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PART ‘A’
The illiterate of the 21st century will not be those who cannot read and write, but those who cannot learn,
unlearn, and relearn.
– Alvin Toffler
What academia today understands as continuing professional development is, indeed, at its heart a
process of learning, unlearning and relearning; indeed, the processes of staff development too are aimed
at the continual improvement of job related knowledge, skills or attitudes of teachers.
‘The relentless ubiquity of reform and innovation’ (Fullan: 2001, preface) within educational
institutions has created an imperative for those who are at the frontline of school development-the
teachers- to respond with new knowledge, new skills and new attitudes each time an innovation initiative
is launched. This is in addition to the increasingly challenging responsibilities they have to fulfil as
practitioners overwhelmed by the ‘classroom press’ (which) draws their focus to day to day effects or a
short term perspective; … isolates them from other adults, especially meaningful interaction with
colleagues;..exhausts their energy; and limits their opportunities for sustained reflection (Fullan:
2001,p33).
In some quarters the phrase ‘professional development of teachers’ carries a great deal of negative
undertones. ‘It implies a process done to teachers; that teachers need to be forced into developing; and that
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Staff development is often described as the key to creating a proficient, well-motivated and
effective staff.
a) Discuss your interpretation of staff development
b) If you were responsible for setting up a staff development policy in your
institution/department, what goals would you establish and why? Through what types of
activities/procedures would you try to fulfil those goals?
c) What role would staff appraisal play in your policy and why? What form would it take?
teachers are pretty much alike.’ (Clark: 1992, p75). Gradually though, the concept of professional
development has taken on more positive tones.
For instance, educational theorists tell us that the primary aim of staff development ‘should be to
increase the quality of pupil learning by the development of the staff potential and it should seek to
recognize the specialized needs of the individual teachers’ (McMullen:1991, p165). While the objectives
implied within this definition are better than the debilitating ‘deficit model’ of teacher education, it is
interesting to note that the development of practitioners is still largely aimed at increasing the quality of
pupil learning and only as a corollary at addressing the ‘needs’ of the teachers.
Paraphrasing Swenson, Credaro (1999) states that "globalisation" of society has generated an
impetus for ‘continual reappraisal of practices in order to maintain a competitive edge. In educational
terms, this may be interpreted as the need to update practices in keeping with the findings of international
research, and to continually conform to national trends.’
Thus, on the one hand teachers face the daily pressures of the ‘classroom press’ and on the other
they are expected to participate in the management’s bid to ‘update practices’ and to ‘continually conform
to national trends.’ The task seems Herculean to say the least but with an effective staff development
policy, it is possible for educational managers not only to update educational practices but also to ensure
that the process of learning brings not only professional benefits but also personal satisfaction to the
practitioners.
‘Change in the classroom which involves more than extending the repertoire by acquiring new skills will
mean changing attitudes, beliefs and personal theories; and reconstructing a personal approach to
teaching. (Steadman et al.in Day:1999, p155)
The next question is how that is possible and what research has been done to develop patterns of
staff development that can actually help teachers become ‘skilled, reflective, and collaborative
professionals’ committed to the cycle of their own learning in every possible way. Studies, (Lawrence in
Sparks & Loucks Horsley 1989) have also shown that ‘practitioner ownership’ of learning means that
development ‘programs with individualized activities were more likely to achieve their objectives than
were those that provided identical experiences for all participants.’
Models of Staff Development
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‘Staff development came of age in the 1980s’ (Sparks & Loucks Horsley, 1989). Although much
remains to be learnt about the processes of staff development, a number of models have been developed
and adopted for use in educational institutions at elementary, secondary and tertiary levels alike. These are
briefly discussed below to facilitate discussion on staff development policy and staff appraisal later in the
paper:
Individually guided staff development
Observation/assessment model
Involvement in a development/improvement process
Training model
Inquiry model
Individually guided staff development
The central feature of such learning is that it is self designed and self initiated which according to Rogers
(in Sparks & Loucks Horsley 1989) is the ‘only’ learning ‘which significantly influences behaviour.’ The
practitioner’s readiness to learn is motivated by task and problems which can be found in real life. Here
Ajzen’s (Kennedy & Kennedy, 1996) discussion of teacher attitudes is pertinent. Change is a key feature
of professional development and this is dependent upon what teachers know, what they think about what
they know and how they perceive key players’ perceptions about a suggested alteration or improvement to
practice. Individually guided professional learning shifts the onus of generating attitudinal change from
the management/change agent to the practitioners themselves.
