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What is the appropriate number of words in a set for the most effective recall in intentional learning?
Graduation Thesis
Presented to
the Faculty of the Department of
English Language and Literature
Notre Dame Seishin University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the Degree
Bachelor of Arts
by
Miki Terai
2018
Contents
Abstract
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 What is memory? 2
1.2.2 Kinds of memory 3
1.2.3 Episodic memory 6
1.2.4 Semantic memory6
1.2.5 Procedural memory7
1.2.6 Implicit memory 7
1.2.7 Priming 7
1.3 Forgetting 8
1.3.1 Forgetting 8
1.4 The use of memory in learning words effectively11
1.4.1 Learning types 11
1.4.2 Word Card Method, Wordlist Method11
1.5 Mnemonics 12
1.6 Previous research on the learning of word in sets14
1.7 Research Questions 16
1.8 Conclusion 17
Chapter Two: The experiment
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 The experiments18
2.2.1 Introduction to the experiment 18
2.2.2 Method 18
1) Subjects 18
2) Test design 18
3) Procedure 23
2.2.3 Results 23
1) The test data23
2) The questionnaire data25
2.3 Summary 26
Chapter 3: Discussion
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Summary of the results from Chapter Two27
3.3 Discussion of tests 27
3.4 Answering the research questions28
3.4.1 Research question 128
3.4.2 Research question 228
3.5 Implications 29
3.6. Limitations of the Experiments 29
3.7. Further research30
ii
3.8. Conclusion 30
References 31
Appendices 33
Abstract
People learn some information; numbers, faces, forms every day, and they say or write the information. However, they cannot remember all the information, and may forget it. This thesis discusses what the appropriate number of words in a set for the most effective recall is, by using the wordlist learning as an experimental tool.
In the first part of Chapter One, we described what is generally said about memory, forgetting and knowledge; the kinds of memory, the relationship between memory and forgetting, knowledge and so on.
In Chapter Two, we explained the process and the result of a test and questionnaire. To examine the best set size, Notre Dame Seishin University and Okayama University students were asked to take a test to memorize a wordlist and they answered the questionnaire by using their memory. Then we compared the scores of the tests.
In Chapter Three, we discussed the results of the tests and the
questionnaire in the detail. We found out it that the students have the
iii
ability memorize many things at one time, but they have limitation for
that. Also, the research questions were answered. We found out the
most effective set size for intentional learning was 9 words per set
and 4 times for remembering the 36 words. As we saw in Chapter One
frequent review can help retention, but over time, we still tend to
forget what we have learned. In order to store new words in Long-
term Memory, learners should memorize new words connecting the
words with something.
iv
Chapter One : Introduction to Human Memory
1.1 IntroductionToday, the world is becoming more globalized. Many people
learn languages. When people learn the new language, they have to
remember many words. If the word is unfamiliar, it is difficult to
memorize it soon. One of the important roles of brain is to memorize.
Memory is very difficult to understand. People have things to
memorize, but they sometimes cannot memorize. So, how long does
it stay in memory? What kinds of things can we memorize easily or
become difficult?
At first, we will find out what researchers say memory is. Here
is a definition.
“The use of a single term might seem to suggest that
memory is a unitary system, albeit a complicated one such
as the heart or the liver. It is not one system but many. The
systems range in storage duration from fractions of a
second up to a lifetime and in storage capacity from tiny
buffer stores to the long-term memory system that appears
to far exceed in capacity and flexibility the largest available
computer.” (Baddeley, 1990 p.4).
1
People can memorize a lot of things but they also forget them.
They can also, memorize something for a long time but forget
something rapidly too. For example, people will not forget their family
name, boyfriend’s name. because these are called “long term
memories”. On the other hand, it is difficult to remember unknown
items, like friends’ phone number. People easily forget it. It is
generally called “weak memories”. Basically, Squire (1980) divided
memory into three types; sensory memory, short-term memory, and
long-term memory, so we will see in the next section about that.
1.2 What is memory?
1.2.1 Models of memory Psychologists distinguish between three necessary stages in
the learning and memory process: encoding, storage, and retrieval
(Melton, 1963). Encoding is defined as the initial learning of
information; storage refers to keeping information over time; retrieval
is the skill to access information when we need it. For example, when
someone tells us their name at a party, you have to encode their
names while you associate their name with their faces. Then you
need to maintain the information over time. If you see them a week
later, you need to recognize their face and have it serve as a signal to
retrieve their names. Successful acts of remembering require that
three stages all be functioning.Figure1; Stages of memory
2
The multistore of model of memory was proposed by Atkinson
and Shiffrin (1968) and is a structure model (Figure 2). They proposed
that memory consisted of three stores: a sensory register, short-term
memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Information passes from
store to store in a straight way, and has been described as an
information processing model with an input, process and output.
Figure 2: Multi Store Model- Atkinson & Shiffrin
1.2.2 Kinds of memoryThis subsection is based on Atkinson & Shiffrin.Memory is our ability to encode, store, retain and recall. The
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classification is the difference between storage time, sensory
memory, working memory, and long-term memory.
Sensory memory
Sensory memory is an ability to retain impressions of sensory
information like sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. It is ultra-
short-term memory and decays or degrades very quickly, typically
in the region of 200 milliseconds after the perception of an item,
and certainly less than a second.
