nts
acro
ss c
lass
room
type
s. T
est s
core
s fo
r rea
ding
co
mpr
ehen
sion
and
bio
logy
wer
e hi
gher
in in
terv
entio
n sc
hool
s th
an in
con
trol
sc
hool
s fo
r bot
h m
ales
and
fem
ale
stud
ents
.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 35
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Hel
ler,
J. I.
, Dae
hler
, K .R
., W
ong,
N.,
Shin
ohar
a, M
., &
Mir
atri
x, L
. W. (
2012
).
Diff
eren
tial
eff
ects
of t
hree
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t m
odel
s on
teac
her k
now
ledg
e an
d st
uden
t ac
hiev
emen
t in
ele
men
tary
sci
ence
. Jou
rnal
of R
esea
rch
in S
cien
ce
Teac
hing
, Vol
. 49,
No.
3, p
p. 3
33–3
62.
Des
crip
tion
: Thi
s PD
focu
sed
on p
edag
ogic
al s
cien
ce c
onte
nt k
now
ledg
e fo
r el
emen
tary
teac
hers
, util
izin
g th
ree
diff
eren
t int
erve
ntio
ns. O
ne g
roup
of t
each
ers
anal
yzed
pre
stru
ctur
ed w
ritte
n te
achi
ng c
ases
. The
se c
ases
wer
e dr
awn
from
act
ual
clas
sroo
ms
and
writ
ten
by te
ache
rs. T
hus,
it w
as a
n an
alys
is o
f pra
ctic
e ap
proa
ch,
whi
ch in
corp
orat
ed s
tude
nt w
ork
anal
ysis
, stu
dent
teac
her d
ialo
gue
anal
ysis
, and
te
ache
r thi
nkin
g an
d be
havi
ors.
Tea
cher
s al
so e
ngag
ed in
the
sam
e sc
ient
ific
inve
stig
atio
ns w
ritte
n ab
out i
n th
e ca
ses
durin
g th
eir P
D s
essi
ons.
Em
bedd
ed in
this
PD
was
iden
tifyi
ng th
e lo
gic
behi
nd c
omm
on s
cien
tific
mis
unde
rsta
ndin
gs, a
naly
zing
te
ache
rs’ i
nstr
uctio
nal c
hoic
es, a
nd c
onsi
derin
g te
achi
ng im
plic
atio
ns fo
r the
ir ow
n st
uden
ts.
A se
cond
gro
up a
naly
zed
thei
r ow
n st
uden
t wor
k in
rela
tion
to th
eir t
each
ing.
Tea
cher
s in
this
inte
rven
tion
expe
rienc
ed c
aref
ully
str
uctu
red,
col
labo
rativ
e an
alys
is o
f the
ir ow
n st
uden
ts’ w
ork,
whi
ch w
as d
eriv
ed fr
om a
com
mon
uni
t the
y ta
ught
. Dis
cuss
ion
prot
ocol
s fo
r the
ana
lysi
s of
stu
dent
wor
k w
ere
empl
oyed
, whi
ch fo
cuse
d te
ache
rs’
anal
ysis
on
stud
ent u
nder
stan
ding
of c
onte
nt. I
n ad
ditio
n, th
ese
sess
ions
als
o fo
cuse
d on
the
anal
ysis
of t
asks
to id
entif
y ch
arac
teris
tics
that
sup
port
form
ativ
e as
sess
men
ts
to e
licit
info
rmat
ion
abou
t stu
dent
thin
king
and
mak
e in
stru
ctio
nal d
ecis
ions
bas
ed o
n st
uden
t thi
nkin
g.
A th
ird g
roup
util
ized
met
acog
nitiv
e an
alys
is o
f the
ir ow
n le
arni
ng e
xper
ienc
e. T
his
took
th
e fo
rm o
f refl
ectiv
e di
scus
sion
s ab
out t
heir
own
lear
ning
pro
cess
es a
s th
ey e
ngag
ed
in s
cien
ce c
onte
nt a
ctiv
ities
. The
cou
rse
was
des
igne
d to
hel
p te
ache
rs id
entif
y co
ncep
ts th
ey fo
und
chal
leng
ing
to le
arn,
exa
min
e th
e lo
gic
behi
nd th
eir o
wn
com
mon
m
isun
ders
tand
ings
of t
he c
onte
nt, a
nd a
naly
ze th
e ro
les
of h
ands
-on
inve
stig
atio
ns,
disc
ours
e, a
nd in
quiry
in s
cien
ce le
arni
ng. E
xper
t sta
ff d
evel
oper
s de
liver
ed a
ser
ies
of th
ree
cour
ses
(one
PD
was
del
iver
ed in
eig
ht th
ree-
hour
ses
sion
s, fo
r a to
tal o
f 24
cont
act h
ours
with
a fa
cilit
ator
).
Met
hodo
logy
: Ran
dom
ized
con
trol
led
tria
l•
n=2
56 4
th-g
rade
teac
hers
and
7,0
00 s
tude
nts
acro
ss s
ix s
tate
s•
Stu
dent
out
com
es m
easu
red
by a
chie
vem
ent t
ests
dev
elop
ed in
prio
r an
alys
es o
f the
PD
; inc
lude
s se
lect
ed-re
spon
se it
ems
and
writ
ten
just
ifica
tions
for a
nsw
ers
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s of
teac
hers
who
par
ticip
ated
in P
D h
ad s
igni
fican
tly g
reat
er
lear
ning
gai
ns o
n st
anda
rdiz
ed te
sts
than
thos
e w
ho h
ad te
ache
rs w
ho d
id n
ot
part
icip
ate,
with
ave
rage
gai
ns o
f 19-
22 p
erce
ntag
e po
ints
on
the
asse
ssm
ents
co
mpa
red
to 1
3 po
ints
for c
ontr
ol s
tude
nts.
Eff
ect s
izes
rang
ed fr
om .4
to .8
ov
er th
e tw
o-ye
ar s
tudy
.
Teac
hers
who
par
ticip
ated
in th
e PD
focu
sed
on s
tude
nt w
ork
anal
ysis
had
st
uden
ts w
ho im
prov
ed th
eir s
core
s si
gnifi
cant
ly c
ompa
red
to c
ontr
ols.
In th
e fo
llow
-up
year
, stu
dent
s of
bot
h th
ose
teac
hers
and
teac
hers
who
focu
sed
on
case
s ha
d si
gnifi
cant
ly h
ighe
r tes
t sco
re g
ains
. Tho
se te
ache
rs w
ho fo
cuse
d on
met
acog
nitiv
e an
alys
is d
id n
ot im
prov
e st
uden
ts’ w
ritte
n ju
stifi
catio
ns a
s co
mpa
red
to th
e co
ntro
ls in
eith
er y
ear.
Engl
ish
lang
uage
lear
ner s
tude
nt s
core
s w
ere
rais
ed b
y ap
prox
imat
ely
18
perc
enta
ge p
oint
s in
all
thre
e in
terv
entio
ns—
all t
hree
sig
nific
antly
hig
her t
han
the
aver
age
7.1
perc
enta
ge p
oint
s ga
ined
in th
e co
ntro
l gro
up.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 36
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
John
son,
C. C
. & F
argo
, J. D
. (20
14).
A s
tudy
of t
he im
pact
of t
rans
form
ativ
e pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent
on H
ispa
nic
stud
ent
perf
orm
ance
on
stat
e m
anda
ted
asse
ssm
ents
of s
cien
ce in
ele
men
tary
sch
ool.
Jour
nal o
f Ele
men
tary
Sci
ence
Te
ache
r Edu
cati
on 2
5: 8
45–8
59.
Des
crip
tion
: Ele
men
tary
sch
ool s
cien
ce te
ache
rs p
artic
ipat
ed in
a p
rofe
ssio
nal
deve
lopm
ent p
rogr
am to
impr
ove
scie
nce
inst
ruct
ion
and
faci
litat
e cu
ltura
lly re
leva
nt
peda
gogy
. The
two-
year
pro
gram
beg
an w
ith a
two-
wee
k su
mm
er w
orks
hop
that
in
clud
ed g
radu
ate-
leve
l cou
rsew
ork
on te
achi
ng e
lem
enta
ry s
cien
ce, a
s w
ell a
s or
ient
atio
n to
a n
ew s
cien
ce c
urric
ulum
and
cul
tura
lly re
leva
nt p
edag
ogy.
Dur
ing
the
seco
nd s
umm
er, t
he w
orks
hop
focu
sed
on te
achi
ng e
lem
enta
ry s
cien
ce a
nd
lear
ning
con
vers
atio
nal S
pani
sh. P
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent w
as re
info
rced
thro
ugh
occa
sion
al re
leas
e da
ys a
nd m
onth
ly g
rade
-leve
l wor
ksho
ps w
ith p
rofe
ssio
nal
lear
ning
com
mun
ities
. Ove
r 2 y
ears
, the
pro
gram
pro
vide
d 22
4 ho
urs
of p
rofe
ssio
nal
deve
lopm
ent.
Met
hodo
logy
: Thr
ee-y
ear c
ase
stud
y dr
awn
from
a c
lust
er ra
ndom
ized
, co
ntro
lled
tria
l•
n=2
1 te
ache
rs in
two
elem
enta
ry s
choo
ls in
a la
rge
urba
n sc
hool
dis
tric
t in
a so
uthw
este
rn s
tate
• S
tude
nt s
cien
ce a
chie
vem
ent w
as m
easu
red
by p
erfo
rman
ce o
n a
stat
e-m
anda
ted
scie
nce
asse
ssm
ent.
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s at
tend
ing
the
scho
ol w
hose
teac
hers
par
ticip
ated
in
the
PD p
rogr
am d
emon
stra
ted
sign
ifica
ntly
larg
er im
prov
emen
ts in
sci
ence
ac
hiev
emen
t ove
r tim
e re
lativ
e to
stu
dent
s w
ho a
tten
ded
the
scho
ol w
ith
busi
ness
-as-
usua
l PD
for t
heir
teac
hers
.
John
son,
C. C
. & F
argo
, J. D
. (20
10).
Urb
an s
choo
l ref
orm
ena
bled
by
tran
sfor
mat
ive
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t: Im
pact
on
teac
her c
hang
e an
d st
uden
t le
arni
ng o
f sc
ienc
e. U
rban
Edu
cati
on, 4
5(1)
, 4–2
9.
Des
crip
tion
: Mid
dle
scho
ol s
cien
ce te
ache
rs w
orki
ng in
an
urba
n sc
hool
dis
tric
t pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
a p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent p
rogr
am to
str
engt
hen
stan
dard
s-ba
sed
inst
ruct
ion
and
fost
er c
ultu
rally
resp
onsi
ve te
achi
ng. T
he h
ands
-on,
who
le-s
choo
l pr
ogra
m b
egan
with
a tw
o-w
eek
sum
mer
inst
itute
des
igne
d to
fost
er re
latio
nshi
p-bu
ildin
g am
ong
teac
hers
and
intr
oduc
e a
new
sci
ence
cur
ricul
um a
nd c
ultu
rally
re
spon
sive
teac
her s
trat
egie
s. T
hrou
ghou
t the
firs
t yea
r of t
he p
rogr
am, t
each
ers
atte
nded
mon
thly
wor
ksho
p da
ys to
refin
e th
e cu
rric
ulum
to b
ette
r mee
t the
nee
ds o
f th
eir s
tude
nts
and
unde
rtoo
k pe
er o
bser
vatio
ns, p
rovi
ding
pos
itive
and
con
stru
ctiv
e fe
edba
ck to
col
leag
ues.
In th
e se
cond
yea
r of t
he p
rogr
am, t
each
ers
atte
nded
a
thre
e-da
y su
mm
er s
essi
on a
nd a
dditi
onal
mon
thly
rele
ase
days
, and
con
duct
ed h
ome
visi
ts to
dee
pen
rela
tions
hips
with
stu
dent
s an
d fa
mili
es. I
n to
tal,
the
prog
ram
off
ered
ne
arly
200
hou
rs o
f pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t, w
ith 1
20 h
ours
in th
e fir
st y
ear a
nd 7
7 ho
urs
in th
e se
cond
.
Met
hodo
logy
: Tw
o-ye
ar q
uasi
-exp
erim
enta
l stu
dy
• n
=16
mid
dle
scho
ol s
cien
ce te
ache
rs fr
om fo
ur s
choo
ls in
one
urb
an d
istr
ict
• S
tude
nt s
cien
ce a
chie
vem
ent w
as m
easu
red
usin
g sp
ecia
lly d
esig
ned
asse
ssm
ents
.
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s of
teac
hers
par
ticip
atin
g in
the
PD d
emon
stra
ted
sign
ifica
ntly
larg
er g
row
th in
sci
ence
ach
ieve
men
t tha
n st
uden
ts a
t con
trol
sc
hool
s in
the
seco
nd y
ear o
f the
pro
gram
, with
gai
ns tw
ice
as la
rge
as th
ose
of
stud
ents
in th
e co
ntro
l sch
ools
.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 37
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Kim
, J. S
., O
lson
, C. B
., Sc
arce
lla, R
., K
ram
er, J
., Pe
arso
n, M
., va
n D
yk, D
., C
ollin
s, P
., &
Lan
d, R
. E. (
2011
) A ra
ndom
ized
exp
erim
ent
of a
cog
niti
ve s
trat
egie
s ap
proa
ch to
te
xt-b
ased
ana
lyti
cal w
riti
ng fo
r mai
nstr
eam
ed L
atin
o En
glis
h la
ngua
ge le
arne
rs in
gr
ades
6 to
12.
Jou
rnal
of R
esea
rch
on E
duca
tion
al E
ffect
iven
ess
4(3
): 2
31–2
63.
