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Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 1/24 Part II
Division of Wireless Communication Engineering Systems
REFERENCES
1) Radio Wave Propagation for Telecommunication Applications; H.
Sizun, Springer, 2005.
2) Introduction to RF propagation; John S. Seybold, Ph.D., John Wiley
& sons, Inc., 2005.
3) Antennas and Radio wave Propagation; Robert E. Collin, International
Student Edition.
4) Antenna: Introductory Topics in Electronics and Telecommunication;
Frank Robert Connor
5) Radio wave propagation and antennas; an introduction; John
Griffiths, 621-3841'35.
6) Antenna and Wave propagation; A. K. Gautam, Published by S. K.
Kataria & Sons, Delhi 2003.
7) Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating systems; Edward C. Jordan,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968.
8) Field and Wave Electromagnetics; David K. Cheng, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company.
9) Mathematical Handbook of Formulas and Tables; Murray R. Spiegel,
Schaum's outlines series in mathematics, McGraw Hill Book Company,
1968.
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 2/24 Part II
2. Electromagnetic Fundamentals
2.1. Electromagnetics Field Components
Electric field intensity [strength] ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ (V ๐โ )
Magnetic field intensity ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ (A mโ )
The electric and magnetic flux densities D, B are related to the field intensities
E, H via the so-called constitutive relations, whose precise form depends on
the material in which the fields exist. The simplest form of the constitutive
relations is for simple homogeneous isotropic dielectric and for magnetic
materials:
Electric flux density [displacement ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ = ฯต๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ C/m2 (coulombs/m2)
Current density]
Magnetic flux density [the magnetic ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ = ฮผ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ (Tesla = weber/m2)
induction]
Where:
๐ (epsilon) = ๐๐๐๐ F mโ (farad/m) is the permittivity of the medium.
๐๐ โ 1
36๐ร 10โ9 โ 8.854 ร 10โ12 (F mโ ) Permittivity [dielectric constant]
of a vacuum or free space.
๐๐ Is the relative permittivity of medium (dimensionless).
๐ (mu) = ๐๐๐๐ H/m (henry/m) is the permeability of the medium.
๐๐ = 4๐ ร 10โ7 (H mโ ) Permeability of a free space.
๐๐ The relative permeability of a material (dimensionless).
The units for ๐๐ and ๐๐ are the units of the ratios D/E and B/H, that is,
coulomb m2โ
volt mโ=
coulomb
voltโm=
farad
m ,
weber m2โ
ampere mโ=
weber
ampereโm=
henry
m
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 3/24 Part II
2.2. Maxwellโs Equations
2.2.1. Gaussโs law
States that the total flux of ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ = ฯต๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ from a volume (๐) is equal to
the net charge contained within ๐.
The net charge contained within ๐ is ๐ = โซ ๐ ๐๐ฃ ๐
(coulomb).
Where ๐ (rho) is the volume charge density (coulombs/m3).
Then, Gaussโs law may be written as
โฎ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝS
= โซ ๐ ๐๐ฃ
๐
โฎ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝS
= ๐1 + ๐2 = ๐ โฎ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝS
= 0
Where ๐ in above equation represents the total charge contained in the closed
volume V (enclosed by a closed surface S).
By divergence theorem we get
โฎ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝS
= โซ ๐ โ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ๐๐ฃ
๐
= โซ ๐ ๐๐ฃ
๐
= ๐
๐ โ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ = ๐ Gaussโs law
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 4/24 Part II
2.2.2. Ampereโs law
The circulation of magnetic field ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ around a closed contour C is equal to the
sum of electric current and shift current passing through the surface (S).