Short-term Memory (Working memory)
Working memory involves an ability to remember and process a
lot of information at the same time, for example when we look at a
telephone book or call someone. We remember a telephone
number as we dial, but after the call we forget it. Thus, working
memory holds a small amount of information for a short term.
Miller (1956) said the only a small amount information (7±2
words/ chunks) stays in working memory for about 20 seconds.
More recent researchers say it is 5±7 items but recently research
suggests it might be 4-6.
Long term memory(LTM)
This is a memory we keep for the long term, for example when
children try to remember their home telephone number for the
first time. At first, they forget it very quickly but they will repeat it
4
again and again, and eventually they will not forget it forever.
Another classification concerns types of LTM. LTM is divided into
two types: declarative memory and procedural (non-declarative)
memory. It is called sometimes explicit memory and implicit memory.
Declarative memories are memories which we can say/ tell what
they are. There are two types: episodic memory (e.g.: stories,
experiences) and semantic memory (e.g.: the memory of meanings,
understandings, and other concept-based knowledge). Procedural
memory consists of processes or skills which we can’t always say/ tell
what they are. It is divided into two types: procedural memory and
priming memory.
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Figure 3: Types of Human Memory: Diagram by Luke Mastin
1.2.3 Episodic memory
Episodic memory receives and stores information about
temporally dated episodes or events, and temporal-spatial relations
among these events.Some examples of episodic memory:
• The first time you traveled by airplane
• Your first day at a new job
• The movie you saw on your first date with your wife
Tulving (1972) noted that semantic and episodic memories differ
in how they operate and the types of information they process. Also
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he observed that forming a new episodic memory is affected by
information in semantic memory.
1.2.4 Semantic memory
Semantic memory is the memory necessary for the use of
language. It is structured record of facts, meanings, concepts and knowledge.Some examples of semantic memory:
• Knowing that grass is green
• Remembering what a dog is
• Knowing how to use the phone
“If a person possesses some semantic memory information, he
obviously must have learned it, either directly or indirectly, at an
earlier time, but he need not possess any mnemonic information
about the episode of such learning,” (Tulving,1972).
1.2.5 Procedural memory
Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory of how to
perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of
how to do certain things. Some examples of tasks dependent upon
procedural memory:• Playing piano
• Swimming
• Driving car
This memory is the memory that the body remembers rather than
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the mind. It’s not a specific memory you can recall, but rather the
memorizing and automatizing of the process. Language use is a
procedural memory as well.
1.2.6 Implicit memory
Implicit memory is sometimes referred to as unconscious
memory or automatic memory. Implicit memory uses past
experiences to remember things without thinking about them.
Examples of implicit memories• Performing simple cooking tasks, like boiling water for pasta
• Taking a familiar route each day, such as going to school or the
store where you shop frequently
• Buttoning a shirt
1.2.7 Priming
Priming means primary things has an effect on the following
things. For example, when people hear “teacher”, they recall
“student” or when people see the words “app_e”, they should
understand that “l” is left out. It may be “l” not “r”, but people
already know the word “apple”, so their brain interprets it as such.
Differences between implicit and explicit memoryImplicit memory differs from explicit memory, and also called
declarative memory, which involves a conscious attempt to retrieve
memories of past events. While implicit memory requires little if any
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effort to recall, explicit memory requires a more concerted effort to
bring memories to the surface. While most people can tick off the
days of the week from the time they are in grade school — which is
implicit memory — it takes explicit memory to recall that you have a
dentist appointment next Tuesday.Examples of explicit memory:
• Knowing that when the Civil War started
• Remembering your trip to Canada last summer
• Recalling the events of Tohoku disaster
1.3 Forgetting
1.3.1 ForgettingOur brain is designed not to remember but to forget. Working
memory works well when the learner has a strong will and feels a
great impact from the input.
Figure 4: The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
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The figure is proposed by Ebbinghaus (1885). He studied how words
were remembered, and how long they stayed in our memory. As we
can see from Figure 4, most forgetting happens immediately after we
learned it. The learners forget things very quickly at first, and
gradually forget less per day. The speed slows down. To retain this
knowledge, they need to re-learn it. It is called ‘rehearsal’. If people
don’t use the knowledge, and see again, they will forget soon. When
the learners really want to get some new words, they have to meet
them again and again.Savara (2010) has shown that reviewing at regular intervals
does increase retention and that over time, less frequent review is
needed.We can see this in Figure 5. It shows we should review what we
learned once after two weeks, or twice – after 2 weeks, and then after
a month.
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Figure 5: The Forgetting Curve
As we can see, the frequent review can help retention, but over time,
we still tend to forget what we have learned. This is why reviewing
and cramming for exams can caused problems in the short term. It
leads us to forget everything after we had quickly learned something.
We can say knowledge has relation to memory, so we also
show about knowledge.Knowledge is defined in the Oxford English dictionary as...
1. Special skills people get through experiences or educational.
Theoretical or practical understanding about a subject.
2. Facts and information
3. Recognition through people get through facts or situations.
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1.4 The use of memory in learning words effectively
Previous research into vocabulary learning methods
1.4.1 Learning types - Intentional learning and Incidental learningThere are two ways to learn a second language.
One view is intentional study. It means committing to memory
thousands of words (their meanings, sounds, and spellings) and some
of grammar rules by plan or intention. The other is incidental study. It involves the picking up of the
words and structures, by engaging in a variety of communicative
activities, especially reading and listening activities, while which
learner’s attention is focused on the meaning rather than on the form
of language (Hulstijn, 2003). It means much of the burden of
intentional learning can be taken off the shoulders of the language
learner by processes of incidental learning.