Des
crip
tion
: Sec
onda
ry E
nglis
h te
ache
rs p
artic
ipat
ed in
the
Path
way
Pro
ject
to im
prov
e th
eir a
bilit
y to
em
ploy
cog
nitiv
e st
rate
gies
to s
uppo
rt E
nglis
h la
ngua
ge le
arne
rs’
inte
rpre
tive
read
ing
and
anal
ytic
al w
ritin
g sk
ills.
Thr
ough
the
prog
ram
, tea
cher
s le
arn
to
stru
ctur
e an
alyt
ical
writ
ing
activ
ities
by
enga
ging
in re
visi
ons
to a
n on
-dem
and
writ
ing
asse
ssm
ent c
ompl
eted
by
stud
ents
. The
pro
gram
beg
an b
y in
trod
ucin
g te
ache
rs to
a
cogn
itive
str
ateg
ies
tool
kit
for s
uppo
rtin
g st
uden
ts’ r
eadi
ng a
nd w
ritin
g in
ass
ocia
tion
with
lite
racy
text
s. S
ubse
quen
t ses
sion
s fo
cuse
d on
ana
lyzi
ng s
tude
nt p
erfo
rman
ce,
stre
ngth
s, a
nd n
eeds
thro
ugh
writ
ing
asse
ssm
ents
; col
labo
rativ
ely
desi
gnin
g le
sson
s in
corp
orat
ing
cogn
itive
str
ateg
ies
for l
itera
ture
inst
ruct
ion;
and
set
ting
goal
s fo
r fut
ure
year
s. T
hese
ses
sion
s w
ere
com
plem
ente
d by
mon
thly
mee
tings
at e
ach
scho
ol le
d by
lit
erac
y co
ache
s an
d de
sign
ed to
sup
port
teac
hers
in im
plem
entin
g Pa
thw
ay s
trat
egie
s.
The
prog
ram
als
o pr
ovid
ed c
urric
ular
mat
eria
ls a
ligne
d w
ith c
ogni
tive
appr
oach
es to
lit
erat
ure
inst
ruct
ion,
acc
ompa
nied
by
guid
ance
for i
mpl
emen
ting
them
in te
ache
rs’
clas
sroo
ms.
Ove
rall,
teac
hers
par
ticip
ated
in s
ix fu
ll-da
y pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent
sess
ions
and
five
aft
er-s
choo
l ses
sion
s, fo
r a to
tal o
f 46
hour
s of
pro
fess
iona
l de
velo
pmen
t thr
ough
out t
he s
choo
l yea
r.
Met
hodo
logy
: Clu
ster
rand
omiz
ed c
ontr
olle
d tr
ial a
naly
zed
usin
g hi
erar
chic
al
linea
r mod
elin
g•
n=1
03 s
econ
dary
Eng
lish
teac
hers
and
mor
e th
an 2
,000
stu
dent
s in
a la
rge,
ur
ban
scho
ol d
istr
ict
• S
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent m
easu
red
usin
g an
on-
dem
and
writ
ing
asse
ssm
ent
and
the
Calif
orni
a St
anda
rds
Test
s fo
r Eng
lish
lang
uage
art
s
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s of
teac
hers
who
par
ticip
ated
in th
e Pa
thw
ay P
roje
ct
perf
orm
ed s
igni
fican
tly b
ette
r (ES
=.3
5) o
n an
on-
dem
and
text
-bas
ed a
naly
tical
w
ritin
g as
sess
men
t and
on
the
over
all s
tate
sta
ndar
dize
d te
st o
f Eng
lish
lang
uage
art
s (E
S=.0
7), a
fter
con
trol
ling
for i
nitia
l per
form
ance
. On
the
on-d
eman
d w
ritin
g as
sess
men
t, 22
% o
f stu
dent
s of
par
ticip
atin
g te
ache
rs
rece
ived
at l
east
two
scor
es o
f 4 o
r abo
ve (o
ut o
f 6),
as c
ompa
red
to 1
4%
of s
tude
nts
in th
e co
ntro
l gro
up. O
n th
e st
ate
stan
dard
ized
test
, stu
dent
s of
pa
rtic
ipat
ing
teac
hers
sco
red
on a
vera
ge 3
per
cent
age
poin
ts h
ighe
r.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 38
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Kle
ickm
ann,
T.,
Trob
st, S
., Jo
nen,
A.,
Vehm
eyer
, J.,
& M
olle
r, K
. (20
16).
The
eff
ects
of
exp
ert
scaff
oldi
ng in
ele
men
tary
sci
ence
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t on
teac
hers
’ be
liefs
and
mot
ivat
ions
, ins
truc
tion
al p
ract
ices
, and
stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t. J
ourn
al
of E
duca
tion
al P
sych
olog
y, 1
08(1
) 21–
42.
Des
crip
tion
: PD
focu
sed
on im
plem
entin
g a
soci
al c
onst
ruct
ivis
t app
roac
h to
el
emen
tary
sci
ence
teac
hing
thro
ugh
educ
atio
nal c
urric
ulum
mat
eria
ls (E
CM).
Thre
e gr
oups
of t
each
ers
part
icip
ated
in P
D, e
ach
grou
p w
ith a
diff
eren
t lev
el o
f sca
ffol
ding
(s
uppo
rt fo
r the
ir le
arni
ng th
roug
h EC
M).
One
gro
up u
sed
the
ECM
mat
eria
ls w
ith
no e
xper
t sca
ffol
ding
. Tw
o ot
her g
roup
s re
ceiv
ed 1
6 al
l-day
wor
ksho
ps o
f PD
to
supp
lem
ent t
he u
se o
f ECM
. The
firs
t six
(38
hour
s) fo
cuse
d sp
ecifi
cally
on
float
ing
and
sink
ing.
The
10
addi
tiona
l wor
ksho
ps (6
2 ho
urs)
focu
sed
on th
e ot
her 1
0 to
pics
. The
fo
cus
of th
e w
orks
hops
was
to d
evel
op c
onte
nt a
nd p
edag
ogy.
The
“hi
gh s
caff
oldi
ng”
grou
p of
teac
hers
eng
aged
in a
ctiv
e le
arni
ng a
ctiv
ities
suc
h as
sci
entifi
c in
vest
igat
ions
, pr
ovid
ing
coun
ter e
xam
ples
, dev
elop
ing
anal
ogie
s, a
nd e
ngag
ing
in d
iscu
ssio
ns. I
n ge
nera
l, th
e PD
the
teac
hers
rece
ived
mim
icke
d th
e pr
oces
s by
whi
ch th
ey w
ere
to
guid
e th
eir e
lem
enta
ry s
tude
nts.
Tea
cher
s w
ere
also
pro
mpt
ed to
refle
ct o
n th
eir o
wn
lear
ning
pro
cess
es a
nd to
con
side
r the
ir ow
n na
ïve
scie
nce
conc
eptio
ns to
hel
p th
em
unde
rsta
nd th
e ne
ed to
con
stru
ct le
arni
ng to
fit s
tude
nts’
exi
stin
g sc
hem
a. In
add
ition
, ex
pert
hel
ped
teac
hers
to u
nder
stan
d se
quen
cing
of s
cien
ce c
once
pts
to fa
cilit
ate
stud
ent l
earn
ing.
In c
ontr
ast,
the
“low
sca
ffol
ding
” gr
oup
of te
ache
rs re
ceiv
ed li
ttle
of t
his
supp
ort.
Inst
ead,
the
expe
rt P
D c
oach
dem
onst
rate
d a
serie
s of
less
ons
on fl
oatin
g an
d si
nkin
g in
a 3
rd-g
rade
cla
ssro
om w
ithou
t sca
ffol
ding
teac
hers
’ con
tent
and
ped
agog
ical
kn
owle
dge.
Tea
cher
s ob
serv
ed th
ese
less
ons
and
cond
ucte
d pr
e- a
nd p
ost-i
nter
view
s w
ith s
tude
nts.
The
y w
ere
enco
urag
ed to
dis
cuss
thei
r obs
erva
tions
in re
latio
n to
the
stud
ent i
nter
view
s.
The
PD s
pann
ed a
ppro
xim
atel
y fiv
e m
onth
s, w
ith s
caff
olde
d gr
oups
rece
ivin
g an
ad
ditio
nal 1
00 h
ours
of P
D d
urin
g th
is ti
me.
Met
hodo
logy
: Tw
o-ye
ar q
uasi
-exp
erim
enta
l stu
dy
• n
=73
elem
enta
ry s
cien
ce te
ache
rs a
nd 1
,039
3rd
and
4th
-gra
de s
tude
nts
• S
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent w
as m
easu
red
thro
ugh
an a
sses
smen
t of s
tude
nts’
co
ncep
tual
und
erst
andi
ng o
f floa
ting
and
sink
ing
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s ta
ught
by
teac
hers
who
rece
ived
“hi
gh s
caff
oldi
ng”
exhi
bite
d si
gnifi
cant
ly h
ighe
r ach
ieve
men
t tha
n di
d st
uden
ts ta
ught
by
“lo
w s
caff
oldi
ng”
teac
hers
(ES=
.45)
. Stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t for
bot
h “h
igh
scaf
fold
ing”
and
“lo
w s
caff
oldi
ng”
teac
hers
sig
nific
antly
sur
pass
ed
achi
evem
ent i
n cl
asse
s ta
ught
by
teac
hers
with
no
scaf
fold
ing
(ES=
.55)
.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 39
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Kut
aka,
T. S
., Sm
ith,
W. M
., A
lban
o, A
. D.,
Edw
ards
, C. P
., R
en, L
., B
eatt
ie, H
. L.
., Le
wis
, W. J
., H
eato
n, R
. M.,
& S
trou
p, W
. W. (
2017
). C
onne
ctin
g te
ache
r pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent
and
stud
ent
mat
hem
atic
s ac
hiev
emen
t: A
four
-yea
r st
udy
of a
n el
emen
tary
mat
hem
atic
s sp
ecia
list
prog
ram
. Jou
rnal
of T
each
er
Educ
atio
n, 6
8(2
), 1
40–1
54.
Des
crip
tion
: Prim
arily
Mat
h, a
mat
hem
atic
s pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent m
odel
for
kind
erga
rten
to 3
rd-g
rade
teac
hers
, con
sist
ed o
f tw
o w
eekl
ong
sum
mer
inst
itute
s in
volv
ing
univ
ersi
ty c
ours
ewor
k an
d lo
ng-te
rm p
roje
cts
assi
gned
ove
r the
cou
rse
of th
e sc
hool
yea
r. Th
e PD
invo
lved
col
labo
rativ
e as
sign
men
ts, s
elf-
and
grou
p re
flect
ion
of
vide
o ev
iden
ce, a
nd u
nit p
lann
ing
for u
se in
teac
hers
’ cla
ssro
oms.
In to
tal,
teac
hers
pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
a m
inim
um o
f 160
con
tact
hou
rs a
cros
s tw
o in
stitu
tes
in a
dditi
on to
tim
e im
plem
entin
g PD
ped
agog
y an
d pr
actic
e du
ring
the
scho
ol y
ear.
The
PD p
rogr
am
occu
rred
acr
oss
13 m
onth
s.
Met
hodo
logy
: Thr
ee-y
ear q
uasi
-exp
erim
enta
l stu
dy u
sing
hie
rarc
hica
l lin
ear
mod
elin
g •
n=
184
k-3r
d-gr
ade
teac
hers
from
thre
e la
rge,
urb
an s
choo
l dis
tric
ts in
N
ebra
ska
• S
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent w
as m
easu
red
usin
g th
e Te
st o
f Ear
ly M
athe
mat
ics
Abili
ty-E
ditio
n 3
(TEM
A-3)
.
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s of
Prim
arily
Mat
h te
ache
rs h
ad m
ath
chan
ge s
core
s si
gnifi
cant
ly g
reat
er th
an s
tude
nts
of c
ompa
rison
teac
hers
.
Land
ry, S
. H.,
Swan
k, P
. R.,
Smit
h, K
. E.,
Ass
el, M
. A.,
& G
unne
wig
, S. B
. (20
06)
Enha
ncin
g ea
rly
liter
acy
skill
s fo
r pre
scho
ol c
hild
ren:
Bri
ngin
g a
prof
essi
onal
de
velo
pmen
t m
odel
to s
cale
. Jou
rnal
of L
earn
ing
Dis
abili
ties
39(
4):
306
–324
.
Des
crip
tion
: Hea
d St
art e
duca
tors
took
par
t in
a pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent p
rogr
am
to e
nhan
ce in
stru
ctio
n in
sup
port
of i
mpr
oved
lang
uage
and
ear
ly li
tera
cy s
kills
for
youn
g ch
ildre
n. T
he p
rogr
am b
egan
with
a fo
ur-d
ay, s
mal
l-gro
up w
orks
hop
focu
sed
on
stra
tegi
es fo
r sup
port
ing
lang
uage
enr
ichm
ent a
nd e
arly
lite
racy
gro
wth
. The
wor
ksho
p re
lied
on in
tera
ctiv
e st
rate
gies
suc
h as
gui
ded
disc
ussi
on, g
roup
pro
blem
-sol
ving
, and
ro
le-p
layi
ng. F
ollo
win
g th
e w
orks
hop,
spe
cial
ly tr
aine
d m
ento
rs c
ondu
cted
ong
oing
tr
aini
ng s
essi
ons
thro
ugho
ut th
e sc
hool
yea
r. Ed
ucat
ors
also
rece
ived
one
hou
r of
coac
hing
per
wee
k fr
om th
e m
ento
rs in
thei
r firs
t yea
r of t
rain
ing.
Tea
cher
s w
ho
cont
inue
d in
the
prog
ram
for a
sec
ond
year
par
ticip
ated
in a
two-
day
refr
eshe
r cou
rse
and
rece
ived
one
hou
r of c
oach
ing
biw
eekl
y, a
s w
ell a
s on
goin
g tr
aini
ng.