โฎ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ = I + โซโ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ
โtโ ๐๐ ฬ
๐C
= โซ ๐ฬ T โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ
๐+ โซ
โ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ
โtโ ๐๐ ฬ
๐
Application of stokesโ theorem, we get
โซ ๐ ร ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ๐
= โซ ๐ฬ T โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ
๐+ โซ
โ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ
โtโ ๐๐ ฬ
๐
๐ ร ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ =โ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ
โt+ ๐ฬ
T Ampereโs law
Where I = โซ ๐ฬ T โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ
S
And ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ is the current density, (Ampere/m2).
Since magnetic charge does not exist in nature. Thus the flux of B through any
closed surface (S) is always zero.
โฎ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ = 0๐
๐ โ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ = 0 Ampereโs law
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 5/24 Part II
2.2.3. Faradayโs law
A time-varying magnetic fields generates an electric field ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ. The time rate of
change of total magnetic flux through the surfaces (S), โ(โซ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝโ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ
๐)
โt is equal to
the negative value of the total voltage measured around, Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 The closed contour C and surface S associated
with Faradayโs law.
โ
โt(โซ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ
๐) = โ โฎ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ
C
Application of stokesโs theorem:
โฎ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝC
= โซ ๐ ร ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ๐
= โโ
โt(โซ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ
๐)
๐ ร ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ = โโ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ
โt Faradayโs law
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 6/24 Part II
2.2.4. Maxwellโs Equations [Conclusion]
Faradayโs law ๐ ร ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ = โโ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ
โt (2.1)
Ampereโs law ๐ ร ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ =โ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ
โt+ ๐ฬ
T (2.2)
Ampereโs law ๐ โ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ = 0 (2.3)
Gaussโs law ๐ โ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ = ๐๐(๐ก) (2.4)
Continuity equation:-
๐ โ ๐ฬ T(๐ก) = โ
๐๐๐(๐ก)
๐๐ก (2.5)
If the sources ๐๐(๐ก) and ๐ฬ T(๐ก) vary sinusoidally with time at radial (angular)
frequency ๐ (๐ = 2๐๐), the fields will also very sinusoidally and are
frequently called time-harmonic fields.
The qualitative mechanism by which Maxwellโs equations give rise to
propagating electromagnetic fields is shown in the Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 The qualitative mechanism.
For example, a time-varying current J on a linear antenna generates a
circulating and time-varying magnetic field H, which through Faradayโs law
generates a circulating electric field E, which through Ampereโs law
generates a magnetic field, and so on. The cross-linked electric and magnetic
fields propagate away from the current source.
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 7/24 Part II
If phasor fields are introduced as follows:-
๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ = Re[๐ejฯt],โ
โt๐ejฯt = jฯ๐ejฯt = jฯ๐
๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ = Re[๐ejฯt],โ
โt๐ejฯt = jฯ๐ejฯt = jฯ๐
Then, the equations (2.1) to (2.5) became
๐ ร ๐ = โjฯ๐ (2.6)
๐ ร ๐ = jฯ๐ + ๐๐ (2.7)
๐ โ ๐ = ๐๐ (2.8)
๐ โ ๐ = 0 (2.9)
๐ โ ๐๐ = โ๐๐๐๐ (2.10)
The total current density ( ๐๐) is
๐T = ฯ๐ + ๐ (2.11)
Where ฯ๐ = a conducting current density which occurs in response.
๐ (sigma) A conductivity of the medium (โง mโ ).
๐ an impressed, or source, current.
Also, ๐ = ฯต๐ (2.12) ; and ๐ = ฮผ๐ (2.13)
Substituting equations (11 & 12) into (7) gives
๐ ร ๐ = jฯ (ฯต +๐
๐๐) ๐ + ๐ = jฯฯตโ๐ + ๐ (2.14)
๐โ = ๐ +๐
๐๐= ๐โฒ โ ๐๐โฒโฒ = ๐๐๐๐
โ = ๐๐(๐๐โฒ โ ๐๐๐
โฒโฒ) (F/m) (2.15)
where ๐โฒ = ๐ (2.16)
and ๐โฒโฒ =๐
๐ (2.17)
The ratio ๐โฒโฒ ๐โฒ โ measures the magnitude of the conduction current relative to
that of the displacement current. It is called a loss tangent because it is a
measure of the ohmic loss in the medium:
๐ก๐๐๐ฟ = ๐โฒโฒ ๐โฒ โ =๐
๐๐ (2.18)
The ๐ฟ may be called the loss angle.