1.4.2 Word Card Method, Wordlist MethodFukuda (2010) mentioned that there were some benefits of
word card learning below.1. Learners can memorize the words in random order by
shuffling the cards. Learners can memorize the words in
various sequences incidentally (Nation, 2001).2. Learners can classify the words as memorized words or not,
so that they intensively learn words they have not
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memorized (Nakata, 2008).On the other hand, he also noted the good point of the wordlist
method is that learners can see the unknown words all together.
However, the weak point is the word order is in serial order, so as we
remember the list order, the retrieval practice effect often happens
(Baddeley, 1997).
Mnemonics
1.5 MnemonicsMnemonic devices are methods to aid memory. The word
Mnemonic originated from the ancient Greek word uvnuocikos
(mnemonikos) which means “memory”. It is a type of intentional
learning and helps us retain and recall larger pieces of information. Mnemonics improves memory, and helps to store information
in long term memory to make it easier to recall because our brain has
evolved to code and interpret complex information such as images,
colors, positions, emotions, and languages. Miller (1967) showed that mnemonics increases recall. In this
experiment mnemonics were taught to learners in advance as it takes
only 15-20 seconds to memorize the mnemonic that will help learners
remember. The test was given 2-3 weeks later, and the learners who
used mnemonics increased their test score up to 77%. There are many types of mnemonics. It is difficult to show all
mnemonics, but here are some examples.
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Music mnemonics
People can remember lyrics. Music can used to help students
recall important details for main ideas and many learners have
made songs out of information when a list of items must be
learned. For example: some children learn the ABC's by singing
the "ABC" song. Other children learn all the states in alphabetical
order using the "50 Nifty United States" song.
Name Mnemonics
In a Name Mnemonic, each of the initial letter is used to make
a name of a person or thing. For example: ROY G. BIV = colors
of the spectrum (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo,
Violet.)
Names of Expressions Mnemonics
This is the most popularly used mnemonic. To make an Expression
or Word mnemonic, the first letter of each item in a list is arranged
to form a phrase or word. For example: The 7 coordinating
conjunctions are For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So = FANBOYS
Spelling Mnemonics
Here is an example of a spelling mnemonic: A principal at a school
is your pal, and a principle you believe or follow is a rule. Another
example: to spell Mississippi, many learners combine a Rhythm
Mnemonic with a Spelling mnemonic: M-iss-iss-ipp-i.
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1.6 Previous research on the learning of word in sets
There is little evidence to support set size standards. Gordon
(2003) showed that learning rates decrease above a set size of about
6-9. In EFL it is standard to ask students to learn in sets no larger than
12, with a common number being 8-10 (personal communication,
Waring 2017).Nation (2000) proposed that learning related words at the
same time makes learning them more difficult. We can avoid this
difficulty if related words are learned separately, as they are when
learning from normal language use. Nation recommended we should
learn words of related meanings together so that learners can see the
distinctions between them and gain a reasonably complete coverage
of a defined area of meaning. We do should not teach opposites (e.g.,
hot-cold, long-short, old-young), and lexical sets (e.g., banana-orange-
apple). Of course, we have good points to learn in set.The justification of doing this way• requires less learning to learn words in a set (Neuner, 1992);
• is easier to retrieve related words from memory;
• helps learners see how knowledge can be organized (Dunbar,
1992);
• reflects the way such information is stored in the brain; and
• makes the meaning of words clearer by seeing how they
relate to and are different from other words in the set.
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However a growing body of research indicates that this way of
presenting new vocabulary is making learning much more difficult
than it should be.According to this research, it takes longer to learn words that
relate to each other in certain ways than it takes to learn words that
are unrelated to each other or that are related to each other in a kind
of story line. Nation noted that learning related words in sets is not a
good idea for initial learning. As learners’ knowledge becomes more
established, seeing related words in sets can have a more positive
effect.
1.7 Research Questions
We have seen what memory and forgetting is, and the
differences of kinds of memory and knowledge. However, the
students may not know how much unknown information they can
memorize, and what is the optimal size when learning new semantic
information such as words.
The experiment in this thesis will try to discover the most appropriate
number of words in a set for the most effective recall.
1. What set size is best for the intentional learning of wordlists?2. What do the subjects think about the variables in the
experiment?
16
1.8 Conclusion
In this chapter, we have looked at the types of memory. There are
several views about working memory span. Miller (1956) said 7±2
things are memorized at one time in adult average. In Chapter Two,
we will examine to see how many words in a set leads to the most
effective recall.
17
Chapter 2: The Experiment
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we will find out the best memorizing sizes and
sets for subjects.
2.2 The (experiment / questionnaire)
2.2.1 Introduction to the experiment
The experiment was designed to find out the appropriate
number of words in a set for the most effective recall. The appropriate
number will be determined by data from the test and comparing the
immediate test with the delay test. Also we examined the correlation
between effective memorization and memorizing preference by
comparing with their test score.
2.2.2 Method
1) Subjects
45 third or fourth grade students in Notre Dame Seishin
University and Okayama University participated in this experiment.
The students of Notre Dame Seishin University had studied English for
more than eight years, and their major was English linguistics or
literature.