Met
hodo
logy
: Tw
o-ye
ar q
uasi
-exp
erim
enta
l stu
dy•
n=7
50 H
ead
Star
t edu
cato
rs a
nd 5
,728
chi
ldre
n in
20
urba
n an
d ru
ral
cent
ers
acro
ss T
exas
• C
hild
out
com
es w
ere
mea
sure
d us
ing
five
inst
rum
ents
—fo
ur s
tand
ard
asse
ssm
ents
of e
arly
lite
racy
and
a s
peci
ally
des
igne
d so
cial
-em
otio
nal
deve
lopm
ent s
cale
Find
ings
: Res
earc
hers
iden
tified
gre
ater
gai
ns in
lang
uage
and
lite
racy
sk
ills
for c
hild
ren
who
se te
ache
rs p
artic
ipat
ed in
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t, al
thou
gh re
sults
var
ied
by p
rogr
am s
ite. I
n ye
ar 1
of t
he s
tudy
, res
earc
hers
ob
serv
ed m
oder
ate
to la
rge
posi
tive
asso
ciat
ions
bet
wee
n te
ache
r pro
fess
iona
l de
velo
pmen
t and
chi
ldre
n’s
early
lite
racy
and
lang
uage
ski
lls a
t 20%
to 4
0%
of s
ites,
dep
endi
ng o
n th
e m
easu
re. I
n ye
ar 2
of t
he s
tudy
, mod
erat
e to
larg
e ef
fect
siz
es w
ere
obse
rved
in b
etw
een
20%
and
68%
of s
ites.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 40
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Land
ry, S
. H.,
Ant
hony
, J. L
., Sw
ank,
P. R
., &
Mon
sequ
e-B
aile
y, P
. (20
09)
Effec
tive
ness
of c
ompr
ehen
sive
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t fo
r tea
cher
s of
at-
risk
pr
esch
oole
rs. J
ourn
al o
f Edu
cati
onal
Psy
chol
ogy
101(
2),
448
–465
.
Des
crip
tion
: Ear
ly c
hild
hood
edu
cato
rs p
artic
ipat
ed in
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t to
enha
nce
teac
hers
’ abi
lity
to p
rom
ote
child
ren’
s la
ngua
ge a
nd li
tera
cy d
evel
opm
ent.
Thro
ugh
the
prog
ram
, edu
cato
rs p
artic
ipat
ed in
a fa
cilit
ated
onl
ine
cour
se fo
cuse
d on
lang
uage
and
lite
racy
inst
ruct
ion,
eCI
RCL
E. T
he fa
cilit
ated
cou
rse
incl
uded
vid
eos
of m
odel
less
ons,
inte
ract
ive
mes
sage
boa
rds,
and
opp
ortu
nitie
s to
pla
n le
sson
s an
d pr
actic
e sk
ills
in s
mal
l gro
ups.
Par
ticip
atin
g ed
ucat
ors
also
rece
ived
a s
uppl
emen
tal
curr
icul
um o
n pr
esch
ool l
angu
age
and
liter
acy
skill
s an
d w
ere
enco
urag
ed to
use
on
goin
g m
onito
ring
of s
tude
nt p
rogr
ess.
Tea
cher
s pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
four
hou
rs o
f co
urse
wor
k pe
r mon
th th
roug
hout
the
scho
ol y
ear.
In a
dditi
on, s
ome
teac
hers
re
ceiv
ed d
etai
led
feed
back
on
child
ren’
s la
ngua
ge a
nd li
tera
cy p
rogr
ess
that
was
lin
ked
to c
urric
ular
act
iviti
es a
nd/o
r tw
o-ho
ur, o
n-si
te m
ento
ring
sess
ions
twic
e pe
r m
onth
.
Met
hodo
logy
: Ran
dom
ized
con
trol
led
tria
l•
n=2
62 e
arly
chi
ldho
od e
duca
tors
and
up
to e
ight
chi
ldre
n pe
r cla
ssro
om in
15
8 sc
hool
s in
Flo
rida,
Mar
ylan
d, O
hio,
and
Tex
as•
Stu
dent
out
com
es m
easu
red
thro
ugh
a st
anda
rdiz
ed v
ocab
ular
y as
sess
men
t
Find
ings
: Col
lect
ivel
y, s
tude
nts
of e
duca
tors
in a
ll fo
ur p
rofe
ssio
nal
deve
lopm
ent g
roup
s de
mon
stra
ted
grea
ter g
ains
in p
hono
logi
cal a
war
enes
s th
an s
tude
nts
of e
duca
tors
in th
e co
ntro
l gro
up (E
S=0.
14).
Stud
ents
of t
each
ers
who
rece
ived
bot
h m
ento
ring
and
deta
iled,
inst
ruct
iona
lly
linke
d fe
edba
ck o
n ch
ildre
n’s
lang
uage
and
lite
racy
pro
gres
s ex
perie
nced
the
grea
test
gai
ns in
a v
arie
ty o
f lan
guag
e an
d lit
erac
y ou
tcom
es. T
his
incl
uded
gr
eate
r gai
ns th
an s
tude
nts
who
se te
ache
rs re
ceiv
ed b
usin
ess-
as-u
sual
pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent o
n ex
pres
sive
voc
abul
ary
(ES=
0.19
) and
prin
t and
le
tter
kno
wle
dge
(ES=
0.26
).
Lara
-Ale
cio,
R.,
Tong
, F.,
Irby
, B. J
., G
uerr
ero,
C.,
Hue
rta,
M.,
& F
an, Y
. (20
12).
The
eff
ect
of a
n in
stru
ctio
nal i
nter
vent
ion
on m
iddl
e sc
hool
Eng
lish
lear
ners
’ sci
ence
an
d En
glis
h re
adin
g ac
hiev
emen
t. J
ourn
al o
f Res
earc
h in
Sci
ence
Tea
chin
g, 4
9(8
),
987–
1011
.
Des
crip
tion
: Tea
cher
s en
gage
d in
on-
site
, sm
all-g
roup
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t to
pro
mot
e in
quiry
-bas
ed, l
itera
cy-in
tegr
ated
inst
ruct
ion
to im
prov
e En
glis
h le
arne
rs’ s
cien
ce a
nd re
adin
g ac
hiev
emen
t. Th
roug
h th
e pr
ogra
m, t
each
ers
and
para
prof
essi
onal
s pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
wor
ksho
ps w
here
they
revi
ewed
upc
omin
g le
sson
s,
disc
usse
d sc
ienc
e co
ncep
ts w
ith p
eers
, eng
aged
in re
flect
ions
on
stud
ent l
earn
ing,
pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
inqu
iry a
ctiv
ities
as
lear
ners
, and
rece
ived
inst
ruct
ion
in s
trat
egie
s fo
r te
achi
ng E
nglis
h le
arne
rs. R
esea
rche
rs a
lso
prov
ided
teac
hers
with
less
ons
plan
s th
at in
corp
orat
ed s
trat
egie
s fo
r eff
ectiv
e in
stru
ctio
n of
Eng
lish
lear
ners
. Tea
cher
s m
et
biw
eekl
y fo
r thr
ee-h
our s
essi
ons,
rece
ivin
g si
x ho
urs
of p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent p
er
mon
th; p
arap
rofe
ssio
nals
met
mon
thly
for t
hree
hou
rs. T
he p
rogr
am a
lso
incl
uded
a
focu
s on
new
and
enh
ance
d in
stru
ctio
nal a
ctiv
ities
for E
nglis
h le
arne
rs.
Met
hodo
logy
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal s
tudy
• n
=246
5th
-gra
de te
ache
rs a
nd 1
66 s
tude
nts
in fo
ur lo
wer
mid
dle
scho
ols
in
an u
rban
dis
tric
t in
sout
heas
t Tex
as•
Stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t was
mea
sure
d by
per
form
ance
on
scie
nce
and
read
ing
dist
rict a
nd s
tate
test
s an
d D
ynam
ic In
dica
tors
of B
asic
Ear
ly L
itera
cy
Skill
s (D
IBEL
S)
Find
ings
: Tre
atm
ent g
roup
stu
dent
s sc
ored
sig
nific
antly
hig
her s
core
s on
the
DIB
ELS
than
con
trol
gro
up s
tude
nts.
In a
dditi
on, s
tude
nts
of te
ache
rs w
ho
part
icip
ated
in P
D e
arne
d pa
ssin
g an
d co
mm
ende
d sc
ores
on
dist
rict s
cien
ce
and
read
ing
benc
hmar
ks a
t hig
her r
ates
than
stu
dent
s of
thos
e w
ho d
id n
ot
part
icip
ate
(ES=
0.12
7 - .
238)
. A s
imila
r pat
tern
was
obs
erve
d fo
r rea
ding
ac
hiev
emen
t on
the
stat
e te
st, w
ith a
n av
erag
e pa
ssin
g ra
te o
f 69%
in th
e tr
eatm
ent g
roup
and
60%
in th
e co
ntro
l gro
up.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 41
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Mar
ek, E
. & M
ethv
en, S
. B. (
1991
). E
ffec
ts o
f the
lear
ning
cyc
le u
pon
stud
ent
and
clas
sroo
m te
ache
r per
form
ance
. Jou
rnal
of R
esea
rch
in S
cien
ce T
each
ing,
28(
1),
41–5
3.
Des
crip
tion
: Ele
men
tary
sci
ence
teac
hers
par
ticip
ated
in a
mon
thlo
ng in
-ser
vice
w
orks
hop
desi
gned
to s
uppo
rt th
e ad
optio
n of
a n
ew a
ppro
ach
to s
cien
ce in
stru
ctio
n.
The
wor
ksho
p ai
med
for p
artic
ipan
ts to
und
erst
and
that
sci
ence
is a
pro
cess
, or
“sea
rch
for k
now
ledg
e,”
rath
er th
an a
bod
y of
kno
wle
dge,
and
that
stu
dent
s w
ho le
arn
scie
nce
as a
sea
rch
for k
now
ledg
e co
nstr
uct t
heir
own
unde
rsta
ndin
gs a
bout
the
wor
ld. I
t was
als
o de
sign
ed to
hel
p te
ache
rs le
arn
how
to d
evel
op “
lear
ning
cyc
les,
” an
app
roac
h to
cur
ricul
um th
at is
com
patib
le w
ith a
ppro
achi
ng s
cien
ce a
s a
proc
ess
or m
etho
d. D
urin
g th
e w
orks
hop,
teac
hers
exp
erie
nced
sev
eral
lear
ning
cyc
les
as
lear
ners
; thi
s in
volv
ed g
athe
ring
data
, ide
ntify
ing
key
conc
epts
from
the
data
, and
ex
pand
ing
thei
r und
erst
andi
ng b
y ap
plyi
ng th
e co
ncep
t to
othe
r top
ics.
Tea
cher
s th
en
taug
ht e
ach
othe
r usi
ng le
arni
ng c
ycle
s fr
om a
pro
vide
d cu
rric
ulum
bef
ore
prep
arin
g th
eir o
wn
lear
ning
cyc
les
for u
se in
the
clas
sroo
m. A
ll te
ache
rs a
gree
d to
use
lear
ning
cy
cles
in th
eir c
lass
room
s fo
llow
ing
the
wor
ksho
p. T
he w
orks
hop
offe
red
100
hour
s of
in
-ser
vice
trai
ning
ove
r fou
r wee
ks.
Met
hodo
logy
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal m
atch
ed p
airs
des
ign
• n
=27
elem
enta
ry s
cien
ce te
ache
rs a
nd 2
26 k
- to
5th-
grad
e st
uden
ts
• S
tude
nt o
utco
mes
wer
e m
easu
red
usin
g th
ree
Piag
etia
n co
nser
vatio
n ta
sks,
a
mea
sure
of c
ogni
tive
deve
lopm
ent,
and
an a
naly
sis
of d
escr
iptiv
e la
ngua
ge
used
by
stud
ents
dur
ing
inte
rvie
ws.
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s of
trea
tmen
t gro
up te
ache
rs d
emon
stra
ted
sign
ifica
ntly
gr
eate
r gro
wth
in th
eir c
onse
rvat
ion
reas
onin
g ab
ilitie
s th
an c
ontr
ol g
roup
te
ache
rs. T
reat
men
t gro
up s
tude
nts
also
dem
onst
rate
d en
hanc
ed q
ualit
y an
d qu
antit
y of
des
crip
tive
lang
uage
rela
tive
to c
ontr
ol g
roup
stu
dent
s.
May
, H.,
Siri
nide
s, P
., G
ray,
A.,
& G
olds
wor
thy,
H. (
2016
). R
eadi
ng R
ecov
ery:
An
Eval
uati
on o
f the
Fou
r-Yea
r i3
Scal
e-U
p. P
hila
delp
hia,
PA
: Con
sort
ium
for P
olic
y R
esea
rch
in E
duca
tion
.
Des
crip
tion
: Edu
cato
rs p
artic
ipat
ed in
an
inte
nsiv
e ye
arlo
ng g
radu
ate-
leve
l tra
inin
g co
urse
in o
rder
to te
ach
Read
ing
Reco
very
, an
inte
rven
tion
targ
eted
at s
trug
glin
g 1s
t-gra
de re
ader
s. In
sup
port
of t
each
ers
rece
ivin
g th
e PD
are
lite
racy
coa
ches
who
co
nduc
t the
trai
ning
cou
rse
and
univ
ersi
ty fa
culty
who
sup
port
impl
emen
tatio
n.
Trai
ning
is d
esig
ned
to e
nhan
ce a
teac
her’s
abi
lity
to id
entif
y st
uden
ts’ s
tren
gths
an
d ne
eds,
and
to fa
cilit
ate
his
or h
er le
arni
ng b
y he
lpin
g st
uden
ts d
evel
op a
set
of
self-
regu
late
d lit
erac
y st
rate
gies
that
gov
ern
the
use
of m
eani
ng, s
truc
ture
, let
ter-s
ound
re
latio
nshi
ps, a
nd v
isua
l cue
s in
read
ing
and
writ
ing.