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 8/24 Part II
Finally Maxwellโs Equations
๐ ร ๐ = โjฯฮผ๐ (2.19)
๐ ร ๐ = jฯ๐โ๐ + ๐ (2.20)
๐ โ ๐ =๐
๐โ (2.21)
๐ โ ๐ = 0 (2.22)
๐ โ ๐ = โjฯ๐ (2.23)
๐ = Electric source current density.
๐ = Source charge density.
Convenient equation (2.19) to introduce a fictitious magnetic
current density (M), is
๐ ร ๐ = โjฯฮผ๐ โ ๐ (2.24)
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 9/24 Part II
2.3. Boundary conditions
Consider a plane interface between two media, as shown in Figure 2.3.
Maxwellโs equations in integral form can be used to deduce conditions
involving the normal and tangential fields at this interface.
Figure 2.3 Fields, currents, and surface charge at a general
interface between two media.
The time-harmonic version of equation (2.25), where S is the closed
โpillboxโ- shaped surface shown in Figure 2.4, can be written as
โฎ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ โ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝS
= โซ ๐ โ ๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ๐๐ฃ๐
= โซ ๐ ๐๐ฃ ๐
(2.25)
Figure 2.4 Closed surface S for equation (2.25).
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 10/24 Part II
In the limit as โ โ 0 , the contribution of ๐ท๐ก๐๐ through the sidewalls goes
to zero, so equation (2.25) reduces to
โ๐๐ท2๐ โ โ๐๐ท1๐ = โ๐๐๐
Or
๐ท2๐ โ ๐ท1๐ = ๐๐ (2.26)
Where ๐๐ is the surface charge density on the interface. In vector form, we
can write
๏ฟฝฬ๏ฟฝ โ (๐๐ โ ๐๐) = ๐๐ (C m2โ ) (2.27)
A similar argument for ๐ leads to the result that
๐ง ฬ โ ๐2 = ๏ฟฝฬ๏ฟฝ โ ๐1 (T) (2.28)
Because there is no free magnetic charge.
For the tangential components of the electric field we use the phasor form of
equation below
โฎ ๐ โ ๐๐C
== โjฯ โซ ๐ โ ๐๐๐
โ โซ ๐ โ ๐๐๐
(2.29)
Figure 2.5 Closed contour C for equation (2.29).
In connection with the closed contour C shown in Figure 2.5. In the limit
as โ โ 0 , the surface integral of ๐ vanishes (because ๐ = โโ๐ vanishes).
The contribution from the surface integral of ๐ , however, may be nonzero
if a magnetic surface current density ๐S exists on the surface. The Dirac delta
function can then be used to write
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 11/24 Part II
๐ = ๐S ฮด(h) (2.30)
Where โ is a coordinate measured normal from the interface. Equation
(2.29) then gives
โ๐๐ธ๐ก๐๐2 โ โ๐๐ธ๐ก๐๐1 = โ โ๐๐๐
Or
๐ธ๐ก๐๐2 โ ๐ธ๐ก๐๐1 = โ ๐๐ (2.31)
Which can be generalized in vector form as
(๐2 โ ๐1) ร ๏ฟฝฬ๏ฟฝ = ๐๐ (2.32)
A similar argument for the magnetic field leads to
๏ฟฝฬ๏ฟฝ ร (๐2 โ ๐1) = ๐๐ (2.33)
Summary
A sufficient set of boundary conditions (in the time-harmonic form) at an
arbitrary interface of materials and/or surface currents are
๏ฟฝฬ๏ฟฝ โ (๐๐ โ ๐๐) = ๐๐ (2.27)
๐ง ฬ โ ๐2 = ๏ฟฝฬ๏ฟฝ โ ๐1 (2.28)
(๐2 โ ๐1) ร ๏ฟฝฬ๏ฟฝ = ๐s (2.32)
๏ฟฝฬ๏ฟฝ ร (๐2 โ ๐1) = ๐s (2.33)
Where ๐s electric surface current density
๐s Magnetic surface current density
๐s and ๐s flow on the boundary between two homogeneous media with
parameters ๐1 , ๐1, ๐1 and ๐2 , ๐2, ๐2.