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2) Test design
In this experiment, three set sizes for memorizing methods
were tested. The first was 6 sets of 6 words 6 (totaling 36 words). The
second was the same 36 words tested as 4 sets of 9 words, and the
same 36 words tested as the third set was 3 sets of 12 words. The
aim was to see whether students learned better in bigger or smaller
set. In the 6 set method, everybody memorized 6 verbs at one time,
each followed by quizzes about the world, which acted as distractors.
All questions were designed by the researcher. First, they were asked
to memorize 6 verbs that they hadn’t know with Japanese translations
by google form as much as they want to use time. After that, they
were asked to do quizzes about the world. This is the break time
without English, and on the next page, they were asked to write the 6
verbs with Japanese translation. Here is an example.
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Please learn these words.Render ~の状態にする
Dilute 希薄 (化)する
Confound 混乱させる
Overlap 重なる
Please go to next page if you finished memorizing these words.
Please do these quizzes.Q. Which is the biggest country in the world?
Russia United states Canada
Etc…
Test A The instructions were “Please write the Japanese words for
these English words. (Please DO NOT use like dictionary and internet
because want to know exactly what you remember.) If you don’t
know the answer, please write “I don’t know.” Here are two
examples*
Dilute __________________Confound __________________
9bPlease learn these words.
Dilute 希薄化する
Inhibit 抑制する
Decay 腐敗する
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Audit 監査する
Dissolve 溶ける
Undermine 徐々に弱らせる
Accelerate 加速する
Mediate 仲介する
Swell 腫れる
Please do these quizzes.
Q. Where is the country the most visit to Japan?
China United states Korea
Etc…
In the 9 set method, everybody memorized 9 verbs at one
time, each followed by quizzes about the world, which acted as
distractors. All questions were designed by the researcher. First, they
were asked to memorize 9 verbs that they hadn’t know with Japanese
translations by Google Forms as much as they want to use time. After
that, they were asked to do quizzes about the world. This is the break
time without English, and on the next page, they were asked to write
the 9 verbs with Japanese translation. Here is an example.
Test B
The instructions given were “Please write the Japanese words
for these English words. (Please DO NOT use like dictionary and
21
internet because want to know exactly what you remember.) If you
don’t know the answer, please write “I don’t know.” Here are two
examples*
Audit ___________________
Dissolve ____________________
In the 12 set method, everybody memorized 12 verbs at one
time, each followed by quizzes about the world, which acted as
distractors. All questions were designed by the researcher. First, they
were asked to memorize 12 verbs that they hadn’t know with
Japanese translations by google form as much as they want to use
time. After that, they were asked to do quizzes about the world. This
is the break time without English, and on the next page, they were
asked to write the 12 verbs with Japanese translation. Here is an
example.
22
12c
Please learn these words.
Inhibit 抑制する
Dissolve 溶ける
Mediate 仲介する
Allocate 割り当てる
Deceive 欺く
Interfere 干渉する
Degrade (人に)敬意をもたずに接する
Precipitate 引き起こす
Transcribe ~を文字に起こす
Manipulate 操る
Flip 素早く (さっと)動く
Weave 織る
Please do these quizzes.
Which country is the best GNI per a person?
Qatar
Switzerland
Norway
Etc
23
Test C
The instructions given were “Please write the Japanese words
for these English words. (Please DO NOT use like dictionary and
internet because want to know exactly what you remember.) If you do
not know the answer, please write “I don’t know.” Here are two
examples*
Mediate ______________________
Allocate _______________________
In the end of the test, the questionnaire was designed to figure
out their interest and consciousness and memorizing.
Here is the questionnaire.
1. Please answer the questions below.
2. How many words did you know before take this test?
Almost
Many
A little
Almost never
3. This test was…
Easy
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Difficult
4. Remembering 6/9/12 words at one time is
Too much
Perfect
Too little
5. If you have any comments about this test, please
write here.
3) Procedure
The students were asked to write their names on the test. There
was no time limit. Most of the students did this test in about 30
minutes. The student could not use their dictionaries and go back to
the previous page. All the data were collected by Google forms. The
questions appear in the Appendix.
2.2.3 Results
1) The test data
The data for all subjects in the three conditions is shown in
Table 1.
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Table 1: Data for all the subjects in the three conditions
6 Times 9 Times 12 TimesMean 23.20 28.96 23.68Standard Deviation 10.34 5.92 5.43
n=15 n=14 n=14
The data shows us that the mean score across the six times for
learning wordlists was 23.20 (s.d. 10.34) and nine times for learning
wordlists was 28.96 (5.92) and twelve times for learning wordlists was
23.68 (5.43). From Table 1, we can see the highest score is the 9 set
method, on the other hand, the lowest score is the 6 set method.
However, two subjects in the 6 times group had significantly
lower scores that the others. The suspicion is that they gave up or did
not try and therefore their data have been removed. Table 2 shows
the revised data.
Table 2: Data for all the subjects except the outliers
6 Times 9 Times 12 TimesMean 25.96 28.96 23.68
Standard Deviation 8.12 5.92 5.43
n=13 n=14 n=14
The data shows us that the mean score across the 6 times for
learning wordlists was 25.96 (s.d. 8.12) and 9 times for learning
26
wordlists was 28.96 (5.92) and 12 times for learning wordlists was
23.68 (5.43) From table 2, we can see the highest score is the 9 set
method, on the other hand, the lowest score is the 12 set method.