From the researchers’ perspective, the main disadvantage associated with this kind of approach is that it is
largely perceptual and based on self evaluation and self report but the advantage is that it contributes to
the development of the practitioner as a reflective professional and in due course leads to the use of the
‘reflectivity’ to gain insights into practice and the use of these to transform classrooms into active learning
communities.
The observation/assessment model
Reflection and analysis have been investigated as being central means of professional growth (Loucks
Horsley et al (in Sparks & Loucks- Horsley 1989). Observation and assessment of instruction provide
educators with data that they can reflect upon and assess for potential application to practice. Observation
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is another way of taking personal reflection one step further and its prime advantage is that it can benefit
both the observer and the observed. Clinical supervision and peer coaching are some of the forms of
observation currently in use. For effective clinical supervision, a pre conference with the person being
observed is suggested so that parameters for the session can be worked out. Following the observation,
directive or collaborative or non directive conferences can be arranged depending on the abstract
reasoning capabilities of the individual who has been observed. Peer coaching is another mode of
observation and involves a more collegial approach in which a colleague teacher visits the classroom of
the teacher being observed, gather objective data about the teacher’s practice or student learning and
provide feedback in a follow up conference.
Involvement in a development/improvement process
Often the involvement of teachers in the development or adaptation of curriculum or design programs or
any form of systematic school improvement can result in secondary learning which is the actual
professional development of the educators. Teachers involved in such processes can acquire a repertoire of
skills such as the ability to communicate, negotiate, solve problems etc.
The Inquiry model
Schon (1995: p68&69) writes that 'when someone reflects in action, he becomes a researcher in the
practice context and……..is not dependent on the categories of established theory and technique, but
constructs a new theory of the unique case.....he does not keep means and ends separate, but defines them
interactively as he frames a problematic situation.’ Inquiry is reflective of teachers’ ability to question
their own practice and to rationalise the most appropriate solution in accordance with their context and
values. Inquiry based model of staff development requires teachers to be action researchers and
innovators. Action Research can take the form of quality circles, problem solving groups, school
improvement projects and classroom research as a means to develop teacher thought (Glickman and Cross
in Sparks & Loucks Horsley 1989)
The Training Model
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Most educators staff development with some form of training or other ranging from preservice training to
inservice education consisting of workshops, seminars, minicourses and so on. The training model allows
the replication of behaviour in class and because training is imparted to people in groups it is deemed cost
effective. The impact of training on teachers, however, depends entirely upon its objectives and the quality
of the training program itself.
In view of the foregoing discussion and in the context of my own experience as ELT practitioner, I would
define staff development as the development of people into reflective practitioners through need specific
professional growth that can take place through patterns suited to need and context and not just a
surgically precise ‘process that is done’ to individuals for the sake of meeting reform targets.
As Fullan and Steigelbauer (in Karavas-Doukas ,1998, p38) duly emphasise: ‘educational reform will
never amount to anything until teachers become simultaneously and seamlessly inquiry oriented, skilled,
reflective, and collaborative professionals.’ That can happen only with a staff development programme
that embodies patterns responsive to the individualized needs of individual practitioners.
PART ‘B’
Ethos
Faculty, management and administrative staff are all key players in the efficient functioning of a
university and hence need to achieve the best standards of professionalism in their respective areas of
responsibilities.
Staff development opportunities can not only motivate them but also give them a sense of accomplishment
and thereby a sense of commitment to the university itself but these opportunities need to be well planned
and standardised.
Context
ABC is a decentralized, multicampus university and comprises 16 colleges/institutes. ABC has a
considerable number of faculty members, entrepreneurs (the commercialization arm of ABC),
management officials as well as administrative staff.
ABC faculty members are hired against three different categories: central pool faculty who are ‘seconded’
at the request of any college or institute prior to the commencement of a semester; regular faculty who
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serve exclusively at a particular college/institute; and, visiting faculty who are hired for a semester at a
time.
In addition to running UG, PG and PhD programmes in diverse disciplines, ABC also offers workshops,
certified courses/diplomas and seminars on a regular basis. The university also has collaborative
partnerships with international universities. Faculty members at ABC colleges/institutes usually have
managerial as well as academic responsibilities. In addition to this, faculty members are expected to lead
or engage in research projects related to their respective fields.
ABC therefore needs a staff development policy that takes into account the complexities of its
organizational structure and diverse responsibilities of its employees and that is oriented to ABC’s mission
to emerge as a centre of academic excellence nationally and internationally and as the leading player in the
indigenous development of technology.