Onc
e tr
aine
d, te
ache
rs p
rovi
ded
stud
ents
with
indi
vidu
al, d
aily
30-
min
ute
less
ons
over
the
cour
se o
f a 1
2- to
20-
wee
k pe
riod.
Met
hodo
logy
: Par
alle
l ran
dom
ized
con
trol
led
tria
l and
qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal
stud
y•
n=1
,122
sch
ools
acr
oss
the
coun
try
in a
wid
e va
riety
of l
ocal
es (e
.g.,
urba
n,
rura
l, su
burb
an) a
nd 6
,888
stu
dent
s•
Stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t was
mea
sure
d us
ing
Iow
a Te
st o
f Bas
ic S
kills
(ITB
S)
Read
ing
Tota
l ass
essm
ent a
nd th
e st
ate
3rd-
grad
e re
adin
g ex
am.
Find
ings
: For
eac
h se
t of r
eadi
ng s
core
s, th
e tr
eatm
ent g
roup
’s p
erfo
rman
ce
was
one
-third
to o
ne-h
alf s
tand
ard
devi
atio
n la
rger
than
that
of t
he c
ontr
ol
grou
p.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 42
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
McG
ill-F
ranz
en, A
., A
lling
ton,
R. L
., Yo
koi,
L., &
Bro
oks,
G. (
1999
). P
utti
ng b
ooks
in
the
cla
ssro
om s
eem
s ne
cess
ary
but
not
suffi
cien
t. T
he J
ourn
al o
f Edu
cati
on
Res
earc
h 93
(2):
67–7
4.
Des
crip
tion
: Kin
derg
arte
n te
ache
rs p
artic
ipat
ed in
a tr
aini
ng p
rogr
am to
enh
ance
th
eir u
se o
f boo
ks in
cla
ssro
om le
sson
s. T
rain
ing
sess
ions
spa
nned
topi
cs s
uch
as
clas
sroo
m o
rgan
izat
ion,
read
-alo
ud te
chni
ques
, sto
ry-re
late
d le
sson
pla
ns, a
nd p
lay-
base
d lit
erac
y ac
tiviti
es. P
artic
ipat
ing
teac
hers
als
o re
ceiv
ed a
larg
e su
pply
of b
ooks
for
clas
sroo
m li
brar
ies
and
stud
ents
’ hom
e lib
rarie
s. O
vera
ll, te
ache
rs p
artic
ipat
ed in
30
hour
s of
trai
ning
, inc
ludi
ng th
ree
dayl
ong
wor
ksho
ps a
nd s
even
sho
rter
mee
tings
.
Met
hodo
logy
: Str
atifi
ed ra
ndom
ized
con
trol
led
tria
l•
n=1
8 ki
nder
gart
en te
ache
rs a
nd 3
77 c
hild
ren
from
six
sch
ools
in a
sin
gle
larg
e ea
ster
n ur
ban
scho
ol d
istr
ict
• S
tude
nt o
utco
mes
mea
sure
d us
ing
two
wid
ely
used
ear
ly li
tera
cy in
stru
men
ts
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s of
teac
hers
rece
ivin
g tr
aini
ng a
nd b
ooks
dem
onst
rate
d hi
gher
sco
res
and
larg
er g
ains
on
all e
arly
lite
racy
mea
sure
s th
an d
id s
tude
nts
of te
ache
rs w
ho d
id n
ot re
ceiv
e tr
aini
ng. I
n al
l but
one
cas
e, th
ese
diff
eren
ces
wer
e st
atis
tical
ly s
igni
fican
t.
Mei
ssel
, K.,
Parr
, J. M
., &
Tim
perl
ey, H
. S. (
2016
). C
an p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent
of
teac
hers
redu
ce d
ispa
rity
in s
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent?
Tea
chin
g an
d Te
ache
r Edu
cati
on
58, 1
63–1
73.
Des
crip
tion
: New
Zea
land
sch
ools
par
ticip
ated
in a
flex
ible
who
le-s
choo
l pro
fess
iona
l de
velo
pmen
t mod
el d
esig
ned
to im
prov
e st
uden
t lite
racy
, par
ticul
arly
for l
ow-
perf
orm
ing
stud
ents
. Par
ticip
atin
g sc
hool
s ea
ch s
elec
ted
a fo
cus
on e
ither
read
ing
or
writ
ing
for t
he d
urat
ion
of th
e tw
o-ye
ar p
roje
ct a
nd w
ere
assi
gned
an
expe
rt li
tera
cy
faci
litat
or to
pro
vide
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t for
teac
hers
and
sch
ool l
eade
rs.
Faci
litat
ors
visi
ted
each
sch
ool b
iwee
kly
to c
ondu
ct c
lass
room
obs
erva
tions
, mod
el
liter
acy
inst
ruct
ion,
pro
vide
coa
chin
g an
d fe
edba
ck, a
nd e
ngag
e in
dis
cuss
ion
and
othe
r act
iviti
es w
ith s
choo
l sta
ff. F
acili
tato
rs a
lso
trai
ned
a lit
erac
y le
ader
at e
ach
scho
ol w
ho p
rovi
ded
addi
tiona
l sup
port
for t
heir
colle
ague
s. T
he p
roje
ct p
rovi
ded
reso
urce
s su
ch a
s cl
assr
oom
obs
erva
tion
and
faci
litat
ion
tool
s, a
s w
ell a
s tr
aini
ng
and
feed
back
for t
he e
xper
t fac
ilita
tors
thro
ugho
ut th
e tw
o-ye
ar p
erio
d.
Met
hodo
logy
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal d
esig
n ut
ilizi
ng h
iera
rchi
cal l
inea
r mod
elin
g•
n=2
2,50
6 m
iddl
e sc
hool
stu
dent
s in
195
New
Zea
land
sch
ools
• S
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent w
as m
easu
red
by a
New
Zea
land
sta
ndar
dize
d as
sess
men
t
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s at
tend
ing
scho
ols
part
icip
atin
g in
the
proj
ect o
utpe
rfor
med
a
natio
nally
nor
med
sam
ple,
esp
ecia
lly in
writ
ing.
Stu
dent
s in
sch
ools
with
a
focu
s on
impr
ovin
g w
ritin
g im
prov
ed a
t 2.9
to 3
.5 ti
mes
the
expe
cted
rate
(1.1
5 to
1.4
sta
ndar
d de
viat
ions
). St
uden
ts in
sch
ools
with
a fo
cus
on im
prov
ing
read
ing
impr
oved
at 1
.4 to
1.6
tim
es th
e ex
pect
ed ra
te (0
.72
to 0
.85
stan
dard
de
viat
ions
).
Lear
ners
from
all
grou
ps (d
efine
d by
gen
der,
ethn
icity
, and
soc
ioec
onom
ic
stat
us) o
utpe
rfor
med
exp
ecta
tions
bas
ed o
n na
tiona
l nor
ms.
Mey
ers,
C. V
., M
olef
e, A
., B
rand
t, W
. C.,
Zhu,
B.,
& D
hillo
n, S
. (20
16).
Impa
ct re
sult
s of
the
eM
INTS
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t va
lidat
ion
stud
y. E
duca
tion
al E
valu
atio
n an
d Po
licy
Anal
ysis
, 38(
3),
455
–476
.
Des
crip
tion
: Tea
cher
s pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
the
Enha
ncin
g M
isso
uri’s
Inst
ruct
iona
l N
etw
orke
d Te
achi
ng S
trat
egie
s (e
MIN
TS) p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent p
rogr
am. T
he
goal
of e
MIN
TS is
to h
elp
teac
hers
dev
elop
stu
dent
-cen
tere
d, p
urpo
sefu
l ins
truc
tion
fost
ered
by
tech
nolo
gy u
tiliz
atio
n. W
hile
the
com
preh
ensi
ve p
rogr
am in
volv
es
who
le-s
choo
l PD
ele
men
ts, t
he b
ulk
of th
e pr
ogra
m is
focu
sed
on th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
teac
hers
. Spe
cific
ally
, tea
cher
s en
gage
d in
app
roxi
mat
ely
240
hour
s of
PD
ove
r the
co
urse
of t
wo
acad
emic
yea
rs th
roug
h fo
rmal
trai
ning
ses
sion
s, a
mod
el s
choo
l site
vi
sit,
with
in-b
uild
ing
com
mun
ities
of p
ract
ice,
and
indi
vidu
aliz
ed c
oach
ing
sess
ions
. So
me
stud
y sc
hool
s al
so re
ceiv
ed a
n ad
ditio
nal y
ear o
f Int
el T
each
cou
rses
and
on
line
tool
s to
sup
port
eM
INTS
lear
ning
.
Met
hodo
logy
: Thr
ee-y
ear c
lust
er ra
ndom
ized
con
trol
led
tria
l •
n=6
0 hi
gh-p
over
ty, r
ural
Mis
sour
i mid
dle
scho
ols
• S
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent w
as m
easu
red
usin
g M
isso
uri A
sses
smen
t Pro
gram
(M
AP) i
n co
mm
unic
atio
n ar
ts a
nd m
athe
mat
ics
and
the
21st
-Cen
tury
Ski
lls
Asse
ssm
ent.
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
test
sco
res
on M
AP m
athe
mat
ics
test
s in
crea
sed
sign
ifica
ntly
mor
e (0
.128
to 0
.178
sta
ndar
d de
viat
ions
) tha
n th
e co
ntro
l gro
up.
Resu
lts o
n M
AP c
omm
unic
atio
n ar
ts a
nd 2
1st C
entu
ry S
kills
sca
le s
core
s w
ere
not s
tatis
tical
ly s
igni
fican
t.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 43
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
New
man
, D.,
Finn
ey, P
. B.,
Bel
l, S.
, Tur
ner,
H.,
Jaci
w, A
., Za
cam
y, J
. L.,
& G
ould
, L.
F. (
2012
). E
valu
atio
n of
the
Effec
tive
ness
of t
he A
laba
ma
Mat
h, S
cien
ce, a
nd
Tech
nolo
gy In
itia
tive
(AM
STI)
. Was
hing
ton,
DC
: Ins
titu
te fo
r Edu
cati
on S
cien
ces.
Des
crip
tion
: 4th
- to
8th-
grad
e te
ache
rs e
ngag
ed in
the
Alab
ama
Mat
h, S
cien
ce, a
nd
Tech
nolo
gy In
itiat
ive
(AM
STI)
, a tw
o-ye
ar s
choo
lwid
e in
terv
entio
n in
tend
ed to
impr
ove
stud
ent a
chie
vem
ent b
y be
tter
alig
ning
cla
ssro
om p
ract
ices
with
nat
iona
l and
sta
tew
ide
teac
hing
sta
ndar
ds b
y pr
ovid
ing
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t, ac
cess
to m
ater
ials
and
te
chno
logy
, and
in-s
choo
l sup
port
for t
each
ers.
The
PD
incl
udes
a 1
0-da
y su
mm
er
inst
itute
, fol
low
-up
trai
ning
dur
ing
the
scho
ol y
ear,
acce
ss to
pro
gram
and
cur
ricul
um
mat
eria
ls, a
nd m
ento
ring
and
coac
hing
by
lead
teac
hers
and
site
spe
cial
ists
.
Met
hodo
logy
: Tw
o-ye
ar c
lust
er ra
ndom
ized
con
trol
led
tria
l•
n=8
2 Al
abam
a m
iddl
e sc
hool
s•
Stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t was
mea
sure
d us
ing
SAT-
10 te
sts
and
the
Alab
ama
Read
ing
and
Mat
hem
atic
s Te
st.
Find
ings
: On
the
SAT-
10 m
athe
mat
ics
test
, stu
dent
s in
AM
STI s
choo
ls s
core
d 0.
05 s
tand
ard
devi
atio
ns h
ighe
r tha
n th
eir c
ount
erpa
rts
in n
on-P
D s
choo
ls,
equi
vale
nt to
abo
ut 2
8 ad
ditio
nal d
ays
of s
tude
nt p
rogr
ess.
In a
sep
arat
e tw
o-ye
ar e
xplo
rato
ry a
naly
sis,
AM
STI s
tude
nts
incr
ease
d th
eir m
ath
scor
es b
y 0.
10 S
D a
nd th
eir s
cien
ce s
core
s by
0.1
3 SD
mor
e th
an c
ontr
ol g
roup
s.
Penu
el, W
. R.,
Gal
lagh
er, L
. P.,
& M
oort
hy, S
. (20
11).
Pre
pari
ng te
ache
rs to
de
sign
seq
uenc
es o
f ins
truc
tion
in e
arth
sys
tem
s sc
ienc
e: A
com
pari
son
of t
hree
pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent
prog
ram
s. A
mer
ican
Edu
cati
onal
Res
earc
h Jo
urna
l, 48
(4),
996
–102
5.
Des
crip
tion
: Mid
dle
scho
ol s
cien
ce te
ache
rs in
a la
rge
urba
n sc
hool
dis
tric
t pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
one
of t
hree
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t pro
gram
s de
sign
ed to
impr
ove
stud
ent s
cien
ce le
arni
ng. T
he p
rogr
ams
all u
sed
an a
ppro
ach
to c
urric
ulum
des
ign
know
n as
Und
erst
andi
ng b
y D
esig
n th
at h
elps
teac
hers
pla
n by
iden
tifyi
ng le
arni
ng
goal
s, d
esig
ning
or u
sing
ass
essm
ents
to g
auge
stu
dent
per
form
ance
rela
tive
to
thos
e go
als,
and
off
erin
g ac
tiviti
es to
furt
her d
evel
op s
tude
nt u
nder
stan
ding
. Eac
h of
th
e pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent m
odel
s in
tent
iona
lly in
corp
orat
ed fe
atur
es th
at h
ave
been
sug
gest
ed b
y re
sear
ch to
be
part
of h
igh-
qual
ity p
rofe
ssio
nal l
earn
ing
prog
ram
s,
incl
udin
g th
e us
e of
han
ds-o
n, c
olla
bora
tive
lear
ning
str
ateg
ies
and
oppo
rtun
ities
to
deep
en c
onte
nt k
now
ledg
e an
d un
ders
tand
ings
of s
tude
nt s
cien
ce th
inki
ng. E
ach
prog
ram
was
als
o al
igne
d w
ith d
istr
ict s
tand
ards
and
goa
ls fo
r sci
ence
edu
catio
n.