2) The questionnaire data
Also the subjects were asked how they thought about the
tests.
Table 3: How many words did you know before take this test?
6 9 12 TotalA few 8 10 10 28 65%A lot 1 1 0 2 5%None 6 3 4 13 30%
43
Many subjects answered that they didn’t knew most of the words.
Table 4: This test was…
6 9 12 TotalDifficult 12 12 13 37 86%Easy 3 2 1 6 14%
43
Many subjects answered that this test was difficult.
Table 5: Remembering 6/9/12 words at one time is…
Opinion 6 9 12 Total
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Too little 1 0 0 1 2%perfect 7 6 8 21 49%Too many words 7 8 6 21 49%
43
2.3 Summary
In this chapter, we have looked at the experiment conducted
to determine the rate of learning words using list of words. From this
experiment, we could know many things. From the questionnaire, we
could know about that few subjects tend to forget the meaning of
words, while doing other tasks such as doing the distractors.
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Chapter 3: Discussion
3.1 Introduction
In Chapter One, we learned about human memory. In Chapter
Two, we looked at the appropriate set of words by using wordlists, by
asking NDSU students and Okayama University students to take tests.
In this chapter, we would like to analyze the results of the test and
described, and limitations of the research will be started.
3.2 Summary of the results from Chapter Two
In Chapter Two, we looked at the results for the questionnaire
and the test. All the subjects took a test one time with the wordlists
which the researcher made and decided what they should do. The
retention scores by the 9 words set method were highest in all of
tests, even though 57.1% people felt it was too much to remember 9
words at one time. It is the highest percentage of the three set sizes.
The result means the learners thought it had been enough to
remember 9 words and 4 sets at one time.
3.3 Discussion of tests
In this section, we will discuss the results of the test in detail.
As we saw in the previous research on the learning of word in sets,
the common number was 8-10 in this test. The subjects prefer to use
29
the method of 9 word sets, because it was the most effective amount
to remember by using wordlist. The subjects of using 6 word sets
method, they had only 6 words at one time in one set, but have to
learn 6 times, so they felt it was too long. Compared to that, the
subject using the 12 word set method, they had to learn 3 times, but
felt it was too many words to remember at one time. Also if they
thought that they had could remember the meaning of words, while
doing distractors, they would forget some information. Also, in this
test, 85% of the subjects answered this test was difficult, and 65% of
the subjects answered that they did not know the most of words, and
30% of the subjects did not know any of the words selected. It means
it was very hard for them to remember the new word at one time.
3.4 Research questions
We will now answer the research questions one by one.
3.4.1. What set size is best for intentional learning of wordlists?The most effective set size was 9 words per set and 4 times for
remembering the 36 words. As we saw in Chapter One frequent
review can help retention, but over time, we still tend to forget what
we have learned. In order to store new words in LTM, learners should
memorize new words connecting the words with something.
3.4.2. What do the subjects think about the variables in the
experiment?
30
Most subjects answered it was difficult. Some subjects left the
comment that it is take a long time to remember. Also some of the
subjects mentioned it is easy to forget the meaning of words after the
distractors, so I have to choose a better way to store the information
correctly.
3.5 Implications
People memorize and forget something every day. In this time,
the subjects took the test when they had free time, so some people
could focus on this test, but someone did not which may change their
feeling, physical condition, and so on. However, to keep memorizing
words permanently, they must study again and again because people
memorize many things in our daily life and then forget the
information.
3.6. Limitations of the Experiments
These are limitations to the experiment. First, we do not record
the time, so could not know how long it actually took this time. They
did not have the time limitation, so someone might take very long
time to remember the wordlist.
Secondly, the subjects were only juniors and seniors in the
university. It would have been better to research a wider range of
ages, especially not only university students. Because of this, there
may be a difference in the results of tests, and we could compare
31
different age groups.
Thirdly, the way to remember in the test was not clear. In this
test we do not know how they remembered the words such as writing
sometimes, or only reading, or if they used mnemonics, or something
else. If there had been more information, we could get more data to
analyze. Also, using mnemonics with word test may have been a good
idea.
3.7. Further research
There are some ideas to follow up this research. Firstly, we can
research to see if there is a different optimal set size between
university students and elementary students, due to the changing
function of their brain.
Secondly, if there are differences of optimal set size by their
learning level. So, in order to make stronger evidence, it would have
better to ask many more wide range of learners to take the test and
collect more data.
3.8. Conclusion
From this experiment, it can be said that the students have the
ability memorize many things at one time, but they have limitation for
that. Some of the subjects are easy to forget the meaning of words
after the distractors. In this research, the best size was 9 set size
32
method, but it is difficult to say it is the best set size, because it
depends on the types of words, or their knowledge, or condition of
their body and so on.
33
References
Books and articles
Baddeley, A.D. 1990. Human memory. Newbury House
Coady. J. T, Huckin. 1996. Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition: A Rationale for Pedagogy
Dunbar, S. 1992. Developing vocabulary by integrating language and content.