๐ธ๐ก๐๐2 = ๐ธ๐ก๐๐1 + ๐๐ (2.34)
๐ป๐ก๐๐2 = ๐ป๐ก๐๐1 + ๐ฝ๐ (2.35)
Tangent component of E and H are continuous across the boundary.
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 12/24 Part II
2.3.1. One Side Perfect Conductor (Electric Wall)
If one side is a perfect electrical conductor, shown in Figure 2.6, Many
problems in microwave engineering involve boundaries with good
conductors (e.g. metals), which can often be assumed as lossless (ฯ โโ). In
this case of a perfect conductor, all field components must be zero inside the
conducting region. The boundary conditions become
๏ฟฝฬ๏ฟฝ โ ๐ = ๐๐ (2.36)
๐ง ฬ โ ๐ = 0 (2.37)
๐ ร ๏ฟฝฬ๏ฟฝ = 0 (2.38)
๏ฟฝฬ๏ฟฝ ร ๐ = ๐s (2.39)
Or
๐tan = ๐s (2.40)
๐tan = 0 (2.41)
Figure 2.6 Magnetic field intensity boundary condition.
(a) General case. (b) One medium a perfect conductor.
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 13/24 Part II
2.4. Plane Wave Propagation in Conducting Media
In a source-free conducting medium, the homogeneous vector Helmholtzโs
equation to be solve is
โ2๐ + ๐2๐ = 0 (2.42)
Define a complex propagation constant ๐พ (gamma), a complex wave
number ๐, an attenuation constant ๐ผ (Alpha), a phase constant ๐ฝ (beta) and
intrinsic impedance ๐ (eta) for the medium as
๐พ = ๐ผ + ๐๐ฝ = ๐๐ = ๐๐โ๐๐โ1 โ ๐๐
๐๐ (mโ1) (2.43)
๐ = ๐โ๐๐โ1 โ ๐๐
๐๐ (2.44)
Where ๐ผ and ๐ฝ are, respectively, the real and imaginary parts of ๐พ, and both of
them positive quantities.
๐ผ = ๐โ๐๐
2{โ1 + (
๐
๐๐)2 โ 1} (neper mโ = Np mโ ) (2.45)
๐ฝ = ๐โ๐๐
2{โ1 + (
๐
๐๐)
2+ 1} (๐๐๐ ๐โ ) (2.46)
๐ =๐๐๐
๐พ (ฮฉ) (2.47)
Helmholtzโs equation, Eq. (2.53), becomes
โ2๐ โ ๐พ2๐ = 0 (2.48)
The solution of Eq. (2.48), which corresponding to a uniform plane wave
propagating in the +๐ง direction, is
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 14/24 Part II
๐ = ๐๐ฅ๐ธ๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅ๐ธ๐๐โ๐พ๐ง = ๐๐ฅ๐ธ๐๐โโ๐ง๐โ๐๐ฝ๐ง (2.49)
Where we have assumed that the wave is linearly polarized in the ๐ฅ direction.
