Effective Teacher Professional Development · PDF fileEffective Teacher Professional Development ... we set out to discover the features of effective PD. ... evaluation, and funding

Linda Darling-Hammond, Maria E. Hyler, and Madelyn Gardner, with assistance from Danny Espinoza

Effective Teacher Professional Development

JUNE 2017

Effective Teacher Professional Development

Linda Darling-Hammond, Maria E. Hyler, and Madelyn Gardner, with assistance from Danny Espinoza

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The appropriate citation for this report is: Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., Gardner, M. (2017). Effective Teacher Professional Development. Palo Alto, CA: Learning Policy Institute.

This report can be found online at https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/teacher-prof-dev.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution—NonCommercial 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank their LPI colleagues Jessica Cardichon and Kathryn Bradley for their contributions to the research and writing of this paper. We also thank Naomi Spinrad and Penelope Malish for their editing and design contributions to this project, and Lisa Gonzales for overseeing the editorial process. Without the generosity of time and spirit of all of the aforementioned, this work would not have been possible.

The S. D. Bechtel, Jr. Foundation and the Sandler Foundation have provided operating support for the Learning Policy Institute’s work in this area.

External Reviewers

This report benefited from the insights and expertise of two external reviewers: Laura Desimone, Associate Professor, Education Policy, Penn Graduate School of Education; and Michael Fullan, former Dean of the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto. We thank them for the care and attention they gave the report. Any remaining shortcomings are our own.

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................................... ii

Executive Summary.................................................................................................................................. v

Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................1

Defining Effective Professional Development ................................................................................2

This Study ......................................................................................................................................2

Goals and Outline of This Report ..................................................................................................3

Design Elements of Effective Professional Development ..................................................................4

Content Focus ..................................................................................................................................5

Active Learning .................................................................................................................................7

Collaboration ....................................................................................................................................9

Use of Models and Modeling ....................................................................................................... 11

Coaching and Expert Support ...................................................................................................... 12

Feedback and Reflection .............................................................................................................. 14

Sustained Duration ....................................................................................................................... 15

Realizing the Promise of Professional Learning Communities ...................................................... 17

The Benefits of Analyzing Student Work and Student Data ........................................................ 17

Learning From Professional Communities Beyond the School ................................................... 18

Creating the Conditions for Effective Professional Development: Opportunities and Challenges ............................................................................................................. 20

School Level ................................................................................................................................ 20

System Level ............................................................................................................................... 21

Conclusions and Policy Implications .................................................................................................. 23

Implications for Policy ................................................................................................................. 23

Implications for Implementation and Practice ............................................................................ 24

Appendix A: Methodology .................................................................................................................... 25

Appendix B: Summary of Studies Reviewed for This Report .......................................................... 27

Appendix C: Elements of Effective Professional Development by Study ...................................... 48

Endnotes ................................................................................................................................................. 53

About the Authors ................................................................................................................................. 64

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LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT v

Executive Summary

Teacher professional learning is of increasing interest as one way to support the increasingly complex skills students need to learn in preparation for further education and work in the 21st century. Sophisticated forms of teaching are needed to develop student competencies such as deep mastery of challenging content, critical thinking, complex problem-solving, effective communication and collaboration, and self-direction. In turn, effective professional development (PD) is needed to help teachers learn and refine the pedagogies required to teach these skills.

However, research has shown that many PD initiatives appear ineffective in supporting changes in teacher practices and student learning. Accordingly, we set out to discover the features of effective PD. This paper reviews 35 methodologically rigorous studies that have demonstrated a positive link between teacher professional development, teaching practices, and student outcomes. We identify the features of these approaches and offer rich descriptions of these models to inform those seeking to understand the nature of the initiatives.

Defining and Studying Effective Professional DevelopmentWe define effective professional development as structured professional learning that results in changes in teacher practices and improvements in student learning outcomes. To define features of effective PD, we reviewed studies meeting our methodological criteria (see Appendix A) that emerged from our extensive search of the literature over the last three decades. We coded each of the studies to identify the elements of effective PD models.

Using this methodology, we found seven widely shared features of effective professional development. Such professional development:

Is content focused: PD that focuses on teaching strategies associated with specific curriculum content supports teacher learning within teachers’ classroom contexts. This element includes an intentional focus on discipline-specific curriculum development and pedagogies in areas such as mathematics, science, or literacy.

Incorporates active learning: Active learning engages teachers directly in designing and trying out teaching strategies, providing them an opportunity to engage in the same style of learning they are designing for their students. Such PD uses authentic artifacts, interactive activities, and other strategies to provide deeply embedded, highly contextualized professional learning. This approach moves away from traditional learning models and environments that are lecture based and have no direct connection to teachers’ classrooms and students.

Supports collaboration: High-quality PD creates space for teachers to share ideas and collaborate in their learning, often in job-embedded contexts. By working collaboratively, teachers can create communities that positively change the culture and instruction of their entire grade level, department, school and/or district.

Uses models of effective practice: Curricular models and modeling of instruction provide teachers with a clear vision of what best practices look like. Teachers may view models that include lesson plans, unit plans, sample student work, observations of peer teachers, and video or written cases of teaching.

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Provides coaching and expert support: Coaching and expert support involve the sharing of expertise about content and evidence-based practices, focused directly on teachers’ individual needs.

Offers feedback and reflection: High-quality professional learning frequently provides built-in time for teachers to think about, receive input on, and make changes to their practice by facilitating reflection and soliciting feedback. Feedback and reflection both help teachers to thoughtfully move toward the expert visions of practice.

Is of sustained duration: Effective PD provides teachers with adequate time to learn, practice, implement, and reflect upon new strategies that facilitate changes in their practice.

Our research shows that effective professional learning incorporates most or all of these elements. We also examine professional learning communities (PLCs) as an example of a PD model that incorporates several of these effective elements and supports student learning gains. This collaborative and job-embedded PD can be a source of efficacy and confidence for teachers, and can result in widespread improvement within and beyond the school level.

Creating Conditions for Effective Professional Development: Opportunities and ChallengesResearch has established that the educational system within which PD occurs has implications for its effectiveness. Specifically, conditions for teaching and learning both within schools and at the broader, system level can inhibit the effectiveness of PD. For example, inadequate resourcing for PD—including needed curriculum materials—frequently exacerbates inequities and hinders school improvement efforts. Failure to align policies toward a coherent set of practices is also a major impediment, as is a dysfunctional school culture. Implementing effective PD well also requires responsiveness to the needs of educators and learners and to the contexts in which teaching and learning will take place.

Implications for Policy and Practice Examples of PD that have been successful in raising student achievement can help policymakers and practitioners better understand what quality teacher professional learning looks like. Policy can help support and incentivize the kind of evidence-based PD described here. For instance:

1. Policymakers could adopt standards for professional development to guide the design, evaluation, and funding of professional learning provided to educators. These standards might reflect the features of effective professional learning outlined in this report as well as standards for implementation.

2. Policymakers and administrators could evaluate and redesign the use of time and school schedules to increase opportunities for professional learning and collaboration, including participation in professional learning communities, peer coaching and observations across classrooms, and collaborative planning.

3. States, districts, and schools could regularly conduct needs assessments using data from staff surveys to identify areas of professional learning most needed and desired

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by educators. Data from these sources can help ensure that professional learning is not disconnected from practice and supports the areas of knowledge and skills educators want to develop.

4. State and district administrators could identify and develop expert teachers as mentors and coaches to support learning in their particular area(s) of expertise for other educators.

5. States and districts can integrate professional learning into the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) school improvement initiatives, such as efforts to implement new learning standards, use student data to inform instruction, improve student literacy, increase student access to advanced coursework, and create a positive and inclusive learning environment.

6. States and districts can provide technology-facilitated opportunities for professional learning and coaching, using funding available under Titles II and IV of ESSA to address the needs of rural communities and provide opportunities for intradistrict and intraschool collaboration.

7. Policymakers can provide flexible funding and continuing education units for learning opportunities that include sustained engagement in collaboration, mentoring, and coaching, as well as institutes, workshops, and seminars.

In the end, well-designed and implemented PD should be considered a essential component of a comprehensive system of teaching and learning that supports students to develop the knowledge, skills, and competencies they need to thrive in the 21st century. To ensure a coherent system that supports teachers across the entire professional continuum, professional learning should link to their experiences in preparation and induction, as well as to teaching standards and evaluation. It should also bridge to leadership opportunities to ensure a comprehensive system focused on the growth and development of teachers.

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LEARNING POLICY INSTITUTE | EFFECTIVE TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 1

Introduction

As demands for deeper and more complex student learning have intensified, practitioners, researchers, and policymakers have begun to think more systematically about how to improve teachers’ learning from recruitment, preparation, and support, to mentoring and other leadership opportunities. Sophisticated forms of teaching are needed to develop 21st century student competencies, such as deep mastery of challenging content, critical thinking, complex problem-solving, effective communication and collaboration, and self-direction. In turn, opportunities are needed for teachers to learn and refine the pedagogies required to teach these skills.

However, major questions remain about how teachers can learn these skills and how PD can play a role in improving teacher practice. Recent research on PD has underscored the importance of these questions, given the mixed findings often generated.1 For example, one recent study of four districts serving a largely low-income student population found that even with large financial investments in teacher PD, both teacher practice (according to teacher evaluations) and student learning (according to state assessments) saw little change. The study found that teacher evaluations stayed the same, or declined in the span of 2-3 years, while more than $18,000 of PD money per teacher was spent in these districts. In spite of their findings, the authors of the four-district study did not recommend dropping investment in teacher PD. Instead, recommendations included redefining what it means to help teachers improve, reevaluating current professional learning and support programs,and reinventing how we support effective teaching at scale.2

It is certainly true that PD does not always lead to professional learning, despite its intent.3 Fullan (2007) argues that external approaches to instructional improvement are rarely “powerful enough, specific enough, or sustained enough to alter the culture of the classroom and school.”4 Indeed, research on PD in the United States found that most teachers receive PD of short duration (less than eight hours on a topic, usually in afterschool workshops) and that, during the No Child Left Behind Era, there was an increase in this short-term approach and a decline in access to more sustained professional learning approaches.5 In addition, some school contexts pose equity challenges related to the potential impact of PD on student learning (e.g., poor leadership, inadequate resources, or countervailing school or district mandates).6

At the same time, a growing number of rigorous studies establish that well-designed PD can, when effectively implemented, lead to desirable changes in teacher practice and student outcomes. These studies build on an expansive body of research that has previously described positive outcomes from professional learning using teacher and student self-reports or observational designs.7 As states and districts work to create new structures and strategies for PD, it is useful to evaluate what this research has to say about the kinds of professional learning that improve instruction and student achievement.

Sophisticated forms of teaching are needed to develop 21st century student competencies.


Defining Effective Professional Development In this review, we define effective professional development as structured professional learning that results in changes to teacher knowledge and practices, and improvements in student learning outcomes. We conceptualize professional learning as a product of both externally provided and job-embedded activities that increase teachers’ knowledge and help them change their instructional practice in ways that support student learning. Thus, formal PD represents a subset of the range of experiences that may result in professional learning.

This StudyIn this paper, we examine the research on professional learning that has proven effective in changing teachers’ practices and improving student outcomes to identify elements prevalent in successful PD models. To define features of effective professional development, we reviewed 35 studies that emerged from our extensive search of the literature over the last three decades which met our methodological criteria: They featured a careful experimental or comparison group design, or they analyzed student outcomes with statistical controls for context variables and student characteristics. (Appendix A details our methodology and Appendix B details each reviewed study.) We coded each of the studies to generate the elements of effective PD models. Appendix C indicates the elements exhibited by each of the PD model(s) featured in each study.

We recognize that this methodology has limitations. Because studies of professional development typically examine comprehensive models that incorporate many elements, this paper does not seek to draw conclusions about the efficacy of individual program components. Rather, it offers rich descriptions of the combined characteristics of PD that research has found to positively relate to student outcomes.

We are also unable to comment on the studies of PD that do not appear to yield positive results on student achievement. Although many studies lack the rigorous controls needed to draw inferences about outcomes, there are a number of well-designed studies of PD that share some of the features we highlight here but did not find positive effects. We located six studies with strong methodologies that failed to find impacts on student learning. Several found positive influences on teacher knowledge and/or practices but not on the measure of student outcomes used.8 These measures of student outcomes were sometimes designed to evaluate the specific goals of the PD and sometimes were a more generic commercial instrument or state test.

Authors noted a number of potential reasons for their findings, including lack of implementation fidelity in the conduct of the PD,9 lack of opportunity for teachers to implement what they learned in the PD in their classrooms,10 and teacher turnover that reduced many teachers’ access to the PD.11 In one study, Garet and colleagues (2016) make a critically important point when they note that the content of PD could be misdirected—that, is not focused on the actual teaching knowledge and skills that are needed to support student learning.12 It is obviously most important that what teachers are taught reflects the practices that can actually make a positive difference for student learning. That is, the content of professional development matters, along with its form.

This paper offers rich descriptions of the combined characteristics of professional development that research has found to positively relate to student outcomes.


Another crucial element is the knowledge that teachers bring to the PD experience—and whether it is sufficient to support their learning of particular pedagogical strategies. In one interesting case, where mathematics PD was conducted in a district that had very large numbers of uncredentialed teachers, researchers found positive effects on student learning only for those teachers who began with a higher level of content knowledge, signaling that the effectiveness of PD may depend in part on how solid a content foundation teachers have with which to absorb its lessons.13 These and other considerations may influence the effectiveness of PD, even when it may share some of the features we identify here. Although it is beyond the scope of this paper to unpack why specific initiatives have proved less than fully successful, we identify barriers to the implementation of effective PD as identified by researchers later in this paper.

Goals and Outline of This ReportOur primary goal is to illuminate the features of PD that have been found to be effective, in hopes that this analysis can help inform policymakers and practitioners responsible for designing, planning, and implementing potentially productive opportunities for teacher learning.

We aim to provide practitioners, researchers, and policymakers with a research-based understanding of the kinds of PD that can lead to powerful professional learning, instructional improvement, and deeper student learning. By examining information about the nature of effective PD, policymakers and practitioners can begin to evaluate the needs of the systems in which teachers learn and do their work and consider how teachers’ learning opportunities can be more effectively supported.

In the sections that follow, we first review the elements of effective PD initiatives identified through our review of recent literature, offering examples from specific studies and PD models. We then explore how the currently popular phenomenon of professional learning communities—often superficially implemented—can be effectively organized. Next, we provide an overview of the broader conditions that support or inhibit effective teacher PD in the United States, drawing on the broader PD literature. We conclude with considerations for policy and practice.

We aim to provide a research-based understanding of the kinds of PD that can lead to powerful professional learning, instructional improvement, and deeper student learning.


Design Elements of Effective Professional Development

In recent decades, a “new paradigm” for PD has emerged from research that distinguishes powerful opportunities for teacher learning from the traditional, one-day, “drive by” workshop model.14 The research on effective PD has begun to create a consensus about key principles in the design of learning experiences that can impact teachers’ knowledge and practices.15 The ongoing expansion of this literature provides an opportunity to build upon this consensus with new insights, particularly given the increased prevalence of rigorous research designs in PD studies that boost confidence in the validity of findings.

Although research on the effectiveness of PD has been mixed, positive findings have stimulated a general consensus about typical components of high-quality professional learning for teachers.16 This consensus, articulated by Desimone (2009) and others, holds that effective PD possesses a robust content focus, features active learning, is collaborative and aligned with relevant curricula and policies, and provides sufficient learning time for participants. Our review confirms and expands upon this five-part framework, providing additional specificity about the types of active and collaborative practices that underlie powerful teacher PD.

Using the methodology detailed in Appendix A, we identify seven characteristics of effective PD. Specifically, we find that it:

1. Is content focused2. Incorporates active learning utilizing adult learning theory3. Supports collaboration, typically in job-embedded contexts4. Uses models and modeling of effective practice5. Provides coaching and expert support6. Offers opportunities for feedback and reflection7. Is of sustained duration

Successful PD models generally feature a number of these components simultaneously. The Reading Recovery program, described in detail in the box that follows, is an example of one program that possesses all seven elements and has been found to generate positive student gains. Other effective programs may possess most but not all of the seven features.


The section continues with a description of each characteristic with supporting literature and examples. Additional information about each study described in this section is available in Appendix B.

Content FocusProfessional learning that has shown an impact on student achievement is focused on the content that teachers teach. Content-focused PD generally treats discipline-specific curricula such as mathematics, science, or literacy. It is most often job embedded, meaning the PD is situated in teachers’ classrooms with their students, as opposed to generic PD delivered externally or divorced from teachers’ school or district contexts. This type of PD can provide teachers the opportunity to study their students’ work,25 test out new curriculum with their students,26 or study a particular element of pedagogy or student learning in the content area.27 Ideally, the PD is aligned with school and district priorities, providing a coherence for teachers, as opposed to having PD compete with differing school and district priorities.28

Effective Professional Development in Practice: Reading Recovery

Reading Recovery is an example of a professional development model that has demonstrated effectiveness in supporting student learning gains in dozens of studies over several decades on multiple continents.17 Reading Recovery was originally designed to provide individualized interventions for struggling readers in New Zealand, and has since been widely implemented in the U.K., Canada, and Australia. It was first implemented in the U.S. in 1984, and grew to serve a peak number of 152,000 students nationwide in the 2000–01 school year.18 In 2010, the Ohio State University—the U.S. seat of Reading Recovery—received a $45 million federal i3 grant to fund the expansion of Reading Recovery. The university partnered with 19 universities across the U.S. to recruit and train teachers and schools to participate in the Reading Recovery program. The i3 grant supported teacher PD for 3,747 teachers, who served 387,450 students in one-to-one lessons, classroom teaching, or small-group instruction.19

The Reading Recovery theory of change asserts the critical role of the teacher in identifying students’ strengths and needs, and facilitating their learning by providing appropriate opportunities to acquire and use new reading skills.20 The teacher’s practice is highly diagnostic and grounded in a substantial knowledge base about the learning-to-read process for diverse learners, as well as a sophisticated set of teaching skills applied in an individualized fashion for each learner. The basis of the Reading Recovery PD model is similarly informed by a very deliberate approach to acquiring and applying knowledge that is individualized to the needs of the teacher.

To prepare teachers to play this critical role, Reading Recovery provides intensive PD that incorporates all seven of the elements of effective PD. In groups of 8 to 12, teachers complete a yearlong graduate-level training course taught by a literacy coach. This sustained training involves model lesson observation, teacher demonstration of effective teaching techniques, and frequent collaborative discussion between participants. After the training course, faculty from the partnering university support teachers in their classrooms and facilitate program implementation within their area.21 Additional, ongoing PD for these teachers includes a minimum of six sessions with a Reading Recovery teacher leader and colleagues; opportunities for interaction and collaboration with school leaders and colleagues; and ongoing access to conferences and training institutes.22

A 2016 evaluation of the i3 funded initiative found that students who participated in the U.S. expansion of Reading Recovery significantly outperformed students in the control groups on measures of overall reading, reading comprehension, and decoding.23 Moreover, these gains were nearly three times as large as average gains for similar broad instructional interventions. This effect translates to Reading Recovery students in the study gaining an additional 1.55 months of learning compared to the national growth average for 1st graders. Of particular interest during the i3 scale-up study was the performance of English language learners (ELLs) and rural students. Results indicated that there was a similarly large positive impact on their performance.24 These findings suggest that the Reading Recovery PD program is capable of positively impacting student achievement on a large scale and can help drive equitable learning outcomes for ELL and rural students.


Thirty-one of the 35 studies we reviewed featured a specific content focus as part of the PD model. Among the PD models without a specific content focus, two focused on specific pedagogies that were not discipline specific,29 and one study focused on supporting teachers in promoting inquiry-based learning and leveraging technology in support of standards-based instruction.30 A final study provided insufficient description of the PD to determine whether or not the PD was content specific.31

One study of PD for upper elementary teachers, which focused on helping teachers analyze science teaching and improve pedagogy, illustrates job-embedded and content-focused PD. Roth et al. (2011) studied teachers participating in The Science Teachers Learning from Lesson Analysis (STeLLA) program.32 The project focused on both science content and pedagogy using a video-based analysis-of-teaching PD model. The PD began with a three-week summer institute focused on science content taught by faculty at a local university. Teachers in the STeLLA program also engaged in video analysis of teaching during the summer institute. In follow-up sessions throughout the school year, teachers utilized Student Thinking and Science Content Storyline Lenses, creating PD that was both content specific and classroom based. The Student Thinking portion of the PD focused on understanding students’ ideas for use in planning, teaching, and analysis of teaching—particularly in anticipating student thinking to assist teachers in responding to students’ ideas and misunderstandings in productive ways. The Science Content Storyline portion of the PD focused on the sequencing of science ideas and how they are linked to help students construct a coherent “story” that makes sense to them. STeLLA teachers met in small groups facilitated by a program leader and discussed video cases of teaching that could include video(s) of one classroom, student and teacher interviews, teacher materials, and student work samples.33

STeLLA teachers also taught a set of four to six model lessons themselves and analyzed their teaching using a structured protocol. Half of a study group would teach the lessons to their students, and the entire group would collaboratively analyze the teaching and student work, and revise the lessons for the other half to use. The roles would then switch and the second half of the group would teach the lessons in their classrooms, followed by collaborative analysis and subsequent revision. The analysis was highly scaffolded by the PD facilitators. STeLLA groups met for 58 hours of analysis throughout the school year, in addition to 44 hours during the three-week summer session for a total of 102 hours. Roth et al. (2011) studied this group of teachers in comparison to a group of teachers who only attended the science content portion of the PD program.34 The content-only teachers received just the 44 hours of PD, and it was not explicitly connected to their classroom contexts.

Results of the study showed that teachers who participated in the STeLLA program had students who achieved greater learning gains than comparison students whose teachers received content training only, as determined by pre- and post-test science content exams. Statistical analyses linked these gains in student learning with teachers’ science content knowledge, teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge about student thinking, and teachers’ ability to create a cohesive science content storyline. STeLLA teachers outperformed the content-only teachers and, moreover, were able to retain their content learning whereas content-only teachers were not.35 A second randomized study of the STeLLA

Ideally, the PD is aligned with school and district priorities, providing a coherence for teachers, as opposed to having PD compete with differing school and district priorities.


program similarly found positive effects for students of participating teachers.36 This study, similar to other studies in this review, suggests that PD that treats only content learning is not as effective as PD that links content learning to pedagogies supporting teachers’ students and practice.37

Teacher professional learning that is context specific, job embedded, and content based is particularly important for addressing the diverse needs of students (and thus teachers) in differing settings. For example, in one study of PD for elementary science teachers in an urban school district, teachers of Latinx students learned science content as well as conversational Spanish and strategies for using culturally relevant pedagogies.38 In another program targeting teachers of Latinx dual-language learners, monolingual teachers were provided with a range of instructional strategies to support children’s primary language development in Spanish.39 The key features of focusing on students’ culture and language in these content- and context-specific PD models illustrate teacher professional learning opportunities designed for teaching content to specific student populations with targeted strategies to support their achievement.

Active LearningThe design of PD experiences must address how teachers learn, as well as what teachers learn. Trotter (2006) outlines several theories of learning and adult development and identifies themes that are relevant for designing teacher PD.

• Adults come to learning with experiences that should be utilized as resources for new learning.

• Adults should choose their learning opportunities based on interest and their own classroom experiences/needs.

• Reflection and inquiry should be central to learning and development.40

These themes provide a general framing that helps to explain why teacher PD that incorporates active learning experiences is effective in supporting student learning and growth. “Active learning” suggests moving away from traditional learning models that are generic and lecture based toward models that engage teachers directly in the practices they are learning and, preferably, are connected to teachers’ classrooms and students. Active learning, in sharp contrast to sit-and-listen lectures, engages educators using authentic artifacts, interactive activities, and other strategies to provide deeply embedded, highly contextualized professional learning. Active learning is also an “umbrella” element that often incorporates the elements of collaboration, coaching, feedback, and reflection and the use of models and modeling.

Opportunities for “sense-making” activities are important.41 Such activities often involve modeling the sought-after practices and constructing opportunities for teachers to analyze, try out, and reflect on the new strategies.42 Active learning opportunities allow teachers to transform their teaching and not simply layer new strategies on top of the old, a hallmark of adult learning theory.43

Adults come to learning with experiences that should be utilized as resources for new learning.


Greenleaf et al. (2011) describe an active teacher professional learning model that improved student science learning.44 California high school biology teachers participated in PD integrating academic literacy and biology instruction through a program called Reading Apprenticeship. The PD was inquiry based, subject focused, collaborative, and designed to address teachers’ conceptual understandings as well as pedagogical content knowledge. Each session was designed to immerse the teachers in the types of learning activities and environments they would then create for their students. Teachers engaged in activities to simulate their own discipline expertise in relation to literacy, and they also engaged in analysis of texts to identify potential literacy challenges to learners.45

In addition, teachers analyzed student work, videotaped classroom lessons, and studied cases of student literacy learning designed to foster high expectations of student learning. Metacognitive routines such as think-alouds and reading logs for science investigations were used in PD sessions. Teachers also practiced classroom routines to build student engagement and student collaboration (e.g., “think-pair-share,” jigsaws, text-based student discussion, and problem solving). An important part of the PD was a metacognitive reflection after each session that focused on the session’s impact on teachers’ learning and potential impact on their students’ development.46

The program employed 10 sessions over the course of a year. An initial five-day institute took place the first summer of the study, followed by two follow-up days of PD during year 1 and a final three-day PD follow-up the summer after the academic year. During the study year, participants engaged in collaboration on a listserv that fostered the exchange of resources and ideas and was moderated by PD coaches. This multimodal, active learning PD model resulted in student achievement equivalent to a year’s reading growth compared with students of teachers assigned to a control group. Students of treatment teachers also performed better than their counterparts in control classrooms on state assessments in English language arts and biology.47

The opportunity for teachers to engage in the same learning activities they are designing for their students is often utilized as a form of active learning. Several studies in this review highlighted PD programs that had teachers engage as learners through the use of curriculum and materials that they would then employ with their students. For instance, Buczynski and Hansen (2010) describe how 4th through 6th grade teachers had the opportunity to participate in “constructivist, hands-on experiences” through the use of science kits.48 These were the same science kits that teachers would then go on to use in their classrooms with their students. Similarly, teachers in a study by Heller et al. (2012) completed the same scientific investigations they analyzed in written teaching cases.49 In other studies, pedagogical and content experts would “teach” model lessons with teachers engaging as learners.50 Additionally, two studies incorporated role-playing as a part of teachers “practicing” lessons with their peers to better understand students and their learning.51

Overall, 34 of the 35 studies incorporated some element of active learning in the design of the PD, while one study did not provide enough description of the PD model to ascertain whether active learning was present.

The opportunity for teachers to engage in the same learning activities they are designing for their students is often utilized as a form of active learning.


CollaborationAs schools have increasingly structured teaching as a collaborative community endeavor, it makes sense that teacher collaboration is an important feature of well-designed PD.52 “Collaboration” can span a host of configurations—from one-on-one or small-group interactions to schoolwide collaboration to exchanges with other professionals beyond the school.

In a program studied by Allen et al. (2011), teachers collaborated with a one-on-one coach.53 In this study, Virginia high school teachers enrolled in My Teaching Partner-Secondary, a web-mediated coaching program designed to improve teacher-student interactions. Teachers participated in an initial training workshop followed by twice-monthly coaching from a remote mentor. For each coaching session, teachers were asked to submit short videos of their practice, reflect on their teaching, and respond to questions from their coach regarding the relationship between teacher practice and student engagement. Each reflection was followed by a 20- to 30-minute phone conference with the coach. Teachers also attended monthly booster workshops and were given access to an annotated video library for the duration of the program.54

Overall, the program offered 20 hours of in-service training over 13 months, in addition to the focused work teachers were doing in their classrooms to design and reflect on their practice. Students whose teachers had participated in the program the previous school year demonstrated gains in student achievement relative to the control group, with student learning gains equivalent to an average increase from the 50th to 59th percentile.55 A replication study featuring an extended, two-year version of the My Teaching Partner-Secondary model found similar promising results.56 This model of PD is especially promising for teachers who may be in remote or rural schools and may not have access to professional learning opportunities more readily available in suburban or urban areas.

Other studies have looked at collaboration at the school level.57 One New Zealand study focused on schoolwide PD efforts in 195 schools spread across four cohorts of teachers.58 Teachers in these schools participated in a flexible whole-school professional development model designed to improve student literacy, particularly for low-performing students. Each of the participating schools selected a focus on reading or writing for the duration of the two-year project and was assigned an expert literacy facilitator to provide PD for teachers and school leaders.

Facilitators visited each school biweekly to conduct classroom observations, model literacy instruction, provide coaching and feedback, and engage in discussion and other activities with school staff. Facilitators also trained a literacy leader at each school who provided additional support for colleagues. The project provided resources such as classroom observation and facilitation tools, as well as training and feedback for the expert facilitators throughout the two years. Students attending schools participating in the project outperformed achievement expectations relative to a nationally normed sample, especially in writing. Students in schools with a focus on improving writing improved at 2.9 to 3.5 times the expected rate. Students in schools with a focus on improving reading improved at 1.4 to 1.6 times the expected rate.59

As schools have increasingly structured teaching as a collaborative community endeavor, it makes sense that teacher collaboration is an important feature of well-designed PD.