福田 昇 2010.『中学生を対象とした第二言語語彙習得に対するフラッシュ
カードの影響』
http://www.kairyudo.co.jp/general/data/contents/06-information/07-nakamuraeigo/58/58-02.pdf
Gordon, P. 2004. Numerical Cognition Without Words: Evidence from Amazonia
http://staff.um.edu.mt/albert.gatt/teaching/dl/gordon04_numerical-cognition-without-words.pdf
Hulstijn, J. 2003. Incidental and intentional learning University of Amsterdam
34
Manktelow, J. 2007. Mind Tools, essential skills for an excellent career
Miller, G. 1994 The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information
Nakata, T. 2008. English vocabulary learning with wordlists, word cards and computers: implications from cognitive psychology research for optimal spaced learning. ReCall, 20(1), 3-20
Nation, P. 2000. Learning Vocabulary in Lexical Sets: Dangers and Guidelines
Neuner, G. 1992. The role of experience in a content- and comprehension-oriented approach to learning a foreign language. In P. J. L. Arnaud & H. Béjoint, Vocabulary and applied linguistics (pp. 156- 166). London: Macmillan.
Nishi, S. 2014, Human memory.
http://www.robwaring.org/classes/seminar_class/presentations/sachiko_HUMAN_MEMORY.doc
Tulving, E. (1972) Episodic and Semantic Memory
Zimmermann, K. Live Science Contributor Memory Definition & Types of Memory Accessed August 27, 2017
https://www.livescience.com/43713-memory.html
Webpages
35
McDermott, K. and H.. Roediger III Washington University in St. Louis. Memory (Encoding, Storage, Retrieval) Accessed September 15, 2017
http://nobaproject.com/modules/memory-encoding-storage-retrieval
Merritt, A. Foreign languages: how to memorise vocabulary, Accessed October 18, 2017
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationadvice/9816185/Foreign-languages-how-to-memorise-vocabulary.html
Savara, S. The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve – And How To Overcome It. Accessed September 25, 2017
https://sidsavara.com/the-ebbinghaus-curve-of-forgetting/
PicturesAQA AS Psychology Unit 1 Memory. Multi Store Model - Atkinson &
Shiffrin Environmental Input Sensory Input (sights, sounds, etc.) Accessed November 29, 2017
Mastin, L. The Human Memoryhttp://www.lukemastin.com/humanmemory/processes.html,
Accessed November 29, 2017
Scheafer, P. Why Google Has Forever Changed the Forgetting Curve at Work Accessed November, 29, 2017
36
Appendices
Set Size Test 1調査にご協力頂き、ありがとうございます。
このテストは、① 9 個の英単語を覚える ②世界に関するクイズを解く(正答率は問
いませんので気軽に選択してください)③覚えた単語の試験 という流れで進んでい
きます。テストは a から d まであります。
*必須
名前 *
あなたの回答を調査のために使用しますがよろしいですか。 *承諾
拒否
Please learn these words.6aRender 〜の状態にする
Dilute 希薄化する
Confound 混乱させる
Overlap 重なる
Manipulate 操る
Inhibit 抑制する
個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。
以下の質問に答えてください。
面積が 1 番大きい国
ロシア
アメリカ
カナダ
37
面積が 1 番小さい国
モナコ Vバチカン
ソウル
世界一長い川
ナイル
長江
アマゾン
世界一ひろい湖
スペリオル湖
カスピ海
ビクトリア湖
世界一高い山
ゴドウィンオースチン(カラコルム)
カンチェンジュンガ(ヒマラヤ)
エベレスト(ヒマラヤ)
以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください(単純にどれくらい覚えているか知りたいので、
何も見ずに答えてください。)
もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。
Dilute *
Confound *
Overlap *
Render *
38
Manipulate *
Inhibit *
Please learn these words.6 b
Please learn these words.
Degrade (人に)敬意をもたずに接する
Allocate 割り当てる
Swap 交換する
Decay 腐敗する
Diagnose 診断する
Compensate 補償する
個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。
以下の質問に答えてください。以下の質問に答えてください
人口が一番多い国
インド
アメリカ合衆国
中国
人口が一番少ない国
ニウエ
ツバル
バチカン
人口増加率が一番高い国
ニジェール
レバノン
39
オマーン
平均寿命が二番目に長い国
スイス
シンガポール
日本
国民総所得(GNI)が一番高い国
中国
アメリカ合衆国
日本
以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください(何も見ずに答えてください)
もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。
Decay *
Diagnose *
Compensate *
Degrade *
Allocate *
Swap *
Please learn these words.6 c
Please learn these words.
Drift あてもなくさ迷う
40
Audit 監査する
Merge 合併する
Converge 集まる
Flip 素早く動く
Dissolve 溶ける
個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。
以下の質問に答えてください。以以下の質問に答えてください
1 人あたりの国民総所得(GNI)が一番多い国
カタール
スイス
ノルウェー
世界の消費税(付加価値税)の税率が一番高い国
ハンガリー
アイスランド
クロアチア,スウェーデン,デンマーク,ノルウェー
米の生産量が一番多い国(モミ量)
中国
インドネシア
インド
小麦の生産量NO.1中国
インド
ロシア
バナナの生産量NO.1中国
41
インド
フィリピン
以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください(何も見ずに答えてください。)
もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。
Merge *
Converge *
Flip *
Dissolve *
Audit *
Drift *
6dPlease learn these words.