2.4.1. A lossless medium
For lossless medium, ๐ = 0, then from Eq. (2.45), attenuation constant
become โ= 0 (2.50)
And from Eq. (2.46), a phase constant equal to real wave number, and
become ๐ฝ = ๐ = ๐โ๐๐ (rad mโ ) (2.51)
While, the intrinsic impedance is
๐ = โ๐ ๐โ (ฮฉ) (2.52)
2.4.2. Low-Loss Dielectric
A low-loss dielectric is a good but imperfect insulator with nonzero
conductivity, such that ๐โฒโฒ โช ๐โฒ or ๐
๐๐โช 1. Under this condition ๐พ in Eq.
(2.43) can be approximated by using the binomial expansion.
๐พ = ๐ผ + ๐๐ฝ โ ๐๐โ๐๐[1 +๐
๐2๐๐+
1
8 (
๐
๐๐)
2] (mโ1) (2.53)
From which we obtain the attenuation constant
๐ผ โ ๐
2โ
๐
๐ (Np mโ ) (2.54)
And the phase constant
๐ฝ โ ๐โ๐๐[1 +1
8 (
๐
๐๐)
2] (rad mโ ) (2.55)
The phase constant in Eq. (2.55) deviates only very slightly from its value for
a perfect (lossless) dielectric.
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 15/24 Part II
The intrinsic impedance of a low-loss dielectric is a complex quantity.
๐ = โ๐
โ[1 +
๐
๐๐๐]โ1 2โ
๐ โ โ๐
โ[1 + ๐
๐
2๐๐] (ฮฉ) (2.56)
Since the intrinsic impedance is the ratio of ๐ธ๐ฅ and ๐ป๐ฆ for a uniform plane
wave, the electric and magnetic field intensity in a lossy dielectric are, thus,
not in time phase, as they would be in a lossless medium.
The phase velocity (๐๐) is obtained from the ratio ๐ ๐ฝโ in a manner, using
Eq. (2.55), we found
๐๐ =๐
๐ฝโ
1
โ๐๐[1 โ
1
8 (
๐
๐๐)
2] (m sโ ) (2.57)
2.4.3. Good Conductor
A good conductor is a medium for which ๐โฒโฒ โซ ๐โฒ or ๐
๐๐โซ 1. Under this
condition we can neglect 1 in comparison with the term ๐ ๐๐๐โ in Eq. (2.43)
and write
๐พ โ ๐๐โ๐๐โ๐
๐๐๐= โ๐โ๐๐๐ =
1+๐
โ2 โ๐๐๐
Or ๐พ = ๐ผ + ๐๐ฝ โ (1 + ๐)โ๐๐๐๐ (mโ1) (2.58)
Where we have used the relations โ๐ = (๐๐๐ 2โ )1 2โ = ๐๐๐ 4โ =1+๐
โ2 and ๐ =
2๐๐. Eq. (2.58) indicates that ๐ผ and ๐ฝ for a good conductor are approximately
equal and both increase as โ๐ ๐๐๐ โ๐. For a good conductor
๐ผ = ๐ฝ = โ๐๐๐๐ (2.59)
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 16/24 Part II
The wave impedance (or intrinsic impedance) inside a good conductor is
๐ =๐๐๐
๐พโ โ
๐๐๐
๐= (1 + ๐)โ
๐๐
2๐= (1 + ๐)
๐ผ
๐ (ฮฉ) (2.60)
Which has a phase angle of ๐๐๐. Hence the magnetic field intensity lags
behind the electric field intensity by 45๐.
Notice that
The phase angle of the impedance for a lossless material is ๐๐จ, and
The phase angle of the impedance of an arbitrary lossy medium is
somewhere between ๐๐ and ๐๐๐.
The phase velocity (๐๐) in a good conductor is
๐๐ =๐
๐ฝโ โ
2๐
๐๐ (m sโ ) (2.61)
Which is proportional to โ๐ ๐๐๐ 1 โ๐โ .