Such collaborative approaches have been found to be effective in promoting school change that extends beyond individual classrooms.60 When whole grade levels, departments, or schools are involved, they provide a broader base of understanding and support at the school level. Teachers create a collective force for improved instruction and serve as support groups for each other’s work on their practice. Collective work in trusting environments provides a basis for inquiry and reflection into teachers’ own practices, allowing teachers to take risks, solve problems, and attend to dilemmas in their practice.61

Other studies focused on districtwide collaborative PD in efforts to bring larger-scale improvements to teaching and learning.62 For example, in one Texas district, teachers engaged in on-site, small-group PD to promote inquiry-based, literacy-integrated instruction to improve English learners’ science and reading achievement.63 Through the program, teachers and paraprofessionals participated in workshops where they reviewed upcoming lessons, discussed science concepts with peers, engaged in reflections on student learning, participated in inquiry activities as learners, and received instruction in strategies for teaching English learners. Researchers also provided teachers with lesson plans that incorporated strategies for effective instruction of English learners. Teachers met biweekly for collaborative, three-hour sessions, receiving six hours of PD per month; paraprofessionals met monthly for three hours. The program also included a focus on new and enhanced instructional activities for English learners.

Students who received enhanced instructional activities and whose teachers received PD demonstrated significantly higher science and reading achievement than students who were engaged in business-as-usual instruction. Treatment students also earned passing and commended scores on district science benchmarks at higher rates than control group students.64 By focusing on improving the practice of teachers of English language learners, this kind of collaborative, districtwide PD can have important implications for improving the equity of whole systems.

Technology-facilitated PD such as the web-mediated coaching program studied by Allen et al. (2011) can also foster cyber collaboration,65 which can be effective in improving student achievement.66 Landry et al. (2009), for example, describe a well-designed online PD program that improved early literacy outcomes for young children.67 In that study, described in additional detail later in the Feedback and Reflection section, early childhood educators participated in a facilitated online course on language and literacy instruction. The interactive course included videos models, message boards, and opportunities to practice skills in small groups. In this case, technology facilitated the incorporation of collaboration and other effective PD elements, such as active learning and modeling, in the professional learning design.

Overall, 32 of 35 studies we reviewed incorporated some element of collaboration to support teacher professional learning, while three studies did not provide sufficient description to determine whether or not collaboration was a part of the model design. When PD utilizes effective collaborative structures for teachers to problem-solve and learn together, it can positively contribute to student achievement.

Such collaborative approaches have been found to be effective in promoting school change that extends beyond individual classrooms.


Use of Models and ModelingPD that utilizes models of effective practice has proven successful at promoting teacher learning and supporting student achievement. Curricular and instructional models and modeling of instruction help teachers to have a vision of practice on which to anchor their own learning and growth. The various kinds of modeling can include

• video or written cases of teaching,• demonstration lessons,• unit or lesson plans,• observations of peers, and• curriculum materials including sample assessments and student work samples.

All 35 studies reviewed here included curricular models and/or modeling of effective instruction in the delivery of content and pedagogical learning for teachers. For example, Heller et al. (2012) conducted a randomized experimental design of three intervention groups and one control group to study the effects of PD on elementary students’ learning in science.68 The PD focused on pedagogical science content knowledge for elementary teachers, utilizing three different interventions, all of which proved successful in improving student achievement.

One group of teachers analyzed written teaching cases, drawn from actual classrooms and written by teachers. Thus, the PD was an “analysis of practice” approach that incorporated models for student work analysis, student teacher dialogue analysis, and teacher thinking and behaviors. A second group analyzed their own students’ work in relation to their teaching. Teachers in this intervention experienced carefully structured, collaborative analysis of their own students’ work, which required that they teach a unit. Discussion protocols for the analysis of student work were employed that focused teachers’ analysis on student understanding of content. These teachers took turns bringing in student work samples and formative assessment tasks that they analyzed collaboratively. Teachers also had access to a “task bank” of formative assessment model items they could use with their students. A third group utilized metacognitive analysis of their own learning experience in the form of reflective discussions about their own learning processes as they engaged in science content activities.

The course was designed to help teachers identify concepts they found challenging to learn, examine the logic behind their own common misunderstandings of the content, and analyze the roles of hands-on investigations, discourse, and inquiry in science learning. Expert staff developers delivered a series of three courses (the PD was delivered in 8 three-hour sessions, for a total of 24 contact hours with a facilitator).69

Findings of this study showed that students of teachers who participated in any of the PD opportunities had significantly greater learning gains on science tests than students whose teachers did not participate (with average gains of 19-22 percentage points compared to 13 points for control students). These effects were maintained a year later. Student justification of correct answers in year 1 of the study showed significant improvement from pre- to post-test for those students whose

Curricular and instructional models and modeling of instruction help teachers to have a vision of practice on which to anchor their own learning and growth.


teachers analyzed student work samples (which incorporated the use of model assessments, as noted above). In the follow-up year, teachers who utilized cases of teaching also had significantly higher answer justification scores. Those teachers who focused on metacognitive analysis of their own learning experience showed no student gains in written justification of correct answers. The findings of this study are notable because the strongest effects on written justifications of answers, a task more complex than identifying correct answers on a content exam, are connected to the PD that focused on models of effective practice, including curricula and instruction, in combination with student work analysis and classroom pedagogical practice.70

The importance of providing professional learning in conjunction with model curriculum and classroom materials should not be underestimated. Several studies in this review compared groups of teachers who had access to curriculum with no support to those teachers who received curriculum with additional support. For example, Kleickmann et al. (2016) found that teachers who utilized educational curriculum materials alone had lower student achievement than those teachers who had access to those materials and expert support combined with collaborative active learning opportunities that focused heavily on sequencing and presenting science concepts to facilitate student learning.71

Doppelt et al. (2009) reported similar findings.72 Teachers in this study participated in content-based collaborative inquiry sessions as support for a new 8th-grade science curriculum focused on electronics. Teachers participated in active learning based on the new curriculum—they engaged in the model lessons just as their students would. In addition, they spent much time in the workshops reflecting on instructional activities in their classrooms. They shared student work and instructional materials, actively discussing and reflecting on instruction. Students whose teachers used the new curriculum and participated in PD had statistically greater achievement than those students whose teachers used the new curriculum with no PD. Even more significant, achievement for students of those teachers who continued to use the older standard curriculum was greater than that of those students whose teachers used the new curriculum with no PD.73 That suggests that students were better off if their teachers did not attempt to utilize new curricular materials without effective PD supporting them.

Coaching and Expert SupportThe previous sections foreshadowed the role experts can have in helping to guide and facilitate teachers’ learning in the context of their practice. In their work with educators, experts—typically educators themselves—often play this critical role by employing the types of professional learning strategies outlined above, such as modeling strong instructional practices or supporting group discussion and collaborative analysis of student work. Such coaches may also share expertise about content and evidence-based practices, as well.

The practice of providing coaching or other expert support for educators was identified in 30 of the 35 studies reviewed. Four of the studies did not specify who delivered the PD or whether expert support was offered. In one case, coaching and expert support were not offered as part of the PD:

The importance of providing professional learning in conjunction with model curriculum and classroom materials should not be underestimated.


Shaha and Ellsworth (2013) describe a web-based PD platform with opportunities for teachers to engage with PD content through objective-setting, videos, forums, and communities, without specified expert support.74

One common structure for providing expert support is one-on-one coaching in the context of a teacher’s own classroom.75 Experts also shared their knowledge as facilitators of group workshops76 or as remote mentors utilizing technology to communicate with educators.77 Individuals with a variety of backgrounds can fill the role of expert; in the reviewed studies, coaches and other experts ranged from specially trained master teachers78 and instructional leaders79 to researchers and university faculty.81 For example, Roth et al. (2011) relied on both program leaders to facilitate small-group learning and university-based scientists to teach science content to educators.81

The coaching model studied by Powell and colleagues (2010) offers an example of expert support that contributed to student learning gains.82 The PD was designed to provide early childhood educators with individualized feedback to improve early literacy instruction. Educators attended an initial two-day orientation that introduced program content and fostered relationship building between coaches and educators. Educators then participated in biweekly coaching sessions with a university-based literacy coach, in person or remotely.

Across both formats, coaches and teachers worked together to choose a specific instructional practice on which to focus each session. Coaches then observed the teachers’ practice and provided both supportive and constructive feedback. On-site coaches observed educators for approximately 90 minutes, then the two met for 30 minutes to debrief the observation and provide oral and written feedback, including recommendations to improve practice. For remote coaching, educators shared 15-minute video clips and coaches provided detailed written feedback, supported by links to video exemplars and other materials available through the program. The semester-long program included 16 hours of workshops and seven coaching sessions.83

A two-year randomized control trial found that classrooms led by educators who participated in this coaching model demonstrated larger gains and higher performance on a valid and widely used early childhood classroom quality assessment than did control group classrooms. Children whose teachers participated in the early literacy coaching program showed significantly larger gains and better performance on a number of early language and literacy skills than did those whose teachers had not participated.84

Recent literature also suggests that coaching or other expert scaffolding can support the effective implementation of new curricula, tools, and approaches by educators.85 This is consistent with earlier research providing evidence that teachers who receive coaching are more likely to enact desired teaching practices and apply them more appropriately than those receiving more traditional PD.86 Taken together, the literature demonstrates that expert supporters can play a critical role in creating effective PD.

Coaching or other expert scaffolding can support the effective implementation of new curricula, tools, and approaches by educators.


Feedback and ReflectionFeedback and reflection are two other powerful tools found in effective PD; they are often employed during mentoring and coaching but are not limited to these spaces. As noted earlier, feedback and reflection are critical components of adult learning theory. Professional development models associated with gains in student learning frequently provide built-in time for teachers to think about, receive input on, and make changes to their practice by providing intentional time for feedback and/or reflection. While feedback and reflection are two distinct practices, they work together to help teachers move thoughtfully toward the expert visions of practice that they may have learned about or seen modeled during PD.

Thirty-four of the 35 reviewed studies specified that PD included efforts to support educators in reflecting on their practice; one study offered no data about reflections on practice. Greenleaf and colleagues (2011) documented one approach to incorporating reflection into PD models.87 After high school biology teachers participated in literacy activities as learners, they participated in a debrief, describing the elements of the activity that extended their literacy learning and considering implications and adaptations of the pedagogy for their classrooms. This reflection process was designed to bolster teachers’ own learning and to support their teaching literacy in science.

In addition, 24 studies outlined processes for providing educators with feedback on their practice. (The remaining 11 did not specify whether feedback was provided to participants). Landry and colleagues (2009) describe multiple opportunities for educators to receive feedback in a program targeting early childhood educators’ ability to promote children’s language and literacy development.88 In the program, which was implemented across four states, educators enrolled in a facilitated online course focused on language and literacy instruction, eCIRCLE. The course included videos of model lessons, online coursework and knowledge assessments, and opportunities to plan lessons and practice skills in small groups and in teachers’ own classrooms. The course also offered interactive message boards that were moderated by expert facilitators. Teachers participated in four hours of this coursework per month throughout the school year. Participating educators also received a supplemental curriculum on preschool language and literacy skills and were encouraged to monitor children’s language and literacy progress using a standardized tool. In addition, some educators participated in biweekly onsite mentoring sessions with the expert facilitators. For those educators receiving mentoring, mentors first observed teacher practice, then facilitated reflective follow-up and provided both positive and constructive feedback to educators using a structured format. Whether through online forums or in-person coaching, teachers participating in the program were offered opportunities to receive feedback from specially trained experts.89

The researchers’ randomized controlled study of the program found that students of teachers who received PD through the program demonstrated greater gains in phonological awareness, an important emergent literacy skill, than students of those who did not.90 Researchers also found that students of teachers who received both expert mentoring and feedback on children’s progress experienced the greatest gains on a variety of language and literacy outcomes.

Professional development models associated with gains in student learning frequently provide built-in time for teachers to think about, receive input on, and make changes to their practice.


In effective PD programs, the practices of generating feedback and supporting reflection often include opportunities to share both positive and constructive reactions to authentic instances of teacher practice, such as lesson plans, demonstration lessons, or videos of instruction.91 These activities are frequently undertaken in the context of a coaching session92 or a group workshop facilitated by an expert.93 In a few cases, feedback was shared among teachers.94 In each of these settings, effective PD programs leveraged feedback and opportunities for reflection to create richer environments for teacher learning.

Sustained DurationProviding PD that exhibits the aforementioned characteristics and results in meaningful professional learning requires time and quality implementation. Though research has not yet identified a clear threshold for the duration of effective PD models, it does indicate that meaningful professional learning that translates to changes in practice cannot be accomplished in short, one-off workshops.95 The traditional episodic and fragmented approach to PD does not afford the time necessary for learning that is “rigorous” and “cumulative.”96 Professional development that is sustained, offering multiple opportunities for teachers to engage in learning around a single set of concepts or practices, has a greater chance of transforming teaching practices and student learning.

None of the PD initiatives described in this review occurred in the context of a single, isolated encounter.97 The programs instead typically spanned weeks, months, or even academic years, with ongoing engagement in learning by teachers. These findings are consistent with previous literature on the duration of effective PD, which suggests that professional learning must be sustained to have an impact.98 Beyond the findings of many studies of individual PD programs, Wenglinsky (2000) found in an analysis of National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) data that spanned many different teacher experiences across the country that stronger instructional practices in mathematics and science were associated with professional development that was extended and sustained.99 In a review of literature, Yoon et al. (2007) identified nine studies of PD using experimental or quasi-experimental designs and found that the effective PD models examined in these studies offered an average of 49 hours of development per year, with an associated average boost in student achievement of 21 percentile points.100

Thirty-one of the 35 studies we reviewed explicitly described PD that was sustained over time through recurring workshops, coaching sessions, or engagement with online platforms; the remaining four studies did not specify a particular format or duration. The most common model for PD among these studies was participation in an initial, intensive workshop, followed by applications in the classroom and additional development days or coaching sessions to extend and reinforce educator learning.101 For example, teachers participating in the middle school science PD program described by Penuel et al. (2011) attended a two-week summer workshop, followed by ongoing work in their classrooms supported by four development days throughout the school year.102 Several other studies engaged teachers in formal coursework that followed a traditional academic schedule.103

The traditional episodic and fragmented approach to PD does not afford the time necessary for learning that is rigorous and cumulative.


Another common strategy is to engage teachers in multiple sessions of a similar structure, often over a semester or school year, to promote meaningful professional learning.104 The program described by Heller et al. (2012) included 8 three-hour sessions in which certain ideas about science instruction were taught and discussed, while teachers also engaged in related activities in their classrooms between the sessions. The model studied by Doppelt et al. (2009) was delivered in five workshops, each lasting four hours.105 Between workshop classes, the teachers implemented related activities, which were grist for their reflections and discussion in the workshops. Although these models varied in the overall duration of the PD and the distribution of hours across the program, all provided opportunities for learning across multiple engagements, along with the ongoing connected learning that occurred for teachers within their classrooms as they applied the curriculum ideas and teaching strategies they were working on in the course or workshop series.

One benefit of sustained PD may be the opportunity for teachers to continue their learning outside the formal meetings of the program, whether in their own classroom, in collaboration with colleagues, or by less formal means. As Darling-Hammond et al. (2009) argue: “The duration of professional development appears to be associated with stronger impact on teachers and student learning—in part, perhaps, because such sustained efforts typically include applications to practice, often supported by study groups and/or coaching.”106 By returning to PD settings over time, teachers have an opportunity to refine and apply their understanding of material in their classrooms.

For example, the two-year PD model studied by Johnson and Fargo (2014) engaged teachers in intensive summer workshops as well as ongoing learning during the school year to enhance science instruction for Spanish-speaking elementary school students.107 The program began with a two-week summer workshop that included graduate-level coursework on teaching elementary science, as well as an orientation to a new, inquiry-based science curriculum and strategies for culturally relevant pedagogy. Teachers’ learning from this intensive workshop was reinforced through occasional release days and monthly grade-level workshops with professional learning communities. These additional sessions supported teachers in deepening their learning and provided space for ongoing support in implementing the new curriculum. This cycle was repeated in the second year, with an additional summer workshop and continued release days.108

This model not only offered teachers the opportunity to return repeatedly to the PD material over the course of a semester, but also to apply their learning within the context of their classroom between workshops. By promoting learning over time, both within and between sessions, PD that is sustained may lead to many more hours of learning than is indicated by seat time alone.

By promoting learning over time, both within and between sessions, PD that is sustained may lead to many more hours of learning than is indicated by seat time alone.


Realizing the Promise of Professional Learning Communities

This review has so far offered rich descriptions of professional development models that have incorporated various elements of effective PD. One currently popular model is the use of Professional Learning Communities (PLCs). While many professional learning community efforts have been poorly implemented and superficial in their design and impact, there is evidence that PLCs can, when implemented with a high degree of quality, support improvements in practice, along with student learning gains. Well-implemented PLCs provide ongoing, job-embedded learning that is active, collaborative, and reflective.

This section moves beyond our review of effective PD models to explore the growing body of research about the conditions under which PLCs can be an effective strategy for supporting ongoing teacher learning within and across schools.

The Benefits of Analyzing Student Work and Student DataThe examination of student work is often a focus of productive professional learning communities. Analyzing student work collaboratively gives teachers opportunities to develop a common understanding of what good work is, what common misunderstandings students have, and what instructional strategies may or may not be working and for whom.109 For example, a study investigating three high-achieving schools that have continuously beaten the odds on standardized tests found that teachers’ use of multiple student data sources to collectively reflect upon and improve instructional practices in team meetings contributed to increases in student achievement.110

While qualitative studies have sought to examine how professional communities are formed and how they operate, several large-scale studies have illustrated how collaborative, job-embedded, professional learning that is focused on student performance has resulted in changed practices and improved student achievement.111 In a comprehensive five-year study of 1,500 restructuring schools, Newman and Wehlage (1997) analyzed three sets of data (School Restructuring Study, National Educational Longitudinal Study, and Study of Chicago School Reform) to understand how various reforms influence improved educational experiences for students.112 In their findings, the authors linked successful professional learning communities to reduced dropout rates among students; lower absenteeism rates; and academic achievement gains in mathematics, science, history, and reading. Another finding had important implications for school equity: The particular characteristics of strong professional communities—shared intellectual purpose and a sense of collective responsibility for student learning—reduced the “traditionally strong relationship between socioeconomic status and achievement gains in mathematics and science.”113

Analyzing student work collaboratively gives teachers opportunities to develop a common understanding of what instructional strategies may or may not be working and for whom.


Learning From Professional Communities Beyond the SchoolPositive effects of professional communities that operate beyond the school level have also been documented by a number of researchers.114 These are often organized via networks that connect teachers around subject matter or other shared educational concerns. Lieberman and Wood (2002) reported on the work of the National Writing Project (NWP), one of the most successful teacher networks, to understand how teacher learning in a community can be a source of efficacy and confidence in the process of adopting new practices.115 The NWP, initially called the Bay Area Writing Project, began in 1973 as a partnership in California between the University of California, Berkeley, and local school districts. It has grown to more than 185 sites in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.116 The heart of the model is the local school-university partnerships, which operate as autonomous sites to support context-specific strengths and meet context-specific challenges. “These sites are designed to be robust professional and social communities that occupy an intermediary or ‘third space,’ neither wholly of the university nor wholly of the school districts.”117

Despite the autonomy of the local sites, there are common design features and core principles that guide each site and are aligned with all the elements outlined above. The national network focuses on supporting the success of each local site. NWP local sites first focus on creating community among a small group of teachers during a five-week summer institute in which teachers engage in writing, share their work, and critique their peers. In the process of making their work public and critiquing others, teachers learn how to make implicit rules and expectations explicit, and how to give and receive constructive feedback for students. These summer institutes are held at each site and run by “teacher consultants” who are trained and supported by the national network.118

The summer institutes, which were designed to promote risk-taking and collaboration, provide a foundation for ongoing learning for teachers once they have left. These ongoing professional learning programs are collaboratively designed by schools and universities and led by teacher consultants, NWP veteran teachers. In addition, NWP provides many ways to promote active, collaborative learning within and across sites; newsletters, annual conferences, and opportunities to lead workshops are catalysts for the continuous engagement of teachers, creating the intersection of professional learning communities within the school and across the profession.119

An important aspect of the NWP’s success is the inclusion of program research starting from the very first summer institute. NWP collects internal, site-based, practitioner-directed research, as well as external, national, and independent research that directs the evolution of its work. The following box offers study results from the NWP College Ready Writers Program.

Teacher learning in a community can be a source of efficacy and confidence in the process of adopting new practices.


Effective Professional Development in Practice: National Writing Project’s College-Ready Writers Program

The College-Ready Writers Program (CRWP) is a National Writing Project program that focuses specifically on the argument writing of students in grades 7 through 10 by introducing teachers to new instructional practices based on higher standards for college- and career-ready writing. A two-year random assignment study of the program’s implementation in 12 local Writing Project sites has demonstrated its promise for supporting student learning.120

SRI conducted the study of CRWP in 22 high-poverty rural districts across 10 states—Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, New York, Oklahoma, South Carolina, and Tennessee. Despite such geographical and contextual diversity, the CRWP was implemented with a high degree of fidelity. The study design randomly assigned 44 high-poverty rural districts to either the CRWP program or a control group. The CRWP components included: PD of at least 90 hours over two years with supports that included demonstration lessons, coaching, co-designing learning tasks, co-planning, curricular resources including lesson units for argument writing, and formative assessment tools to help teachers focus on student learning. In contrast, the control group engaged in “business as usual” PD.121

The program succeeded in supporting both teacher and student learning despite the challenges that high-poverty rural districts often face for implementing effective PD. CRWP was found to have a positive, statistically significant impact on three of four attributes of student writing: content, structure, and stance. The remaining attribute, writing conventions, was marginally significant. Authors of the study note, “… this study of teacher professional development is one of the largest and most rigorous to find evidence of an impact on student academic outcomes,” indicating the power of high-quality PD to affect student achievement improvements at scale.122

There are several characteristics of the CRWP that distinguish it from many other programs and which align with research on quality PD. Three key elements are:

1. A sustained focus on learning over time with explicit modeling, engagement in, and feedback about pedagogical writing strategies.

2. A teacher-driven system that is enacted with collaboration at the center of the professional learning work.

3. Active learning focused on classroom practices with student work at the center.

Additionally, this PD is focused on a particularly complex task—using nonfiction text as the evidence for writing a well-reasoned argument.


Creating the Conditions for Effective Professional Development: Opportunities and Challenges

This review of research on professional development models that have positively impacted student learning has aimed to identify and illustrate professional learning elements in order to help shine light on powerful teacher learning experiences. Examples of PD that have raised student achievement can help policymakers and practitioners better understand what goes into quality teacher professional learning. This review does not explain, however, why some well-designed PD does not improve student achievement.123 In this section, we consider studies both within and beyond the scope of our review to explore factors that support or complicate the implementation of effective PD. We find that conditions for teaching and learning both within schools and at the broader systems level can inhibit the effectiveness of teacher PD.

School Level Several researchers have sought to understand why some PD has proven insufficient to affect teaching practice and raise student achievement in schools.124 In their study of 4th to 6th grade teachers, Bucznyski and Hansen (2010) discussed several barriers to the implementation of PD.125 They challenge the notion that PD is only as effective as a teacher’s will to employ the knowledge and skills gained. They note, “… teachers that are willing to implement professional development practices in the classroom often face hurdles that are beyond their control.”126 Teachers may also face hurdles that are within their control, but which are difficult, if not impossible, to attend to, given the challenging nature of their specific school environments.

Among these barriers are a lack of time allotted to teaching curriculum that uses the newly acquired knowledge and skills; the need to teach mandated curriculum on a pacing guide; challenges of teaching English learners without specific PD to address students’ learning needs; a lack of resources (such as curriculum materials, technology, or science equipment); and classroom management issues. Of these barriers, the study’s authors noted that lack of resources was the largest barrier to PD implementation, commenting that teachers often have to pay for their own materials for their classrooms. As a result,

[w]hen funds are out of pocket for teachers, a financial divide is in place for students of more affluent teachers and students of teachers whose own financial resources are limited. Other resources provided by schools, such as technology, are also limited.127

One teacher in the study noted on a survey, “Having to locate, borrow, or purchase items for an experiment is time consuming and not always possible.”128

These barriers affect students and teachers in a wide range of contexts; they are of particular concern for schools and districts located in high-poverty neighborhoods where financial constraints

Examples of PD that have raised student achievement can help policymakers and practitioners better understand what goes into quality teacher professional learning.


are often particularly acute. The researchers recommend that teachers be given strategies during PD to proactively address possible obstacles as they arise.129

Johnson and Fargo (2010) echoed these equity challenges, discussing the specific obstacles to applying the lessons of PD in urban schools.130 They note, “Teachers in urban schools often get caught up in the many distractions occurring on a daily basis and struggle to engage learners who are often distracted by complicated lives outside of school.”131 Crises such as school closings and the uncertainty of employment were cited as examples of the type of “turbulence” that urban science teachers faced in the course of acquiring and implementing new learning from PD opportunities.132 These examples also demonstrate how the obstacles faced by teachers in schools may actually be manifestations of broader issues that stem from systemic problems. In the case of limited funding, for example, the learning experiences of teachers as well as students are influenced by broader policy about resource allocation.

System Level Challenges to implementing effective PD extend beyond the school and classroom. A New America report from Tooley and Connally (2016) identified system-level obstacles to effective PD and concluded that there are four overarching areas where improvement is needed to facilitate increased effectiveness of PD.

1. Identifying PD needs: Teacher PD is often determined without understanding what teachers need. This shortfall is frequently exacerbated by a lack of shared vision around what excellent teaching entails. In addition, preparation and training for principals and instructional leaders often fail to address how leaders can identify and organize needs-based PD. Without systems in place to ensure teachers’ needs are being identified and met, PD will not be as effective as it should be.

2. Choosing approaches most likely to be effective: As noted in this review, there is a reasonably strong consensus about the kind of professional learning opportunities likely to yield student achievement. Still, a great deal of PD is implemented that does not meet these standards. “One-off” workshops are easy to schedule and require less time and human capital to implement than evidence-based approaches. Teacher contracts and state recertification requirements also tend to encourage these models by emphasizing seat time as the metric for gauging engagement with PD.

3. Implementing approaches with quality and fidelity: Even when educators have knowledge of effective PD models, implementation presents its own obstacles. For example, a school or district may create a program that includes coaching for teachers. However, it is not sufficient to simply designate coaches and have them available for teachers; many other variables affect coaches’ effectiveness. The authors note, “The coach’s expertise in the teachers’ grade span, subject, and/or school context; the depth of observation, feedback, and suggestions for things to try differently; the authority of a coach to recommend next steps; time and accountability for teachers to follow through with recommended next steps” have implications for the success of the program.133 Other implementation barriers include the lack of an integrated, coherent approach to instruction and insufficient capacity.


4. Assessing PD outcomes: Few schools, districts, or state education agencies have created good systems of tracking PD, let alone systems for analyzing the quality and impact of PD. Without a sense of what is working and why, it is hard to adopt and implement professional learning for teachers that is evidence based and designed to address potential obstacles.134

Even in the case of well-designed PD, these obstacles can impede the effectiveness of professional learning and hinder its impact on student learning and achievement. The challenges with implementing and scaling evidence-based practices underscore that translating promising PD research into practice remains one area ripe for improvement.


Conclusions and Policy Implications

Professional development is an important strategy for ensuring that educators are equipped to support deep and complex student learning in their classrooms. However, research shows great variation in the extent to which PD programs accomplish this goal. This paper has examined recent studies of successful PD models that report student learning gains. We identify seven common design elements of these effective PD approaches.

1. They are content focused. 2. They incorporate active learning strategies.3. They engage teachers in collaboration.4. They use models and/or modeling.5. They provide coaching and expert support.6. They include time for feedback and reflection.7. They are of sustained duration.

Across the reviewed studies, these elements have been combined in a variety of ways to support teachers’ professional learning. Indeed, none of the successful programs featured attributes in isolation: As Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) note, the combination of these elements creates a collaborative culture that results in a form of collective professional capital that leverages much more productive, widespread improvement in an organization than would be possible if teachers worked alone in egg-crate classrooms.135 Regardless of the specific model employed, PD should be well designed, incorporating elements of effective PD, as we have described. It should also be linked to identified teacher needs, should ensure that teachers have a say in the type of learning they require to best support their students, and should be regularly evaluated so that quality can be continually improved.

Implications for PolicySupporting and incentivizing the kind of evidence-based PD we have reviewed here could be facilitated by changes in policy. For example:

• Policymakers could adopt standards for professional development to guide the design, evaluation, and funding of professional learning provided to educators. These standards might reflect the features of effective professional learning outlined in this report as well as standards for implementation.136

• Policymakers and administrators could evaluate and redesign the use of time and school schedules to increase opportunities for professional learning and collaboration, including participation in professional learning communities, peer coaching and observations across classrooms, and collaborative planning.