Precipitate 引き起こす
Deceive 欺く
Initiate 始める
Undermine 徐々に弱らせる
Correlate 相互に関連がある
Utilize 利用する
個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。
以下の質問に答えてください。以
以下の質問に答えてください
42
カカオ豆の生産量が最も多い国
ガーナ
コートジボワール
インドネシア
羊の頭数が最も多い国
インド
中国
オーストラリア
自動車の輸出台数が最も多い国
日本
フランス
ドイツ
産業用ロボット稼働台数が最も多い国・地域
アメリカ合衆国
日本
中国
造船竣工量が最も多い国・地域
中国
韓国
日本
Test d以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください(何も見ずに答えてください。)
もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。
Initiate *
Undermine *
Precipitate *
43
Deceive *
Correlate *
Utilize *
6e
Reinforce (軍隊を)増強する
Accelerate 加速する
Uplift 元気づける
Denote 示す
Weave 織る
Mediate 仲介する
個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。
以下の質問に答えてください。以
以下の質問に答えてください
鉄道が一番長い国
アメリカ合衆国
ロシア
中国
1 日あたりの原油の生産量が一番多い国
サウジアラビア
ロシア
アメリカ合衆国
1 日あたりの石油の消費量が一番多い国
中国
44
アメリカ合衆国
インド
金の産出量が一番多い国
オーストラリア
中国
ロシア
インターネット利用者数割合が一番多い国
ノルウェー
アイスランド
デンマーク
以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください(何も見ずに答えてください。)
もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。
Denote
Weave
Mediate
Reinforce
Accelerate
Uplift
6fPlease learn these words.
Transcribe ~を文字に起こす
Interfere 干渉する
45
Articulate 考えをはっきり言う
Swell 腫れる
Sophisticate 洗練させる
Embed 埋め込む
個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。
以下の質問に答えてください。
以に答えてください
日本からの訪問者が一番多い国・地域
中国
アメリカ合衆国
大韓民国
日本への入国者が一番多い国・地域
台湾
大韓民国
中国
日本人が一番多い国
アメリカ合衆国
中国
オーストラリア
日本語学習者が一番多い国・地域
インドネシア
大韓民国
中国
歴代外国人相撲力士の出身が一番多い国・地域
ブラジル
モンゴル
アメリカ合衆国
46
以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください(何も見ずに答えてください。)
もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。
Interfere *
Articulate *
Swell *
Sophisticate *
Embed *
Transcribe *
このテストを受ける前にあなたはどのくらいの単語を知っていましたか? *ほとんど
たくさん
少し
全く
このテストは *簡単だった
難しかった
6 個の単語を一度に覚えるのは *多すぎる
ちょうどいい
少な過ぎる
もしこの調査の関してコメントがあれば書いてください。
47
Set Size Test 2調査にご協力頂き、ありがとうございます。
このテストは、① 9 個の英単語を覚える ②世界に関するクイズを解く(正答率は問
いませんので気軽に選択してください)③覚えた単語の試験 という流れで進んでい
きます。テストは a から d まであります。
*必須
名前 *
あなたの回答を調査のために使用しますがよろしいですか。 *承諾
拒否
9aPlease learn these words.
Dilute 希薄化する
Inhibit 抑制する
Decay 腐敗する
Audit 監査する
Dissolve 溶ける
Undermine 徐々に弱らせる
Accelerate 加速する
Mediate 仲介する
Swell 腫れる
個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。
以下の質問に答えてください。以
以下の質問に答えてください
48
日本からの訪問者が一番多い国・地域
中国
アメリカ合衆国
大韓民国
日本への入国者が一番多い国・地域
中国
台湾
大韓民国
日本人が一番多い国
アメリカ合衆国
中国
オーストラリア
日本語学習者が一番多い国・地域
インドネシア
大韓民国
中国
歴代外国人相撲力士の出身が一番多い国・地域
ブラジル
モンゴル
アメリカ合衆国
Test a以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください(単純にどれくらい覚えているか知りたいの
で、何も見ずに答えてください。)
もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。
Audit *
Dissolve *
Undermine *
49
Accelerate *
Mediate *
Swell *
Dilute *
Inhibit *
Decay *
9bPlease learn these words.
Overlap 重なる
Allocate 割り当てる
Compensate 補償する
Converge 集まる
Deceive 欺く
Utilize 利用する
Denote 示す
Interfere 干渉する
Embed 埋め込む
個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。
以下の質問に答えてください。以
以下の質問に答えてください
50
鉄道が一番長い国
アメリカ合衆国
ロシア
中国
1 日あたりの原油の生産量が一番多い国
サウジアラビア
ロシア
アメリカ合衆国
1 日あたりの石油の消費量が一番多い国
中国
アメリカ合衆国
インド
金の産出量が一番多い国
オーストラリア
中国
ロシア
インターネット利用者数割合が一番多い国
ノルウェー
アイスランド
デンマーク
以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください(何も見ずに答えてください。)
もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。
Deceive *
Utilize *
Denote *
51
Interfere *
Embed *
Overlap *
Allocate *
Compensate *
Converge *
Please learn these words.9cPlease learn these words.
Confound 混乱させる
Degrade (人に)敬意をもたずに接する
Diagnose 診断する
Merge 合併する
Precipitate 引き起こす
Correlate 相互に関連がある
Uplift 元気づける
Transcribe ~を文字に起こす
Sophisticate 洗練させる
個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。
以下の質問に答えてください。以
以下の質問に答えてください
52
カカオ豆の生産量が最も多い国
ガーナ
コートジボワール
インドネシア
羊の頭数が最も多い国
インド
中国
オーストラリア
自動車の輸出台数が最も多い国
日本
フランス
ドイツ
産業用ロボット稼働台数が最も多い国・地域
アメリカ合衆国
日本
中国
造船竣工量が最も多い国・地域
中国
韓国
日本
c以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください(何も見ずに答えてください。)
もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。
Uplift *
Transcribe *
Sophisticate *
53
Diagnose *
Merge *
Precipitate *
Correlate *
Confound *
Degrade *
Please learn these words.9dPlease learn these words.