The
grou
ps v
arie
d in
the
degr
ee to
whi
ch te
ache
rs re
ceiv
ed g
uida
nce
in s
elec
ting
curr
icul
ar m
ater
ials
and
exp
licit
inst
ruct
ion
in th
e pe
dago
gica
l mod
els
unde
rlyin
g cu
rric
ulum
. Som
e te
ache
rs re
ceiv
ed e
xplic
it tr
aini
ng in
inst
ruct
ion
and
asse
ssm
ent
tech
niqu
es th
at a
re a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith th
e us
e of
an
Und
erst
andi
ng b
y D
esig
n ap
proa
ch. O
ther
s w
ere
prov
ided
and
ask
ed to
use
an
NSF
-fund
ed m
iddl
e sc
hool
sc
ienc
e cu
rric
ulum
. The
fina
l gro
up re
ceiv
ed tr
aini
ng in
tech
niqu
es a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith
Unde
rsta
ndin
g by
Des
ign
and
wer
e pr
ovid
ed th
e ne
w c
urric
ular
mat
eria
ls, w
hich
they
w
ere
aske
d to
use
at l
east
50%
of t
he ti
me.
Teac
hers
in e
ach
of th
e th
ree
prog
ram
s at
tend
ed a
two-
wee
k su
mm
er w
orks
hop,
plu
s 4
addi
tiona
l dev
elop
men
t day
s du
ring
the
scho
ol y
ear.
Met
hodo
logy
: Clu
ster
rand
omiz
ed c
ontr
olle
d tr
ial
• n
=53
mid
dle
scho
ol s
cien
ce te
ache
rs a
nd 1
,550
stu
dent
s in
a s
ingl
e ur
ban
dist
rict i
n th
e Am
eric
an s
outh
east
• S
tude
nt s
cien
ce le
arni
ng w
as m
easu
red
thro
ugh
spec
ially
des
igne
d un
it te
sts
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s of
teac
hers
who
rece
ived
exp
licit
inst
ruct
ion
rega
rdin
g te
achi
ng m
odel
s pe
rfor
med
bet
ter t
han
stud
ents
who
se te
ache
rs d
id n
ot
rece
ive
such
inst
ruct
ion
(d=0
.29-
0.34
). St
uden
ts o
f tea
cher
s w
ho o
nly
rece
ived
gui
danc
e in
sel
ectin
g cu
rric
ular
mat
eria
ls d
id n
ot p
erfo
rm s
igni
fican
tly
diff
eren
tly th
an s
tude
nts
who
se te
ache
rs re
ceiv
ed b
usin
ess-
as-u
sual
pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 44
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Polly
, D.,
McG
ee, J
., W
ang,
C.,
Mar
tin,
C.,
Lam
bert
, R.,
& P
ugal
ee, D
. K. (
2015
) Li
nkin
g pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent,
teac
her o
utco
mes
, and
stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t:
The
case
of a
lear
ner-
cent
ered
mat
hem
atic
s pr
ogra
m fo
r ele
men
tary
sch
ool
teac
hers
. Int
erna
tion
al J
ourn
al o
f Edu
cati
on R
esea
rch
72, 2
6–37
.
Des
crip
tion
: Ele
men
tary
mat
h te
ache
rs e
ngag
ed in
a P
D p
rogr
am to
bol
ster
sta
ndar
ds-
base
d el
emen
tary
mat
h in
stru
ctio
n. T
he p
rogr
am w
as d
esig
ned
to b
e le
arne
r-cen
tere
d,
offe
ring
activ
e le
arni
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties
that
are
col
labo
rativ
e, o
wne
d by
teac
hers
, su
ppor
tive
of c
hang
es in
cla
ssro
om p
ract
ice,
and
that
fost
er p
edag
ogic
al a
nd c
onte
nt
know
ledg
e. T
each
ers
part
icip
ated
in a
num
ber o
f act
iviti
es, i
nclu
ding
a s
umm
er
wor
ksho
p, fo
llow
-up
wor
ksho
ps d
urin
g th
e ac
adem
ic y
ear,
and
clas
sroo
m-e
mbe
dded
pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent a
ctiv
ities
. All
activ
ities
wer
e co
ordi
nate
d by
a p
roje
ct te
am
that
incl
uded
a m
athe
mat
ics
prof
esso
r, m
athe
mat
ics
educ
atio
n pr
ofes
sors
, and
sch
ool
lead
ers.
The
pro
gram
pro
vide
d ap
prox
imat
ely
80 h
ours
of p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent
over
10
mon
ths.
Met
hodo
logy
: Thr
ee-y
ear n
onex
perim
enta
l stu
dy
• n
=291
ele
men
tary
mat
hem
atic
s te
ache
rs fr
om tw
o sc
hool
dis
tric
ts: o
ne
larg
e ur
ban
dist
rict a
nd a
nea
rby
subu
rban
dis
tric
t•
Stu
dent
out
com
es w
ere
mea
sure
d us
ing
curr
icul
um-b
ased
ass
essm
ents
.
Find
ings
: Res
ults
from
thre
e ye
ars
of p
rogr
am d
ata
indi
cate
stu
dent
s of
teac
hers
who
par
ticip
ated
in th
e pr
ogra
m c
onsi
sten
tly e
xper
ienc
ed
sign
ifica
nt g
ains
in m
athe
mat
ics
from
pre
- to
post
-test
, med
iate
d by
teac
hers
’ m
athe
mat
ical
kno
wle
dge
for t
each
ing.
The
mea
n ga
in fr
om p
re to
pos
t tes
t in
Yea
r 1 w
as 2
9.74
(SD
=35.
05).
The
mea
n ga
in fr
om p
re to
pos
t tes
t in
Year
2 w
as 3
7.40
(SD
=35.
35) a
nd fr
om p
re to
pos
t tes
t in
year
3 w
as 4
1.35
(S
D=3
5.70
).
Pow
ell,
D. R
., D
iam
ond,
K. E
., B
urch
inal
, M. R
., &
Koe
hler
, M. J
. (20
10).
Eff
ects
of
an e
arly
lite
racy
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t in
terv
enti
on o
n H
ead
Star
t te
ache
rs a
nd
child
ren.
Jou
rnal
of E
duca
tion
al P
sych
olog
y, 1
02(2
), 2
99–3
12.
Des
crip
tion
: Ear
ly c
hild
hood
edu
cato
rs re
ceiv
ed P
D in
ear
ly li
tera
cy te
achi
ng fr
om
expe
rt c
oach
es. E
duca
tors
att
ende
d a
two-
day
wor
ksho
p th
at w
as d
esig
ned
to fo
ster
re
latio
nshi
p-bu
ildin
g be
twee
n co
ache
s an
d ed
ucat
ors
and
feat
ured
dem
onst
ratio
ns
and
guid
ed d
iscu
ssio
ns o
f pro
gram
con
tent
. Coa
ches
then
obs
erve
d ed
ucat
ors
biw
eekl
y an
d pr
ovid
ed te
ache
rs fe
edba
ck re
late
d to
ear
ly li
tera
cy in
stru
ctio
n.
Coac
hing
was
don
e ei
ther
ons
ite o
r rem
otel
y. O
nsite
coa
ches
obs
erve
d ed
ucat
ors
for a
ppro
xim
atel
y 90
min
utes
, the
n m
et fo
r 30
min
utes
to d
ebrie
f the
obs
erva
tion
and
prov
ide
oral
and
writ
ten
feed
back
. For
rem
ote
coac
hing
, edu
cato
rs s
ubm
itted
15
-min
ute
vide
o cl
ips
and
coac
hes
prov
ided
det
aile
d w
ritte
n fe
edba
ck s
uppo
rted
by
link
s to
vid
eo e
xem
plar
s an
d ot
her m
ater
ials
ava
ilabl
e th
roug
h th
e pr
ogra
m. T
he
sem
este
r-lon
g pr
ogra
m in
clud
ed 1
6 ho
urs
of w
orks
hop
and
seve
n co
achi
ng s
essi
ons.
Met
hodo
logy
: Tw
o-ye
ar ra
ndom
ized
con
trol
led
tria
l•
n=8
8 ed
ucat
ors
in 2
4 H
ead
Star
t cen
ters
ser
ving
urb
an a
nd n
onur
ban
coun
ties
in a
mid
wes
tern
sta
te, w
ith a
ppro
xim
atel
y ei
ght s
tude
nts
per
clas
sroo
m•
Stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t was
mea
sure
d us
ing
seve
n in
stru
men
ts, i
nclu
ding
the
Peab
ody
Pict
ure
Voca
bula
ry T
est-I
II an
d th
e W
oodc
ock-
John
son
III T
ests
of
Achi
evem
ent
Find
ings
: Tea
cher
s w
ho p
artic
ipat
ed in
the
coac
hing
pro
gram
dem
onst
rate
d ta
rget
pra
ctic
es a
t sig
nific
antly
hig
her l
evel
s. S
tude
nts
of te
ache
rs w
ho
part
icip
ated
in th
e co
achi
ng p
rogr
am s
how
ed s
igni
fican
tly la
rger
gai
ns a
nd
bett
er p
erfo
rman
ce o
n fo
ur o
ut o
f sev
en o
utco
mes
mea
sure
d by
the
stud
y:
lett
er k
now
ledg
e (E
S=0.
29),
prin
t con
cept
(ES=
.22)
, writ
ing
(ES=
.17)
, and
bl
endi
ng s
kills
(ES=
0.18
).
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 45
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Rot
h, K
. J.,
Gar
nier
, H. E
., C
hen,
C.,
Lem
men
s, M
., Sc
hwill
e, K
., &
Wic
kler
, N. I
. Z.
(201
1). V
ideo
base
d le
sson
ana
lysi
s: E
ffec
tive
sci
ence
PD
for t
each
er a
nd s
tude
nt
lear
ning
. Jou
rnal
on
Res
earc
h in
Sci
ence
Tea
chin
g, 4
8(2
),11
7–14
8.
The
Scie
nce
Teac
hers
Lea
rnin
g th
roug
h Le
sson
Ana
lysi
s (S
TeLL
A) P
D w
as a
vid
eoba
sed
anal
ysis
of a
pra
ctic
e pr
ogra
m fo
r upp
er e
lem
enta
ry te
ache
rs d
esig
ned
to h
elp
them
an
alyz
e sc
ienc
e te
achi
ng a
nd le
arni
ng to
impr
ove
peda
gogy
. Tw
o gr
oups
par
ticip
ated
in
the
stud
y. B
oth
grou
ps re
ceiv
ed th
e sa
me
scie
nce
cont
ent i
nstr
uctio
n fr
om u
nive
rsity
sc
ient
ists
dur
ing
a th
ree-
wee
k su
mm
er in
stitu
te. S
TeLL
A pa
rtic
ipan
ts a
lso
enga
ged
in
vide
o an
alys
is o
f tea
chin
g du
ring
the
sum
mer
inst
itute
and
in fo
llow
-up
sess
ions
acr
oss
the
scho
ol y
ear u
tiliz
ing
the
Stud
ent T
hink
ing
and
Scie
nce
Cont
ent S
tory
line
Lens
es.
The
Stud
ent T
hink
ing
port
ion
of P
D fo
cuse
d on
und
erst
andi
ng s
tude
nts’
idea
s fo
r use
in
pla
nnin
g, te
achi
ng, a
nd a
naly
sis
of te
achi
ng, p
artic
ular
ly in
ant
icip
atin
g st
uden
t th
inki
ng to
ass
ist t
each
ers
in re
spon
ding
to s
tude
nts’
idea
s an
d m
isun
ders
tand
ings
in
pro
duct
ive
way
s. T
he S
cien
ce C
onte
nt S
tory
line
port
ion
of th
e PD
focu
sed
on th
e se
quen
cing
of s
cien
ce id
eas
to h
elp
stud
ents
con
stru
ct a
coh
eren
t “st
ory”
that
mak
es
sens
e to
them
. STe
LLA
teac
hers
met
in s
mal
l gro
ups
faci
litat
ed b
y ST
eLLA
pro
gram
le
ader
s an
d di
scus
sed
vide
o ca
ses
of te
achi
ng th
at c
ould
incl
ude
vide
o(s)
of o
ne
clas
sroo
m, s
tude
nt a
nd te
ache
r int
ervi
ews,
teac
her m
ater
ials
, and
stu
dent
wor
k sa
mpl
es. S
TeLL
A te
ache
rs a
lso
taug
ht a
set
of f
our t
o si
x m
odel
less
ons
them
selv
es
and
anal
yzed
thei
r tea
chin
g us
ing
a st
ruct
ured
pro
toco
l. Pu
rpos
es o
f the
se le
sson
s w
ere
iden
tified
as:
1) m
odel
ing
and
scaf
fold
ing
of th
e tw
o le
nses
; 2) c
larif
y sc
ienc
e co
nten
t und
erst
andi
ngs;
and
3) p
rovi
de c
omm
on c
urric
ulum
for l
esso
n an
alys
is
wor
k. H
alf o
f a s
tudy
gro
up w
ould
teac
h th
e le
sson
s an
d th
e en
tire
grou
p w
ould
co
llabo
rativ
ely
anal
yze
the
teac
hing
and
stu
dent
wor
k, a
nd th
en re
vise
the
less
ons
for
the
othe
r hal
f to
use.
The
role
s w
ould
then
sw
itch
and
the
seco
nd h
alf o
f the
gro
up
wou
ld te
ach
the
less
ons
that
wou
ld b
e us
ed fo
r ana
lysi
s. T
he a
naly
sis
was
hig
hly
scaf
fold
ed b
y th
e PD
faci
litat
ors.