The wavelength (๐) of a plane wave in a good conductor is
๐ =2๐
๐ฝ=
๐๐
๐= 2โ
๐
๐๐๐ (m) (2.62)
The attenuation factor is ๐โ๐ผ๐ง, amplitude of a wave will be attenuated by a
factor of ๐โ1 = 0.368 when it travels a distance (skin depth) ๐ฟ๐ = 1 ๐ผโ . The
skin depth given by
๐ฟ๐ = 1 ๐ผโ = ( 2
๐๐๐๐ )1 2โ (m) (2.62)
Since ๐ผ = ๐ฝ for a good conductor, ๐ฟ๐ can also be written as
๐ฟ๐ = 1 ๐ฝโ = ๐ 2๐ โ (m) (2.63)
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 17/24 Part II
Table 2.1 Summary of results for plane wave propagation in various media
Ex: Consider copper as ๐ = 5.8 ร 107 S m,โ ๐ = 4๐ ร 10โ7 H mโ .
Solution: the phase velocity in a good conductor media at ๐ = 3 MHz are
๐๐ = โ4๐ร3ร106
4๐ร10โ7ร5.8ร107= 720 m sโ
Which is about twice the velocity of sound in air and is many orders of
magnitude slower than the velocity of light in air.
The wavelength in copper is ๐ =๐๐
๐=
720
3ร106= 0.24 mm
As comparison, a 3MHz electromagnetic wave in air has ๐ = 100 m.
The attenuation in copper is
๐ผ = โ๐๐๐๐ = โ๐ ร 3 ร 106 ร 4๐ ร 10โ7 ร 5.8 ร 107 = 2.62 ร 104 Np mโ
The skin depth ๐ฟ๐ = 1 ๐ผโ = 0.038 mm
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 18/24 Part II
2.5. Group Velocity
If the phase velocity is different for different frequencies, then the individual
frequency components will not maintain their original phase relationships as
they propagate down the transmission line or waveguide, and signal
distortion will occur. Such an effect is called dispersion since different phase
velocities allow the โfasterโ waves to lead in phase relative to the โslowerโ
waves, and the original phase relationships will gradually be dispersed as the
signal propagates down the line. In such a case, there is no single phase
velocity that can be attributed to the signal as a whole. However, if the
bandwidth of the signal is relatively small or if the dispersion is not too
severe, a group velocity can be defined in a meaningful way. This velocity
can be used to describe the speed at which the signal propagates.
The physical interpretation of group velocity (๐๐) is the velocity at which a
narrowband signal propagates, Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 Sum of two time-harmonic traveling waves of equal amplitude
and slightly frequencies at a given t.
Consider the simplest case of a wave packet that consists of two traveling
waves having equal amplitude and slightly different angular frequencies
๐๐ + โ๐ and ๐๐ โ โ๐ (โ๐ โช ๐๐). The phase constant, being functions of
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 19/24 Part II
frequency, will also be slightly different. Let the phase constants
corresponding to the two frequencies be ๐ฝ๐ + โ๐ฝ and ๐ฝ๐ โ โ๐ฝ. We have
๐ธ(๐ง, ๐ก) = ๐ธ๐ cos[( ๐๐ + โ๐)๐ก โ (๐ฝ๐ + โ๐ฝ)๐ง]
+๐ธ๐ cos[( ๐๐ โ โ๐)๐ก โ (๐ฝ๐ โ โ๐ฝ)๐ง]
= 2๐ธ๐ cos(๐กโ๐ โ ๐งโ๐ฝ)cos ( ๐๐๐ก + ๐ฝ๐๐ง) (2.64)
Since โ๐ โช ๐๐, the expression in Eq. (2.64) represents a rapidly oscillating
wave an angular frequency ๐๐and an amplitude that varies slowly with an
angular frequency โ๐, as shown in Figure 2.7.
The wave inside the envelope propagates with a phase velocity (๐๐)
discused above.