• States, districts, and schools could regularly conduct needs assessments using data from staff surveys to identify areas of professional learning most needed and desired by educators. Data from these sources can help ensure that professional learning is not disconnected from practice and supports the areas of knowledge and skills educators want to develop.


• State and district administrators could identify and develop expert teachers as mentors and coaches to support learning in their particular area(s) of expertise for other educators.

• States and districts can integrate professional learning into ESSA school improvement initiatives, such as efforts to implement new learning standards, use student data to inform instruction, improve student literacy, increase student access to advanced coursework, and create a positive and inclusive learning environment.

• States and districts can provide technology-facilitated opportunities for professional learning and coaching, using funding available under Titles II and IV of ESSA to address the needs of rural communities and provide opportunities for intradistrict and intraschool collaboration.

• Policymakers can provide flexible funding and continuing education units for learning opportunities that include sustained engagement in collaboration, mentoring, and coaching, as well as institutes, workshops, and seminars.

Implications for Implementation and PracticeAt the same time, well-designed programs must also be implemented well to be effective. Even the best designed PD may fail to produce desired outcomes if it is poorly implemented due to barriers such as

• inadequate resources, including needed curriculum materials;• lack of shared vision about what high-quality instruction entails;• lack of time for planning and implementing new instructional approaches;• conflicting requirements, such as scripted curriculum or pacing guides; and• lack of adequate foundational knowledge on the part of teachers.

Common obstacles to PD should be anticipated and planned for during both the design and implementation phases of PD. Implementing PD well also requires responsiveness to the needs of educators and learners and to the contexts in which teaching and learning will take place.

In the end, well-designed and implemented PD should be considered an essential component of a comprehensive system of teaching and learning that supports students to develop the knowledge, skills, and competencies they need to thrive in the 21st century. To ensure a coherent system that supports teachers across the entire professional continuum, professional learning should link to their experiences in preparation and induction, as well as to teaching standards and evaluation. It should also bridge to leadership opportunities to ensure a comprehensive system focused on the growth and development of teachers.


Appendix A: Methodology

This paper builds upon an earlier review of effective teacher professional development by Darling-Hammond et al. (2009). To identify elements that are prevalent in effective PD, we reviewed the empirical literature on models that have demonstrated benefits for student learning. Our review includes studies from recent decades that use rigorous methodologies to demonstrate a positive link between teacher PD and student outcomes.

Specifically, each study included in the review either employs an experimental or quasi-experimental comparison group, or uses appropriate statistical modeling and hypothesis testing to estimate the effect of teacher PD on students’ academic outcomes, with controls for context variables and student characteristics. The review includes studies that find positive, statistically significant effects of PD on student achievement. All studies included in the review appear in peer-reviewed journals, or represent rigorous, large-scale research studies submitted to federal agencies and subject to review.

We drew on Darling-Hammond et al.’s (2009) survey to identify articles published before 2010 with methodologies and findings to qualify for inclusion in the current review. We paired this approach with a thorough scan of more recent literature, using database searches to identify studies published from 2010 on that meet the criteria for inclusion. Researchers used keyword searches to cull relevant literature from Google Scholar, ERIC, EBSCO, JSTOR, and SAGE in early fall of 2016 and again in spring 2017. Key terms used in these searches include: “teacher professional development,” “professional learning,” “student outcomes,” and “student achievement.” Although we endeavored to undertake an exhaustive search of recent literature, it is possible that relevant studies have been excluded because they were not catalogued under any of the key search terms used. Appendix B details each of the 35 studies that surfaced using this method that met our methodological criteria, eight from Darling-Hammond et al. (2009) and 27 from the broader scan of recent literature.

We then reviewed these studies and qualitatively coded them for program features and characteristics. To begin this process, a researcher generated a list of deductive codes based on previous literature, including Darling-Hammond et al. (2009) and Desimone (2009). Deductive codes included, for example, collaboration and 50+ hour duration. After an initial reading of the papers in the review, researchers refined and expanded coding to include features that emerged from the studies, including sustained duration, opportunities for feedback, and reflection on practice. Researchers created decision rules for each of the refined codes and engaged in ongoing discussion throughout the coding process to ensure inter-coder reliability.

At times, the defined elements of effective PD can overlap. For example, collaboration can be both an active learning strategy and an element unto itself. However, it is possible to engage in active learning without structured collaboration and it is possible to engage in forms of collaboration, such as discussing a theory or idea, that do not involve active applications.

Appendix C provides an overview of the elements that were exhibited by the PD model(s) featured in each study. Two studies that otherwise met the criteria for inclusion in the review were excluded from Appendix C because they contain insufficient detail regarding the PD model to enable qualitative coding of the program elements. These studies—Wenglinsky (2000) and Desimone et al. (2013)—analyze large-scale data sets spanning a variety of contexts and, as a result, provide limited descriptions of the PD provided to teachers. However, these studies provide important evidence


regarding the effectiveness of PD, so are retained in Appendix B and referred to where relevant in the body of the paper. They have been omitted from Appendix C and the counts of the prevalence of each element in the text due to limited details regarding the PD to which teachers were exposed.

We recognize that this methodology is not without limitations. Because studies of PD typically examine comprehensive models that incorporate many elements, this paper does not seek to draw conclusions about the efficacy of individual program components. We are also unable to comment on the elements of PD models that did not yield positive results on student achievement. It is conceivable that these ineffective models share one or more elements with those highlighted in this study and yet fail to produce positive effects on student achievement, perhaps due to weaknesses in content, design, or implementation. However, it is beyond the scope of this paper to detail why specific programs are unsuccessful. Rather, the study seeks to describe the characteristics of PD that research has been found to have positive relationships with student outcomes. Although the paper dedicates a section to obstacles and challenges to implementation, this remains an area worth further investigation.


App

endi

x B

: Sum

mar

y of

Stu

dies

Rev

iew

ed fo

r Thi

s R

epor

t

Not

e: E

S is

use

d to

den

ote

effe

ct s

izes

.

Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Aki

ba, M

. & L

iang

, G. (

2016

). E

ffec

ts o

f tea

cher

pro

fess

iona

l lea

rnin

g ac

tivi

ties

on

stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t gr

owth

. The

Jou

rnal

of E

duca

tion

al R

esea

rch,

109

(1),

99

–110

.

Des

crip

tion

: Res

earc

hers

ana

lyze

d th

ree

year

s of

resu

lts fr

om th

e Te

ache

rs’

Opp

ortu

nity

to L

earn

(TO

TL) s

urve

y of

mid

dle

scho

ol m

athe

mat

ics

teac

hers

in

Mis

sour

i. An

alys

is fo

cuse

s on

wha

t typ

es o

f pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t, as

de

fined

by

the

surv

ey (s

tand

ard

prof

essi

onal

dev

elop

men

t, te

ache

r col

labo

ratio

n,

univ

ersi

ty c

ours

es, p

rofe

ssio

nal c

onfe

renc

es, i

nfor

mal

com

mun

icat

ion,

and

in

divi

dual

lear

ning

) are

ass

ocia

ted

with

stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t gro

wth

.

Met

hodo

logy

: Thr

ee-y

ear d

escr

iptiv

e su

rvey

ana

lysi

s•

n=4

67 m

iddl

e sc

hool

mat

hem

atic

s te

ache

rs in

91

Mis

sour

i sch

ools

• S

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent m

easu

red

usin

g th

e M

isso

uri A

sses

smen

t Pro

gram

in

mat

hem

atic

s

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t gro

wth

rate

s w

ere

posi

tivel

y as

soci

ated

with

sc

hool

ave

rage

am

ount

s of

par

ticip

atio

n in

teac

her c

olla

bora

tion,

pro

fess

iona

l co

nfer

ence

s, a

nd in

form

al c

omm

unic

atio

n w

ith c

olle

ague

s. C

ontr

ollin

g fo

r stu

dent

ch

arac

teris

tics

and

teac

her q

ualifi

catio

ns, a

one

-hou

r inc

reas

e in

the

scho

ol

aver

age

amou

nt o

f tea

cher

col

labo

ratio

n w

as a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith a

.01

incr

ease

in

the

annu

al g

row

th ra

te in

stu

dent

mat

h sc

ores

ove

r the

thre

e ye

ars.

A o

ne-h

our

incr

ease

in th

e sc

hool

ave

rage

am

ount

of t

each

er p

artic

ipat

ion

in p

rofe

ssio

nal

conf

eren

ces

and

info

rmal

com

mun

icat

ion

wer

e as

soci

ated

with

incr

ease

s in

the

annu

al g

row

th ra

te o

f .15

and

.23

resp

ectiv

ely.

Alle

n, J

. P.,

Pian

ta, R

. C.,

Gre

gory

, A.,

Mik

ami,

A. Y

., &

Lun

, J. (

2011

). A

n in

tera

ctio

n-ba

sed

appr

oach

to e

nhan

cing

sec

onda

ry s

choo

l ins

truc

tion

and

st

uden

t ac

hiev

emen

t. S

cien

ce, 3

33(6

045

), 1

034–

1037

.

Des

crip

tion

: Tea

cher

s en

rolle

d in

My

Teac

hing

Par

tner

–Sec

onda

ry, a

web

-med

iate

d co

achi

ng p

rogr

am d

esig

ned

to im

prov

e te

ache

r-stu

dent

inte

ract

ions

. Tea

cher

s pa

rtic

ipat

ed in

an

initi

al tr

aini

ng w

orks

hop

follo

wed

by

twic

e-m

onth

ly c

oach

ing

from

a re

mot

e m

ento

r. Fo

r eac

h co

achi

ng s

essi

on, t

each

ers

wer

e as

ked

to s

ubm

it sh

ort v

ideo

s of

thei

r pra

ctic

e, re

flect

on

thei

r tea

chin

g, a

nd re

spon

d to

que

stio

ns

from

thei

r coa

ch re

gard

ing

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

teac

her p

ract

ice

and

stud

ent

enga

gem

ent.

Each

refle

ctio

n w

as fo

llow

ed b

y a

20- t

o 30

-min

ute

phon

e co

nfer

ence

w

ith th

e co

ach.

Tea

cher

s al

so a

tten

ded

mon

thly

“bo

oste

r” w

orks

hops

and

wer

e gi

ven

acce

ss to

an

anno

tate

d vi

deo

libra

ry fo

r the

dur

atio

n of

the

prog

ram

. Ove

rall,

th

e pr

ogra

m o

ffer

ed 2

0 ho

urs

of in

-ser

vice

trai

ning

ove

r 13

mon

ths

in a

dditi

on to

th

e tim

e te

ache

rs s

pent

wor

king

on

the

prog

ram

’s c

once

pts

in th

eir c

lass

room

s.

Met

hodo

logy

: Tw

o-ye

ar ra

ndom

ized

con

trol

led

tria

l•

n=7

8 se

cond

ary

scho

ol te

ache

rs a

nd 2

,237

sec

onda

ry s

tude

nts

in 1

2 Vi

rgin

ia

scho

ols

• S

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent m

easu

red

by V

irgin

ia s

tate

sta

ndar

dize

d te

sts

in re

leva

nt

subj

ect

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s w

hose

teac

hers

par

ticip

ated

in th

e pr

ogra

m th

e pr

evio

us

scho

ol y

ear d

emon

stra

ted

gain

s in

stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t of .

22 s

tand

ard

devi

atio

ns

(equ

ival

ent t

o an

ave

rage

incr

ease

from

the

50th

to 5

9th

perc

entil

e) re

lativ

e to

st

uden

ts w

hose

teac

hers

had

not

par

ticip

ated

.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Alle

n, J

. P.,

Haf

en, C

. A.,

Gre

gory

, A. C

., M

ikam

i, A

. Y.,

& P

iant

a, R

. (20

15).

En

hanc

ing

seco

ndar

y sc

hool

inst

ruct

ion

and

stud

ent

achi

evem

ent:

Rep

licat

ion

and

exte

nsio

n of

the

My

Teac

hing

Par

tner

–Sec

onda

ry in

terv

enti

on. J

ourn

al o

f Res

earc

h on

Edu

cati

onal

Effe

ctiv

enes

s 8(

4):

475

–489

.

Des

crip

tion

: Tea

cher

s pa

rtic

ipat

ed in

My

Teac

hing

Par

tner

–Sec

onda

ry, a

web

-m

edia

ted

coac

hing

pro

gram

to im

prov

e te

ache

r-stu

dent

inte

ract

ions

in th

e cl

assr

oom

. Te

ache

rs p

artic

ipat

ed in

an

initi

al h

alf-d

ay tr

aini

ng w

ith m

aste

r tea

cher

s fr

om

the

rese

arch

team

who

wou

ld g

o on

to p

rovi

de re

mot

e co

achi

ng fo

r the

dur

atio

n of

the

prog

ram

. Thi

s in

itial

wor

ksho

p fo

cuse

d on

the

dim

ensi

ons

of h

igh-

qual

ity

stud

ent-t

each

er in

tera

ctio

ns, s

uch

as te

ache

r sen

sitiv

ity a

nd re

gard

for s

tude

nt

pers

pect

ives

, and

incl

uded

vid

eos

of e

xem

plar

y pr

actic

e. O

ver t

he n

ext t

wo

acad

emic

ye

ars,

teac

hers

eng

aged

in 1

2 re

mot

e co

achi

ng c

ycle

s fo

cuse

d on

stu

dent

-teac

her

rela

tions

hips

, cla

ssro

om o

rgan

izat

ion,

and

inst

ruct

iona

l sup

port

. In

each

coa

chin

g cy

cle,

teac

hers

sha

red

a vi

deo

of a

typi

cal l

esso

n w

ith th

eir c

oach

, who

cho

se s

hort

se

gmen

ts o

f the

less

on to

hig

hlig

ht fo

r ana

lysi

s an

d di

scus

sion

. Coa

ches

sha

red

thes

e se

gmen

ts w

ith te

ache

rs, w

ho w

ere

aske

d to

exa

min

e th

eir o

wn

prac

tice,

st

uden

t res

pons

es to

thei

r pra

ctic

e, a

nd th

e re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n te

ache

r pra

ctic

e an

d st

uden

t rea

ctio

ns. T

his

refle

ctio

n w

as fo

llow

ed b

y a

20- t

o 30

-min

ute

phon

e co

nfer

ence

focu

sed

on in

stru

ctio

nal s

trat

egie

s to

str

engt

hen

inte

ract

ions

with

st

uden

ts. T

his

coac

hing

cyc

le o

ccur

red

ever

y 6

wee

ks. T

he 2

-yea

r pro

gram

con

clud

ed

with

a fi

nal b

oost

er w

orks

hop.

Met

hodo

logy

: Str

atifi

ed ra

ndom

ized

con

trol

led

tria

l•

n=

86 s

econ

dary

sch

ool t

each

ers

and

1,19

4 se

cond

ary

stud

ents

in a

div

erse

ur

ban

scho

ol d

istr

ict.

• S

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent m

easu

red

by V

irgin

ia s

tate

sta

ndar

dize

d te

sts

in th

e su

bjec

t are

as ta

ught

by

the

part

icip

atin

g te

ache

rs.

Find

ings

: At t

he e

nd o

f the

two-

year

pro

gram

, stu

dent

s w

hose

teac

hers

pa

rtic

ipat

ed d

emon

stra

ted

gain

s in

ach

ieve

men

t equ

ival

ent t

o an

ave

rage

in

crea

se fr

om th

e 50

th to

59th

per

cent

ile re

lativ

e to

stu

dent

s w

hose

teac

hers

ha

d no

t par

ticip

ated

(ES

= 0.

48).

Ant

onio

u, P

. & K

yria

kide

s, L

. (20

13).

A d

ynam

ic in

tegr

ated

app

roac

h to

teac

her

prof

essi

onal

dev

elop

men

t: Im

pact

and

sus

tain

abili

ty o

f the

eff

ects

on

impr

ovin

g te

ache

r beh

avio

r and

stu

dent

out

com

es. T

each

ing

and

Teac

her E

duca

tion

, 29,

1–

12.

Des

crip

tion

: Tea

cher

s pa

rtic

ipat

ed in

PD

usi

ng e

ither

the

Dyn

amic

Inte

grat

ed

Appr

oach

(DIA

) or t

he H

olis

tic A

ppro

ach

(HA)

. Usi

ng th

e D

IA, t

each

ers’

ski

lls w

ere

eval

uate

d an

d as

sign

ed to

one

of fi

ve d

evel

opm

enta

l sta

ges,

with

eac

h st

age

focu

sing

on

incr

easi

ngly

com

plex

teac

hing

ski

lls. T

he H

olis

tic A

ppro

ach

exam

ines

att

itude

s,

belie

fs, a

nd p

ract

ices

not

lim

ited

to s

tage

s an

d sk

ills.

Tea

cher

s at

tend

ed n

ine

mon

thly

ses

sion

s th

roug

hout

the

scho

ol y

ear.

The

DIA

gro

up s

essi

ons

cons

iste

d of

as

sign

ing

teac

hers

’ dev

elop

men

tal s

tage

s an

d co

llabo

ratin

g an

d cr

eatin

g in

divi

dual

ac

tion

plan

s. B

etw

een

each

PD

ses

sion

, tea

cher

s im

plem

ente

d th

eir p

lans

in th

eir

clas

sroo

ms,

rece

ived

feed

back

, and

revi

sed

thei

r pla

ns. T

each

ers

in th

e H

A gr

oup

refle

cted

and

dis

cuss

ed a

pro

blem

bas

ed o

n at

titud

e, b

elie

fs, a

nd p

ract

ice.

The

re

mai

ning

ses

sion

s w

ere

used

to c

reat

e, d

iscu

ss im

plem

enta

tion,

and

adj

ust a

n ac

tion

plan

with

col

leag

ues.

Eac

h m

onth

ly s

essi

on la

sted

3-4

hou

rs in

dur

atio

n to

talin

g 27

-36

hour

s. B

oth

grou

ps c

ompl

eted

a to

tal o

f 88

.5 h

ours

of P

D.

Met

hodo

logy

: Ran

dom

ized

con

trol

led

tria

l•

n=1

23 3

rd- t

o 6t

h-gr

ade

teac

hers

in C

ypru

s sc

hool

s an

d 13

1 st

uden

ts•

Crit

erio

n-re

fere

nce

mat

h te

sts

Find

ings

: Ove

rall,

the

achi

evem

ent o

f stu

dent

s w

hose

teac

hers

em

ploy

ed D

IA

was

0.3

4 st

anda

rd d

evia

tions

hig

her t

han

thos

e in

the

HA

grou

p.St

uden

ts o

f tea

cher

s at

sta

ges

1 an

d 2

scor

ed lo

wer

(-0.

52 a

nd -0

.24

stan

dard

de

viat

ions

resp

ectiv

ely)

than

thos

e of

teac

hers

at s

tage

3. S

tude

nts

of te

ache

rs

at s

tage

4 h

ad th

e hi

ghes

t ach

ieve

men

t gai

ns. S

tude

nts

of te

ache

rs in

sta

ge

4 of

the

DIA

gro

up s

core

d 0.

32 s

tand

ard

devi

atio

ns h

ighe

r tha

n st

uden

ts o

f te

ache

rs a

t sta

ge 3

.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Buc

zyns

ki, S

. & H

anse

n, C

. B. (

2010

). Im

pact

of p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent

on

teac

her p

ract

ice;

unc

over

ing

conn

ecti

ons.

Tea

cher

and

Tea

cher

Edu

cati

on, 2

6,

599–

607.

Des

crip

tion

: Tea

cher

PD

focu

sed

on in

tegr

ated

, inq

uiry

-bas

ed in

stru

ctio

n in

el

emen

tary

cla

ssro

oms.

An

Inqu

iry

Lear

ning

Par

tner

ship

(ILP

) was

form

ed b

etw

een

two

urba

n sc

hool

dis

tric

ts, a

sci

ence

mus

eum

, and

a u

nive

rsity

to d

evel

op

the

prof

essi

onal

dev

elop

men

t pro

gram

for 4

th- t

o 6t

h-gr

ade

trad

e te

ache

rs.

The

co-d

esig

ned

PD c

onsi

sted

of s

tand

ards

-bas

ed c

onte

nt a

nd in

quir

y-ba

sed

stra

tegi

es. P

D c

onsi

sted

of l

ectu

res

on s

ubje

ct m

atte

r by

univ

ersi

ty p

rofe

ssor

s pa

ired

with

con

stru

ctiv

ist,

hand

s-on

exp

erie

nces

for t

each

ers

with

sci

ence

kits

an

d de

mon

stra

tion

of in

quir

y pr

actic

es. S

cien

ce c

onte

nt w

as ta

ught

by

univ

ersi

ty

facu

lty, w

hile

ped

agog

y se

ssio

ns w

ere

led

by th

e IL

P di

rect

or a

nd d

istr

ict r

esou

rce

teac

hers

. Ped

agog

y se

ssio

n to

pics

wer

e id

entifi

ed a

s fo

rmat

ive

asse

ssm

ent,

use

of s

tude

nt s

cien

ce n

oteb

ooks

, unp

acki

ng s

tand

ards

, tea

chin

g En

glis

h le

arne

rs,

adap

ting

curr

icul

um, b

est p

ract

ices

, and

add

ress

ing

the

achi

evem

ent g

ap. P

D w

as

adm

inis

tere

d du

ring

a 35

-hou

r, w

eekl

ong

sum

mer

inst

itute

. In

addi

tion,

teac

hers

at

tend

ed a

t lea

st s

even

of 2

9 av

aila

ble

seve

n-ho

ur S

atur

day

cont

ent s

essi

ons

over

th

e co

urse

of a

n ac

adem

ic y

ear.

Met

hodo

logy

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal s

tudy

with

in a

n ex

plor

ator

y ca

se s

tudy

• n

=118

vet

eran

4th

- to

6th-

grad

e te

ache

rs a

cros

s tw

o ur

ban

dist

ricts

’ lo

w-p

erfo

rmin

g sc

hool

s an

d 1,

964

5th-

grad

e st

uden

ts•

Stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t mea

sure

d by

sco

res

on 2

005

and

2006

Cal

iforn

ia

Stan

dard

s Te

sts

(CST

s) fr

om g

rade

5 a

nd fr

om lo

cal a

sses

smen

ts

Find

ings

: In

one

dist

rict,

amon

g pa

rtic

ipat

ing

teac

hers

’ stu

dent

s, 9

% m

ore

scor

ed p

rofic

ient

or a

dvan

ced

on th

e CS

T in

200

6 th

an in

200

5, c

ompa

red

to

a 2%

gai

n fr

om te

ache

rs w

ho d

id n

ot p

artic

ipat

e in

PD

. In

the

seco

nd d

istr

ict,

the

scor

es o

f par

ticip

atin

g te

ache

rs’ s

tude

nts

wer

e st

able

whi

le th

ose

of

nonp

artic

ipat

ing

teac

hers

dec

lined

, sho

win

g a

4% d

rop

in th

e pe

rcen

t sco

ring

profi

cien

t or a

dvan

ced.

The

gre

ates

t gai

ns in

stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t occ

urre

d at

si

tes

whe

re m

ultip

le te

ache

rs w

ere

invo

lved

in th

e PD

.

Buy

sse,

V.,

Cas

tro,

C. C

., &

Pei

sner

-Fei

nber

g, E

. (20

10).

Eff

ects

of a

pro

fess

iona

l de

velo

pmen

t pr

ogra

m o

n cl

assr

oom

pra

ctic

es a

nd o

utco

mes

for L

atin

o du

al

lang

uage

lear

ners

. Ear

ly C

hild

hood

Res

earc

h Q

uart

erly

25

: 194

–206

.

Des

crip

tion

: Nue

stro

s N

iños

Ear

ly L

angu

age

and

Lite

racy

Pro

gram

is a

rese

arch

-bas

ed

PD p

rogr

am fo

cuse

d on

eff

ectiv

e in

stru

ctio

nal p

ract

ices

to p

rom

ote

lang

uage

and

lit

erac

y sk

ills

for p

re-k

chi

ldre

n in

gen

eral

, and

Lat

inx

dual

lang

uage

lear

ners

(DLL

s)

in p

artic

ular

. The

PD

was

des

igne

d fo

r mon

olin

gual

teac

hers

who

use

d En

glis

h as

th

e la

ngua

ge o

f ins

truc

tion

and

was

str

uctu

red

as a

thre

e-da

y in

stitu

te c

ondu

cted

ov

er s

ever

al w

eeks

, with

follo

w-u

p se

ssio

ns th

roug

hout

the

cour

se o

f the

yea

r. Th

e in

stitu

te c

onta

ined

six

mod

ules

focu

sed

on to

pics

of l

itera

cy a

nd D

LLs.

Tea

cher

s w

ere

also

pro

vide

d w

ith a

rang

e of

inst

ruct

iona

l str

ateg

ies

and

sugg

estio

ns fo

r spe

cific

ac

com

mod

atio

ns to

faci

litat

e th

e de

velo

pmen

t of c

hild

ren’

s pr

imar

y la

ngua

ge in

Sp

anis

h. F

ollo

w-u

p se

ssio

ns w

ith b

iling

ual L

atin

x co

nsul

tant

s su

ppor

ting

lear

ning

co

mm

uniti

es o

f tea

cher

s to

ok p

lace

ove

r the

sch

ool y

ear.

Dur

ing

the

lear

ning

co

mm

uniti

es, t

each

ers

wor

ked

colla

bora

tivel

y to

cre

ate

less

on p

lans

and

vie

w

reco

rdin

gs o

f the

mse

lves

and

oth

ers

teac

hing

to re

fine

and

impr

ove

thei

r ow

n in

stru

ctio

nal s

trat

egie

s fo

r Lat

inx

DLL

chi

ldre

n. C

onsu

ltant

s al

so m

et w

ith te

ache

rs

one-

on-o

ne.

Met

hodo

logy

: Ran

dom

ized

con

trol

led

tria

l •

n=5

5 te

ache

rs a

nd 1

93 p

re-k

Lat

inx

dual

lang

uage

lear

ners

in N

orth

Ca

rolin

a’s

Mor

e at

Fou

r Pre

-Kin

derg

arte

n Pr

ogra

m•

Stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t mea

sure

d in

Eng

lish

and

Span

ish

on th

e W

oodc

ock

Lang

uage

Pro

ficie

ncy

Bat

tery

-Rev

ised

: Eng

lish

and

Span

ish

Form

s; th

e Pe

abod

y Pi

ctur

e Vo

cabu

lary

Tes

t and

cor

resp

ondi

ng T

est d

e Vo

cabu

lario

en

Emag

enes

Pea

body

; the

Pho

nolo

gica

l Aw

aren

ess

Task

s; N

amin

g Le

tter

s; a

nd

Whe

re’s

My

Tedd

y St

ory

and

Prin

t Con

cept

s

Find

ings

: Tea

cher

s’ g

ener

al la

ngua

ge a

nd li

tera

cy p

ract

ices

and

thos

e sp

ecifi

c to

Lat

ino

ELLs

mea

sura

bly

impr

oved

. For

out

com

es a

sses

sed

in S

pani

sh, t

here

w

ere

sign

ifica

ntly

gre

ater

gai

ns fo

r chi

ldre

n in

the

inte

rven

tion

grou

p th

an in

the

cont

rol g

roup

on

the

Phon

olog

ical

Aw

aren

ess

(ES=

.69)

and

Rhy

me

mat

chin

g (E

S=.6

8) ta

sks.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Cam

pbel

l, P.

F. &

Mal

kus,

N. N

. (20

11).

The

impa

ct o

f ele

men

tary

mat

hem

atic

s co

ache

s on

stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t. T

he E

lem

enta

ry S

choo

l Jou

rnal

, 111

(3),

43

0–45

4.

Des

crip

tion

: The

stu

dy o

utlin

es th

e pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent m

athe

mat

ics

coac

hes

rece

ived

to d

eliv

er o

nsite

, who

le-s

choo

l tea

cher

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t in

elem

enta

ry s

choo

ls. C

oach

es re

ceiv

ed s

peci

aliz

ed tr

aini

ng in

five

cou

rses

focu

sing

on

mat

hem

atic

s co

nten

t, m

athe

mat

ics

peda

gogy

, and

edu

catio

nal l

eade

rshi

p th

at

wer

e de

sign

ed fo

r the

pro

gram

and

pro

vide

d th

roug

h lo

cal u

nive

rsiti

es. C

ours

es

wer

e co

-taug

ht b

y m

athe

mat

icia

ns, a

nd m

athe

mat

ics

educ

ator

s an

d co

ache

s w

ere

prov

ided

acc

ess

to c

ours

e m

ater

ials

, vid

eo e

xem

plar

s, a

nd c

ase

stud

ies.

Coa

ches

’ co

urse

wor

k w

as c

ompl

eted

ove

r tw

o ye

ars.

Dat

a fr

om th

e st

udy

indi

cate

that

coa

ches

’ pr

imar

y ac

tiviti

es in

thei

r pla

cem

ent s

choo

ls in

clud

ed c

oach

ing

teac

hers

and

su

ppor

ting

asse

ssm

ent.