STe
LLA
grou
ps m
et fo
r 58
hour
s of
ana
lysi
s ac
ross
the
scho
ol y
ear,
in a
dditi
on to
44
hour
s du
ring
the
thre
e-w
eek
sum
mer
ses
sion
for a
tota
l of
102
hou
rs. C
onte
nt-o
nly
teac
hers
rece
ived
just
the
44 h
ours
of P
D.
Met
hodo
logy
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal c
ompa
rison
gro
up s
tudy
des
ign
• n
=48
urba
n Ca
lifor
nia
uppe
r ele
men
tary
teac
hers
of 1
,490
stu
dent
s•
Stu
dent
ach
ieve
men
t was
mea
sure
d by
pre
- and
pos
t-tes
ts o
f stu
dent
co
nten
t kno
wle
dge.
Find
ings
: STe
LLA
teac
hers
’ stu
dent
s sh
owed
gre
ater
gai
ns th
an n
on-S
TeLL
A te
ache
rs’ s
tude
nts.
For
a ty
pica
l stu
dent
taug
ht b
y a
STeL
LA te
ache
r, hi
gher
av
erag
e ac
hiev
emen
t was
ass
ocia
ted
with
:•
Tea
cher
s’ s
cien
ce c
onte
nt k
now
ledg
e
(ES
=.2
0)
• T
each
ers’
abi
lity
to a
naly
ze s
cien
ce te
achi
ng a
bout
stu
dent
thin
king
(E
S =
.18)
• T
each
ers’
cla
ssro
om u
se o
f Sci
ence
Con
tent
Sto
rylin
e st
rate
gy; s
elec
ting
and
usin
g co
nten
t rep
rese
ntat
ions
mat
ched
to th
e m
ain
lear
ning
goa
l (ES
=.3
2)
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 46
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Saxe
, G. B
,, G
earh
art,
M.,
& N
asir,
N. S
. (20
01).
Enh
anci
ng s
tude
nts’
und
erst
andi
ng
of m
athe
mat
ics:
A s
tudy
of t
hree
con
tras
ting
app
roac
hes
to p
rofe
ssio
nal s
uppo
rt.
Jour
nal o
f Mat
hem
atic
s Te
ache
r Edu
cati
on 4
: 55–
79.
Des
crip
tion
: Upp
er e
lem
enta
ry s
choo
l tea
cher
s pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
a re
form
-orie
nted
pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent p
rogr
am d
esig
ned
to e
nhan
ce s
tude
nt u
nder
stan
ding
of
frac
tions
. The
pro
gram
beg
an w
ith a
five
-day
sum
mer
inst
itute
, fol
low
ed b
y bi
wee
kly
mee
tings
for t
he re
mai
nder
of t
he s
choo
l yea
r. Pr
ogra
m m
eetin
gs ta
rget
ed te
ache
rs’
own
mat
hem
atic
al c
onte
nt k
now
ledg
e, th
eir u
nder
stan
ding
of s
tude
nts’
mat
hem
atic
al
thin
king
and
mot
ivat
ion,
and
thei
r com
pete
nce
in th
e us
e of
inte
grat
ed a
sses
smen
ts.
The
mee
tings
util
ized
indi
vidu
al a
nd c
olla
bora
tive
wor
k, a
nd a
ctiv
e-le
arni
ng s
trat
egie
s su
ch a
s ro
le-p
layi
ng. T
each
ers
part
icip
atin
g in
the
prog
ram
wer
e al
so p
rovi
ded
with
two
less
ons
from
a re
form
mat
hem
atic
s cu
rric
ulum
to im
plem
ent i
n th
eir c
lass
room
s.
Met
hodo
logy
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal d
esig
n ut
ilizi
ng A
NCO
VA a
naly
ses
• n
=23
uppe
r ele
men
tary
sch
ool t
each
ers
• S
tude
nt k
now
ledg
e of
frac
tions
was
mea
sure
d us
ing
a sp
ecia
lly d
esig
ned
test
with
bot
h co
ncep
tual
and
com
puta
tiona
l ite
ms.
Find
ings
: Tea
cher
par
ticip
atio
n in
the
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t pro
gram
was
as
soci
ated
with
hig
her s
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent o
n th
e co
ncep
tual
por
tion
of th
e fr
actio
ns te
st. T
here
was
no
diff
eren
ce o
n th
e co
mpu
tatio
nal p
ortio
n of
the
frac
tions
test
.
Shah
a, S
. H. &
Ells
wor
th, H
. (20
13).
Pre
dict
ors
of s
ucce
ss fo
r pro
fess
iona
l de
velo
pmen
t: L
inki
ng s
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent
to s
choo
l and
edu
cato
r suc
cess
es
thro
ugh
on-d
eman
d, o
nlin
e pr
ofes
sion
al le
arni
ng. J
ourn
al o
f Ins
truc
tion
al
Psyc
holo
gy 4
0(1)
: 19–
26.
Des
crip
tion
: Edu
cato
rs p
artic
ipat
ed in
onl
ine,
on-
dem
and
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t th
roug
h a
web
-bas
ed c
omm
erci
al p
rodu
ct fe
atur
ing
teac
her r
esou
rces
suc
h as
vid
eos
and
onlin
e fo
rum
s. In
eac
h pa
rtic
ipat
ing
scho
ol, t
each
ers
aver
aged
at l
east
90
min
utes
of
vid
eo v
iew
ing
on th
e PD
pla
tform
, tho
ugh
teac
hers
in h
ighe
r eng
agem
ent s
choo
ls
aver
aged
six
hou
rs o
f vie
win
g an
d te
ache
rs in
low
er e
ngag
emen
t sch
ools
ave
rage
d th
ree
hour
s. T
hrou
gh th
e pl
atfo
rm, t
each
ers
had
the
oppo
rtun
ity to
ans
wer
follo
w-u
p an
d re
flect
ion
ques
tions
abo
ut c
onte
nt, c
reat
e fo
cus
obje
ctiv
es, a
nd jo
in in
tera
ctiv
e us
er fo
rum
s an
d co
mm
uniti
es.
Met
hodo
logy
: Tw
o-ye
ar q
uasi
-exp
erim
enta
l des
ign
• n
=734
sch
ools
in 3
9 st
ates
• S
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent w
as m
easu
red
by s
tude
nts
achi
evin
g pr
ofici
ent o
r ad
vanc
ed ra
tings
on
stan
dard
ized
mat
h an
d re
adin
g te
sts.
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s at
sch
ools
with
hig
her a
vera
ge e
ngag
emen
t with
the
PD
prog
ram
impr
oved
read
ing
achi
evem
ent a
t fou
r tim
es th
e ra
te o
f stu
dent
s at
sc
hool
s w
ith lo
wer
ave
rage
eng
agem
ent a
nd im
prov
ed m
ath
achi
evem
ent a
t 30
times
the
rate
of s
tude
nts
at lo
w-e
ngag
emen
t sch
ools
.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 47
Stud
y an
d Pr
ofes
sion
al D
evel
opm
ent D
escr
iptio
nSt
udy
Met
hodo
logy
and
Fin
ding
s R
elat
ed to
Stu
dent
Out
com
es
Tayl
or, J
. A.,
Rot
h, K
., W
ilson
, C.,
Stuh
lsat
z, M
., &
Tip
ton,
E. (
2017
). T
he e
ffec
t of
an
anal
ysis
-of-p
ract
ice,
vid
eoca
se-b
ased
, tea
cher
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t pr
ogra
m
on e
lem
enta
ry s
tude
nts’
sci
ence
ach
ieve
men
t. J
ourn
al o
f Res
earc
h on
Edu
cati
onal
Eff
ecti
vene
ss, 1
0(2
), 2
41–2
71.
Des
crip
tion
: 4th
- to
6th-
grad
e sc
ienc
e te
ache
rs u
sed
STeL
LA—
an a
naly
sis-
of-
prac
tice,
vid
eoca
se-b
ased
, pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t pro
gram
to im
prov
e st
uden
t sc
ienc
e le
arni
ng. T
he tr
eatm
ent g
roup
con
sist
ed o
f tea
cher
s w
ho p
artic
ipat
ed in
a
PD p
rogr
am th
at in
tegr
ates
sci
ence
con
tent
dee
peni
ng w
ith a
naly
sis
of p
ract
ice.
The
co
mpa
rison
gro
up p
artic
ipat
ed in
a P
D p
rogr
am o
f equ
al d
urat
ion
and
inte
nsity
, but
on
ly in
clud
ed c
onte
nt d
eepe
ning
. Dur
ing
a su
mm
er in
stitu
te, t
each
ers
wer
e gi
ven
six
less
ons
and
then
ask
ed to
teac
h th
e le
sson
s in
the
fall.
At t
he in
stitu
te, t
he tr
eatm
ent
grou
p w
orke
d co
llabo
rativ
ely
to d
iscu
ss v
ideo
ana
lysi
s of
exp
erie
nced
sci
ence
te
ache
rs w
ith u
nive
rsity
facu
lty g
uide
d th
eir t
hink
ing
on ta
rget
ed s
cien
ce id
eas.
D
urin
g th
e fa
ll, te
ache
rs ta
ught
the
less
ons
from
the
inst
itute
. Dur
ing
thei
r mon
thly
se
ssio
ns, t
hey
anal
yzed
eac
h ot
her’s
teac
hing
s of
thos
e le
sson
s an
d st
uden
t wor
k.
Dur
ing
the
sprin
g, th
e gr
oup
sess
ions
shi
fted
to d
evel
opin
g th
eir o
wn
less
on p
lans
us
ing
STeL
LA s
trat
egie
s an
d le
nses
. Tea
cher
s pl
anne
d a
sequ
ence
of c
onne
cted
le
sson
s. A
t the
cul
min
atin
g se
ssio
n, te
ache
rs s
hare
d th
eir a
naly
sis
of te
achi
ng th
eir
own
less
ons.
Dur
ing
the
sum
mer
inst
itute
, the
com
paris
on g
roup
par
ticip
ated
in
hand
s-on
inve
stig
atio
ns, c
reat
ion
and
anal
ysis
of c
onte
nt re
pres
enta
tions
, sci
ence
no
tebo
ok w
ritin
g, la
rge
and
smal
l gro
up d
iscu
ssio
ns, s
hort
lect
ures
and
read
ings
, and
fie
ld tr
ips.
Dur
ing
the
scho
ol y
ear,
teac
hers
taug
ht ta
rget
ed c
onte
nt fr
om th
e su
mm
er
inst
itute
. Bot
h gr
oups
com
plet
ed a
tota
l of 8
8.5
hou
rs o
f PD
.
Met
hodo
logy
: Clu
ster
rand
omiz
ed c
ontr
olle
d tr
ial
• n
=144
4th
– to
6th
-gra
de te
ache
rs in
77
Colo
rado
Fro
nt R
ange
ele
men
tary
sc
hool
s an
d 2,
823
stud
ents
• S
tude
nts’
con
tent
kno
wle
dge,
as
mea
sure
d by
a p
roje
ct-s
peci
fic te
st.
Find
ings
: Stu
dent
s of
teac
hers
par
ticip
atin
g in
STe
LLA
outp
erfo
rmed
stu
dent
s w
hose
teac
hers
did
not
par
ticip
ate
(ES=
0.52
sta
ndar
d de
viat
ions
).
Wen
glin
sky,
H. (
2000
). H
ow te
achi
ng m
atte
rs: B
ringi
ng th
e cl
assr
oom
bac
k in
to
disc
ussi
ons
of te
ache
r qua
lity.
Pri
ncet
on, N
J: E
duca
tion
al T
esti
ng S
ervi
ce.
Des
crip
tion
: Res
earc
hers
ana
lyze
d 19
96 N
AEP
mat
hem
atic
s an
d sc
ienc
e da
ta
for 8
th-g
rade
rs to
inve
stig
ate,
am
ong
othe
r que
stio
ns, w
hat a
spec
ts o
f tea
cher
pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent r
esul
t in
incr
ease
d st
uden
t ach
ieve
men
t.
Met
hodo
logy
: One
-yea
r des
crip
tive
surv
ey a
naly
sis
• n
=7,1
46 8
th g
rade
rs fo
r mat
hem
atic
s an
d 7,
776
8th
grad
ers
for s
cien
ce.
• S
tude
nt a
chie
vem
ent m
easu
red
usin
g th
e 19
96 N
atio
nal A
sses
smen
t of
Educ
atio
nal P
rogr
ess
(NAE
P)
Find
ings
: In
mat
hem
atic
s, s
tude
nts
of te
ache
rs w
ho p
artic
ipat
ed in
PD
for
teac
hing
div
erse
stu
dent
s w
ere
107%
of a
gra
de le
vel a
head
of t
heir
peer
s in
m
ath.
Stu
dent
s w
hose
teac
hers
par
ticip
ated
in P
D in
hig
her-o
rder
thin
king
ski
lls
wer
e 40
% o
f a g
rade
leve
l ahe
ad o
f the
ir pe
ers.
In S
cien
ce, P
D in
labo
rato
ry s
kills
was
ass
ocia
ted
with
stu
dent
s be
ing
44%
of
a gr
ade
leve
l ahe
ad, c
ompa
red
to s
tude
nts
with
teac
hers
who
did
not
hav
e th
is P
D. H
owev
er, P
D in
cla
ssro
om m
anag
emen
t was
ass
ocia
ted
with
37%
of a
gr
ade
leve
l beh
ind
thei
r pee
rs fo
r sci
ence
, rai
sing
que
stio
ns a
bout
the
natu
re o
f th
e PD
off
ered
.
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 48
Appendix C: Elements of Effective Professional Development by Study
Note: “NS” indicates not specified in study.
Seven Elements of Effective Professional Development1. They are content focused.2. They incorporate active learning strategies.3. They engage teachers in collaboration.4. They use models and/or modeling.5. They provide coaching and expert support.6. They include opportunities for feedback and reflection.7. They are of sustained duration.