Present Situation
Teaching Faculty
At ABC, professional development for teachers currently consists of ABC sponsorship for Postgraduate or
PhD studies at local and foreign universities, Post Doctoral Fellowships, Consultancies within industry
and in-service training and sponsored research projects. Administrative staff also receives
administration/technical staff training from time to time.
Managers
Most senior managers are either seconded government officers or retired service officers. Since a
significant number of ABC colleges were once managed by the services, it is considered a sound policy to
hire retired service personnel for the purposes of networking and coordination.
Staff
Currently ABC, being one of the leading universities in the region, can afford to hire the best staff. The
senior clerical staff, especially is drawn from the ranks of ex-servicemen and as such is well trained;
however, it is the junior non service staff that can benefit most from in-service training.
Goals
The goals would be to help ABC managers and staff:
Acquire a plurality of skills relevant to moving between work assignments
The additional goals for teaching faculty would be to:
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Enable them to become effective teachers, managers and researchers and arrange training where
necessary
Help them plan their professional development at the university so they feel a part of the
organization and also become focused on their professional growth
Enable them to become reflective practitioners capable of coping with the changing demands of
the workplace.
The managerial policies should also change or adjust to:
Become less centralized to allow for better local implementation
The rationale behind the goals
The work culture in Pakistan is very different from that found in countries like US or Britain. There is a
great deal of power distance and very little intermingling of the staff with the managers or teachers. As
such their development, while on the agenda, has to take a different direction. To attempt to change this to
suit Western practices would be to destabilise the work environment. Additionally managers and staff at
ABC are usually drawn from amongst retired service personnel; as such, they have accumulated
considerable experience and undergone considerable training. Retraining at this stage would be a
repetitious and in some cases superfluous exercise.Hence, management and staff are likely to accept the
need to develop new skills if they are considered instrumental to creating mobility especially with a view
to promotion or better pay.
The teaching faculty is truly the centre of ABC’s focus because good teachers add to the renown of the
institution. ABC does its best to hire only the best teachers and researchers available and as such is willing
to spend a great deal of money in training them or developing them further through established in-service
education procedures. Helping them plan their professional development is enabling them to focus on
their future within the organization and to feel a greater commitment to their work. Reflectivity can allow
them to develop self coping mechanisms for the contingencies of practice and workplace.
Activities/Procedures
Change in Staff Development Structure
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Staff Development at ABC is centralized. The Director Human Resources (HR) deals with the
implementation of the policy for all ABC employees. Due to funding and policy restrictions, staff
development has to remain centralized at ABC. However, it would be a good idea to appoint a Staff
Development Coordinator (SDC) at each college/institute to look after the professional development of
individual faculty members at the local level. This is also viable because as mentioned before a number of
ABC colleges/institutes are located in cities away from the University Headquarters.
Roles
Each local SDC can then have a small team that can deal with issues of planning the professional
development of each teacher under their purview and getting the plan (and requisite funding) approved by
Director HR.
INSET activities
At present information about courses, seminars and workhops has to cross so many channels that by the
time it reaches the college level, some of the registration dates have actually closed. Activities planned at
local level are usually implemented more effectively. The SDC office can also take on the responsibility
of communicating such information more effectively.
Setting up of Action Research Projects
Understandably, ABC faculty are keen to make their mark in the research field; this leaves them little
incentive to undertake classroom research to improve their practice. Mini grants could be made available
for research of this kind so that it is taken seriously. Projects of these kinds would also help faculty
members become more collegial and less clique bound in terms of their work.
Mentoring
A comprehensive mentoring programme needs to be instituted as part of the staff development policy at
ABC. The mentors could help to induct new faculty members (mentoring for induction), enable mentees
to follow their practice (mentoring for best practices) or simply provide the support that is usually missing
in hierarchical organizational structures.
Monitoring
At ABC, appraisal of the faculty members takes place through two main channels: student feedback and
classroom observation. Appraisal for the most part is seen as the exertion of managerial control and a
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source of threat. Individual appraisers, such as Heads of Department in some cases have established good
rapport with junior colleagues and are able to offer advice and feedback rather than judgement on their
performance.
However,the appraisal system at ABC needs to be standardized and improved so that it is seen as
developmental rather than judgemental.
PART ‘C’
Appraisal plays an extremely important part in ensuring that a ‘systematic framework for ensuring that
difficulties are registered and appropriate action implemented to try to overcome weaknesses, support
strengths and encourage potential (McMullen:1991,p174) exists for the ongoing development of staff.
Yet appraisal has garnered ambivalent responses. Bartlett (1998) writes that ‘the history of teacher
appraisal may be viewed as part of the continuing struggle and tension between the developing of
teaching as a profession and the growth of managerial control with its concomitant deskilling of the work
of teachers.’