Met

hodo

logy

: Thr

ee-y

ear r

ando

miz

ed c

ontr

olle

d tr

ial

• n

=36

elem

enta

ry s

choo

ls in

urb

an a

nd u

rban

-edg

e sc

hool

dis

tric

ts

• S

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent m

easu

red

by V

irgin

ia’s

sta

tew

ide

stan

dard

ized

ac

hiev

emen

t tes

t in

mat

hem

atic

s

Find

ings

: Ass

igni

ng e

lem

enta

ry m

athe

mat

ics

coac

hes

impr

oved

stu

dent

ac

hiev

emen

t in

grad

es 3

-5 b

y .14

to .1

9 st

anda

rd d

evia

tions

in e

ach

grad

e le

vel.

Stro

nger

eff

ects

on

achi

evem

ent w

ere

obse

rved

in g

rade

s 4

and

5 th

an

in g

rade

3. T

he p

rese

nce

of a

mat

hem

atic

s co

ach

did

not h

ave

a si

gnifi

cant

im

pact

on

stud

ent a

chie

vem

ent d

urin

g th

e fir

st y

ear o

f pla

cem

ent.

Car

pent

er, T

. P.,

Fenn

ema,

E.,

Pete

rson

, P. L

., C

hian

g, C

., &

Loe

f, M

. (19

89).

U

sing

kno

wle

dge

of c

hild

ren’

s m

athe

mat

ics

thin

king

in c

lass

room

teac

hing

: An

expe

rim

enta

l stu

dy. A

mer

ican

Edu

cati

onal

Res

earc

h Jo

urna

l 26(

4):

499

–531

.

Des

crip

tion

: Ear

ly e

lem

enta

ry s

choo

l tea

cher

s pa

rtic

ipat

ed in

a m

onth

long

sum

mer

w

orks

hop

desi

gned

to e

nhan

ce th

eir u

nder

stan

ding

of c

hild

ren’

s m

athe

mat

ical

th

inki

ng. U

nive

rsity

facu

lty le

d th

e w

orks

hop,

whi

ch w

as fo

cuse

d on

rese

arch

abo

ut

child

ren’

s ap

proa

ches

to a

dditi

on a

nd s

ubtr

actio

n an

d pr

inci

ples

for i

ts a

pplic

atio

n in

the

clas

sroo

m. P

artic

ipat

ion

in th

e w

orks

hop

earn

ed te

ache

rs th

ree

univ

ersi

ty

cred

its a

nd e

ntai

led

atte

ndan

ce a

t lec

ture

s an

d in

volv

emen

t in

a va

riety

of a

ctiv

e-le

arni

ng o

ppor

tuni

ties

such

as

grou

p di

scus

sion

s an

d w

orks

hops

, uni

t pla

nnin

g, a

nd

shar

ed a

naly

sis

of c

urric

ular

mat

eria

ls. T

each

ers

also

rece

ived

free

tim

e to

wor

k on

pr

ojec

ts o

f the

ir ch

oosi

ng, i

ndiv

idua

lly o

r with

col

leag

ues

and

wor

ksho

p le

ader

s as

pa

rtic

ipan

ts p

refe

rred

. Fol

low

ing

the

wor

ksho

p, te

ache

rs m

et w

ith w

orks

hop

lead

ers

one

time;

teac

hers

als

o ha

d co

ntin

ued

acce

ss to

a re

sour

ce p

erso

n af

filia

ted

with

the

prog

ram

thro

ugho

ut th

e ye

ar. O

vera

ll, th

e w

orks

hop

prov

ided

80

hour

s of

pro

fess

iona

l de

velo

pmen

t.

Met

hodo

logy

: Ran

dom

ized

con

trol

led

tria

l•

n=4

0 1s

t-gra

de te

ache

rs in

24

Wis

cons

in s

choo

ls a

nd a

bout

480

1st

-gra

de

stud

ents

•

At p

re-te

st, s

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent w

as m

easu

red

usin

g th

e Io

wa

Test

of B

asic

Sk

ills

(ITB

S). A

t pos

t-tes

t, re

sear

cher

s us

ed IT

BS

and

othe

r sta

ndar

dize

d an

d re

sear

cher

-des

igne

d m

athe

mat

ics

item

s.

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s of

teac

hers

who

par

ticip

ated

in th

e w

orks

hop

outp

erfo

rmed

st

uden

ts o

f tea

cher

s w

ho d

id n

ot o

n th

ree

of s

ix m

easu

res

of m

athe

mat

ics

achi

evem

ent,

incl

udin

g on

e m

easu

re o

f com

puta

tion

and

two

mea

sure

s of

pr

oble

m s

olvi

ng. T

hese

stu

dent

s w

ere

also

mor

e in

clin

ed to

be

mor

e co

gniti

vely

gu

ided

in th

eir b

elie

fs a

bout

mat

hem

atic

al le

arni

ng a

nd to

repo

rt g

reat

er

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

mat

hem

atic

s.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Des

imon

e, L

., Sm

ith,

T.,

& P

hilli

ps, K

. (20

13).

Lin

king

stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t gr

owth

to p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent

part

icip

atio

n an

d ch

ange

s in

inst

ruct

ion:

A

long

itud

inal

stu

dy o

f ele

men

tary

stu

dent

s an

d te

ache

rs in

Tit

le I

scho

ols.

Tea

cher

s C

olle

ge R

ecor

d, 1

15(5

), 1

–46.

This

art

icle

focu

sed

on tw

o ty

pes

of p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent:

cont

ent-f

ocus

ed

and

part

icip

atio

n-fo

cuse

d (ti

me

spen

t on

mat

h in

stru

ctio

n). U

sing

dat

a fr

om th

e Lo

ngitu

dina

l Eva

luat

ion

of S

choo

l Cha

nge

and

Perf

orm

ance

(LES

CP),

auth

ors

aim

ed to

an

swer

: 1) t

o w

hat e

xten

t do

teac

hers

’ sel

f-rep

orte

d to

pic

cove

rage

and

em

phas

is o

n m

emor

izat

ion

and

solv

ing

nove

l pro

blem

s, a

nd ti

me

spen

t on

mat

hem

atic

s in

stru

ctio

n pr

edic

t stu

dent

gro

wth

? D

oes

a te

ache

r’s ti

me

spen

t on

mat

hem

atic

s in

stru

ctio

n an

d em

phas

is o

n m

emor

izat

ion

and

solv

ing

nove

l pro

blem

s pr

edic

t stu

dent

gro

wth

? an

d 2)

to

wha

t ext

ent d

oes

teac

her p

artic

ipat

ion

in c

onte

nt-fo

cuse

d pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent

pred

ict t

he a

spec

ts o

f ins

truc

tion

in th

e fir

st q

uest

ion

to b

e re

late

d to

incr

ease

s in

st

uden

ts’ a

chie

vem

ent g

ains

in m

athe

mat

ics?

To

wha

t ext

ent d

oes

part

icip

atio

n in

co

nten

t-foc

used

PD

pre

dict

if a

teac

her w

ill s

pend

mor

e tim

e on

mem

oriz

atio

n or

nov

el

prob

lem

-sol

ving

and

rela

te to

stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t in

mat

hem

atic

s. R

esea

rche

rs

anal

yzed

teac

hers

’ ins

truc

tiona

l pra

ctic

e an

d pa

rtic

ipat

ion

in p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent

over

thre

e ye

ars

and

stud

ent a

cade

mic

gro

wth

ove

r tho

se th

ree

year

s.

Met

hodo

logy

: Thr

ee-y

ear q

uasi

-exp

erim

enta

l stu

dy u

sing

hie

rarc

hica

l lin

ear

mod

elin

g•

n=4

57 3

rd- t

o 5t

h-gr

ade

teac

hers

and

4,8

03 s

tude

nts

in 7

1 hi

gh-p

over

ty

scho

ols

• S

tude

nt o

utco

mes

mea

sure

d by

SAT

-9 te

sts

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

gro

wth

was

15%

of a

sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion

slow

er th

an

aver

age

for s

tude

nts

who

se te

ache

rs fo

cuse

d on

bas

ic to

pics

and

15%

of a

st

anda

rd d

evia

tion

fast

er th

an a

vera

ge fo

r stu

dent

s w

hose

teac

hers

focu

sed

on a

dvan

ced

topi

cs. G

row

th w

as 7

.5%

of a

sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion

slow

er th

an

aver

age

for s

tude

nts

who

se te

ache

rs e

mph

asiz

ed m

emor

izin

g fa

cts.

Tea

cher

s w

ho p

artic

ipat

ed in

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t tha

t foc

used

on

mat

h co

nten

t or

inst

ruct

iona

l str

ateg

ies

in m

athe

mat

ics

(in Y

ear 1

) wer

e m

ore

likel

y to

teac

h in

w

ays

asso

ciat

ed w

ith s

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent g

row

th; f

or e

xam

ple,

they

wer

e 11

%

of a

sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion

mor

e lik

ely

to te

ach

adva

nced

topi

cs.

Dop

pelt

, Y.,

Schu

nn C

. D.,

Silk

, E. M

., M

ehal

ik, M

. M.,

Rey

nold

s, B

., &

War

d, E

. (2

009

). E

valu

atin

g th

e im

pact

of f

acili

tate

d le

arni

ng c

omm

unit

y ap

proa

ch to

pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent

on te

ache

r pra

ctic

e an

d st

uden

t ac

hiev

emen

t. R

esea

rch

in S

cien

ce a

nd T

echn

olog

ical

Edu

cati

on, 2

7(3

), 3

39–3

54.

Des

crip

tion

: Tea

cher

s pa

rtic

ipat

ed in

con

tent

-bas

ed c

olla

bora

tive

inqu

iry (C

BCI

) se

ssio

ns in

ord

er to

rece

ive

supp

ort f

or a

new

8th

-gra

de s

cien

ce c

urric

ulum

focu

sed

on

elec

tron

ics.

Tw

o se

ssio

ns o

ccur

red

prio

r to

impl

emen

tatio

n; tw

o du

ring;

and

the

final

w

orks

hop

occu

rred

aft

er th

e im

plem

enta

tion

as a

fina

l refl

ectio

n on

the

unit.

Tea

cher

s w

ere

enga

ged

in a

ctiv

ity le

arni

ng s

ituat

ed in

the

curr

icul

um—

they

act

ually

eng

aged

in

the

less

ons

just

as

thei

r stu

dent

s w

ould

. In

addi

tion,

they

spe

nt m

uch

time

in th

e w

orks

hops

refle

ctin

g on

inst

ruct

iona

l act

iviti

es in

thei

r cla

ssro

oms.

The

y sh

ared

stu

dent

w

ork

and

inst

ruct

iona

l mat

eria

ls, a

ctiv

ely

disc

ussi

ng a

nd re

flect

ing

on in

stru

ctio

n.

In y

ear 1

of t

he s

tudy

, cur

ricul

um d

esig

ners

led

the

PD. Y

ear 2

, tea

cher

lead

ers

from

th

e fir

st c

ohor

t led

the

PD. K

ey e

lem

ents

of t

he P

D w

ere

the

oppo

rtun

ity fo

r tea

cher

s to

dis

cuss

stu

dent

s’ u

nder

stan

ding

s, c

olle

ct a

nd a

naly

ze d

ata,

sha

re re

sults

with

co

lleag

ues,

and

pro

blem

-sol

ve in

stru

ctio

nal s

olut

ions

col

labo

rativ

ely.

In to

tal,

teac

hers

pa

rtic

ipat

ed in

five

four

-hou

r wor

ksho

p se

ssio

ns.

Met

hodo

logy

: Tw

o-ye

ar q

uasi

-exp

erim

enta

l stu

dy

• n

=23

8th-

grad

e sc

ienc

e te

ache

rs in

a m

id-s

ized

urb

an s

choo

l dis

tric

t •

Stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t was

mea

sure

d by

a s

ix-q

uest

ion

know

ledg

e te

st in

yea

r 1

and

a 20

-que

stio

n kn

owle

dge

test

in y

ear 2

of t

he s

tudy

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s w

hose

teac

hers

par

ticip

ated

in th

e PD

had

an

adva

ntag

e in

ach

ieve

men

t ove

r tho

se w

hose

teac

hers

did

not

. Stu

dent

s w

hose

teac

hers

us

ed th

e ne

w c

urric

ulum

and

par

ticip

ated

in P

D h

ad s

igni

fican

tly g

reat

er

achi

evem

ent t

han

thos

e st

uden

ts w

hose

teac

hers

use

d th

e ne

w c

urric

ulum

w

ith n

o PD

(ES=

1.17

). Th

is re

mai

ned

true

for s

tude

nts

who

se te

ache

rs

cont

inue

d to

use

the

new

cur

ricul

um.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Fink

elst

ein,

N.,

Han

son,

T.,

Hua

ng, C

. W.,

Hir

schm

an, B

., &

Hua

ng, M

. (20

10).

Eff

ects

of p

robl

em b

ased

eco

nom

ics

on h

igh

scho

ol e

cono

mic

s in

stru

ctio

n. F

inal

re

port

. Nat

iona

l Cen

ter f

or E

duca

tion

Eva

luat

ion

and

Reg

iona

l Ass

ista

nce,

NC

EE

2010

–400

2.

Des

crip

tion

: PD

focu

sed

on th

e Pr

oble

m B

ased

Eco

nom

ics

curr

icul

um d

evel

oped

by

the

Buc

k In

stitu

te fo

r Edu

catio

n on

12t

h-gr

ader

s’ c

onte

nt k

now

ledg

e m

easu

red

by

the

Test

of E

cono

mic

Lite

racy

and

a p

erfo

rman

ce ta

sk a

s op

pose

d to

a tr

aditi

onal

le

ctur

e an

d te

xtbo

ok fo

rmat

. The

pro

blem

-bas

ed a

ppro

ach

allo

ws

stud

ents

to

reas

on th

roug

h an

d so

lve

a re

al-w

orld

pro

blem

thro

ugh

inqu

iry-

base

d pe

dago

gy.

Cont

rol g

roup

and

inte

rven

tion

teac

hers

taug

ht tw

o co

nsec

utiv

e se

mes

ters

(fal

l and

sp

ring)

of e

cono

mic

s. In

terv

entio

n te

ache

rs ta

ught

the

Prob

lem

Bas

ed E

cono

mic

s cu

rric

ulum

, whi

le th

e co

ntro

l gro

up ta

ught

the

typi

cal c

ours

e. O

nly

stud

ent d

ata

for

the

sprin

g w

ere

incl

uded

in th

e an

alys

is. I

nter

vent

ion

teac

hers

taug

ht fi

ve o

f the

nin

e m

odul

es in

the

prob

lem

-bas

ed c

urric

ulum

. Int

erve

ntio

n te

ache

rs p

artic

ipat

ed in

a

five-

day

prof

essi

onal

dev

elop

men

t wor

ksho

p to

bec

ome

fam

iliar

with

the

mod

ule

and

peda

gogi

cal s

trat

egie

s. T

hey

wer

e tr

aine

d by

cur

rent

and

form

er e

cono

mic

s te

ache

rs.

On

four

occ

asio

ns th

roug

hout

the

sem

este

r, on

ce a

t the

beg

inni

ng a

nd th

roug

hout

th

e m

odul

e co

mpl

etio

n, te

ache

rs p

artic

ipat

ed in

a g

roup

con

fere

nce

call

with

de

velo

pers

and

the

stud

y te

am to

dis

cuss

pro

gres

s an

d ch

alle

nges

and

get

feed

back

. Te

ache

rs a

lso

had

the

abili

ty to

cal

l and

em

ail B

uck

Inst

itute

sta

ff th

roug

hout

the

impl

emen

tatio

n. T

he P

D to

ok p

lace

for o

ne a

cade

mic

sch

ool y

ear—

a fiv

e-da

y tr

aini

ng

and

perio

dic

chec

k-in

s th

roug

hout

the

scho

ol y

ear.

Met

hodo

logy

: With

in-s

choo

l ran

dom

ized

con

trol

led

tria

l•

n=6

4 11

th- a

nd 1

2th-

grad

e ec

onom

ics

teac

hers

and

4,3

50 s

tude

nts

in

Ariz

ona

and

Calif

orni

a •

Stu

dent

out

com

es m

easu

red

by T

est o

f Eco

nom

ic L

itera

cy (T

EL) a

nd a

pe

rfor

man

ce ta

sk a

sses

smen

t

Find

ings

: Tea

cher

s w

ho p

artic

ipat

ed in

the

PD a

nd h

ad s

uppo

rt in

Pro

blem

B

ased

Eco

nom

ics

had

stud

ents

who

sco

red

0.27

sta

ndar

d de

viat

ions

hig

her

on th

e TE

L (o

n av

erag

e go

t 2.6

test

item

s co

rrec

t) th

an te

ache

rs w

ho h

ad n

ot

part

icip

ated

in th

e PD

.

Gal

lagh

er, H

. A.,

Woo

dwor

th, K

. R.,

& A

rsha

n, N

. L. (

2017

). Im

pact

of t

he N

atio

nal

Wri

ting

Pro

ject

’s C

olle

ge-R

eady

Wri

ters

Pro

gram

in h

igh-

need

rura

l dis

tric

ts. J

ourn

al

of R

esea

rch

on E

duca

tion

al E

ffect

iven

ess,

1-2

6.

Des

crip

tion

: The

Nat

iona

l Writ

ing

Proj

ect’s

(NW

P) C

olle

ge-R

eady

Writ

ers

Prog

ram

(C

RW

P) p

rovi

ded

prof

essi

onal

dev

elop

men

t to

impr

ove

teac

hing

abo

ut a

rgum

ent

writ

ing

at th

e se

cond

ary

leve

l. Th

e pr

ogra

m u

sed

a th

ree-

part

app

roac

h th

at in

clud

ed

colla

bora

tive

prof

essi

onal

dev

elop

men

t, su

ppor

t for

the

impl

emen

tatio

n of

new

cu

rric

ular

reso

urce

s, a

nd fo

rmat

ive

asse

ssm

ent.

Teac

hers

eng

aged

in c

omm

uniti

es

of p

ract

ice

that

incl

uded

ana

lysi

s of

stu

dent

wor

k; p

artic

ipat

ed in

min

i uni

ts th

at

posi

tione

d th

e te

ache

rs a

s le

arne

rs; a

nd c

o-pl

anne

d an

d co

-taug

ht N

WP’

s ar

gum

ent

writ

ing

curr

icul

um, o

bser

ved

dem

onst

ratio

n le

sson

s, a

nd e

ngag

ed in

refle

ctio

n on

th

eir p

ract

ice

with

teac

her c

onsu

ltant

s. F

orm

ativ

e as

sess

men

ts p

rovi

ded

rapi

d fe

edba

ck a

nd s

ugge

sted

nex

t ste

ps to

impr

ove

teac

her p

ract

ice.

The

pro

gram

pr

ovid

ed a

ppro

xim

atel

y 90

hou

rs o

f pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t ove

r tw

o ye

ars.

NW

P pr

ovid

ed tr

aini

ng a

nd s

uppo

rt fo

r dis

tric

t lea

ders

, inc

ludi

ng o

ne-o

n-on

e ph

one

calls

an

d si

te v

isits

, thr

ough

out t

he p

rogr

am.

Met

hodo

logy

: Tw

o-ye

ar d

istr

ict-r

ando

miz

ed c

ontr

olle

d tr

ial a

naly

zed

usin

g m

ultil

evel

mod

els

• n

=329

teac

hers

in 4

4 ru

ral,

high

-nee

d di

stric

ts a

cros

s 10

sta

tes

• S

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent m

easu

red

usin

g an

on-

dem

and

argu

men

t writ

ing

asse

ssm

ent

Find

ings

: Tea

cher

par

ticip

atio

n in

the

prog

ram

was

ass

ocia

ted

with

pos

itive

ef

fect

s on

the

qual

ity o

f stu

dent

writ

ing.

Res

earc

hers

doc

umen

ted

posi

tive,

st

atis

tical

ly s

igni

fican

t eff

ects

on

thre

e ou

t of f

our s

tude

nt w

ritin

g at

trib

utes

m

easu

red:

con

tent

(ES=

.20

), st

ruct

ure

(ES=

.20

), an

d st

ance

(ES=

.15)

. The

re

mai

ning

att

ribut

e, w

ritin

g co

nven

tions

, was

mar

gina

lly s

igni

fican

t (ES

=.1

2).


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Ger

sten

, R.,

Dim

ino,

J.,

Jaya

nthi

, M.,

Kim

, J. S

., &

San

toro

, L. E

. (20

10).

Tea

cher

st

udy

grou

p: Im

pact

of t

he p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent

mod

el o

n re

adin

g in

stru

ctio

n an

d st

uden

t ou

tcom

es in

firs

t gr

ade

clas

sroo

ms.

Am

eric

an E

duca

tion

al R

esea

rch

Jour

nal 4

7(no

. 3):

694

–739

.

Des

crip

tion

: The

focu

s of

this

stu

dy w

as a

Tea

cher

Stu

dy G

roup

(TSG

) PD

mod

el w

ith

a fo

cus

on 1

st-g

rade

teac

hers

’ rea

ding

com

preh

ensi

on a

nd v

ocab

ular

y in

stru

ctio

n.

Teac

hers

in th

e TS

Gs

met

to d

iscu

ss re

adin

gs o

n re

sear

ch-b

ased

for t

each

ing

“at-r

isk”

st

uden

ts a

nd h

ow to

impl

emen

t the

str

ateg

ies

into

thei

r ow

n te

achi

ng. T

each

ers

colla

bora

tivel

y pl

anne

d le

sson

s us

ing

stra

tegi

es th

ey re

ad a

nd d

iscu

ssed

. Tea

cher

s ac

tivel

y en

gage

d in

faci

litat

or-g

uide

d pr

oble

m-s

olvi

ng d

iscu

ssio

ns a

nd a

pplie

d le

arni

ng

activ

ities

usi

ng a

recu

rsiv

e pr

oces

s: (1

) deb

rief p

revi

ous

appl

icat

ion

of th

e re

sear

ch,

(2) w

alk

thro

ugh

the

rese

arch

, (3)

wal

k th

roug

h th

e le

sson

, and

(4) u

se c

olla

bora

tive

plan

ning

. Thi

s PD

took

pla

ce o

ver 1

6 se

ssio

ns (t

wic

e a

mon

th) O

ctob

er to

Jun

e. T

he

sess

ions

last

ed a

ppro

xim

atel

y 75

min

utes

eac

h. In

bet

wee

n se

ssio

ns, t

each

ers

prac

ticed

and

refle

cted

upo

n th

e st

rate

gies

in th

eir c

lass

room

s.

Met

hodo

logy

: Ran

dom

ized

con

trol

led

tria

l•

n=8

1 1s

t-gra

de te

ache

rs a

nd 4

68 s

tude

nts

from

thre

e la

rge

urba

n sc

hool

di

stric

ts a

cros

s th

ree

stat

es•

Stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t in

com

preh

ensi

on a

nd v

ocab

ular

y ac

hiev

emen

t wer

e m

easu

red

by th

ree

Dyn

amic

Indi

cato

rs o

f Bas

ic E

arly

Lite

racy

Ski

lls (D

IBEL

S)

test

s, tw

o su

btes

ts o

f the

Woo

dcoc

k D

iagn

ostic

Rea

ding

Bat

tery

(WD

RB),

and

for a

sub

set o

f par

ticip

ants

, the

Cal

iforn

ia A

chie

vem

ent T

est.

Find

ings

: Pos

itive

eff

ects

of t

he tr

eatm

ent w

ere

foun

d on

teac

hers

’ kno

wle

dge

and

prac

tices

in th

e TS

G s

ampl

e. C

ontr

ollin

g fo

r ini

tial p

erfo

rman

ce o

n le

tter

flu

ency

mea

sure

s, te

ache

r kno

wle

dge

and

prac

tice

fact

ors

wer

e si

gnifi

cant

ly

and

posi

tivel

y re

late

d to

all

of th

e st

uden

t out

com

e m

easu

res.

Des

pite

sm

all

sam

ple

size

s, s

igni

fican

t diff

eren

ces

betw

een

the

trea

tmen

t and

con

trol

gro

ups

on re

adin

g ou

tcom

es e

mer

ged

on th

e Ca

lifor

nia

Achi

evem

ent T

est (

ES=

.20

), an

d m

argi

nally

sig

nific

ant e

ffec

ts w

ere

foun

d on

stu

dent

s’ o

ral v

ocab

ular

y (E

S=.4

4). E

ffec

ts w

ere

notic

eabl

e (.2

1, .2

1, a

nd .2

3), t

houg

h no

n-si

gnifi

cant

, fo

r the

Let

ter-W

ord

Iden

tifica

tion,

Rea

ding

Voc

abul

ary,

and

Ora

l Rea

ding

Fl

uenc

y su

btes

ts, r

espe

ctiv

ely.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Gre

enle

af, C

. L.,

Han

son,

T. L

., R

osen

, R.,

Bos

card

in, D

. K.,

Her

man

, J.,

& S

chne

ider

, S.

A. (

2011

). In

tegr

atin

g lit

erac

y an

d sc

ienc

e in

bio

logy

: tea

chin

g an

d le

arni

ng

impa

cts

of re

adin

g ap

pren

tice

ship

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t. A

mer

ican

Edu

cati

onal

R

esea

rch

Jour

nal,

48(3

), 6

47–7

17.

Des

crip

tion

: Hig

h sc

hool

bio

logy

teac

hers

par

ticip

ated

in p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent

inte

grat

ing

acad

emic

lite

racy

and

bio

logy

inst

ruct

ion

thro

ugh

Read

ing

Appr

entic

eshi

p.

The

prog

ram

was

inqu

iry-b

ased

, sub

ject

-focu

sed,

col

labo

rativ

e, a

nd d

esig

ned

to

addr

ess

teac

hers

’ con

cept

ual u

nder

stan

ding

s as

wel

l as

peda

gogi

cal c

onte

nt

know

ledg

e. T

he s

essi

ons

wer

e de

sign

ed to

imm

erse

teac

hers

in th

e ty

pes

of le

arni

ng

activ

ities

and

env

ironm

ents

they

wou

ld th

en c

reat

e fo

r the

ir st

uden

ts. T

hey

enga

ged

in a

ctiv

ities

to s

imul

ate

thei

r ow

n di

scip

line

expe

rtis

e in

rela

tion

to li

tera

cy, a

nd th

ey

also

eng

aged

in a

naly

sis

of te

xts

to id

entif

y po

tent

ial l

itera

cy c

halle

nges

to le

arne

rs.

In a

dditi

on, t

each

ers

anal

yzed

stu

dent

wor

k, v

ideo

tape

d cl

assr

oom

less

ons,

and

st

udie

d ca

ses

of s

tude

nt li

tera

cy le

arni

ng d

esig

ned

to fo

ster

hig

h ex

pect

atio

ns o

f st

uden

t lea

rnin

g. M

etac

ogni

tive

rout

ines

suc

h as

thin

k-al

ouds

and

read

ing

logs

for

scie

nce

inve

stig

atio

ns w

ere

also

use

d in

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t ses

sion

s. In

the

sess

ions

, tea

cher

s pr

actic

ed c

lass

room

rout

ines

to b

uild

stu

dent

eng

agem

ent)

, stu

dent

co

llabo

ratio

n (e

.g.,

thin

k-pa

ir-sh

are,

jigs

aws,

and

text

-bas

ed s

tude

nt d

iscu

ssio

n an

d pr

oble

m- s

olvi

ng (e

.g.,

text

ann

otat

ion)

. Met

acog

nitiv

e re

flect

ion

afte

r eac

h se

ssio

n fo

cuse

d on

the

impa

ct o

f the

se s

essi

ons

on te

ache

rs’ l

earn

ing

and

pote

ntia

l im

pact

on

thei

r stu

dent

s’ d

evel

opm

ent.

The

10 p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent s

essi

ons

took

pla

ce o

ver t

he c

ours

e of

a y

ear.

An

initi

al fi

ve-d

ay in

stitu

te to

ok p

lace

the

first

sum

mer

of t

he s

tudy

. Thi

s w

as fo

llow

ed b

y tw

o fo

llow

-up

days

of p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent d

urin

g ye

ar 1

, and

a fi

nal t

hree

-day

fo

llow

-up

occu

rred

the

sum

mer

follo

win

g th

e ac

adem

ic y

ear.

Dur

ing

the

stud

y ye

ar,

part

icip

ants

eng

aged

in c

olla

bora

tion

on a

list

serv

mod

erat

ed b

y pr

ofes

sion

al

deve

lopm

ent c

oach

es, i

nclu

ding

the

exch

ange

of r

esou

rces

.

Met

hodo

logy

: Gro

up-ra

ndom

ized

exp

erim

enta

l stu

dy u

tiliz

ing

hier

arch

ical

line

ar

mod

elin

g •

n=1

05 C

alifo

rnia

hig

h sc

hool

bio

logy

teac

hers

in u

nder

serv

ed p

ublic

hig

h sc

hool

s•

Stu

dent

lear

ning

mea

sure

d us

ing

Calif

orni

a st

ates

test

s of

Eng

lish

lang

uage

ar

ts, r

eadi

ng c

ompr

ehen

sion

, and

bio

logy

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s in

trea

tmen

t cla

ssro

oms

perf

orm

ed b

ette

r tha

n co

ntro

ls

on s

tate

sta

ndar

dize

d as

sess

men

ts in

Eng

lish

lang

uage

art

s (E

S=0.