Study
Activ
e Le
arni
ng
Coac
hing
/Exp
ert
Supp
ort
Colla
bora
tive
Cont
ent-F
ocus
ed
Feed
back
Refl
ectio
n
Mod
els/
Mod
elin
g
Sust
aine
d D
urat
ion
Allen, J. P., Pianta, R. C., Gregory, A., Mikami, A. Y., & Lun, J. (2011). An interaction-based approach to enhancing secondary school instruction and student achievement.
X X X X X X X
Allen, J.P., Hafen, C.A., Gregory, A.C., Mikami, A.Y. & Pianta, R. (2015). Enhancing secondary school instruction and student achievement: Replication and extension of the My Teaching Partner-Secondary intervention.
X X X X X X X
Antoniou, P. and Kyriakides, L. (2013). A Dynamic Integrated Approach to teacher professional development: Impact and sustainability of the effects on improving teacher behavior and student outcomes.
X X X X X X X NS
Buczynski, S. & Hansen, C. B. (2010). Impact of professional development on teacher practice; Uncovering connections.
X X X X NS X X X
Buysse, V., Castro, C.C., & Peisner-Feinberg (2010). Effects of a professional development program on classroom practices and outcomes for Latino dual language learners.
X X X X X X X X
Campbell, P. F., & Malkus, N. N. (2011). The impact of elementary mathematics coaches on student achievement.
X X X X X X X NS
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 49
Study
Activ
e Le
arni
ng
Coac
hing
/Exp
ert
Supp
ort
Colla
bora
tive
Cont
ent-F
ocus
ed
Feed
back
Refl
ectio
n
Mod
els/
Mod
elin
g
Sust
aine
d D
urat
ion
Carpenter, T.P., Fennema, E., Peterson, P.L., Chiang, C., & Loef, M. (1989). Using knowledge of children’s mathematics thinking in classroom teaching: An experimental study.
X X X X X X X X
Doppelt, Y., Schunn C.D., Silk, E.M., Mehalik, M.M., Reynolds, B. & Ward, E. (2009). Evaluating the impact of facilitated learning community approach to professional development on teacher practice and student achievement.
X X X X X X X X
Finkelstein, N., Hanson, T., Huang, C. W., Hirschman, B., & Huang, M. (2010). Effects of problem based economics on high school economics instruction.
X X X X X X X X
Gallagher, H. A., Woodworth, K. R., & Arshan, N. L. (2015). Impact of the National Writing Project’s College-Ready Writers program in high-need rural districts.
X X X X X X X X
Gersten, R. Dimino, J., Jayanthi, M., Kim, J. S., & Santoro, L.E. (2010). Teacher study group: Impact of the professional development model on reading instruction and student outcomes in first grade classrooms.
X X X X X X X X
Greenleaf, C. L., Hanson, T. L., Rosen, R., Boscardin, D. K., Herman, J., Schneider, S. A. (2011). Integrating literacy and science in biology: Teaching and learning impacts of reading apprenticeship professional development.
X X X X NS X X X
Heller, J. I., Daehler, K. R., Wong, N., Shinohara, M., & Miratrix, L. W. (2012). Differential effects of three professional development models on teacher knowledge and student achievement in elementary science.
X X X X X X X X
Johnson, C. C. & Fargo, J. D. (2014). A study of the impact of transformative professional development on Hispanic student performance on state mandated assessments of science in elementary school.
X X X X X X X X
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 50
Study
Activ
e Le
arni
ng
Coac
hing
/Exp
ert
Supp
ort
Colla
bora
tive
Cont
ent-F
ocus
ed
Feed
back
Refl
ectio
n
Mod
els/
Mod
elin
g
Sust
aine
d D
urat
ion
Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Urban school reform enabled by transformative professional development: Impact on teacher change and student learning of science.
X NS X X X X X X
Kim, J. S., Olson, C. B., Scarcella, R., Kramer, J., Pearson, M., van Dyk, D., Collins, P., & Land, R. E. (2011) A randomized experiment of a cognitive strategies approach to text-based analytical writing for mainstreamed Latino English language learners in grades 6 to 12.
X X X X NS X X X
Kleickmann, T., Trobst, S., Jonen, A., Vehmeyer, J., & Moller, K. (2016). The effects of expert scaffolding in elementary science professional development on teachers’ beliefs and motivations, instructional practices, and student achievement.
X X X X X X X X
Kutaka, T. S., Smith, W. M., Albano, A. D., Edwards, C. P., Ren, L., Beattie, H. L., Lewis, W. J., Heaton, R, M., & Stroup, W. W. (2017). Connecting teacher professional development and student mathematics achievement: A 4-year study of an elementary mathematics specialist program.
X NS X X X X X X
Landry, S. H., Swank, P. R., Smith, K.E., Assel, M. A., & Gunnewig, S. B. (2006). Enhancing early literacy skills for preschool children: Bringing a professional development model to scale.
X X X X X X X X
Landry, S. H., Anthony, J. L., Swank, P. R., & Monseque-Bailey, P. (2009). Effectiveness of comprehensive professional development for teachers of at-risk preschoolers.
X X X X X X X X
Lara-Alecio, R., Tong, F., Irby, B. J., Guerrero, C., Huerta, M., & Fan, Y. (2012). The effect of an instructional intervention on middle school English learners’ science and English reading achievement.
X X X X NS X X X
Marek, E. & Methven, S. B. (1991). Effects of the learning cycle upon student and classroom teacher performance.
X NS X X NS X X X
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 51
Study
Activ
e Le
arni
ng
Coac
hing
/Exp
ert
Supp
ort
Colla
bora
tive
Cont
ent-F
ocus
ed
Feed
back
Refl
ectio
n
Mod
els/
Mod
elin
g
Sust
aine
d D
urat
ion
May, H.; Sirinides, P. M., Gray, A., and Goldsworthy, H. (2016). Reading Recovery: An evaluation of the four-Year i3 scale-up.
X X X X X X X X
McGill-Franzen, A., Allington, R. L., Yokoi, L., & Brooks, G. (1999). Putting books in the classroom seems necessary but not sufficient.
NS NS NS X NS NS X X
Meissel, K., Parr, J. M., Timperley, H. S. (2016). Can professional development of teachers reduce disparity in student achievement?
X X X X X X X NS
Meyers, C. V., Molefe, A., Brandt, W. C., Zhu, B., & Dhillon, S. (2016). Impact Results of the eMINTS Professional Development Validation Study.
X X X X X X X
Newman, D., Finney, P. B., Bell, S., Turner, H., Jaciw, A., Zacamy, J. L., & Gould, L. F. (2012). Evaluation of the effectiveness of the Alabama Math, Science, and Technology Initiative (AMSTI).
X X X X X X X X
Penuel, W. R., Gallagher, L. P., & Moorthy, S. (2011). Preparing teachers to design sequences of instruction in earth systems science: A comparison of three professional development programs.
X X NS X NS X X X
Polly, D., McGee, J., Wang, C., Martin, C., Lambert, R., & Pugalee, D.K. (2015). Linking professional development, teacher outcomes, and student achievement: The case of a learner-centered mathematics program for elementary school teachers.
X X X X NS X X X
Powell, D. R., Diamond, K. E., Burchinal, M. R., & Koehler, M. J. (2010). Effects of an early literacy professional development intervention on Head Start teachers and children.
X X X X X X X X
Roth, K. J., Garnier, H. E., Chen, C., Lemmens, M., Schwille, K., & Wickler, N. I. Z. (2011). Video-based lesson analysis: Effective science PD for teacher and student learning.
X X X X X X X X
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 52
Study
Activ
e Le
arni
ng
Coac
hing
/Exp
ert
Supp
ort
Colla
bora
tive
Cont
ent-F
ocus
ed
Feed
back
Refl
ectio
n
Mod
els/
Mod
elin
g
Sust
aine
d D
urat
ion
Sample McMeeking, L. B., Orsi, R., & Cobb, R. B. (2012). Effects of a teacher professional development program on the mathematics achievement of middle school students.
X X NS X NS X X X
Saxe, G. B., Gearhart, M., & Nasir, N. S. (2001). Enhancing students’ understanding of mathematics: A study of three contrasting approaches to professional support.
X X X X NS X X X
Shaha, S. H. & Ellsworth, H. (2013). Predictors of success for professional development: Linking student achievement to school and educator successes through on-demand, online professional learning.
X X NS NS X X NS
Taylor, J. A., Roth, K., Wilson, C., Stuhlsatz, M, & Tipton, E. (2017). The Effect of an Analysis-of-Practice, Videocase-Based, Teacher Professional Development Program on Elementary Students’ Science Achievement.
X X X X X X X X
Total: 34(1 NS)
30(4 NS)
32(3 NS)
31(1 NS)
24(11 NS)
34(1 NS)
35 3(4 NS)
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 53
Endnotes
1. Hill, H. C., Beisiegel, M., & Jacob, R. (2013). Professional development research: Consensus, crossroads, and challenges. Educational Researcher, 42(9), 476–487.
2. TNTP. (2015). The mirage: Confronting the hard truth about our quest for teacher development. Brooklyn, NY: TNTP.
3. Easton, L. B. (2008). From professional development to professional learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 89(10), 755–761; Fullan, M. (2007). The new meaning of educational change, 4th edition. New York City, NY: Teachers College, Columbia University.
4. Fullan, M. (2007). The new meaning of educational change, 4th edition, 35. New York City, NY: Teachers College, Columbia University.
5. Wei, R. C., Darling-Hammond, L., & Adamson, F. (2010). Professional development in the United States: Trends and challenges (Vol. 28). Dallas, TX: National Staff Development Council.
6. Buczynski, S. & Hansen, C. B. (2010). Impact of professional development on teacher practice: Uncovering connections. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(3), 599–607; Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Urban school reform enabled by transformative professional development: Impact on teacher change and student learning of science. Urban Education, 45(1), 4–29; Santagata, R., Kersting, N., Givvin, K. B., & Stigler, J. W. (2010). Problem implementation as a lever for change: An experimental study of the effects of a professional development program on students’ mathematics learning. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 4(1), 1–24.
7. Darling-Hammond, L., Wei, R. C., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession. Washington, DC: National Staff Development Council; Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational researcher, 38(3), 181–199; Hill, H. C., Beisiegel, M., & Jacob, R. (2013). Professional development research: Consensus, crossroads, and challenges. Educational Researcher, 42(9), 476–487.
8. Dash, S., Magidin de Kramer, R., O’Dwyer, L. M., Masters, J., & Russell, M. (2012). Impact of online professional development or teacher quality and student achievement in fifth grade mathematics. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 45(1), 1–26; Garet, M. S., Wayne, A. J., Stancavage, F., Taylor, J., Walters, K., Song, M., Brown, S., Hurlburt, S., Zhu, P., Sepanik., S., & Doolittle, F. (2010). Middle School Mathematics Professional Development Impact Study: Findings After the First Year of Implementation. NCEE 2010-4009. National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED509306.pdf (accessed 5/8/17); Garet, M. S., Heppen, J. B., Walters, K., Parkinson, J., Smith, T. M., Song, M., Garrett, R., Yang, R., Borman, G. D., & Wei, T. E. (2016). Focusing on Mathematical Knowledge: The Impact of Content-Intensive Teacher Professional Development. National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20164010/pdf/20164010.pdf (accessed 5/8/17); & Randel, B., Apthorp, H., Beesley, A. D., Clark, T. F., & Wang, X. (2016). Impacts of professional development in classroom assessment on teacher and student outcomes. The Journal of Educational Research, 109(5), 491–502.
9. Randel, B., Apthorp, H., Beesley, A. D., Clark, T. F., & Wang, X. (2016). Impacts of professional development in classroom assessment on teacher and student outcomes. The Journal of Educational Research, 109(5), 491–502.
10. Dash, S., Magidin de Kramer, R., O’Dwyer, L. M., Masters, J., & Russell, M. (2012). Impact of online professional development or teacher quality and student achievement in fifth grade mathematics. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 45(1), 1–26.
11. Garet, M. S., Wayne, A. J., Stancavage, F., Taylor, J., Eaton, M., Walters, K., Song, M., Brown, S., Hurlburt, S., Zhu, P., Sepanik, S., & Doolittle, F. (2011). Middle School Mathematics Professional Development Impact Study: Findings after the Second Year of Implementation. NCEE 2011-4024. National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED519922.pdf (accessed 5/8/17).
12. Garet, M. S., Heppen, J. B., Walters, K., Parkinson, J., Smith, T. M., Song, M., Garrett, R., Yang, R., Borman, G. D., & Wei, T. E. (2016). Focusing on mathematical knowledge: The impact of content-intensive teacher professional development. National Center for Education Statistic. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20164010/pdf/20164010.pdf (accessed 5/8/17).
LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 54
13. Santagata, R., Kersting, N., Givvin, K. B., & Stigler, J. W. (2011). Problem implementation as a lever for change: An experimental study of the effects of a professional development program on students’ mathematics learning. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 4(1), 1–24.
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88. Landry, S.H., Anthony, J.L., Swank, P.R., & Monseque-Bailey, P. (2009). Effectiveness of comprehensive professional development for teachers of at-risk preschoolers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 448–465.
89. Landry, S.H., Anthony, J.L., Swank, P.R., & Monseque-Bailey, P. (2009). Effectiveness of comprehensive professional development for teachers of at-risk preschoolers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 448–465.
90. Landry, S. H., Anthony, J. L., Swank, P. R., & Monseque-Bailey, P. (2009). Effectiveness of comprehensive professional development for teachers of at-risk preschoolers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 448–465.