A fragmented, performance oriented appraisal system already exists at ABC, but again there are individual
variations in its implementation. Most of the time the faculty evaluation is based on student feedback and
appraisal is conducted by the Heads of Departments through the observation/assessement model although
not all suggested phases of the activity-such as negotiation of areas to be covered or pre observation
conferences-are necessarily followed. Appraisals have never been known to be conducted through
interviews. Most faculty members believe that observation sessions are conducted only for the purposes of
paperwork rather than for true professional development.
Role of Staff Appraisal
In the policy for ABC, appraisal would be used to ‘overcome weaknesses, support strengths and
encourage potential.’ At ABC, where appraisal is chiefly seen as a paper pushing exercise or at worst a
control mechanism it is better that the ABC SD policy should project appraisal as developmental. To make
this happen, the policy should
Distinguish between performance reviews and appraisals
make appraisals mandatory for all faculty members regardless of seniority or managerial position
put framework into place to ensure appraisers receive adequate training
make provisions for external appraisers
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link up appraisals by setting achievable targets to be discussed in next session
encourage peer appraisals as a way of encouraging collegiality and the growth of a learning
community
The Rationale for Staff Appraisal
It is important to make the distinction between appraisal for professional development and appraisal for
judgement purposes because unless the distinction is made, the appraisee will view the appraiser with
hostility and not be willing to take onboard any ensuing feedback.
If the appraisal is extended to everyone it is seen as more democratic and less threatening. However, in the
case of ABC who appraises who will have to be enunciated very clearly in the policy itself to resolve
potential authority issues.
Without adequate training, appraisers are not likely to understand enough to make the feedback
meaningful for the appraisee. Appraisers also find it difficult to carry out the appraisals if they are not
comfortable with the techniques of observation or interviewing therefore training is needed in these skills.
External appraisers can be brought in to create the assurance that institutional politics and biases will not
affect the appraisal process as well as to generate a more objective appraisal.
Unless targets are set and reviewed at the following session, the activity is likely to be seen as
meaningless, therefore appraisers need to set the targets and appraisees need to try and fulfil those targets.
Peer appraisals, where the teachers are at the same level of seniority, are also likely to produce more
collegiality amongst professionals and goodwill for the process of appraisal on the whole.
The Form of Staff Appraisal
Appraisal can be conducted through:
Interviews
Observation
Self Evaluation
Group Appraisals
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For ABC, a combination of these would be effective for staff appraisal. One to one interviews are valuable
because they give the individual a chance to interact with his/her manager, to share ideas and concerns and
to gain advice and feedback. Observation is useful only if the observer is trained and knows what he is
looking for; it would be better for the policy to delineate the potential areas of interest to appraiser and
appraisee so that observations are focused rather than haphazard. Self Evaluation is another potential way
to conduct appraisal although the appraiser will need a close knowledge of the appraisee’s work and will
need to combine other forms of appraisal before producing feedback of any kind. A large number of
people with common background and work interests can be appraised as a group if that is what they feel
comfortable with. This is a less time consuming way of conducting appraisals but the appraiser will need
to be considerably experienced and skilled in attempting this kind of exercise because there will be a lot
more to contend with in terms of group dynamics and so on.
Conclusion
The updating of an institution’s staff development policy is vital if the institution wants to remain
responsive to changing trends. The patterns/models of staff development discussed earlier are found in
some degrees or the other in ABC’s existing policies and the staff practices. However ABC does need to
focus on individually guided learning and the inquiry based model as the current trends in the professional
development indicate that individuals need to become autonomous and reflective practitioners and this is
difficult to achieve within an organization that exerts strict managerial control yet has aspirations to create
educational practice that is innovative and flexible.
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Education. 24/2
2. Credaro, A. 1999.’ Innovation and Change in Education.’ 15/3/06
http://www.geocities.com/koalakid_1999/UNIVERSITY/change.HTM
3. Day, C. 1999. Developing Teachers: the challenges of Lifelong Learning. London: Falmer
4. Everard, K.B, and G, Morris.1996. Effective School Management. London: Paul Chapman.
5. Fullan, M. 2001. The New Meaning of Educational Change. New York and London: Teachers
College Press
6. Karavas-Doukas, K.1998. ‘Evaluating The Implementation of Educational Innovations; Lessons
from the Past’, in P.Rea Dickins and K.P.Germaine (eds.) Managing Evaluation and Innovation
in Language Teaching. London and New York : Longman
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