Render 〜の状態にする
Manipulate 操る
Swap 交換する
Drift あてもなくさ迷う
Flip 素早く動く
Initiate 始める
Reinforce (軍隊を)増強する
Weave 織る
Articulate 考えをはっきり言う
個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。
以下の質問に答えてください。以
54
以下の質問に答えてください
1 人あたりの国民総所得(GNI)が一番多い国
カタール
スイス
ノルウェー
世界の消費税(付加価値税)の税率が一番高い国
ハンガリー
アイスランド
クロアチア,スウェーデン,デンマーク,ノルウェー
米の生産量が一番多い国(モミ量)
中国
インドネシア
インド
小麦の生産量NO.1中国
インド
ロシア
バナナの生産量NO.1中国
インド
フィリピン
以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください(何も見ずに答えてください。)
もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。
Drift *
Flip *
Initiate *
55
Render *
Manipulate *
Swap *
Reinforce *
Weave *
Articulate *
このテストを受ける前にあなたはどのくらいの単語を知っていましたか? *ほとんど
たくさん
少し
全く
このテストは *簡単だった
難しかった
9 個の単語を一度に覚えるのは *多過ぎる
ちょうどいい
少な過ぎる
もしこの調査の関してコメントがあれば書いてください。
56
Set Size Test 3調査にご協力頂き、ありがとうございます。
このテストは、① 12 個の英単語を覚える ②世界に関するクイズを解く(正答率は問
いませんので気軽に選択してください)③覚えた単語の試験 という流れで進んでい
きます。テストは a から c まであります。
*必須
名前 *
あなたの回答を調査のために使用しますがよろしいですか。 *承諾
拒否
12aPlease learn these words.
Inhibit 抑制する
Dissolve 溶ける
Mediate 仲介する
Allocate 割り当てる
Deceive 欺く
Interfere 干渉する
Degrade (人に)敬意をもたずに接する
Precipitate 引き起こす
Transcribe ~を文字に起こす
Manipulate 操る
Flip 素早く動く
Weave 織る
個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。
57
以下の質問に答えてください。以
以下の質問に答えてください
1 人あたりの国民総所得(GNI)が一番多い国
カタール
スイス
ノルウェー
世界の消費税(付加価値税)の税率が一番高い国
ハンガリー
アイスランド
クロアチア,スウェーデン,デンマーク,ノルウェー
米の生産量が一番多い国(モミ量)
中国
インドネシア
インド
小麦の生産量NO.1中国
インド
ロシア
バナナの生産量NO.1中国
インド
フィリピン
以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください(単純にどれくらい覚えているか知りたいの
で、何も見ずに答えてください。)
もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。
Mediate *
Allocate *
58
Deceive *
Inhibit *
Dissolve *
Manipulate *
Flip *
Weave *
Interfere *
Degrade *
Precipitate *
Transcribe *
se learn these words.12b
Please learn these words.Dilute 希薄(化)する
Audit 監査する
Accelerate 加速する
Overlap 重なる
Converge 集まる
Denote 示す
59
Confound 混乱させる
Merge 合併する
Uplift 元気づける
Render 〜の状態にする
Drift あてもなくさ迷う
Reinforce (軍隊を)増強する
個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。
以下の質問に答えてください。以
問に答えてください
カカオ豆の生産量が最も多い国
ガーナ
コートジボワール
インドネシア
羊の頭数が最も多い国
インド
中国
オーストラリア
自動車の輸出台数が最も多い国
日本
フランス
ドイツ
産業用ロボット稼働台数が最も多い国・地域
アメリカ合衆国
日本
中国
造船竣工量が最も多い国・地域
60
中国
韓国
日本
以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください(何も見ずに答えてください。)
もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。
Denote *
Confound *
Merge *
Uplift *
Render *
Drift *
Reinforce *
Dilute *
Audit *
Accelerate *
Overlap *
Converge *
Please learn these words.
61
12cPlease learn these words.
Decay 腐敗する
Undermine 徐々に弱らせる
Swell 腫れる
Compensate 補償する
Utilize 利用する
Embed 埋め込む
Diagnose 診断する
Correlate 相互に関連がある
Sophisticate 洗練させる
Swap 交換する
Initiate 始める
Articulate 考えをはっきり言う
個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。
以下の質問に答えてください。以
鉄道が一番長い国
アメリカ合衆国
ロシア
中国
1 日あたりの原油の生産量が一番多い国
サウジアラビア
ロシア
アメリカ合衆国
1 日あたりの石油の消費量が一番多い国
62
中国
アメリカ合衆国
インド
金の産出量が一番多い国
オーストラリア
中国
ロシア
インターネット利用者数割合が一番多い国
ノルウェー
アイスランド
デンマーク
以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください(何も見ずに答えてください。)
もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。
Diagnose *
Correlate *
Sophisticate *
Swap *
Initiate *
Articulate *
Decay *
Undermine *
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