91. Gallagher, H. A., Woodworth, K. R., & Arshan, N. L. (2017). Impact of the National Writing Project’s College-Ready Writers Program in high-need rural districts. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, online; Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Urban school reform enabled by transformative professional development: Impact on teacher change and student learning of science. Urban Education, 45(1), 4–29; Landry, S. H., Anthony, J. L., Swank, P. R., & Monseque-Bailey, P. (2009). Effectiveness of comprehensive professional development for teachers of at-risk preschoolers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 448–465; Powell, D. R., Diamond, K. E., Burchinal, M. R., & Koehler, M. J. (2010). Effects of an early literacy professional development intervention on Head Start teachers and children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 299–312.
92. Allen, J. P., Hafen, C. A., Gregory, A. C., Mikami, A. Y., & Pianta, R. (2015). Enhancing secondary school instruction and student achievement: Replication and extension of the My Teaching Partner-Secondary intervention. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 8(4), 475–489; Allen, J. P., Pianta, R. C., Gregory, A., Mikami, A. Y., & Lun, J. (2011). An interaction-based approach to enhancing secondary school instruction and student achievement. Science, 333(6045), 1034–1037; Gallagher, H. A., Woodworth, K. R., & Arshan, N. L. (2017). Impact of the National Writing Project’s College-Ready Writers Program in high-need rural districts. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, online; Powell, D. R., Diamond, K. E., Burchinal, M. R., & Koehler, M. J. (2010). Effects of an early literacy professional development intervention on Head Start teachers and children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 299–312.
93. Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Urban school reform enabled by transformative professional development: Impact on teacher change and student learning of science. Urban Education, 45(1), 4–29; Lara-Alecio, R., Tong, F., Irby, B. J., Guerrero, C., Huerta, M., & Fan, Y. (2012). The effect of an instructional intervention on middle school English learners’ science and English reading achievement. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 49(8), 987–1011; Roth, K. J., Garnier, H. E., Chen, C., Lemmens, M., Schwille, K., & Wickler, N. I .Z. (2011). Videobased lesson analysis: Effective science PD for teacher and student learning. Journal on Research in Science Teaching, 48(2),117–148; Taylor, J. A., Roth, K., Wilson, C. D., Stuhlsatz, M. A., & Tipton, E. (2017). The effect of an analysis-of-practice, videocase-based, teacher professional development program on elementary students’ science achievement. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 10(2), 241–271.
94. Gallagher, H. A., Woodworth, K. R., & Arshan, N. L. (2017). Impact of the National Writing Project’s College-Ready Writers Program in high-need rural districts. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, online; Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Urban school reform enabled by transformative professional development: Impact on teacher change and student learning of science. Urban Education, 45(1), 4–29.
95. Darling-Hammond, L., Wei, R. C., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession. Washington, DC: National Staff Development Council; Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational researcher, 38(3), 181–199.
96. Knapp, M. S. (2003). Professional development as policy pathway. Review of Research in Education, 27(1), 109–157.
97. None of the reviewed studies explicitly utilized a one-off workshop as their preferred model. However, four of the studies do not specify the duration or structure for professional development sessions. Based
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on the authors’ descriptions of the professional development in these five studies, we find it unlikely that the models relied on a single, isolated engagement with educators, but the description provided in the studies is insufficient to conclude that with certainty.
98. Cohen, D. K., & Hill, H. C. (2001). Learning policy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; Darling-Hammond, L., Wei, R. C., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession. Washington, DC: National Staff Development Council; Desimone, L., Porter, A., Garet, M., Yoon, K., & Birman, B. (2002). Effects of professional development on teachers’ instruction: Results from a three-year longitudinal study. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 24(2), 81–112; Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational researcher, 38(3), 181–199; Garet, M., Porter, A., Desimone, L., Birman, B., & Yoon, K.S. (2001). What makes professional development effective? Results from a national sample of teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 38(4), 915–945; McGill-Franzen, A., Allington, R.L., Yokoi, L., & Brooks, G. (1999). Putting books in the classroom seems necessary but not sufficient. The Journal of Education Research, 93(2), 67–74; Supovitz, J. A., Mayer, D. P., & Kahle, J. B. (2000). Promoting inquiry based instructional practice: The longitudinal impact of professional development in the context of systemic reform. Educational Policy 14(3), 331–356; Weiss, I. R., & Pasley J. D. (2006). Scaling up instructional improvement through teacher professional development: Insights from the local systemic change initiative. Philadelphia, PA: Consortium for Policy Research in Education (CPRE) Policy Briefs; Yoon, K. S., Duncan, T., Lee, S. W.-Y., Scarloss, B., & Shapley, K. (2007). Reviewing the evidence on how teacher professional development affects student achievement (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2007-No. 033). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Southwest.
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100. Yoon, K. S., Duncan, T., Lee, S. W.-Y., Scarloss, B., & Shapley, K. (2007). Reviewing the evidence on how teacher professional development affects student achievement (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2007-No. 033). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Southwest.
101. Allen, J. P., Hafen, C. A., Gregory, A. C., Mikami, A. Y., & Pianta, R. (2015). Enhancing secondary school instruction and student achievement: Replication and extension of the My Teaching Partner-Secondary intervention. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 8(4), 475–489; Finkelstein, N., Hanson, T., Huang, C. W., Hirschman, B., & Huang, M. (2010). Effects of problem based economics on high school economics instruction: final report. NCEE 2010-4002. National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences; Greenleaf, C.L., Hanson, T.L., Rosen, R., Boscardin, D.K., Herman, J., Schneider, S.A., Madden, S., & Jones, B. (2011). Integrating literacy and science in biology: Teaching and learning impacts of reading apprenticeship professional development. American Educational Research Journal, 48(3), 647–717; Polly, D., McGee, J., Wang, C., Martin, C., Lambert, R., & Pugalee, D. K. (2015). Linking professional development, teacher outcomes, and student achievement: The case of a learner-centered mathematics program for elementary school teachers. International Journal of Education Research, 72, 26–37; Sample McMeeking, L. S., Orsi, R., & Cobb, R. B. (2012). Effects of a teacher professional development program on the mathematics achievement of middle school students. Journal for research in mathematics education, 43(2), 159-181.
102. Penuel, W. R., Gallagher, L. P., & Moorthy, S. (2011). Preparing teachers to design sequences of instruction in Earth systems science: A Comparison of three professional development programs. American Educational Research Journal, 48(4), 996–1025.
103. Campbell, P. F., & Malkus, N. N. (2011). The impact of elementary mathematics coaches on student achievement. The Elementary School Journal 111(3), 430–454; May, H., Sirinides, P., Gray, A., & Goldsworthy, H. (2016). Reading Recovery: An Evaluation of the Four-Year i3 Scale-Up. Philadelphia, PA: Consortium for Policy Research in Education. http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1089&context=cpre_researchreports (accessed 11/17/2016).
104. Antoniou, P., & Kyriakides, L. (2013). A dynamic integrated approach to teacher professional development: Impact and sustainability of the effects on improving teacher behavior and student outcomes. Teaching and Teacher Education, 29, 1–12; Kleickmann, T., Trobst, S., Jonen, A., Vehmeyer, J., & Moller, K. (2016). The effects of expert scaffolding in elementary science professional development on
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teachers’ beliefs and motivations, instructional practices, and student achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(1) 21–42; Lara-Alecio, R., Tong, F., Irby, B. J., Guerrero, C., Huerta, M., & Fan, Y. (2012). The effect of an instructional intervention on middle school English learners’ science and English reading achievement. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 49(8), 987–1011.
105. Doppelt, Y., Schunn C.D., Silk, E. M., Mehalik, M. M., Reynolds, B., & Ward, E. (2009). Evaluating the impact of facilitated learning community approach to professional development on teacher practice and student achievement. Research in Science and Technological Education, 27(3), 339–354.
106. Darling-Hammond, L., Wei, R. C., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession, 9. Washington, DC: National Staff Development Council.
107. Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2014). A study of the impact of transformative professional development on Hispanic student performance on state mandated assessments of science in elementary school. Journal of Elementary Science Teacher Education, 25(7), 845–859.
108. Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2014). A study of the impact of transformative professional development on Hispanic student performance on state mandated assessments of science in elementary school. Journal of Elementary Science Teacher Education, 25(7), 845–859.
109. Ball, D. L., & Cohen, D. K. (1999). Developing practice, developing practitioners: Toward a practice-based theory of professional education. Teaching as the learning profession: Handbook of policy and practice, 1, 3–22; Dunne, F., Nave, B., & Lewis, A. (2000). Critical friends: Teachers helping to improve student learning. Phi Delta Kappa International Research Bulletin (CEDR), 28, 9–12; Little, J. W. (2003). Inside teacher community: Representations of classroom practice. Teacher College Record, 105(6), 913–945.
110. Strahan, D. (2003). Promoting a collaborative professional culture in three elementary schools that have beaten the odds. The Elementary School Journal, 104(2), 127–146.
111. Bryk, A., Camburn, E., & Louis, K. (1999). Professional community in Chicago elementary schools: Facilitating factors and organizational consequences. Educational Administration Quarterly, 35(5), 751–781; Calkins, A., Guenther, W., Belfiore, G., & Lash, D. (2007). The turnaround challenge: Why America’s best opportunity to dramatically improve student achievement lies in our worst-performing schools. Boston, MA: Mass Insight Education & Research Institute; Goddard, Y. L., Goddard, R. D., & Tschannen-Moran, M. (2007). Theoretical and empirical investigation of teacher collaboration for school improvement and student achievement in public elementary schools. Teachers College Record, 109(4), 877–896; Louis, K. S., & Marks, H. M. (1998). Does professional learning community affect the classroom? Teachers’ work and student experiences in restructuring schools. American Journal of Education, 106(4), 532–575; Supovitz, J. A., & Christman, J. B. (2003). Developing communities of instructional practice: Lessons for Cincinnati and Philadelphia. CPRE Policy Briefs, 1-9. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania.
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118. Lieberman, A., & Wood, D. (2002). From network learning to classroom teaching. Journal of Educational Change, 3, 315–337; McDonald, J. P., Buchanan, J., & Sterling, R. (2004). The national writing project: Scaling up and scaling down. Expanding the reach of education reforms: Perspectives from leaders in the scale-up of educational interventions, 81–106.
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123. Hill, H. C., Beisiegel, M., & Jacob, R. (2013). Professional development research: Consensus, crossroads, and challenges. Educational Researcher, 42(9), 476-487.
124. Buczynski, S. & Hansen, C. B. (2010). Impact of professional development on teacher practice: Uncovering connections. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(3), 599-607; Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Urban school reform enabled by transformative professional development: Impact on teacher change and student learning of science. Urban Education, 45(1), 4–29.
125. Buczynski, S. & Hansen, C. B. (2010). Impact of professional development on teacher practice: Uncovering connections. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(3), 599–607.
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127. Buczynski, S. & Hansen, C. B. (2010). Impact of professional development on teacher practice: Uncovering connections. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(3), 606.
128. Buczynski, S. & Hansen, C. B. (2010). Impact of professional development on teacher practice: Uncovering connections. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(3), 606.
129. Buczynski, S. & Hansen, C. B. (2010). Impact of professional development on teacher practice: Uncovering connections. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(3), 599–607.
130. Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Urban school reform enabled by transformative professional development: Impact on teacher change and student learning of science. Urban Education, 45(1), 4–29.
131. Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Urban school reform enabled by transformative professional development: Impact on teacher change and student learning of science. Urban Education, 45(1), 22-23.
132. Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Urban school reform enabled by transformative professional development: Impact on teacher change and student learning of science. Urban Education, 45(1), 4–29.
133. Tooley, M., & Connally, K. (2016). No panacea: Diagnosing what ails teacher professional development before reaching for remedies, 12. Washington, DC: New America.
134. Tooley, M., & Connally, K. (2016). No panacea: Diagnosing what ails teacher professional development before reaching for remedies. Washington, DC: New America.
135. Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. (2012). Professional capital: Transforming teaching in every school. Teachers College Press.
136. Learning Forward provides a set of standards for professional learning that overlap to some degree with the elements of effective professional learning we have outlined here. See, https://learningforward.org/standards-for-professional-learning.
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About the Authors
Linda Darling-Hammond is President of the Learning Policy Institute and Charles E. Ducommun Professor of Education Emeritus at Stanford University. She has conducted extensive research on issues of educator supply, demand, and quality. Among her award-winning publications in this area are What Matters Most: Teaching for America’s Future; Teaching as the Learning Profession; Powerful Teacher Education; and Preparing Teachers for a Changing World: What Teachers Should Learn and Be Able to Do.
Maria E. Hyler is the Deputy Director of the the Learning Policy Institute’s Washington, DC, Office and a Senior Researcher on LPI’s Educator Quality and Deeper Learning teams. She is a co-author of The Teacher Residency: An Innovative Model for Preparing Teachers and is co-lead of a forthcoming study on teacher preparation for deeper learning. Her work focuses on structures and systems that support student success, best practices for preparing teachers to teach students of diverse backgrounds, and preparing equity-centered educators.
Madelyn Gardner is a Research and Policy Associate. She is a member of LPI’s Early Childhood Education Team and is one of the co-authors of The Road to High-Quality Early Learning: Lessons from the States. Previously she worked at the Next Generation think tank where she focused on early childhood education and work-family policy in support of evidence-based policy development in California.
Danny Espinoza is a Research Assistant on the Educator Quality and the Equitable Resources and Access teams. He is a co-author of Supporting principals’ learning: Key features of effective programs. As an undergraduate, he worked as a research assistant for the Institute for Latino Studies, assisting in studies exploring political identity formation for multiethnic voters. He also conducted research analyzing the impact and effectiveness of Chile’s national education voucher program, particularly for students of low socioeconomic background.
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The Learning Policy Institute conducts and communicates independent, high-quality research to improve education policy and practice. Working with policymakers, researchers, educators, community groups, and others, the Institute seeks to advance evidence-based policies that support empowering and equitable learning for each and every child. Nonprofit and nonpartisan, the Institute connects policymakers and stakeholders at the local, state, and federal levels with the evidence, ideas, and actions needed to strengthen the education system from preschool through college and career readiness.
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