23),

read

ing

com

preh

ensi

on (E

S=0.

24),

and

biol

ogy

(ES=

0.28

). Tr

eatm

ent c

lass

es

perf

orm

ed a

bout

a y

ear a

head

of t

he c

ontr

ol c

lass

es a

t the

end

of t

he s

tudy

. Ef

fect

siz

es fo

r whi

te s

tude

nts

in tr

eatm

ent c

lass

room

s ra

nged

from

0.3

3 to

0.

40 a

nd fo

r Eng

lish

lear

ners

from

0.1

8 to

0.2

3. P

ositi

ve im

pact

s w

ere

also

fo

und

on E

LA a

nd b

iolo

gy te

st s

core

s of

Lat

inx

stud

ents

, alth

ough

thes

e w

ere

not s

tatis

tical

ly s

igni

fican

t. N

o si

gnifi

cant

test

sco

re d

iffer

ence

s w

ere

foun

d fo

r Afr

ican

Am

eric

an s

tude

nts

acro

ss c

lass

room

type

s. T

est s

core

s fo

r rea

ding

co

mpr

ehen

sion

and

bio

logy

wer

e hi

gher

in in

terv

entio

n sc

hool

s th

an in

con

trol

sc

hool

s fo

r bot

h m

ales

and

fem

ale

stud

ents

.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Hel

ler,

J. I.

, Dae

hler

, K .R

., W

ong,

N.,

Shin

ohar

a, M

., &

Mir

atri

x, L

. W. (

2012

).

Diff

eren

tial

eff

ects

of t

hree

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t m

odel

s on

teac

her k

now

ledg

e an

d st

uden

t ac

hiev

emen

t in

ele

men

tary

sci

ence

. Jou

rnal

of R

esea

rch

in S

cien

ce

Teac

hing

, Vol

. 49,

No.

3, p

p. 3

33–3

62.

Des

crip

tion

: Thi

s PD

focu

sed

on p

edag

ogic

al s

cien

ce c

onte

nt k

now

ledg

e fo

r el

emen

tary

teac

hers

, util

izin

g th

ree

diff

eren

t int

erve

ntio

ns. O

ne g

roup

of t

each

ers

anal

yzed

pre

stru

ctur

ed w

ritte

n te

achi

ng c

ases

. The

se c

ases

wer

e dr

awn

from

act

ual

clas

sroo

ms

and

writ

ten

by te

ache

rs. T

hus,

it w

as a

n an

alys

is o

f pra

ctic

e ap

proa

ch,

whi

ch in

corp

orat

ed s

tude

nt w

ork

anal

ysis

, stu

dent

teac

her d

ialo

gue

anal

ysis

, and

te

ache

r thi

nkin

g an

d be

havi

ors.

Tea

cher

s al

so e

ngag

ed in

the

sam

e sc

ient

ific

inve

stig

atio

ns w

ritte

n ab

out i

n th

e ca

ses

durin

g th

eir P

D s

essi

ons.

Em

bedd

ed in

this

PD

was

iden

tifyi

ng th

e lo

gic

behi

nd c

omm

on s

cien

tific

mis

unde

rsta

ndin

gs, a

naly

zing

te

ache

rs’ i

nstr

uctio

nal c

hoic

es, a

nd c

onsi

derin

g te

achi

ng im

plic

atio

ns fo

r the

ir ow

n st

uden

ts.

A se

cond

gro

up a

naly

zed

thei

r ow

n st

uden

t wor

k in

rela

tion

to th

eir t

each

ing.

Tea

cher

s in

this

inte

rven

tion

expe

rienc

ed c

aref

ully

str

uctu

red,

col

labo

rativ

e an

alys

is o

f the

ir ow

n st

uden

ts’ w

ork,

whi

ch w

as d

eriv

ed fr

om a

com

mon

uni

t the

y ta

ught

. Dis

cuss

ion

prot

ocol

s fo

r the

ana

lysi

s of

stu

dent

wor

k w

ere

empl

oyed

, whi

ch fo

cuse

d te

ache

rs’

anal

ysis

on

stud

ent u

nder

stan

ding

of c

onte

nt. I

n ad

ditio

n, th

ese

sess

ions

als

o fo

cuse

d on

the

anal

ysis

of t

asks

to id

entif

y ch

arac

teris

tics

that

sup

port

form

ativ

e as

sess

men

ts

to e

licit

info

rmat

ion

abou

t stu

dent

thin

king

and

mak

e in

stru

ctio

nal d

ecis

ions

bas

ed o

n st

uden

t thi

nkin

g.

A th

ird g

roup

util

ized

met

acog

nitiv

e an

alys

is o

f the

ir ow

n le

arni

ng e

xper

ienc

e. T

his

took

th

e fo

rm o

f refl

ectiv

e di

scus

sion

s ab

out t

heir

own

lear

ning

pro

cess

es a

s th

ey e

ngag

ed

in s

cien

ce c

onte

nt a

ctiv

ities

. The

cou

rse

was

des

igne

d to

hel

p te

ache

rs id

entif

y co

ncep

ts th

ey fo

und

chal

leng

ing

to le

arn,

exa

min

e th

e lo

gic

behi

nd th

eir o

wn

com

mon

m

isun

ders

tand

ings

of t

he c

onte

nt, a

nd a

naly

ze th

e ro

les

of h

ands

-on

inve

stig

atio

ns,

disc

ours

e, a

nd in

quiry

in s

cien

ce le

arni

ng. E

xper

t sta

ff d

evel

oper

s de

liver

ed a

ser

ies

of th

ree

cour

ses

(one

PD

was

del

iver

ed in

eig

ht th

ree-

hour

ses

sion

s, fo

r a to

tal o

f 24

cont

act h

ours

with

a fa

cilit

ator

).

Met

hodo

logy

: Ran

dom

ized

con

trol

led

tria

l•

n=2

56 4

th-g

rade

teac

hers

and

7,0

00 s

tude

nts

acro

ss s

ix s

tate

s•

Stu

dent

out

com

es m

easu

red

by a

chie

vem

ent t

ests

dev

elop

ed in

prio

r an

alys

es o

f the

PD

; inc

lude

s se

lect

ed-re

spon

se it

ems

and

writ

ten

just

ifica

tions

for a

nsw

ers

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s of

teac

hers

who

par

ticip

ated

in P

D h

ad s

igni

fican

tly g

reat

er

lear

ning

gai

ns o

n st

anda

rdiz

ed te

sts

than

thos

e w

ho h

ad te

ache

rs w

ho d

id n

ot

part

icip

ate,

with

ave

rage

gai

ns o

f 19-

22 p

erce

ntag

e po

ints

on

the

asse

ssm

ents

co

mpa

red

to 1

3 po

ints

for c

ontr

ol s

tude

nts.

Eff

ect s

izes

rang

ed fr

om .4

to .8

ov

er th

e tw

o-ye

ar s

tudy

.

Teac

hers

who

par

ticip

ated

in th

e PD

focu

sed

on s

tude

nt w

ork

anal

ysis

had

st

uden

ts w

ho im

prov

ed th

eir s

core

s si

gnifi

cant

ly c

ompa

red

to c

ontr

ols.

In th

e fo

llow

-up

year

, stu

dent

s of

bot

h th

ose

teac

hers

and

teac

hers

who

focu

sed

on

case

s ha

d si

gnifi

cant

ly h

ighe

r tes

t sco

re g

ains

. Tho

se te

ache

rs w

ho fo

cuse

d on

met

acog

nitiv

e an

alys

is d

id n

ot im

prov

e st

uden

ts’ w

ritte

n ju

stifi

catio

ns a

s co

mpa

red

to th

e co

ntro

ls in

eith

er y

ear.

Engl

ish

lang

uage

lear

ner s

tude

nt s

core

s w

ere

rais

ed b

y ap

prox

imat

ely

18

perc

enta

ge p

oint

s in

all

thre

e in

terv

entio

ns—

all t

hree

sig

nific

antly

hig

her t

han

the

aver

age

7.1

perc

enta

ge p

oint

s ga

ined

in th

e co

ntro

l gro

up.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

John

son,

C. C

. & F

argo

, J. D

. (20

14).

A s

tudy

of t

he im

pact

of t

rans

form

ativ

e pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent

on H

ispa

nic

stud

ent

perf

orm

ance

on

stat

e m

anda

ted

asse

ssm

ents

of s

cien

ce in

ele

men

tary

sch

ool.

Jour

nal o

f Ele

men

tary

Sci

ence

Te

ache

r Edu

cati

on 2

5: 8

45–8

59.

Des

crip

tion

: Ele

men

tary

sch

ool s

cien

ce te

ache

rs p

artic

ipat

ed in

a p

rofe

ssio

nal

deve

lopm

ent p

rogr

am to

impr

ove

scie

nce

inst

ruct

ion

and

faci

litat

e cu

ltura

lly re

leva

nt

peda

gogy

. The

two-

year

pro

gram

beg

an w

ith a

two-

wee

k su

mm

er w

orks

hop

that

in

clud

ed g

radu

ate-

leve

l cou

rsew

ork

on te

achi

ng e

lem

enta

ry s

cien

ce, a

s w

ell a

s or

ient

atio

n to

a n

ew s

cien

ce c

urric

ulum

and

cul

tura

lly re

leva

nt p

edag

ogy.

Dur

ing

the

seco

nd s

umm

er, t

he w

orks

hop

focu

sed

on te

achi

ng e

lem

enta

ry s

cien

ce a

nd

lear

ning

con

vers

atio

nal S

pani

sh. P

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent w

as re

info

rced

thro

ugh

occa

sion

al re

leas

e da

ys a

nd m

onth

ly g

rade

-leve

l wor

ksho

ps w

ith p

rofe

ssio

nal

lear

ning

com

mun

ities

. Ove

r 2 y

ears

, the

pro

gram

pro

vide

d 22

4 ho

urs

of p

rofe

ssio

nal

deve

lopm

ent.

Met

hodo

logy

: Thr

ee-y

ear c

ase

stud

y dr

awn

from

a c

lust

er ra

ndom

ized

, co

ntro

lled

tria

l•

n=2

1 te

ache

rs in

two

elem

enta

ry s

choo

ls in

a la

rge

urba

n sc

hool

dis

tric

t in

a so

uthw

este

rn s

tate

• S

tude

nt s

cien

ce a

chie

vem

ent w

as m

easu

red

by p

erfo

rman

ce o

n a

stat

e-m

anda

ted

scie

nce

asse

ssm

ent.

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s at

tend

ing

the

scho

ol w

hose

teac

hers

par

ticip

ated

in

the

PD p

rogr

am d

emon

stra

ted

sign

ifica

ntly

larg

er im

prov

emen

ts in

sci

ence

ac

hiev

emen

t ove

r tim

e re

lativ

e to

stu

dent

s w

ho a

tten

ded

the

scho

ol w

ith

busi

ness

-as-

usua

l PD

for t

heir

teac

hers

.

John

son,

C. C

. & F

argo

, J. D

. (20

10).

Urb

an s

choo

l ref

orm

ena

bled

by

tran

sfor

mat

ive

prof

essi

onal

dev

elop

men

t: Im

pact

on

teac

her c

hang

e an

d st

uden

t le

arni

ng o

f sc

ienc

e. U

rban

Edu

cati

on, 4

5(1)

, 4–2

9.

Des

crip

tion

: Mid

dle

scho

ol s

cien

ce te

ache

rs w

orki

ng in

an

urba

n sc

hool

dis

tric

t pa

rtic

ipat

ed in

a p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent p

rogr

am to

str

engt

hen

stan

dard

s-ba

sed

inst

ruct

ion

and

fost

er c

ultu

rally

resp

onsi

ve te

achi

ng. T

he h

ands

-on,

who

le-s

choo

l pr

ogra

m b

egan

with

a tw

o-w

eek

sum

mer

inst

itute

des

igne

d to

fost

er re

latio

nshi

p-bu

ildin

g am

ong

teac

hers

and

intr

oduc

e a

new

sci

ence

cur

ricul

um a

nd c

ultu

rally

re

spon

sive

teac

her s

trat

egie

s. T

hrou

ghou

t the

firs

t yea

r of t

he p

rogr

am, t

each

ers

atte

nded

mon

thly

wor

ksho

p da

ys to

refin

e th

e cu

rric

ulum

to b

ette

r mee

t the

nee

ds o

f th

eir s

tude

nts

and

unde

rtoo

k pe

er o

bser

vatio

ns, p

rovi

ding

pos

itive

and

con

stru

ctiv

e fe

edba

ck to

col

leag

ues.

In th

e se

cond

yea

r of t

he p

rogr

am, t

each

ers

atte

nded

a

thre

e-da

y su

mm

er s

essi

on a

nd a

dditi

onal

mon

thly

rele

ase

days

, and

con

duct

ed h

ome

visi

ts to

dee

pen

rela

tions

hips

with

stu

dent

s an

d fa

mili

es. I

n to

tal,

the

prog

ram

off

ered

ne

arly

200

hou

rs o

f pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t, w

ith 1

20 h

ours

in th

e fir

st y

ear a

nd 7

7 ho

urs

in th

e se

cond

.

Met

hodo

logy

: Tw

o-ye

ar q

uasi

-exp

erim

enta

l stu

dy

• n

=16

mid

dle

scho

ol s

cien

ce te

ache

rs fr

om fo

ur s

choo

ls in

one

urb

an d

istr

ict

• S

tude

nt s

cien

ce a

chie

vem

ent w

as m

easu

red

usin

g sp

ecia

lly d

esig

ned

asse

ssm

ents

.

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s of

teac

hers

par

ticip

atin

g in

the

PD d

emon

stra

ted

sign

ifica

ntly

larg

er g

row

th in

sci

ence

ach

ieve

men

t tha

n st

uden

ts a

t con

trol

sc

hool

s in

the

seco

nd y

ear o

f the

pro

gram

, with

gai

ns tw

ice

as la

rge

as th

ose

of

stud

ents

in th

e co

ntro

l sch

ools

.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Kim

, J. S

., O

lson

, C. B

., Sc

arce

lla, R

., K

ram

er, J

., Pe

arso

n, M

., va

n D

yk, D

., C

ollin

s, P

., &

Lan

d, R

. E. (

2011

) A ra

ndom

ized

exp

erim

ent

of a

cog

niti

ve s

trat

egie

s ap

proa

ch to

te

xt-b

ased

ana

lyti

cal w

riti

ng fo

r mai

nstr

eam

ed L

atin

o En

glis

h la

ngua

ge le

arne

rs in

gr

ades

6 to

12.

Jou

rnal

of R

esea

rch

on E

duca

tion

al E

ffect

iven

ess

4(3

): 2

31–2

63.

Des

crip

tion

: Sec

onda

ry E

nglis

h te

ache

rs p

artic

ipat

ed in

the

Path

way

Pro

ject

to im

prov

e th

eir a

bilit

y to

em

ploy

cog

nitiv

e st

rate

gies

to s

uppo

rt E

nglis

h la

ngua

ge le

arne

rs’

inte

rpre

tive

read

ing

and

anal

ytic

al w

ritin

g sk

ills.

Thr

ough

the

prog

ram

, tea

cher

s le

arn

to

stru

ctur

e an

alyt

ical

writ

ing

activ

ities

by

enga

ging

in re

visi

ons

to a

n on

-dem

and

writ

ing

asse

ssm

ent c

ompl

eted

by

stud

ents

. The

pro

gram

beg

an b

y in

trod

ucin

g te

ache

rs to

a

cogn

itive

str

ateg

ies

tool

kit

for s

uppo

rtin

g st

uden

ts’ r

eadi

ng a

nd w

ritin

g in

ass

ocia

tion

with

lite

racy

text

s. S

ubse

quen

t ses

sion

s fo

cuse

d on

ana

lyzi

ng s

tude

nt p

erfo

rman

ce,

stre

ngth

s, a

nd n

eeds

thro

ugh

writ

ing

asse

ssm

ents

; col

labo

rativ

ely

desi

gnin

g le

sson

s in

corp

orat

ing

cogn

itive

str

ateg

ies

for l

itera

ture

inst

ruct

ion;

and

set

ting

goal

s fo

r fut

ure

year

s. T

hese

ses

sion

s w

ere

com

plem

ente

d by

mon

thly

mee

tings

at e

ach

scho

ol le

d by

lit

erac

y co

ache

s an

d de

sign

ed to

sup

port

teac

hers

in im

plem

entin

g Pa

thw

ay s

trat

egie

s.

The

prog

ram

als

o pr

ovid

ed c

urric

ular

mat

eria

ls a

ligne

d w

ith c

ogni

tive

appr

oach

es to

lit

erat

ure

inst

ruct

ion,

acc

ompa

nied

by

guid

ance

for i

mpl

emen

ting

them

in te

ache

rs’

clas

sroo

ms.

Ove

rall,

teac

hers

par

ticip

ated

in s

ix fu

ll-da

y pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent

sess

ions

and

five

aft

er-s

choo

l ses

sion

s, fo

r a to

tal o

f 46

hour

s of

pro

fess

iona

l de

velo

pmen

t thr

ough

out t

he s

choo

l yea

r.

Met

hodo

logy

: Clu

ster

rand

omiz

ed c

ontr

olle

d tr

ial a

naly

zed

usin

g hi

erar

chic

al

linea

r mod

elin

g•

n=1

03 s

econ

dary

Eng

lish

teac

hers

and

mor

e th

an 2

,000

stu

dent

s in

a la

rge,

ur

ban

scho

ol d

istr

ict

• S

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent m

easu

red

usin

g an

on-

dem

and

writ

ing

asse

ssm

ent

and

the

Calif

orni

a St

anda

rds

Test

s fo

r Eng

lish

lang

uage

art

s

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s of

teac

hers

who

par

ticip

ated

in th

e Pa

thw

ay P

roje

ct

perf

orm

ed s

igni

fican

tly b

ette

r (ES

=.3

5) o

n an

on-

dem

and

text

-bas

ed a

naly

tical

w

ritin

g as

sess

men

t and

on

the

over

all s

tate

sta

ndar

dize

d te

st o

f Eng

lish

lang

uage

art

s (E

S=.0

7), a

fter

con

trol

ling

for i

nitia

l per

form

ance

. On

the

on-d

eman

d w

ritin

g as

sess

men

t, 22

% o

f stu

dent

s of

par

ticip

atin

g te

ache

rs

rece

ived

at l

east

two

scor

es o

f 4 o

r abo

ve (o

ut o

f 6),

as c

ompa

red

to 1

4%

of s

tude

nts

in th

e co

ntro

l gro

up. O

n th

e st

ate

stan

dard

ized

test

, stu

dent

s of

pa

rtic

ipat

ing

teac

hers

sco

red

on a

vera

ge 3

per

cent

age

poin

ts h

ighe

r.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Kle

ickm

ann,

T.,

Trob

st, S

., Jo

nen,

A.,

Vehm

eyer

, J.,

& M

olle

r, K

. (20

16).

The

eff

ects

of

exp

ert

scaff

oldi

ng in

ele

men

tary

sci

ence

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t on

teac

hers

’ be

liefs

and

mot

ivat

ions

, ins

truc

tion

al p

ract

ices

, and

stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t. J

ourn

al

of E

duca

tion

al P

sych

olog

y, 1

08(1

) 21–

42.

Des

crip

tion

: PD

focu

sed

on im

plem

entin

g a

soci

al c

onst

ruct

ivis

t app

roac

h to

el

emen

tary

sci

ence

teac

hing

thro

ugh

educ

atio

nal c

urric

ulum

mat

eria

ls (E

CM).

Thre

e gr

oups

of t

each

ers

part

icip

ated

in P

D, e

ach

grou

p w

ith a

diff

eren

t lev

el o

f sca

ffol

ding

(s

uppo

rt fo

r the

ir le

arni

ng th

roug

h EC

M).

One

gro

up u

sed

the

ECM

mat

eria

ls w

ith

no e

xper

t sca

ffol

ding

. Tw

o ot

her g

roup

s re

ceiv

ed 1

6 al

l-day

wor

ksho

ps o

f PD

to

supp

lem

ent t

he u

se o

f ECM

. The

firs

t six

(38

hour

s) fo

cuse

d sp

ecifi

cally

on

float

ing

and

sink

ing.

The

10

addi

tiona

l wor

ksho

ps (6

2 ho

urs)

focu

sed

on th

e ot

her 1

0 to

pics

. The

fo

cus

of th

e w

orks

hops

was

to d

evel

op c

onte

nt a

nd p

edag

ogy.

The

“hi

gh s

caff

oldi

ng”

grou

p of

teac

hers

eng

aged

in a

ctiv

e le

arni

ng a

ctiv

ities

suc

h as

sci

entifi

c in

vest

igat

ions

, pr

ovid

ing

coun

ter e

xam

ples

, dev

elop

ing

anal

ogie

s, a

nd e

ngag

ing

in d

iscu

ssio

ns. I

n ge

nera

l, th

e PD

the

teac

hers

rece

ived

mim

icke

d th

e pr

oces

s by

whi

ch th

ey w

ere

to

guid

e th

eir e

lem

enta

ry s

tude

nts.

Tea

cher

s w

ere

also

pro

mpt

ed to

refle

ct o

n th

eir o

wn

lear

ning

pro

cess

es a

nd to

con

side

r the

ir ow

n na

ïve

scie

nce

conc

eptio

ns to

hel

p th

em

unde

rsta

nd th

e ne

ed to

con

stru

ct le

arni

ng to

fit s

tude

nts’

exi

stin

g sc

hem

a. In

add

ition

, ex

pert

hel

ped

teac

hers

to u

nder

stan

d se

quen

cing

of s

cien

ce c

once

pts

to fa

cilit

ate

stud

ent l

earn

ing.

In c

ontr

ast,

the

“low

sca

ffol

ding

” gr

oup

of te

ache

rs re

ceiv

ed li

ttle

of t

his

supp

ort.

Inst

ead,

the

expe

rt P

D c

oach

dem

onst

rate

d a

serie

s of

less

ons

on fl

oatin

g an

d si

nkin

g in

a 3

rd-g

rade

cla

ssro

om w

ithou

t sca

ffol

ding

teac

hers

’ con

tent

and

ped

agog

ical

kn

owle

dge.

Tea

cher

s ob

serv

ed th

ese

less

ons

and

cond

ucte

d pr

e- a

nd p

ost-i

nter

view

s w

ith s

tude

nts.

The

y w

ere

enco

urag

ed to

dis

cuss

thei

r obs

erva

tions

in re

latio

n to

the

stud

ent i

nter

view

s.

The

PD s

pann

ed a

ppro

xim

atel

y fiv

e m

onth

s, w

ith s

caff

olde

d gr

oups

rece

ivin

g an

ad

ditio

nal 1

00 h

ours

of P

D d

urin

g th

is ti

me.

Met

hodo

logy

: Tw

o-ye

ar q

uasi

-exp

erim

enta

l stu

dy

• n

=73

elem

enta

ry s

cien

ce te

ache

rs a

nd 1

,039

3rd

and

4th

-gra

de s

tude

nts

• S

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent w

as m

easu

red

thro

ugh

an a

sses

smen

t of s

tude

nts’

co

ncep

tual

und

erst

andi

ng o

f floa

ting

and

sink

ing

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s ta

ught

by

teac

hers

who

rece

ived

“hi

gh s

caff

oldi

ng”

exhi

bite

d si

gnifi

cant

ly h

ighe

r ach

ieve

men

t tha

n di

d st

uden

ts ta

ught

by

“lo

w s

caff

oldi

ng”

teac

hers

(ES=

.45)

. Stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t for

bot

h “h

igh

scaf

fold

ing”

and

“lo

w s

caff

oldi

ng”

teac

hers

sig

nific

antly

sur

pass

ed

achi

evem

ent i

n cl

asse

s ta

ught

by

teac

hers

with

no

scaf

fold

ing

(ES=

.55)

.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Kut

aka,

T. S

., Sm

ith,

W. M

., A

lban

o, A

. D.,

Edw

ards

, C. P

., R

en, L

., B

eatt

ie, H

. L.

., Le

wis

, W. J

., H

eato

n, R

. M.,

& S

trou

p, W

. W. (

2017

). C

onne

ctin

g te

ache

r pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent

and

stud

ent

mat

hem

atic

s ac

hiev

emen

t: A

four

-yea

r st

udy

of a

n el

emen

tary

mat

hem

atic

s sp

ecia

list

prog

ram

. Jou

rnal

of T

each

er

Educ

atio

n, 6

8(2

), 1

40–1

54.

Des

crip

tion

: Prim

arily

Mat

h, a

mat

hem

atic

s pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent m

odel

for

kind

erga

rten

to 3

rd-g

rade

teac

hers

, con

sist

ed o

f tw

o w

eekl

ong

sum

mer

inst

itute

s in

volv

ing

univ

ersi

ty c

ours

ewor

k an

d lo

ng-te

rm p

roje

cts

assi

gned

ove

r the

cou

rse

of th

e sc

hool

yea

r. Th

e PD

invo

lved

col

labo

rativ

e as

sign

men

ts, s

elf-

and

grou

p re

flect

ion

of

vide

o ev

iden

ce, a

nd u

nit p

lann

ing

for u

se in

teac

hers

’ cla

ssro

oms.

In to

tal,

teac

hers

pa

rtic

ipat

ed in

a m

inim

um o

f 160

con

tact

hou

rs a

cros

s tw

o in

stitu

tes

in a

dditi

on to

tim

e im

plem

entin

g PD

ped

agog

y an

d pr

actic

e du

ring

the

scho

ol y

ear.

The

PD p

rogr

am

occu

rred

acr

oss

13 m

onth

s.

Met

hodo

logy

: Thr

ee-y

ear q

uasi

-exp

erim

enta

l stu

dy u

sing

hie

rarc

hica

l lin

ear

mod

elin

g •

n=

184

k-3r

d-gr

ade

teac

hers

from

thre

e la

rge,

urb

an s

choo

l dis

tric

ts in

N

ebra

ska

• S

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent w

as m

easu

red

usin

g th

e Te

st o

f Ear

ly M

athe

mat

ics

Abili

ty-E

ditio

n 3

(TEM

A-3)

.

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s of

Prim

arily

Mat

h te

ache

rs h

ad m

ath

chan

ge s

core

s si

gnifi

cant

ly g

reat

er th

an s

tude

nts

of c

ompa

rison

teac

hers

.

Land

ry, S

. H.,

Swan

k, P

. R.,

Smit

h, K

. E.,

Ass

el, M

. A.,

& G

unne

wig

, S. B

. (20

06)

Enha

ncin

g ea

rly

liter

acy

skill

s fo

r pre

scho

ol c

hild

ren:

Bri

ngin

g a

prof

essi

onal

de

velo

pmen

t m

odel

to s

cale

. Jou

rnal

of L

earn

ing

Dis

abili

ties

39(

4):

306

–324

.

Des

crip

tion

: Hea

d St

art e

duca

tors

took

par

t in

a pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent p

rogr

am

to e

nhan

ce in

stru

ctio

n in

sup

port

of i

mpr

oved

lang

uage

and

ear

ly li

tera

cy s

kills

for

youn

g ch

ildre

n. T

he p

rogr

am b

egan

with

a fo

ur-d

ay, s

mal

l-gro

up w

orks

hop

focu

sed

on

stra

tegi

es fo

r sup

port

ing

lang

uage

enr

ichm

ent a

nd e

arly

lite

racy

gro

wth

. The

wor

ksho

p re

lied

on in

tera

ctiv

e st

rate

gies

suc

h as

gui

ded

disc

ussi

on, g

roup

pro

blem

-sol

ving

, and

ro

le-p

layi

ng. F

ollo

win

g th

e w

orks

hop,

spe

cial

ly tr

aine

d m

ento

rs c

ondu

cted

ong

oing

tr

aini

ng s

essi

ons

thro

ugho

ut th

e sc

hool

yea

r. Ed

ucat

ors

also

rece

ived

one

hou

r of

coac

hing

per

wee

k fr

om th

e m

ento

rs in

thei

r firs

t yea

r of t

rain

ing.

Tea

cher

s w

ho

cont

inue

d in

the

prog

ram

for a

sec

ond

year

par

ticip

ated

in a

two-

day

refr

eshe

r cou

rse

and

rece

ived

one

hou

r of c

oach

ing

biw

eekl

y, a

s w

ell a

s on

goin

g tr

aini

ng.

Met

hodo

logy

: Tw

o-ye

ar q

uasi

-exp

erim

enta

l stu

dy•

n=7

50 H

ead

Star

t edu

cato

rs a

nd 5

,728

chi

ldre

n in

20

urba

n an

d ru

ral

cent

ers

acro

ss T

exas

• C

hild

out

com

es w

ere

mea

sure

d us

ing

five

inst

rum

ents

—fo

ur s

tand

ard

asse

ssm

ents

of e

arly

lite

racy

and

a s

peci

ally

des

igne

d so

cial

-em

otio

nal

deve

lopm

ent s

cale

Find

ings

: Res

earc

hers

iden

tified

gre

ater

gai

ns in

lang

uage

and

lite

racy

sk

ills

for c

hild

ren

who

se te

ache

rs p

artic

ipat

ed in

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t, al

thou

gh re

sults

var

ied

by p

rogr

am s

ite. I

n ye

ar 1

of t

he s

tudy

, res

earc

hers

ob

serv

ed m

oder

ate

to la

rge

posi

tive

asso

ciat

ions

bet

wee

n te

ache

r pro

fess

iona

l de

velo

pmen

t and

chi

ldre

n’s

early

lite

racy

and

lang

uage

ski

lls a

t 20%

to 4

0%

of s

ites,

dep

endi

ng o

n th

e m

easu

re. I

n ye

ar 2

of t

he s

tudy

, mod

erat

e to

larg

e ef

fect

siz

es w

ere

obse

rved

in b

etw

een

20%

and

68%

of s

ites.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Land

ry, S

. H.,

Ant

hony

, J. L

., Sw

ank,

P. R

., &

Mon

sequ

e-B

aile

y, P

. (20

09)

Effec

tive

ness

of c

ompr

ehen

sive

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t fo

r tea

cher

s of

at-

risk

pr

esch

oole

rs. J

ourn

al o

f Edu

cati

onal

Psy

chol

ogy

101(

2),

448

–465

.

Des

crip

tion

: Ear

ly c

hild

hood

edu

cato

rs p

artic

ipat

ed in

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t to

enha

nce

teac

hers

’ abi

lity

to p

rom

ote

child

ren’

s la

ngua

ge a

nd li

tera

cy d

evel

opm

ent.

Thro

ugh

the

prog

ram

, edu

cato

rs p

artic

ipat

ed in

a fa

cilit

ated

onl

ine

cour

se fo

cuse

d on

lang

uage

and

lite

racy

inst

ruct

ion,

eCI

RCL

E. T

he fa

cilit

ated

cou

rse

incl

uded

vid

eos

of m

odel

less

ons,

inte

ract

ive

mes

sage

boa

rds,

and

opp

ortu

nitie

s to

pla

n le

sson

s an

d pr

actic

e sk

ills

in s

mal

l gro

ups.

Par

ticip

atin

g ed

ucat

ors

also

rece

ived

a s

uppl

emen

tal

curr

icul

um o

n pr

esch

ool l

angu

age

and

liter

acy

skill

s an

d w

ere

enco

urag

ed to

use

on

goin

g m

onito

ring

of s

tude

nt p

rogr

ess.

Tea

cher

s pa

rtic

ipat

ed in

four

hou

rs o

f co

urse

wor

k pe

r mon

th th

roug

hout

the

scho

ol y

ear.

In a

dditi

on, s

ome

teac

hers

re

ceiv

ed d

etai

led

feed

back

on

child

ren’

s la

ngua

ge a

nd li

tera

cy p

rogr

ess

that

was

lin

ked

to c

urric

ular

act

iviti

es a

nd/o

r tw

o-ho

ur, o

n-si

te m

ento

ring

sess

ions

twic

e pe

r m

onth

.

Met

hodo

logy

: Ran

dom

ized

con

trol

led

tria

l•

n=2

62 e

arly

chi

ldho

od e

duca

tors

and

up

to e

ight

chi

ldre

n pe

r cla

ssro

om in

15

8 sc

hool

s in

Flo

rida,

Mar

ylan

d, O

hio,

and

Tex

as•

Stu

dent

out

com

es m

easu

red

thro

ugh

a st

anda

rdiz

ed v

ocab

ular

y as

sess

men

t

Find

ings

: Col

lect

ivel

y, s

tude

nts

of e

duca

tors

in a

ll fo

ur p

rofe

ssio

nal

deve

lopm

ent g

roup

s de

mon

stra

ted

grea

ter g

ains

in p

hono

logi

cal a

war

enes

s th

an s

tude

nts

of e

duca

tors

in th

e co

ntro

l gro

up (E

S=0.

14).

Stud

ents

of t

each

ers

who

rece

ived

bot

h m

ento

ring

and

deta

iled,

inst

ruct

iona

lly

linke

d fe

edba

ck o

n ch

ildre

n’s

lang

uage

and

lite

racy

pro

gres

s ex

perie

nced

the

grea

test

gai

ns in

a v

arie

ty o

f lan

guag

e an

d lit

erac

y ou

tcom

es. T

his

incl

uded

gr

eate

r gai

ns th

an s

tude

nts

who

se te

ache

rs re

ceiv

ed b

usin

ess-

as-u

sual

pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent o

n ex

pres

sive

voc

abul

ary

(ES=

0.19

) and

prin

t and

le

tter

kno

wle

dge

(ES=

0.26

).

Lara

-Ale

cio,

R.,

Tong

, F.,

Irby

, B. J

., G

uerr

ero,

C.,

Hue

rta,

M.,

& F

an, Y

. (20

12).

The

eff

ect

of a

n in

stru

ctio

nal i

nter

vent

ion

on m

iddl

e sc

hool

Eng

lish

lear

ners

’ sci

ence

an

d En

glis

h re

adin

g ac

hiev

emen

t. J

ourn

al o

f Res

earc

h in

Sci

ence

Tea

chin

g, 4

9(8

),

987–

1011

.

Des

crip

tion

: Tea

cher

s en

gage

d in

on-

site

, sm

all-g

roup

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t to

pro

mot

e in

quiry

-bas

ed, l

itera

cy-in

tegr

ated

inst

ruct

ion

to im

prov

e En

glis

h le

arne

rs’ s

cien

ce a

nd re

adin

g ac

hiev

emen

t. Th

roug

h th

e pr

ogra

m, t

each

ers

and

para

prof

essi

onal

s pa

rtic

ipat

ed in

wor

ksho

ps w

here

they

revi

ewed

upc

omin

g le

sson

s,

disc

usse

d sc

ienc

e co

ncep

ts w

ith p

eers

, eng

aged

in re

flect

ions

on

stud

ent l

earn

ing,

pa

rtic

ipat

ed in

inqu

iry a

ctiv

ities

as

lear

ners

, and

rece

ived

inst

ruct

ion

in s

trat

egie

s fo

r te

achi

ng E

nglis

h le

arne

rs. R

esea

rche

rs a

lso

prov

ided

teac

hers

with

less

ons

plan

s th

at in

corp

orat

ed s

trat

egie

s fo

r eff

ectiv

e in

stru

ctio

n of

Eng

lish

lear

ners

. Tea

cher

s m

et

biw

eekl

y fo

r thr

ee-h

our s

essi

ons,

rece

ivin

g si

x ho

urs

of p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent p

er

mon

th; p

arap

rofe

ssio

nals

met

mon

thly

for t

hree

hou

rs. T

he p

rogr

am a

lso

incl

uded

a

focu

s on

new

and

enh

ance

d in

stru

ctio

nal a

ctiv

ities

for E

nglis

h le

arne

rs.

Met

hodo

logy

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal s

tudy

• n

=246

5th

-gra

de te

ache

rs a

nd 1

66 s

tude

nts

in fo

ur lo

wer

mid

dle

scho

ols

in

an u

rban

dis

tric

t in

sout

heas

t Tex

as•

Stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t was

mea

sure

d by

per

form

ance

on

scie

nce

and

read

ing

dist

rict a

nd s

tate

test

s an

d D

ynam

ic In

dica

tors

of B

asic

Ear

ly L

itera

cy

Skill

s (D

IBEL

S)

Find

ings

: Tre

atm

ent g

roup

stu

dent

s sc

ored

sig

nific

antly

hig

her s

core

s on

the

DIB

ELS

than

con

trol

gro

up s

tude

nts.

In a

dditi

on, s

tude

nts

of te

ache

rs w

ho

part

icip

ated

in P

D e

arne

d pa

ssin

g an

d co

mm

ende

d sc

ores

on

dist

rict s

cien

ce

and

read

ing

benc

hmar

ks a

t hig

her r

ates

than

stu

dent

s of

thos

e w

ho d

id n

ot

part

icip

ate

(ES=

0.12

7 - .

238)

. A s

imila

r pat

tern

was

obs

erve

d fo

r rea

ding

ac

hiev

emen

t on

the

stat

e te

st, w

ith a

n av

erag

e pa

ssin

g ra

te o

f 69%

in th

e tr

eatm

ent g

roup

and

60%

in th

e co

ntro

l gro

up.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Mar

ek, E

. & M

ethv

en, S

. B. (

1991

). E

ffec

ts o

f the

lear

ning

cyc

le u

pon

stud

ent

and

clas

sroo

m te

ache

r per

form

ance

. Jou

rnal

of R

esea

rch

in S

cien

ce T

each

ing,

28(

1),

41–5

3.

Des

crip

tion

: Ele

men

tary

sci

ence

teac

hers

par

ticip

ated

in a

mon

thlo

ng in

-ser

vice

w

orks

hop

desi

gned

to s

uppo

rt th

e ad

optio

n of

a n

ew a

ppro

ach

to s

cien

ce in

stru

ctio

n.

The

wor

ksho

p ai

med

for p

artic

ipan

ts to

und

erst

and

that

sci

ence

is a

pro

cess

, or

“sea

rch

for k

now

ledg

e,”

rath

er th

an a

bod

y of

kno

wle

dge,

and

that

stu

dent

s w

ho le

arn

scie

nce

as a

sea

rch

for k

now

ledg

e co

nstr

uct t

heir

own

unde

rsta

ndin

gs a

bout

the

wor

ld. I

t was

als

o de

sign

ed to

hel

p te

ache

rs le

arn

how

to d

evel

op “

lear

ning

cyc

les,

” an

app

roac

h to

cur

ricul

um th

at is

com

patib

le w

ith a

ppro

achi

ng s

cien

ce a

s a

proc

ess

or m

etho

d. D

urin

g th

e w

orks

hop,

teac

hers

exp

erie

nced

sev

eral

lear

ning

cyc

les

as

lear

ners

; thi

s in

volv

ed g

athe

ring

data

, ide

ntify

ing

key

conc

epts

from

the

data

, and

ex

pand

ing

thei

r und

erst

andi

ng b

y ap

plyi

ng th

e co

ncep

t to

othe

r top

ics.

Tea

cher

s th

en

taug

ht e

ach

othe

r usi

ng le

arni

ng c

ycle

s fr

om a

pro

vide

d cu

rric

ulum

bef

ore

prep

arin

g th

eir o

wn

lear

ning

cyc

les

for u

se in

the

clas

sroo

m. A

ll te

ache

rs a

gree

d to

use

lear

ning

cy

cles

in th

eir c

lass

room

s fo

llow

ing

the

wor

ksho

p. T

he w

orks

hop

offe

red

100

hour

s of

in

-ser

vice

trai

ning

ove

r fou

r wee

ks.

Met

hodo

logy

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal m

atch

ed p

airs

des

ign

• n

=27

elem

enta

ry s

cien

ce te

ache

rs a

nd 2

26 k

- to

5th-

grad

e st

uden

ts

• S

tude

nt o

utco

mes

wer

e m

easu

red

usin

g th

ree

Piag

etia

n co

nser

vatio

n ta

sks,

a

mea

sure

of c

ogni

tive

deve

lopm

ent,

and

an a

naly

sis

of d

escr

iptiv

e la

ngua

ge

used

by

stud

ents

dur

ing

inte

rvie

ws.

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s of

trea

tmen

t gro

up te

ache

rs d

emon

stra

ted

sign

ifica

ntly

gr

eate

r gro

wth

in th

eir c

onse

rvat

ion

reas

onin

g ab

ilitie

s th

an c

ontr

ol g

roup

te

ache

rs. T

reat

men

t gro

up s

tude

nts

also

dem

onst

rate

d en

hanc

ed q

ualit

y an

d qu

antit

y of

des

crip

tive

lang

uage

rela

tive

to c

ontr

ol g

roup

stu

dent

s.

May

, H.,

Siri

nide

s, P

., G

ray,

A.,

& G

olds

wor

thy,

H. (

2016

). R

eadi

ng R

ecov

ery:

An

Eval

uati

on o

f the

Fou

r-Yea

r i3

Scal

e-U

p. P

hila

delp

hia,

PA

: Con

sort

ium

for P

olic

y R

esea

rch

in E

duca

tion

.

Des

crip

tion

: Edu

cato

rs p

artic

ipat

ed in

an

inte

nsiv

e ye

arlo

ng g

radu

ate-

leve

l tra

inin

g co

urse

in o

rder

to te

ach

Read

ing

Reco

very

, an

inte

rven

tion

targ

eted

at s

trug

glin

g 1s

t-gra

de re

ader

s. In

sup

port

of t

each

ers

rece

ivin

g th

e PD

are

lite

racy

coa

ches

who

co

nduc

t the

trai

ning

cou

rse

and

univ

ersi

ty fa

culty

who

sup

port

impl

emen

tatio

n.

Trai

ning

is d

esig

ned

to e

nhan

ce a

teac

her’s

abi

lity

to id

entif

y st

uden

ts’ s

tren

gths

an

d ne

eds,

and

to fa

cilit

ate

his

or h

er le

arni

ng b

y he

lpin

g st

uden

ts d

evel

op a

set

of

self-

regu

late

d lit

erac

y st

rate

gies

that

gov

ern

the

use

of m

eani

ng, s

truc

ture

, let

ter-s

ound

re

latio

nshi

ps, a

nd v

isua

l cue

s in

read

ing

and

writ

ing.

Onc

e tr

aine

d, te

ache

rs p

rovi

ded

stud

ents

with

indi

vidu

al, d

aily

30-

min

ute

less

ons

over

the

cour

se o

f a 1

2- to

20-

wee

k pe

riod.

Met

hodo

logy

: Par

alle

l ran

dom

ized

con

trol

led

tria

l and

qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal

stud

y•

n=1

,122

sch

ools

acr

oss

the

coun

try

in a

wid

e va

riety

of l

ocal

es (e

.g.,

urba

n,

rura

l, su

burb

an) a

nd 6

,888

stu

dent

s•

Stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t was

mea

sure

d us

ing

Iow

a Te

st o

f Bas

ic S

kills

(ITB

S)

Read

ing

Tota

l ass

essm

ent a

nd th

e st

ate

3rd-

grad

e re

adin

g ex

am.

Find

ings

: For

eac

h se

t of r

eadi

ng s

core

s, th

e tr

eatm

ent g

roup

’s p

erfo

rman

ce

was

one

-third

to o

ne-h

alf s

tand

ard

devi

atio

n la

rger

than

that

of t

he c

ontr

ol

grou

p.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

McG

ill-F

ranz

en, A

., A

lling

ton,

R. L

., Yo

koi,

L., &

Bro

oks,

G. (

1999

). P

utti

ng b

ooks

in

the

cla

ssro

om s

eem

s ne

cess

ary

but

not

suffi

cien

t. T

he J

ourn

al o

f Edu

cati

on

Res

earc

h 93

(2):

67–7

4.

Des

crip

tion

: Kin

derg

arte

n te

ache

rs p

artic

ipat

ed in

a tr

aini

ng p

rogr

am to

enh

ance

th

eir u

se o

f boo

ks in

cla

ssro

om le

sson

s. T

rain

ing

sess

ions

spa

nned

topi

cs s

uch

as

clas

sroo

m o

rgan

izat

ion,

read

-alo

ud te

chni

ques

, sto

ry-re

late

d le

sson

pla

ns, a

nd p

lay-

base

d lit

erac

y ac

tiviti

es. P

artic

ipat

ing

teac

hers

als

o re

ceiv

ed a

larg

e su

pply

of b

ooks

for

clas

sroo

m li

brar

ies

and

stud

ents

’ hom

e lib

rarie

s. O

vera

ll, te

ache

rs p

artic

ipat

ed in

30

hour

s of

trai

ning

, inc

ludi

ng th

ree

dayl

ong

wor

ksho

ps a

nd s

even

sho

rter

mee

tings

.

Met

hodo

logy

: Str

atifi

ed ra

ndom

ized

con

trol

led

tria

l•

n=1

8 ki

nder

gart

en te

ache

rs a

nd 3

77 c

hild

ren

from

six

sch

ools

in a

sin

gle

larg

e ea

ster

n ur

ban

scho

ol d

istr

ict

• S

tude

nt o

utco

mes

mea

sure

d us

ing

two

wid

ely

used

ear

ly li

tera

cy in

stru

men

ts

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s of

teac

hers

rece

ivin

g tr

aini

ng a

nd b

ooks

dem

onst

rate

d hi

gher

sco

res

and

larg

er g

ains

on

all e

arly

lite

racy

mea

sure

s th

an d

id s

tude

nts

of te

ache

rs w

ho d

id n

ot re

ceiv

e tr

aini

ng. I

n al

l but

one

cas

e, th

ese

diff

eren

ces

wer

e st

atis

tical

ly s

igni

fican

t.

Mei

ssel

, K.,

Parr

, J. M

., &

Tim

perl

ey, H

. S. (

2016

). C

an p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent

of

teac

hers

redu

ce d

ispa

rity

in s

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent?

Tea

chin

g an

d Te

ache

r Edu

cati

on

58, 1

63–1

73.

Des

crip

tion

: New

Zea

land

sch

ools

par

ticip

ated

in a

flex

ible

who

le-s

choo

l pro

fess

iona

l de

velo

pmen

t mod

el d

esig

ned

to im

prov

e st

uden

t lite

racy

, par

ticul

arly

for l

ow-

perf

orm

ing

stud

ents

. Par

ticip

atin

g sc

hool

s ea

ch s

elec

ted

a fo

cus

on e

ither

read

ing

or

writ

ing

for t

he d

urat

ion

of th

e tw

o-ye

ar p

roje

ct a

nd w

ere

assi

gned

an

expe

rt li

tera

cy

faci

litat

or to

pro

vide

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t for

teac

hers

and

sch

ool l

eade

rs.

Faci

litat

ors

visi

ted

each

sch

ool b

iwee

kly

to c

ondu

ct c

lass

room

obs

erva

tions

, mod

el

liter

acy

inst

ruct

ion,

pro

vide

coa

chin

g an

d fe

edba

ck, a

nd e

ngag

e in

dis

cuss

ion

and

othe

r act

iviti

es w

ith s

choo

l sta

ff. F

acili

tato

rs a

lso

trai

ned

a lit

erac

y le

ader

at e

ach

scho

ol w

ho p

rovi

ded

addi

tiona

l sup

port

for t

heir

colle

ague

s. T

he p

roje

ct p

rovi

ded

reso

urce

s su

ch a

s cl

assr

oom

obs

erva

tion

and

faci

litat

ion

tool

s, a

s w

ell a

s tr

aini

ng

and

feed

back

for t

he e

xper

t fac

ilita

tors

thro

ugho

ut th

e tw

o-ye

ar p

erio

d.

Met

hodo

logy

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal d

esig

n ut

ilizi

ng h

iera

rchi

cal l

inea

r mod

elin

g•

n=2

2,50

6 m

iddl

e sc

hool

stu

dent

s in

195

New

Zea

land

sch

ools

• S

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent w

as m

easu

red

by a

New

Zea

land

sta

ndar

dize

d as

sess

men

t

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s at

tend

ing

scho

ols

part

icip

atin

g in

the

proj

ect o

utpe

rfor

med

a

natio

nally

nor

med

sam

ple,

esp

ecia

lly in

writ

ing.

Stu

dent

s in

sch

ools

with

a

focu

s on

impr

ovin

g w

ritin

g im

prov

ed a

t 2.9

to 3

.5 ti

mes

the

expe

cted

rate

(1.1

5 to

1.4

sta

ndar

d de

viat

ions

). St

uden

ts in

sch

ools

with

a fo

cus

on im

prov

ing

read

ing

impr

oved

at 1

.4 to

1.6

tim

es th

e ex

pect

ed ra

te (0

.72

to 0

.85

stan

dard

de

viat

ions

).

Lear

ners

from

all

grou

ps (d

efine

d by

gen

der,

ethn

icity

, and

soc

ioec

onom

ic

stat

us) o

utpe

rfor

med

exp

ecta

tions

bas

ed o

n na

tiona

l nor

ms.

Mey

ers,

C. V

., M

olef

e, A

., B

rand

t, W

. C.,

Zhu,

B.,

& D

hillo

n, S

. (20

16).

Impa

ct re

sult

s of

the

eM

INTS

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t va

lidat

ion

stud

y. E

duca

tion

al E

valu

atio

n an

d Po

licy

Anal

ysis

, 38(

3),

455

–476

.

Des

crip

tion

: Tea

cher

s pa

rtic

ipat

ed in

the

Enha

ncin

g M

isso

uri’s

Inst

ruct

iona

l N

etw

orke

d Te

achi

ng S

trat

egie

s (e

MIN

TS) p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent p

rogr

am. T

he

goal

of e

MIN

TS is

to h

elp

teac

hers

dev

elop

stu

dent

-cen

tere

d, p

urpo

sefu

l ins

truc

tion

fost

ered

by

tech

nolo

gy u

tiliz

atio

n. W

hile

the

com

preh

ensi

ve p

rogr

am in

volv

es

who

le-s

choo

l PD

ele

men

ts, t

he b

ulk

of th

e pr

ogra

m is

focu

sed

on th

e de

velo

pmen

t of

teac

hers

. Spe

cific

ally

, tea

cher

s en

gage

d in

app

roxi

mat

ely

240

hour

s of

PD

ove

r the

co

urse

of t

wo

acad

emic

yea

rs th

roug

h fo

rmal

trai

ning

ses

sion

s, a

mod

el s

choo

l site

vi

sit,

with

in-b

uild

ing

com

mun

ities

of p

ract

ice,

and

indi

vidu

aliz

ed c

oach

ing

sess

ions

. So

me

stud

y sc

hool

s al

so re

ceiv

ed a

n ad

ditio

nal y

ear o

f Int

el T

each

cou

rses

and

on

line

tool

s to

sup

port

eM

INTS

lear

ning

.

Met

hodo

logy

: Thr

ee-y

ear c

lust

er ra

ndom

ized

con

trol

led

tria

l •

n=6

0 hi

gh-p

over

ty, r

ural

Mis

sour

i mid

dle

scho

ols

• S

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent w

as m

easu

red

usin

g M

isso

uri A

sses

smen

t Pro

gram

(M

AP) i

n co

mm

unic

atio

n ar

ts a

nd m

athe

mat

ics

and

the

21st

-Cen

tury

Ski

lls

Asse

ssm

ent.

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

test

sco

res

on M

AP m

athe

mat

ics

test

s in

crea

sed

sign

ifica

ntly

mor

e (0

.128

to 0

.178

sta

ndar

d de

viat

ions

) tha

n th

e co

ntro

l gro

up.

Resu

lts o

n M

AP c

omm

unic

atio

n ar

ts a

nd 2

1st C

entu

ry S

kills

sca

le s

core

s w

ere

not s

tatis

tical

ly s

igni

fican

t.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

New

man

, D.,

Finn

ey, P

. B.,

Bel

l, S.

, Tur

ner,

H.,

Jaci

w, A

., Za

cam

y, J

. L.,

& G

ould

, L.

F. (

2012

). E

valu

atio

n of

the

Effec

tive

ness

of t

he A

laba

ma

Mat

h, S

cien

ce, a

nd

Tech

nolo

gy In

itia

tive

(AM

STI)

. Was

hing

ton,

DC

: Ins

titu

te fo

r Edu

cati

on S

cien

ces.

Des

crip

tion

: 4th

- to

8th-

grad

e te

ache

rs e

ngag

ed in

the

Alab

ama

Mat

h, S

cien

ce, a

nd

Tech

nolo

gy In

itiat

ive

(AM

STI)

, a tw

o-ye

ar s

choo

lwid

e in

terv

entio

n in

tend

ed to

impr

ove

stud

ent a

chie

vem

ent b

y be

tter

alig

ning

cla

ssro

om p

ract

ices

with

nat

iona

l and

sta

tew

ide

teac

hing

sta

ndar

ds b

y pr

ovid

ing

prof

essi

onal

dev

elop

men

t, ac

cess

to m

ater

ials

and

te

chno

logy

, and

in-s

choo

l sup

port

for t

each

ers.

The

PD

incl

udes

a 1

0-da

y su

mm

er

inst

itute

, fol

low

-up

trai

ning

dur

ing

the

scho

ol y

ear,

acce

ss to

pro

gram

and

cur

ricul

um

mat

eria

ls, a

nd m

ento

ring

and

coac

hing

by

lead

teac

hers

and

site

spe

cial

ists

.

Met

hodo

logy

: Tw

o-ye

ar c

lust

er ra

ndom

ized

con

trol

led

tria

l•

n=8

2 Al

abam

a m

iddl

e sc

hool

s•

Stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t was

mea

sure

d us

ing

SAT-

10 te

sts

and

the

Alab

ama

Read

ing

and

Mat

hem

atic

s Te

st.

Find

ings

: On

the

SAT-

10 m

athe

mat

ics

test

, stu

dent

s in

AM

STI s

choo

ls s

core

d 0.

05 s

tand

ard

devi

atio

ns h

ighe

r tha

n th

eir c

ount

erpa

rts

in n

on-P

D s

choo

ls,

equi

vale

nt to

abo

ut 2

8 ad

ditio

nal d

ays

of s

tude

nt p

rogr

ess.

In a

sep

arat

e tw

o-ye

ar e

xplo

rato

ry a

naly

sis,

AM

STI s

tude

nts

incr

ease

d th

eir m

ath

scor

es b

y 0.

10 S

D a

nd th

eir s

cien

ce s

core

s by

0.1

3 SD

mor

e th

an c

ontr

ol g

roup

s.

Penu

el, W

. R.,

Gal

lagh

er, L

. P.,

& M

oort

hy, S

. (20

11).

Pre

pari

ng te

ache

rs to

de

sign

seq

uenc

es o

f ins

truc

tion

in e

arth

sys

tem

s sc

ienc

e: A

com

pari

son

of t

hree

pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent

prog

ram

s. A

mer

ican

Edu

cati

onal

Res

earc

h Jo

urna

l, 48

(4),

996

–102

5.

Des

crip

tion

: Mid

dle

scho

ol s

cien

ce te

ache

rs in

a la

rge

urba

n sc

hool

dis

tric

t pa

rtic

ipat

ed in

one

of t

hree

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t pro

gram

s de

sign

ed to

impr

ove

stud

ent s

cien

ce le

arni

ng. T

he p

rogr

ams

all u

sed

an a

ppro

ach

to c

urric

ulum

des

ign

know

n as

Und

erst

andi

ng b

y D

esig

n th

at h

elps

teac

hers

pla

n by

iden

tifyi

ng le

arni

ng

goal

s, d

esig

ning

or u

sing

ass

essm

ents

to g

auge

stu

dent

per

form

ance

rela

tive

to

thos

e go

als,

and

off

erin

g ac

tiviti

es to

furt

her d

evel

op s

tude

nt u

nder

stan

ding

. Eac

h of

th

e pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent m

odel

s in

tent

iona

lly in

corp

orat

ed fe

atur

es th

at h

ave

been

sug

gest

ed b

y re

sear

ch to

be

part

of h

igh-

qual

ity p

rofe

ssio

nal l

earn

ing

prog

ram

s,

incl

udin

g th

e us

e of

han

ds-o

n, c

olla

bora

tive

lear

ning

str

ateg

ies

and

oppo

rtun

ities

to

deep

en c

onte

nt k

now

ledg

e an

d un

ders

tand

ings

of s

tude

nt s

cien

ce th

inki

ng. E

ach

prog

ram

was

als

o al

igne

d w

ith d

istr

ict s

tand

ards

and

goa

ls fo

r sci

ence

edu

catio

n.

The

grou

ps v

arie

d in

the

degr

ee to

whi

ch te

ache

rs re

ceiv

ed g

uida

nce

in s

elec

ting

curr

icul

ar m

ater

ials

and

exp

licit

inst

ruct

ion

in th

e pe

dago

gica

l mod

els

unde

rlyin

g cu

rric

ulum

. Som

e te

ache

rs re

ceiv

ed e

xplic

it tr

aini

ng in

inst

ruct

ion

and

asse

ssm

ent

tech

niqu

es th

at a

re a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith th

e us

e of

an

Und

erst

andi

ng b

y D

esig

n ap

proa

ch. O

ther

s w

ere

prov

ided

and

ask

ed to

use

an

NSF

-fund

ed m

iddl

e sc

hool

sc

ienc

e cu

rric

ulum

. The

fina

l gro

up re

ceiv

ed tr

aini

ng in

tech

niqu

es a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith

Unde

rsta

ndin

g by

Des

ign

and

wer

e pr

ovid

ed th

e ne

w c

urric

ular

mat

eria

ls, w

hich

they

w

ere

aske

d to

use

at l

east

50%

of t

he ti

me.

Teac

hers

in e

ach

of th

e th

ree

prog

ram

s at

tend

ed a

two-

wee

k su

mm

er w

orks

hop,

plu

s 4

addi

tiona

l dev

elop

men

t day

s du

ring

the

scho

ol y

ear.

Met

hodo

logy

: Clu

ster

rand

omiz

ed c

ontr

olle

d tr

ial

• n

=53

mid

dle

scho

ol s

cien

ce te

ache

rs a

nd 1

,550

stu

dent

s in

a s

ingl

e ur

ban

dist

rict i

n th

e Am

eric

an s

outh

east

• S

tude

nt s

cien

ce le

arni

ng w

as m

easu

red

thro

ugh

spec

ially

des

igne

d un

it te

sts

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s of

teac

hers

who

rece

ived

exp

licit

inst

ruct

ion

rega

rdin

g te

achi

ng m

odel

s pe

rfor

med

bet

ter t

han

stud

ents

who

se te

ache

rs d

id n

ot

rece

ive

such

inst

ruct

ion

(d=0

.29-

0.34

). St

uden

ts o

f tea

cher

s w

ho o

nly

rece

ived

gui

danc

e in

sel

ectin

g cu

rric

ular

mat

eria

ls d

id n

ot p

erfo

rm s

igni

fican

tly

diff

eren

tly th

an s

tude

nts

who

se te

ache

rs re

ceiv

ed b

usin

ess-

as-u

sual

pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Polly

, D.,

McG

ee, J

., W

ang,

C.,

Mar

tin,

C.,

Lam

bert

, R.,

& P

ugal

ee, D

. K. (

2015

) Li

nkin

g pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent,

teac

her o

utco

mes

, and

stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t:

The

case

of a

lear

ner-

cent

ered

mat

hem

atic

s pr

ogra

m fo

r ele

men

tary

sch

ool

teac

hers

. Int

erna

tion

al J

ourn

al o

f Edu

cati

on R

esea

rch

72, 2

6–37

.

Des

crip

tion

: Ele

men

tary

mat

h te

ache

rs e

ngag

ed in

a P

D p

rogr

am to

bol

ster

sta

ndar

ds-

base

d el

emen

tary

mat

h in

stru

ctio

n. T

he p

rogr

am w

as d

esig

ned

to b

e le

arne

r-cen

tere

d,

offe

ring

activ

e le

arni

ng o

ppor

tuni

ties

that

are

col

labo

rativ

e, o

wne

d by

teac

hers

, su

ppor

tive

of c

hang

es in

cla

ssro

om p

ract

ice,

and

that

fost

er p

edag

ogic

al a

nd c

onte

nt

know

ledg

e. T

each

ers

part

icip

ated

in a

num

ber o

f act

iviti

es, i

nclu

ding

a s

umm

er

wor

ksho

p, fo

llow

-up

wor

ksho

ps d

urin

g th

e ac

adem

ic y

ear,

and

clas

sroo

m-e

mbe

dded

pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent a

ctiv

ities

. All

activ

ities

wer

e co

ordi

nate

d by

a p

roje

ct te

am

that

incl

uded

a m

athe

mat

ics

prof

esso

r, m

athe

mat

ics

educ

atio

n pr

ofes

sors

, and

sch

ool

lead

ers.

The

pro

gram

pro

vide

d ap

prox

imat

ely

80 h

ours

of p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent

over

10

mon

ths.

Met

hodo

logy

: Thr

ee-y

ear n

onex

perim

enta

l stu

dy

• n

=291

ele

men

tary

mat

hem

atic

s te

ache

rs fr

om tw

o sc

hool

dis

tric

ts: o

ne

larg

e ur

ban

dist

rict a

nd a

nea

rby

subu

rban

dis

tric

t•

Stu

dent

out

com

es w

ere

mea

sure

d us

ing

curr

icul

um-b

ased

ass

essm

ents

.

Find

ings

: Res

ults

from

thre

e ye

ars

of p

rogr

am d

ata

indi

cate

stu

dent

s of

teac

hers

who

par

ticip

ated

in th

e pr

ogra

m c

onsi

sten

tly e

xper

ienc

ed

sign

ifica

nt g

ains

in m

athe

mat

ics

from

pre

- to

post

-test

, med

iate

d by

teac

hers

’ m

athe

mat

ical

kno

wle

dge

for t

each

ing.

The

mea

n ga

in fr

om p

re to

pos

t tes

t in

Yea

r 1 w

as 2

9.74

(SD

=35.

05).

The

mea

n ga

in fr

om p

re to

pos

t tes

t in

Year

2 w

as 3

7.40

(SD

=35.

35) a

nd fr

om p

re to

pos

t tes

t in

year

3 w

as 4

1.35

(S

D=3

5.70

).

Pow

ell,

D. R

., D

iam

ond,

K. E

., B

urch

inal

, M. R

., &

Koe

hler

, M. J

. (20

10).

Eff

ects

of

an e

arly

lite

racy

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t in

terv

enti

on o

n H

ead

Star

t te

ache

rs a

nd

child

ren.

Jou

rnal

of E

duca

tion

al P

sych

olog

y, 1

02(2

), 2

99–3

12.

Des

crip

tion

: Ear

ly c

hild

hood

edu

cato

rs re

ceiv

ed P

D in

ear

ly li

tera

cy te

achi

ng fr

om

expe

rt c

oach

es. E

duca

tors

att

ende

d a

two-

day

wor

ksho

p th

at w

as d

esig

ned

to fo

ster

re

latio

nshi

p-bu

ildin

g be

twee

n co

ache

s an

d ed

ucat

ors

and

feat

ured

dem

onst

ratio

ns

and

guid

ed d

iscu

ssio

ns o

f pro

gram

con

tent

. Coa

ches

then

obs

erve

d ed

ucat

ors

biw

eekl

y an

d pr

ovid

ed te

ache

rs fe

edba

ck re

late

d to

ear

ly li

tera

cy in

stru

ctio

n.

Coac

hing

was

don

e ei

ther

ons

ite o

r rem

otel

y. O

nsite

coa

ches

obs

erve

d ed

ucat

ors

for a

ppro

xim

atel

y 90

min

utes

, the

n m

et fo

r 30

min

utes

to d

ebrie

f the

obs

erva

tion

and

prov

ide

oral

and

writ

ten

feed

back

. For

rem

ote

coac

hing

, edu

cato

rs s

ubm

itted

15

-min

ute

vide

o cl

ips

and

coac

hes

prov

ided

det

aile

d w

ritte

n fe

edba

ck s

uppo

rted

by

link

s to

vid

eo e

xem

plar

s an

d ot

her m

ater

ials

ava

ilabl

e th

roug

h th

e pr

ogra

m. T

he

sem

este

r-lon

g pr

ogra

m in

clud

ed 1

6 ho

urs

of w

orks

hop

and

seve

n co

achi

ng s

essi

ons.

Met

hodo

logy

: Tw

o-ye

ar ra

ndom

ized

con

trol

led

tria

l•

n=8

8 ed

ucat

ors

in 2

4 H

ead

Star

t cen

ters

ser

ving

urb

an a

nd n

onur

ban

coun

ties

in a

mid

wes

tern

sta

te, w

ith a

ppro

xim

atel

y ei

ght s

tude

nts

per

clas

sroo

m•

Stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t was

mea

sure

d us

ing

seve

n in

stru

men

ts, i

nclu

ding

the

Peab

ody

Pict

ure

Voca

bula

ry T

est-I

II an

d th

e W

oodc

ock-

John

son

III T

ests

of

Achi

evem

ent

Find

ings

: Tea

cher

s w

ho p

artic

ipat

ed in

the

coac

hing

pro

gram

dem

onst

rate

d ta

rget

pra

ctic

es a

t sig

nific

antly

hig

her l

evel

s. S

tude

nts

of te

ache

rs w

ho

part

icip

ated

in th

e co

achi

ng p

rogr

am s

how

ed s

igni

fican

tly la

rger

gai

ns a

nd

bett

er p

erfo

rman

ce o

n fo

ur o

ut o

f sev

en o

utco

mes

mea

sure

d by

the

stud

y:

lett

er k

now

ledg

e (E

S=0.

29),

prin

t con

cept

(ES=

.22)

, writ

ing

(ES=

.17)

, and

bl

endi

ng s

kills

(ES=

0.18

).


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Rot

h, K

. J.,

Gar

nier

, H. E

., C

hen,

C.,

Lem

men

s, M

., Sc

hwill

e, K

., &

Wic

kler

, N. I

. Z.

(201

1). V

ideo

base

d le

sson

ana

lysi

s: E

ffec

tive

sci

ence

PD

for t

each

er a

nd s

tude

nt

lear

ning

. Jou

rnal

on

Res

earc

h in

Sci

ence

Tea

chin

g, 4

8(2

),11

7–14

8.

The

Scie

nce

Teac

hers

Lea

rnin

g th

roug

h Le

sson

Ana

lysi

s (S

TeLL

A) P

D w

as a

vid

eoba

sed

anal

ysis

of a

pra

ctic

e pr

ogra

m fo

r upp

er e

lem

enta

ry te

ache

rs d

esig

ned

to h

elp

them

an

alyz

e sc

ienc

e te

achi

ng a

nd le

arni

ng to

impr

ove

peda

gogy

. Tw

o gr

oups

par

ticip

ated

in

the

stud

y. B

oth

grou

ps re

ceiv

ed th

e sa

me

scie

nce

cont

ent i

nstr

uctio

n fr

om u

nive

rsity

sc

ient

ists

dur

ing

a th

ree-

wee

k su

mm

er in

stitu

te. S

TeLL

A pa

rtic

ipan

ts a

lso

enga

ged

in

vide

o an

alys

is o

f tea

chin

g du

ring

the

sum

mer

inst

itute

and

in fo

llow

-up

sess

ions

acr

oss

the

scho

ol y

ear u

tiliz

ing

the

Stud

ent T

hink

ing

and

Scie

nce

Cont

ent S

tory

line

Lens

es.

The

Stud

ent T

hink

ing

port

ion

of P

D fo

cuse

d on

und

erst

andi

ng s

tude

nts’

idea

s fo

r use

in

pla

nnin

g, te

achi

ng, a

nd a

naly

sis

of te

achi

ng, p

artic

ular

ly in

ant

icip

atin

g st

uden

t th

inki

ng to

ass

ist t

each

ers

in re

spon

ding

to s

tude

nts’

idea

s an

d m

isun

ders

tand

ings

in

pro

duct

ive

way

s. T

he S

cien

ce C

onte

nt S

tory

line

port

ion

of th

e PD

focu

sed

on th

e se

quen

cing

of s

cien

ce id

eas

to h

elp

stud

ents

con

stru

ct a

coh

eren

t “st

ory”

that

mak

es

sens

e to

them

. STe

LLA

teac

hers

met

in s

mal

l gro

ups

faci

litat

ed b

y ST

eLLA

pro

gram

le

ader

s an

d di

scus

sed

vide

o ca

ses

of te

achi

ng th

at c

ould

incl

ude

vide

o(s)

of o

ne

clas

sroo

m, s

tude

nt a

nd te

ache

r int

ervi

ews,

teac

her m

ater

ials

, and

stu

dent

wor

k sa

mpl

es. S

TeLL

A te

ache

rs a

lso

taug

ht a

set

of f

our t

o si

x m

odel

less

ons

them

selv

es

and

anal

yzed

thei

r tea

chin

g us

ing

a st

ruct

ured

pro

toco

l. Pu

rpos

es o

f the

se le

sson

s w

ere

iden

tified

as:

1) m

odel

ing

and

scaf

fold

ing

of th

e tw

o le

nses

; 2) c

larif

y sc

ienc

e co

nten

t und

erst

andi

ngs;

and

3) p

rovi

de c

omm

on c

urric

ulum

for l

esso

n an

alys

is

wor

k. H

alf o

f a s

tudy

gro

up w

ould

teac

h th

e le

sson

s an

d th

e en

tire

grou

p w

ould

co

llabo

rativ

ely

anal

yze

the

teac

hing

and

stu

dent

wor

k, a

nd th

en re

vise

the

less

ons

for

the

othe

r hal

f to

use.

The

role

s w

ould

then

sw

itch

and

the

seco

nd h

alf o

f the

gro

up

wou

ld te

ach

the

less

ons

that

wou

ld b

e us

ed fo

r ana

lysi

s. T

he a

naly

sis

was

hig

hly

scaf

fold

ed b

y th

e PD

faci

litat

ors.

STe

LLA

grou

ps m

et fo

r 58

hour

s of

ana

lysi

s ac

ross

the

scho

ol y

ear,

in a

dditi

on to

44

hour

s du

ring

the

thre

e-w

eek

sum

mer

ses

sion

for a

tota

l of

102

hou

rs. C

onte

nt-o

nly

teac

hers

rece

ived

just

the

44 h

ours

of P

D.

Met

hodo

logy

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal c

ompa

rison

gro

up s

tudy

des

ign

• n

=48

urba

n Ca

lifor

nia

uppe

r ele

men

tary

teac

hers

of 1

,490

stu

dent

s•

Stu

dent

ach

ieve

men

t was

mea

sure

d by

pre

- and

pos

t-tes

ts o

f stu

dent

co

nten

t kno

wle

dge.

Find

ings

: STe

LLA

teac

hers

’ stu

dent

s sh

owed

gre

ater

gai

ns th

an n

on-S

TeLL

A te

ache

rs’ s

tude

nts.

For

a ty

pica

l stu

dent

taug

ht b

y a

STeL

LA te

ache

r, hi

gher

av

erag

e ac

hiev

emen

t was

ass

ocia

ted

with

:•

Tea

cher

s’ s

cien

ce c

onte

nt k

now

ledg

e

(ES

=.2

0)

• T

each

ers’

abi

lity

to a

naly

ze s

cien

ce te

achi

ng a

bout

stu

dent

thin

king

(E

S =

.18)

• T

each

ers’

cla

ssro

om u

se o

f Sci

ence

Con

tent

Sto

rylin

e st

rate

gy; s

elec

ting

and

usin

g co

nten

t rep

rese

ntat

ions

mat

ched

to th

e m

ain

lear

ning

goa

l (ES

=.3

2)


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Saxe

, G. B

,, G

earh

art,

M.,

& N

asir,

N. S

. (20

01).

Enh

anci

ng s

tude

nts’

und

erst

andi

ng

of m

athe

mat

ics:

A s

tudy

of t

hree

con

tras

ting

app

roac

hes

to p

rofe

ssio

nal s

uppo

rt.

Jour

nal o

f Mat

hem

atic

s Te

ache

r Edu

cati

on 4

: 55–

79.

Des

crip

tion

: Upp

er e

lem

enta

ry s

choo

l tea

cher

s pa

rtic

ipat

ed in

a re

form

-orie

nted

pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent p

rogr

am d

esig

ned

to e

nhan

ce s

tude

nt u

nder

stan

ding

of

frac

tions

. The

pro

gram

beg

an w

ith a

five

-day

sum

mer

inst

itute

, fol

low

ed b

y bi

wee

kly

mee

tings

for t

he re

mai

nder

of t

he s

choo

l yea

r. Pr

ogra

m m

eetin

gs ta

rget

ed te

ache

rs’

own

mat

hem

atic

al c

onte

nt k

now

ledg

e, th

eir u

nder

stan

ding

of s

tude

nts’

mat

hem

atic

al

thin

king

and

mot

ivat

ion,

and

thei

r com

pete

nce

in th

e us

e of

inte

grat

ed a

sses

smen

ts.

The

mee

tings

util

ized

indi

vidu

al a

nd c

olla

bora

tive

wor

k, a

nd a

ctiv

e-le

arni

ng s

trat

egie

s su

ch a

s ro

le-p

layi

ng. T

each

ers

part

icip

atin

g in

the

prog

ram

wer

e al

so p

rovi

ded

with

two

less

ons

from

a re

form

mat

hem

atic

s cu

rric

ulum

to im

plem

ent i

n th

eir c

lass

room

s.

Met

hodo

logy

: Qua

si-e

xper

imen

tal d

esig

n ut

ilizi

ng A

NCO

VA a

naly

ses

• n

=23

uppe

r ele

men

tary

sch

ool t

each

ers

• S

tude

nt k

now

ledg

e of

frac

tions

was

mea

sure

d us

ing

a sp

ecia

lly d

esig

ned

test

with

bot

h co

ncep

tual

and

com

puta

tiona

l ite

ms.

Find

ings

: Tea

cher

par

ticip

atio

n in

the

prof

essi

onal

dev

elop

men

t pro

gram

was

as

soci

ated

with

hig

her s

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent o

n th

e co

ncep

tual

por

tion

of th

e fr

actio

ns te

st. T

here

was

no

diff

eren

ce o

n th

e co

mpu

tatio

nal p

ortio

n of

the

frac

tions

test

.

Shah

a, S

. H. &

Ells

wor

th, H

. (20

13).

Pre

dict

ors

of s

ucce

ss fo

r pro

fess

iona

l de

velo

pmen

t: L

inki

ng s

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent

to s

choo

l and

edu

cato

r suc

cess

es

thro

ugh

on-d

eman

d, o

nlin

e pr

ofes

sion

al le

arni

ng. J

ourn

al o

f Ins

truc

tion

al

Psyc

holo

gy 4

0(1)

: 19–

26.

Des

crip

tion

: Edu

cato

rs p

artic

ipat

ed in

onl

ine,

on-

dem

and

prof

essi

onal

dev

elop

men

t th

roug

h a

web

-bas

ed c

omm

erci

al p

rodu

ct fe

atur

ing

teac

her r

esou

rces

suc

h as

vid

eos

and

onlin

e fo

rum

s. In

eac

h pa

rtic

ipat

ing

scho

ol, t

each

ers

aver

aged

at l

east

90

min

utes

of

vid

eo v

iew

ing

on th

e PD

pla

tform

, tho

ugh

teac

hers

in h

ighe

r eng

agem

ent s

choo

ls

aver

aged

six

hou

rs o

f vie

win

g an

d te

ache

rs in

low

er e

ngag

emen

t sch

ools

ave

rage

d th

ree

hour

s. T

hrou

gh th

e pl

atfo

rm, t

each

ers

had

the

oppo

rtun

ity to

ans

wer

follo

w-u

p an

d re

flect

ion

ques

tions

abo

ut c

onte

nt, c

reat

e fo

cus

obje

ctiv

es, a

nd jo

in in

tera

ctiv

e us

er fo

rum

s an

d co

mm

uniti

es.

Met

hodo

logy

: Tw

o-ye

ar q

uasi

-exp

erim

enta

l des

ign

• n

=734

sch

ools

in 3

9 st

ates

• S

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent w

as m

easu

red

by s

tude

nts

achi

evin

g pr

ofici

ent o

r ad

vanc

ed ra

tings

on

stan

dard

ized

mat

h an

d re

adin

g te

sts.

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s at

sch

ools

with

hig

her a

vera

ge e

ngag

emen

t with

the

PD

prog

ram

impr

oved

read

ing

achi

evem

ent a

t fou

r tim

es th

e ra

te o

f stu

dent

s at

sc

hool

s w

ith lo

wer

ave

rage

eng

agem

ent a

nd im

prov

ed m

ath

achi

evem

ent a

t 30

times

the

rate

of s

tude

nts

at lo

w-e

ngag

emen

t sch

ools

.


Stud

y an

d Pr

ofes

sion

al D

evel

opm

ent D

escr

iptio

nSt

udy

Met

hodo

logy

and

Fin

ding

s R

elat

ed to

Stu

dent

Out

com

es

Tayl

or, J

. A.,

Rot

h, K

., W

ilson

, C.,

Stuh

lsat

z, M

., &

Tip

ton,

E. (

2017

). T

he e

ffec

t of

an

anal

ysis

-of-p

ract

ice,

vid

eoca

se-b

ased

, tea

cher

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t pr

ogra

m

on e

lem

enta

ry s

tude

nts’

sci

ence

ach

ieve

men

t. J

ourn

al o

f Res

earc

h on

Edu

cati

onal

Eff

ecti

vene

ss, 1

0(2

), 2

41–2

71.

Des

crip

tion

: 4th

- to

6th-

grad

e sc

ienc

e te

ache

rs u

sed

STeL

LA—

an a

naly

sis-

of-

prac

tice,

vid

eoca

se-b

ased

, pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t pro

gram

to im

prov

e st

uden

t sc

ienc

e le

arni

ng. T

he tr

eatm

ent g

roup

con

sist

ed o

f tea

cher

s w

ho p

artic

ipat

ed in

a

PD p

rogr

am th

at in

tegr

ates

sci

ence

con

tent

dee

peni

ng w

ith a

naly

sis

of p

ract

ice.

The

co

mpa

rison

gro

up p

artic

ipat

ed in

a P

D p

rogr

am o

f equ

al d

urat

ion

and

inte

nsity

, but

on

ly in

clud

ed c

onte

nt d

eepe

ning

. Dur

ing

a su

mm

er in

stitu

te, t

each

ers

wer

e gi

ven

six

less

ons

and

then

ask

ed to

teac

h th

e le

sson

s in

the

fall.

At t

he in

stitu

te, t

he tr

eatm

ent

grou

p w

orke

d co

llabo

rativ

ely

to d

iscu

ss v

ideo

ana

lysi

s of

exp

erie

nced

sci

ence

te

ache

rs w

ith u

nive

rsity

facu

lty g

uide

d th

eir t

hink

ing

on ta

rget

ed s

cien

ce id

eas.

D

urin

g th

e fa

ll, te

ache

rs ta

ught

the

less

ons

from

the

inst

itute

. Dur

ing

thei

r mon

thly

se

ssio

ns, t

hey

anal

yzed

eac

h ot

her’s

teac

hing

s of

thos

e le

sson

s an

d st

uden

t wor

k.

Dur

ing

the

sprin

g, th

e gr

oup

sess

ions

shi

fted

to d

evel

opin

g th

eir o

wn

less

on p

lans

us

ing

STeL

LA s

trat

egie

s an

d le

nses

. Tea

cher

s pl

anne

d a

sequ

ence

of c

onne

cted

le

sson

s. A

t the

cul

min

atin

g se

ssio

n, te

ache

rs s

hare

d th

eir a

naly

sis

of te

achi

ng th

eir

own

less

ons.

Dur

ing

the

sum

mer

inst

itute

, the

com

paris

on g

roup

par

ticip

ated

in

hand

s-on

inve

stig

atio

ns, c

reat

ion

and

anal

ysis

of c

onte

nt re

pres

enta

tions

, sci

ence

no

tebo

ok w

ritin

g, la

rge

and

smal

l gro

up d

iscu

ssio

ns, s

hort

lect

ures

and

read

ings

, and

fie

ld tr

ips.

Dur

ing

the

scho

ol y

ear,

teac

hers

taug

ht ta

rget

ed c

onte

nt fr

om th

e su

mm

er

inst

itute

. Bot

h gr

oups

com

plet

ed a

tota

l of 8

8.5

hou

rs o

f PD

.

Met

hodo

logy

: Clu

ster

rand

omiz

ed c

ontr

olle

d tr

ial

• n

=144

4th

– to

6th

-gra

de te

ache

rs in

77

Colo

rado

Fro

nt R

ange

ele

men

tary

sc

hool

s an

d 2,

823

stud

ents

• S

tude

nts’

con

tent

kno

wle

dge,

as

mea

sure

d by

a p

roje

ct-s

peci

fic te

st.

Find

ings

: Stu

dent

s of

teac

hers

par

ticip

atin

g in

STe

LLA

outp

erfo

rmed

stu

dent

s w

hose

teac

hers

did

not

par

ticip

ate

(ES=

0.52

sta

ndar

d de

viat

ions

).

Wen

glin

sky,

H. (

2000

). H

ow te

achi

ng m

atte

rs: B

ringi

ng th

e cl

assr

oom

bac

k in

to

disc

ussi

ons

of te

ache

r qua

lity.

Pri

ncet

on, N

J: E

duca

tion

al T

esti

ng S

ervi

ce.

Des

crip

tion

: Res

earc

hers

ana

lyze

d 19

96 N

AEP

mat

hem

atic

s an

d sc

ienc

e da

ta

for 8

th-g

rade

rs to

inve

stig

ate,

am

ong

othe

r que

stio

ns, w

hat a

spec

ts o

f tea

cher

pr

ofes

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al d

evel

opm

ent r

esul

t in

incr

ease

d st

uden

t ach

ieve

men

t.

Met

hodo

logy

: One

-yea

r des

crip

tive

surv

ey a

naly

sis

• n

=7,1

46 8

th g

rade

rs fo

r mat

hem

atic

s an

d 7,

776

8th

grad

ers

for s

cien

ce.

• S

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent m

easu

red

usin

g th

e 19

96 N

atio

nal A

sses

smen

t of

Educ

atio

nal P

rogr

ess

(NAE

P)

Find

ings

: In

mat

hem

atic

s, s

tude

nts

of te

ache

rs w

ho p

artic

ipat

ed in

PD

for

teac

hing

div

erse

stu

dent

s w

ere

107%

of a

gra

de le

vel a

head

of t

heir

peer

s in

m

ath.

Stu

dent

s w

hose

teac

hers

par

ticip

ated

in P

D in

hig

her-o

rder

thin

king

ski

lls

wer

e 40

% o

f a g

rade

leve

l ahe

ad o

f the

ir pe

ers.

In S

cien

ce, P

D in

labo

rato

ry s

kills

was

ass

ocia

ted

with

stu

dent

s be

ing

44%

of

a gr

ade

leve

l ahe

ad, c

ompa

red

to s

tude

nts

with

teac

hers

who

did

not

hav

e th

is P

D. H

owev

er, P

D in

cla

ssro

om m

anag

emen

t was

ass

ocia

ted

with

37%

of a

gr

ade

leve

l beh

ind

thei

r pee

rs fo

r sci

ence

, rai

sing

que

stio

ns a

bout

the

natu

re o

f th

e PD

off

ered

.


Appendix C: Elements of Effective Professional Development by Study

Note: “NS” indicates not specified in study.

Seven Elements of Effective Professional Development1. They are content focused.2. They incorporate active learning strategies.3. They engage teachers in collaboration.4. They use models and/or modeling.5. They provide coaching and expert support.6. They include opportunities for feedback and reflection.7. They are of sustained duration.

Study

Activ

e Le

arni

ng

Coac

hing

/Exp

ert

Supp

ort

Colla

bora

tive

Cont

ent-F

ocus

ed

Feed

back

Refl

ectio

n

Mod

els/

Mod

elin

g

Sust

aine

d D

urat

ion

Allen, J. P., Pianta, R. C., Gregory, A., Mikami, A. Y., & Lun, J. (2011). An interaction-based approach to enhancing secondary school instruction and student achievement.

X X X X X X X

Allen, J.P., Hafen, C.A., Gregory, A.C., Mikami, A.Y. & Pianta, R. (2015). Enhancing secondary school instruction and student achievement: Replication and extension of the My Teaching Partner-Secondary intervention.

X X X X X X X

Antoniou, P. and Kyriakides, L. (2013). A Dynamic Integrated Approach to teacher professional development: Impact and sustainability of the effects on improving teacher behavior and student outcomes.

X X X X X X X NS

Buczynski, S. & Hansen, C. B. (2010). Impact of professional development on teacher practice; Uncovering connections.

X X X X NS X X X

Buysse, V., Castro, C.C., & Peisner-Feinberg (2010). Effects of a professional development program on classroom practices and outcomes for Latino dual language learners.

X X X X X X X X

Campbell, P. F., & Malkus, N. N. (2011). The impact of elementary mathematics coaches on student achievement.

X X X X X X X NS


Study

Activ

e Le

arni

ng

Coac

hing

/Exp

ert

Supp

ort

Colla

bora

tive

Cont

ent-F

ocus

ed

Feed

back

Refl

ectio

n

Mod

els/

Mod

elin

g

Sust

aine

d D

urat

ion

Carpenter, T.P., Fennema, E., Peterson, P.L., Chiang, C., & Loef, M. (1989). Using knowledge of children’s mathematics thinking in classroom teaching: An experimental study.

X X X X X X X X

Doppelt, Y., Schunn C.D., Silk, E.M., Mehalik, M.M., Reynolds, B. & Ward, E. (2009). Evaluating the impact of facilitated learning community approach to professional development on teacher practice and student achievement.

X X X X X X X X

Finkelstein, N., Hanson, T., Huang, C. W., Hirschman, B., & Huang, M. (2010). Effects of problem based economics on high school economics instruction.

X X X X X X X X

Gallagher, H. A., Woodworth, K. R., & Arshan, N. L. (2015). Impact of the National Writing Project’s College-Ready Writers program in high-need rural districts.

X X X X X X X X

Gersten, R. Dimino, J., Jayanthi, M., Kim, J. S., & Santoro, L.E. (2010). Teacher study group: Impact of the professional development model on reading instruction and student outcomes in first grade classrooms.

X X X X X X X X

Greenleaf, C. L., Hanson, T. L., Rosen, R., Boscardin, D. K., Herman, J., Schneider, S. A. (2011). Integrating literacy and science in biology: Teaching and learning impacts of reading apprenticeship professional development.

X X X X NS X X X

Heller, J. I., Daehler, K. R., Wong, N., Shinohara, M., & Miratrix, L. W. (2012). Differential effects of three professional development models on teacher knowledge and student achievement in elementary science.

X X X X X X X X

Johnson, C. C. & Fargo, J. D. (2014). A study of the impact of transformative professional development on Hispanic student performance on state mandated assessments of science in elementary school.

X X X X X X X X


Study

Activ

e Le

arni

ng

Coac

hing

/Exp

ert

Supp

ort

Colla

bora

tive

Cont

ent-F

ocus

ed

Feed

back

Refl

ectio

n

Mod

els/

Mod

elin

g

Sust

aine

d D

urat

ion

Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Urban school reform enabled by transformative professional development: Impact on teacher change and student learning of science.

X NS X X X X X X

Kim, J. S., Olson, C. B., Scarcella, R., Kramer, J., Pearson, M., van Dyk, D., Collins, P., & Land, R. E. (2011) A randomized experiment of a cognitive strategies approach to text-based analytical writing for mainstreamed Latino English language learners in grades 6 to 12.

X X X X NS X X X

Kleickmann, T., Trobst, S., Jonen, A., Vehmeyer, J., & Moller, K. (2016). The effects of expert scaffolding in elementary science professional development on teachers’ beliefs and motivations, instructional practices, and student achievement.

X X X X X X X X

Kutaka, T. S., Smith, W. M., Albano, A. D., Edwards, C. P., Ren, L., Beattie, H. L., Lewis, W. J., Heaton, R, M., & Stroup, W. W. (2017). Connecting teacher professional development and student mathematics achievement: A 4-year study of an elementary mathematics specialist program.

X NS X X X X X X

Landry, S. H., Swank, P. R., Smith, K.E., Assel, M. A., & Gunnewig, S. B. (2006). Enhancing early literacy skills for preschool children: Bringing a professional development model to scale.

X X X X X X X X

Landry, S. H., Anthony, J. L., Swank, P. R., & Monseque-Bailey, P. (2009). Effectiveness of comprehensive professional development for teachers of at-risk preschoolers.

X X X X X X X X

Lara-Alecio, R., Tong, F., Irby, B. J., Guerrero, C., Huerta, M., & Fan, Y. (2012). The effect of an instructional intervention on middle school English learners’ science and English reading achievement.

X X X X NS X X X

Marek, E. & Methven, S. B. (1991). Effects of the learning cycle upon student and classroom teacher performance.

X NS X X NS X X X


Study

Activ

e Le

arni

ng

Coac

hing

/Exp

ert

Supp

ort

Colla

bora

tive

Cont

ent-F

ocus

ed

Feed

back

Refl

ectio

n

Mod

els/

Mod

elin

g

Sust

aine

d D

urat

ion

May, H.; Sirinides, P. M., Gray, A., and Goldsworthy, H. (2016). Reading Recovery: An evaluation of the four-Year i3 scale-up.

X X X X X X X X

McGill-Franzen, A., Allington, R. L., Yokoi, L., & Brooks, G. (1999). Putting books in the classroom seems necessary but not sufficient.

NS NS NS X NS NS X X

Meissel, K., Parr, J. M., Timperley, H. S. (2016). Can professional development of teachers reduce disparity in student achievement?

X X X X X X X NS

Meyers, C. V., Molefe, A., Brandt, W. C., Zhu, B., & Dhillon, S. (2016). Impact Results of the eMINTS Professional Development Validation Study.

X X X X X X X

Newman, D., Finney, P. B., Bell, S., Turner, H., Jaciw, A., Zacamy, J. L., & Gould, L. F. (2012). Evaluation of the effectiveness of the Alabama Math, Science, and Technology Initiative (AMSTI).

X X X X X X X X

Penuel, W. R., Gallagher, L. P., & Moorthy, S. (2011). Preparing teachers to design sequences of instruction in earth systems science: A comparison of three professional development programs.

X X NS X NS X X X

Polly, D., McGee, J., Wang, C., Martin, C., Lambert, R., & Pugalee, D.K. (2015). Linking professional development, teacher outcomes, and student achievement: The case of a learner-centered mathematics program for elementary school teachers.

X X X X NS X X X

Powell, D. R., Diamond, K. E., Burchinal, M. R., & Koehler, M. J. (2010). Effects of an early literacy professional development intervention on Head Start teachers and children.

X X X X X X X X

Roth, K. J., Garnier, H. E., Chen, C., Lemmens, M., Schwille, K., & Wickler, N. I. Z. (2011). Video-based lesson analysis: Effective science PD for teacher and student learning.

X X X X X X X X


Study

Activ

e Le

arni

ng

Coac

hing

/Exp

ert

Supp

ort

Colla

bora

tive

Cont

ent-F

ocus

ed

Feed

back

Refl

ectio

n

Mod

els/

Mod

elin

g

Sust

aine

d D

urat

ion

Sample McMeeking, L. B., Orsi, R., & Cobb, R. B. (2012). Effects of a teacher professional development program on the mathematics achievement of middle school students.

X X NS X NS X X X

Saxe, G. B., Gearhart, M., & Nasir, N. S. (2001). Enhancing students’ understanding of mathematics: A study of three contrasting approaches to professional support.

X X X X NS X X X

Shaha, S. H. & Ellsworth, H. (2013). Predictors of success for professional development: Linking student achievement to school and educator successes through on-demand, online professional learning.

X X NS NS X X NS

Taylor, J. A., Roth, K., Wilson, C., Stuhlsatz, M, & Tipton, E. (2017). The Effect of an Analysis-of-Practice, Videocase-Based, Teacher Professional Development Program on Elementary Students’ Science Achievement.

X X X X X X X X

Total: 34(1 NS)

30(4 NS)

32(3 NS)

31(1 NS)

24(11 NS)

34(1 NS)

35 3(4 NS)


Endnotes

1. Hill, H. C., Beisiegel, M., & Jacob, R. (2013). Professional development research: Consensus, crossroads, and challenges. Educational Researcher, 42(9), 476–487.

2. TNTP. (2015). The mirage: Confronting the hard truth about our quest for teacher development. Brooklyn, NY: TNTP.

3. Easton, L. B. (2008). From professional development to professional learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 89(10), 755–761; Fullan, M. (2007). The new meaning of educational change, 4th edition. New York City, NY: Teachers College, Columbia University.

4. Fullan, M. (2007). The new meaning of educational change, 4th edition, 35. New York City, NY: Teachers College, Columbia University.

5. Wei, R. C., Darling-Hammond, L., & Adamson, F. (2010). Professional development in the United States: Trends and challenges (Vol. 28). Dallas, TX: National Staff Development Council.

6. Buczynski, S. & Hansen, C. B. (2010). Impact of professional development on teacher practice: Uncovering connections. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(3), 599–607; Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Urban school reform enabled by transformative professional development: Impact on teacher change and student learning of science. Urban Education, 45(1), 4–29; Santagata, R., Kersting, N., Givvin, K. B., & Stigler, J. W. (2010). Problem implementation as a lever for change: An experimental study of the effects of a professional development program on students’ mathematics learning. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 4(1), 1–24.

7. Darling-Hammond, L., Wei, R. C., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession. Washington, DC: National Staff Development Council; Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational researcher, 38(3), 181–199; Hill, H. C., Beisiegel, M., & Jacob, R. (2013). Professional development research: Consensus, crossroads, and challenges. Educational Researcher, 42(9), 476–487.

8. Dash, S., Magidin de Kramer, R., O’Dwyer, L. M., Masters, J., & Russell, M. (2012). Impact of online professional development or teacher quality and student achievement in fifth grade mathematics. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 45(1), 1–26; Garet, M. S., Wayne, A. J., Stancavage, F., Taylor, J., Walters, K., Song, M., Brown, S., Hurlburt, S., Zhu, P., Sepanik., S., & Doolittle, F. (2010). Middle School Mathematics Professional Development Impact Study: Findings After the First Year of Implementation. NCEE 2010-4009. National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED509306.pdf (accessed 5/8/17); Garet, M. S., Heppen, J. B., Walters, K., Parkinson, J., Smith, T. M., Song, M., Garrett, R., Yang, R., Borman, G. D., & Wei, T. E. (2016). Focusing on Mathematical Knowledge: The Impact of Content-Intensive Teacher Professional Development. National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20164010/pdf/20164010.pdf (accessed 5/8/17); & Randel, B., Apthorp, H., Beesley, A. D., Clark, T. F., & Wang, X. (2016). Impacts of professional development in classroom assessment on teacher and student outcomes. The Journal of Educational Research, 109(5), 491–502.

9. Randel, B., Apthorp, H., Beesley, A. D., Clark, T. F., & Wang, X. (2016). Impacts of professional development in classroom assessment on teacher and student outcomes. The Journal of Educational Research, 109(5), 491–502.

10. Dash, S., Magidin de Kramer, R., O’Dwyer, L. M., Masters, J., & Russell, M. (2012). Impact of online professional development or teacher quality and student achievement in fifth grade mathematics. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 45(1), 1–26.

11. Garet, M. S., Wayne, A. J., Stancavage, F., Taylor, J., Eaton, M., Walters, K., Song, M., Brown, S., Hurlburt, S., Zhu, P., Sepanik, S., & Doolittle, F. (2011). Middle School Mathematics Professional Development Impact Study: Findings after the Second Year of Implementation. NCEE 2011-4024. National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED519922.pdf (accessed 5/8/17).

12. Garet, M. S., Heppen, J. B., Walters, K., Parkinson, J., Smith, T. M., Song, M., Garrett, R., Yang, R., Borman, G. D., & Wei, T. E. (2016). Focusing on mathematical knowledge: The impact of content-intensive teacher professional development. National Center for Education Statistic. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20164010/pdf/20164010.pdf (accessed 5/8/17).

http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED509306.pdf

https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20164010/pdf/20164010.pdf







13. Santagata, R., Kersting, N., Givvin, K. B., & Stigler, J. W. (2011). Problem implementation as a lever for change: An experimental study of the effects of a professional development program on students’ mathematics learning. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 4(1), 1–24.

14. Darling-Hammond, L., Wei, R. C., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession. Washington, DC: National Staff Development Council; Stein, M. K., Smith, M. S., & Silver, E. (1999). The development of professional developers: Learning to assist teachers in new settings in new ways. Harvard educational review, 69(3), 237–270.

15. For example, Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational researcher, 38(3), 181–199; Hawley, W. D., & Valli, L. (1999). The essentials of effective professional development: A new consensus. Teaching as the learning profession: Handbook of policy and practice, 127–150; National Staff Development Council. (2001). NSDC’s standards for staff development. Oxford, OH: NSDC.

16. Hill, H. C., Beisiegel, M., & Jacob, R. (2013). Professional development research: Consensus, crossroads, and challenges. Educational Researcher, 42(9), 476–487.

17. McGee, L. M. (2006). Research on Reading Recovery: What is the impact on early literacy research? Literacy, Teaching and Learning, 10(2), 1.

18. See http://readingrecovery.org/reading-recovery/teaching-children/basic-facts.

19. May, H., Sirinides, P., Gray, A., & Goldsworthy, H. (2016). Reading Recovery: An Evaluation of the Four-Year i3 Scale-Up. Philadelphia, PA: Consortium for Policy Research in Education. http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1089&context=cpre_researchreports (accessed 11/17/2016).


21. See Standards and Guidelines of Reading Recovery in the United States, Seventh Edition 2015. https://readingrecovery.org/images/pdfs/Reading_Recovery/Implementation/rr_standards_and_guidelines_7ed_2015.pdf (accessed 11/17/2016).

22. Reading Recovery Council of North America. Ongoing training. http://readingrecovery.org/reading-recovery/training/ongoing-training (accessed 5/2/17).



25. Doppelt, Y., Schunn C. D., Silk, E.M., Mehalik, M.M., Reynolds, B., & Ward, E. (2009). Evaluating the impact of facilitated learning community approach to professional development on teacher practice and student achievement. Research in Science and Technological Education, 27(3), 339–354; Greenleaf, C. L., Hanson, T. L., Rosen, R., Boscardin, D. K., Herman, J., Schneider, S. A., Madden, S., & Jones, B. (2011). Integrating literacy and science in biology: Teaching and learning impacts of reading apprenticeship professional development. American Educational Research Journal, 48(3), 647–717; Heller, J. I., Daehler, K. R., Wong, N., Shinohara, M., & Miratrix, L. W. (2012). Differential effects of three professional development models on teacher knowledge and student achievement in elementary science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 49(3), 333–362; Kim, J. S., Olson, C.B., Scarcella, R., Kramer, J., Pearson, M., van Dyk, D., Collins, P., & Land, R. E. (2011) A randomized experiment of a cognitive strategies approach to text-based analytical writing for mainstreamed Latino English language learners in grades 6 to 12. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness 4(3): 231–263.

26. Penuel, W. R., Gallagher, L. P., & Moorthy, S. (2011). Preparing teachers to design sequences of instruction in Earth systems science: A Comparison of three professional development programs. American Educational Research Journal, 48(4), 996–1025.

27. Antoniou, P., & Kyriakides, L. (2013). A dynamic integrated approach to teacher professional development: Impact and sustainability of the effects on improving teacher behavior and student outcomes. Teaching and Teacher Education, 29, 1–12; May, H., Sirinides, P., Gray, A., &

http://readingrecovery.org/reading-recovery/teaching-children/basic-facts

http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1089&context=cpre_researchreports




https://readingrecovery.org/images/pdfs/Reading_Recovery/Implementation/rr_standards_and_guidelines_7ed_2015.pdf

https://readingrecovery.org/images/pdfs/Reading_Recovery/Implementation/rr_standards_and_guidelines_7ed_2015.pdf

http://readingrecovery.org/reading-recovery/training/ongoing-training

http://readingrecovery.org/reading-recovery/training/ongoing-training






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64. Lara-Alecio, R., Tong, F., Irby, B.J., Guerrero, C., Huerta, M., & Fan, Y. (2012). The effect of an instructional intervention on middle school English learners’ science and English reading achievement. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 49(8), 987–1011.


66. Allen, J. P., Hafen, C. A., Gregory, A. C., Mikami, A. Y., & Pianta, R. (2015). Enhancing secondary school instruction and student achievement: Replication and extension of the My Teaching Partner-Secondary intervention. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 8(4), 475–489; Shaha, S.H., & Ellsworth, H. (2013). Predictors of success for professional development: Linking student achievement to school and educator successes through on-demand, online professional learning. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 40(1), 19–26.

67. Landry, S. H., Anthony, J. L., Swank, P. R., & Monseque-Bailey, P. (2009). Effectiveness of comprehensive professional development for teachers of at-risk preschoolers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 448–465.




71. Kleickmann, T., Trobst, S., Jonen, A., Vehmeyer, J., & Moller, K. (2016). The effects of expert scaffolding in elementary science professional development on teachers’ beliefs and motivations, instructional practices, and student achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(1) 21–42.

72. Doppelt, Y., Schunn C. D., Silk, E.M., Mehalik, M. M., Reynolds, B., & Ward, E. (2009). Evaluating the impact of facilitated learning community approach to professional development on teacher practice and student achievement. Research in Science and Technological Education, 27(3), 339–354.

73. Doppelt, Y., Schunn C. D., Silk, E. M., Mehalik, M. M., Reynolds, B., & Ward, E. (2009). Evaluating the impact of facilitated learning community approach to professional development on teacher practice and student achievement. Research in Science and Technological Education, 27(3), 339–354.

74. Shaha, S.H., & Ellsworth, H. (2013). Predictors of success for professional development: Linking student achievement to school and educator successes through on-demand, online professional learning. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 40(1), 19–26.

75. Campbell, P. F., & Malkus, N. N. (2011). The impact of elementary mathematics coaches on student achievement. The Elementary School Journal 111(3), 430–454; Landry, S.H., Anthony, J. L., Swank, P. R., & Monseque-Bailey, P. (2009). Effectiveness of comprehensive professional development for teachers of at-risk preschoolers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 448–465.

76. Heller, J. I., Daehler, K. R., Wong, N., Shinohara, M., & Miratrix, L. W. (2012). Differential effects of three professional development models on teacher knowledge and student achievement in elementary science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 49(3), 333–362; Kleickmann, T., Trobst, S., Jonen, A., Vehmeyer, J., & Moller, K. (2016). The effects of expert scaffolding in elementary science professional development on teachers’ beliefs and motivations, instructional practices, and student achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(1) 21–42; May, H., Sirinides, P., Gray, A., & Goldsworthy, H. (2016). Reading Recovery: An Evaluation of the Four-Year i3 Scale-Up. Philadelphia, PA: Consortium for Policy Research in Education. http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1089&context=cpre_researchreports (accessed 11/17/2016); Polly, D., McGee, J., Wang, C., Martin, C., Lambert, R., & Pugalee, D. K. (2015). Linking professional development, teacher outcomes, and student achievement: The case of a learner-centered mathematics program for elementary school teachers. International Journal of Education Research, 72, 26–37.



77. Allen, J. P., Hafen, C. A., Gregory, A. C., Mikami, A. Y., & Pianta, R. (2015). Enhancing secondary school instruction and student achievement: Replication and extension of the My Teaching Partner-Secondary intervention. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 8(4), 475–489; Allen, J. P., Pianta, R. C., Gregory, A., Mikami, A. Y., & Lun, J. (2011). An interaction-based approach to enhancing secondary school instruction and student achievement. Science, 333(6045), 1034–1037; Greenleaf, C.L., Hanson, T. L., Rosen, R., Boscardin, D. K., Herman, J., Schneider, S. A., Madden, S., & Jones, B. (2011). Integrating literacy and science in biology: Teaching and learning impacts of reading apprenticeship professional development. American Educational Research Journal, 48(3), 647–717; Landry, S. H., Anthony, J. L., Swank, P. R., & Monseque-Bailey, P. (2009). Effectiveness of comprehensive professional development for teachers of at-risk preschoolers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 448–465.

78. Doppelt, Y., Schunn C. D., Silk, E. M., Mehalik, M. M., Reynolds, B., & Ward, E. (2009). Evaluating the impact of facilitated learning community approach to professional development on teacher practice and student achievement. Research in Science and Technological Education, 27(3), 339–354; Heller, J. I., Daehler, K. R., Wong, N., Shinohara, M., & Miratrix, L. W. (2012). Differential effects of three professional development models on teacher knowledge and student achievement in elementary science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 49(3), 333–362

79. Campbell, P. F., & Malkus, N. N. (2011). The impact of elementary mathematics coaches on student achievement. The Elementary School Journal 111(3), 430-454; Meissel, K., Parr, J. M., & Timperley, H. S. (2016). Can professional development of teachers reduce disparity in student achievement? Teaching and Teacher Education, 58, 163–173.

80. Buczynski, S. & Hansen, C. B. (2010). Impact of professional development on teacher practice: Uncovering connections. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(3), 599–607; Powell, D. R., Diamond, K. E., Burchinal, M. R., & Koehler, M. J. (2010). Effects of an early literacy professional development intervention on Head Start teachers and children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 299–312; Sample McMeeking, L. S., Orsi, R., & Cobb, R. B. (2012). Effects of a teacher professional development program on the mathematics achievement of middle school students. Journal for research in mathematics education, 43(2), 159–181.


82. Powell, D. R., Diamond, K. E., Burchinal, M. R., & Koehler, M. J. (2010). Effects of an early literacy professional development intervention on Head Start teachers and children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 299–312.



85. Gallagher, H. A., Woodworth, K. R., & Arshan, N. L. (2017). Impact of the National Writing Project’s College-Ready Writers Program in high-need rural districts. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, online; Penuel, W. R., Gallagher, L. P., & Moorthy, S. (2011). Preparing teachers to design sequences of instruction in Earth systems science: A Comparison of three professional development programs. American Educational Research Journal, 48(4), 996–1025; Roth, K. J., Garnier, H. E., Chen, C., Lemmens, M., Schwille, K., & Wickler, N. I. Z. (2011). Videobased lesson analysis: Effective science PD for teacher and student learning. Journal on Research in Science Teaching, 48(2),117–148.

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88. Landry, S.H., Anthony, J.L., Swank, P.R., & Monseque-Bailey, P. (2009). Effectiveness of comprehensive professional development for teachers of at-risk preschoolers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 448–465.

89. Landry, S.H., Anthony, J.L., Swank, P.R., & Monseque-Bailey, P. (2009). Effectiveness of comprehensive professional development for teachers of at-risk preschoolers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 448–465.

90. Landry, S. H., Anthony, J. L., Swank, P. R., & Monseque-Bailey, P. (2009). Effectiveness of comprehensive professional development for teachers of at-risk preschoolers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 448–465.

91. Gallagher, H. A., Woodworth, K. R., & Arshan, N. L. (2017). Impact of the National Writing Project’s College-Ready Writers Program in high-need rural districts. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, online; Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Urban school reform enabled by transformative professional development: Impact on teacher change and student learning of science. Urban Education, 45(1), 4–29; Landry, S. H., Anthony, J. L., Swank, P. R., & Monseque-Bailey, P. (2009). Effectiveness of comprehensive professional development for teachers of at-risk preschoolers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 448–465; Powell, D. R., Diamond, K. E., Burchinal, M. R., & Koehler, M. J. (2010). Effects of an early literacy professional development intervention on Head Start teachers and children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 299–312.

92. Allen, J. P., Hafen, C. A., Gregory, A. C., Mikami, A. Y., & Pianta, R. (2015). Enhancing secondary school instruction and student achievement: Replication and extension of the My Teaching Partner-Secondary intervention. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 8(4), 475–489; Allen, J. P., Pianta, R. C., Gregory, A., Mikami, A. Y., & Lun, J. (2011). An interaction-based approach to enhancing secondary school instruction and student achievement. Science, 333(6045), 1034–1037; Gallagher, H. A., Woodworth, K. R., & Arshan, N. L. (2017). Impact of the National Writing Project’s College-Ready Writers Program in high-need rural districts. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, online; Powell, D. R., Diamond, K. E., Burchinal, M. R., & Koehler, M. J. (2010). Effects of an early literacy professional development intervention on Head Start teachers and children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 299–312.

93. Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Urban school reform enabled by transformative professional development: Impact on teacher change and student learning of science. Urban Education, 45(1), 4–29; Lara-Alecio, R., Tong, F., Irby, B. J., Guerrero, C., Huerta, M., & Fan, Y. (2012). The effect of an instructional intervention on middle school English learners’ science and English reading achievement. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 49(8), 987–1011; Roth, K. J., Garnier, H. E., Chen, C., Lemmens, M., Schwille, K., & Wickler, N. I .Z. (2011). Videobased lesson analysis: Effective science PD for teacher and student learning. Journal on Research in Science Teaching, 48(2),117–148; Taylor, J. A., Roth, K., Wilson, C. D., Stuhlsatz, M. A., & Tipton, E. (2017). The effect of an analysis-of-practice, videocase-based, teacher professional development program on elementary students’ science achievement. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 10(2), 241–271.

94. Gallagher, H. A., Woodworth, K. R., & Arshan, N. L. (2017). Impact of the National Writing Project’s College-Ready Writers Program in high-need rural districts. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, online; Johnson, C. C., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Urban school reform enabled by transformative professional development: Impact on teacher change and student learning of science. Urban Education, 45(1), 4–29.

95. Darling-Hammond, L., Wei, R. C., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession. Washington, DC: National Staff Development Council; Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational researcher, 38(3), 181–199.

96. Knapp, M. S. (2003). Professional development as policy pathway. Review of Research in Education, 27(1), 109–157.

97. None of the reviewed studies explicitly utilized a one-off workshop as their preferred model. However, four of the studies do not specify the duration or structure for professional development sessions. Based


on the authors’ descriptions of the professional development in these five studies, we find it unlikely that the models relied on a single, isolated engagement with educators, but the description provided in the studies is insufficient to conclude that with certainty.

98. Cohen, D. K., & Hill, H. C. (2001). Learning policy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; Darling-Hammond, L., Wei, R. C., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession. Washington, DC: National Staff Development Council; Desimone, L., Porter, A., Garet, M., Yoon, K., & Birman, B. (2002). Effects of professional development on teachers’ instruction: Results from a three-year longitudinal study. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 24(2), 81–112; Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational researcher, 38(3), 181–199; Garet, M., Porter, A., Desimone, L., Birman, B., & Yoon, K.S. (2001). What makes professional development effective? Results from a national sample of teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 38(4), 915–945; McGill-Franzen, A., Allington, R.L., Yokoi, L., & Brooks, G. (1999). Putting books in the classroom seems necessary but not sufficient. The Journal of Education Research, 93(2), 67–74; Supovitz, J. A., Mayer, D. P., & Kahle, J. B. (2000). Promoting inquiry based instructional practice: The longitudinal impact of professional development in the context of systemic reform. Educational Policy 14(3), 331–356; Weiss, I. R., & Pasley J. D. (2006). Scaling up instructional improvement through teacher professional development: Insights from the local systemic change initiative. Philadelphia, PA: Consortium for Policy Research in Education (CPRE) Policy Briefs; Yoon, K. S., Duncan, T., Lee, S. W.-Y., Scarloss, B., & Shapley, K. (2007). Reviewing the evidence on how teacher professional development affects student achievement (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2007-No. 033). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Southwest.

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100. Yoon, K. S., Duncan, T., Lee, S. W.-Y., Scarloss, B., & Shapley, K. (2007). Reviewing the evidence on how teacher professional development affects student achievement (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2007-No. 033). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Southwest.

101. Allen, J. P., Hafen, C. A., Gregory, A. C., Mikami, A. Y., & Pianta, R. (2015). Enhancing secondary school instruction and student achievement: Replication and extension of the My Teaching Partner-Secondary intervention. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 8(4), 475–489; Finkelstein, N., Hanson, T., Huang, C. W., Hirschman, B., & Huang, M. (2010). Effects of problem based economics on high school economics instruction: final report. NCEE 2010-4002. National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences; Greenleaf, C.L., Hanson, T.L., Rosen, R., Boscardin, D.K., Herman, J., Schneider, S.A., Madden, S., & Jones, B. (2011). Integrating literacy and science in biology: Teaching and learning impacts of reading apprenticeship professional development. American Educational Research Journal, 48(3), 647–717; Polly, D., McGee, J., Wang, C., Martin, C., Lambert, R., & Pugalee, D. K. (2015). Linking professional development, teacher outcomes, and student achievement: The case of a learner-centered mathematics program for elementary school teachers. International Journal of Education Research, 72, 26–37; Sample McMeeking, L. S., Orsi, R., & Cobb, R. B. (2012). Effects of a teacher professional development program on the mathematics achievement of middle school students. Journal for research in mathematics education, 43(2), 159-181.


103. Campbell, P. F., & Malkus, N. N. (2011). The impact of elementary mathematics coaches on student achievement. The Elementary School Journal 111(3), 430–454; May, H., Sirinides, P., Gray, A., & Goldsworthy, H. (2016). Reading Recovery: An Evaluation of the Four-Year i3 Scale-Up. Philadelphia, PA: Consortium for Policy Research in Education. http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1089&context=cpre_researchreports (accessed 11/17/2016).

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https://learningforward.org/standards-for-professional-learning




About the Authors

Linda Darling-Hammond is President of the Learning Policy Institute and Charles E. Ducommun Professor of Education Emeritus at Stanford University. She has conducted extensive research on issues of educator supply, demand, and quality. Among her award-winning publications in this area are What Matters Most: Teaching for America’s Future; Teaching as the Learning Profession; Powerful Teacher Education; and Preparing Teachers for a Changing World: What Teachers Should Learn and Be Able to Do.

Maria E. Hyler is the Deputy Director of the the Learning Policy Institute’s Washington, DC, Office and a Senior Researcher on LPI’s Educator Quality and Deeper Learning teams. She is a co-author of The Teacher Residency: An Innovative Model for Preparing Teachers and is co-lead of a forthcoming study on teacher preparation for deeper learning. Her work focuses on structures and systems that support student success, best practices for preparing teachers to teach students of diverse backgrounds, and preparing equity-centered educators.

Madelyn Gardner is a Research and Policy Associate. She is a member of LPI’s Early Childhood Education Team and is one of the co-authors of The Road to High-Quality Early Learning: Lessons from the States. Previously she worked at the Next Generation think tank where she focused on early childhood education and work-family policy in support of evidence-based policy development in California.

Danny Espinoza is a Research Assistant on the Educator Quality and the Equitable Resources and Access teams. He is a co-author of Supporting principals’ learning: Key features of effective programs. As an undergraduate, he worked as a research assistant for the Institute for Latino Studies, assisting in studies exploring political identity formation for multiethnic voters. He also conducted research analyzing the impact and effectiveness of Chile’s national education voucher program, particularly for students of low socioeconomic background.

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The Learning Policy Institute conducts and communicates independent, high-quality research to improve education policy and practice. Working with policymakers, researchers, educators, community groups, and others, the Institute seeks to advance evidence-based policies that support empowering and equitable learning for each and every child. Nonprofit and nonpartisan, the Institute connects policymakers and stakeholders at the local, state, and federal levels with the evidence, ideas, and actions needed to strengthen the education system from preschool through college and career readiness.

http://www.learningpolicyinstitute.org

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Effective Teacher Professional Development · PDF fileEffective Teacher Professional Development ... we set out to discover the features of effective PD. ... evaluation, and funding