The velocity of the original modulation envelope (the group velocity ๐๐) can
be determined by setting the argument of the first cosine factor in Eq. (2.64)
equal to a constant:
(๐กโ๐ โ ๐งโ๐ฝ = Constant) (2.65)
From which we obtain
๐๐ =๐๐ง
๐๐ก=
โ๐
โ๐ฝ=
1
โ๐ฝ โ๐โ
In the limit that โ๐ โ 0, we have the formula for computing the group
velocity in a dispersive medium.
๐๐ =1
๐๐ฝ ๐๐โ (m sโ ) (2.66)
This is the velocity of a point on the envelope of the wave packet, as shown
in Figure 2.7, and is identified as the velocity of the narrow-band signal.
A relation between the group and phase velocities may be obtained by
combining Eqs. (2.61) and (2.66). From Eq. (2.61), we have
๐๐ฝ
๐๐=
๐
๐๐(
๐
๐๐) =
1
๐๐โ
๐
๐๐2
๐๐๐
๐๐
Substitution of the above in Eq. (2.66) yields
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 20/24 Part II
๐๐ =๐๐
1โ ๐
๐๐
๐๐๐
๐๐
(2.67)
From Eq. (2.67) we see three possible cases:
a) No dispersion:
๐๐๐
๐๐= 0 (๐๐ independent of ๐, ๐ฝ linear function of ๐),
๐๐ = ๐๐
b) Normal dispersion: ๐๐๐
๐๐< 0 (๐๐ decreasing with ๐),
๐๐ < ๐๐
c) Anomalous dispersion: ๐๐๐
๐๐> 0 (๐๐ increasing with ๐),
๐๐ > ๐๐
2.6. Negative Index Media
Maxwellโs equations do not preclude the possibility that one or both of the
quantities ๐, ๐ be negative. For example, plasmas below their plasma
frequency, and metals up to optical frequencies, have ๐ < 0 and ๐ > 0,
with interesting applications such as surface Plasmon.
Negative-index media, also known as left-handed media, have ๐, ๐ that are
simultaneously negative, ๐ < 0 and ๐ < 0 . Veselago was the first to study
their unusual electromagnetic properties, such as having a negative index of
refraction and the reversal of Snellโs law.
When, ๐๐ < 0 and ๐๐ < 0, the refractive index, ๐2 = ๐๐๐๐ , must be
defined by the negative square root ๐ = โโ๐๐๐๐ . Because then ๐ < 0
and ๐๐ < 0 , will imply that the characteristic impedance of the medium
๐ = ๐๐๐๐ ๐โ will be positive, that the energy flux of a wave is in the same
direction as the direction of propagation.
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
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2.7. Poyntingโs Theorem
Poyntingโs theorem or power equation. Consider a volume ( ๐ ) bounded
by a closed surface (S). The complex power ( ๐๐ ) delivered by the sources in
๐ is:
๐๐ = ๐๐ + ๐๐๐๐ฃ+ ๐2๐(๐๐๐๐ฃ
โ ๐๐๐๐ฃ) (2.68)
Where
๐๐ Power flowing out of a closed surface (s),
๐๐๐๐ฃ Time-averaging power dissipated in a volume (๐) ,
๐2๐(๐๐๐๐ฃโ ๐๐๐๐ฃ
) Time-averaging stored power in a volume ( ๐ ).
And ๐๐ =1
2โฏ (๐ ร ๐โ)
Sโ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ (2.69)
Where
๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ = ๐๐ ๏ฟฝฬ๏ฟฝ
๏ฟฝฬ๏ฟฝ is the unit normal to the surface directed out from the surface.
๐ = ๐ ร ๐ (๐ ๐2)โ Instantaneous poynting vector (2.70)
๐ =1
2๐ ร ๐โ (๐ ๐2)โ Complex poynting vector (2.71)
๐๐๐๐ฃ=
1
2โญ ฯ|E|2
V๐๐ (2.72)
Time-average stored magnetic energy is
๐๐๐๐ฃ=
1
2โญ
1
2 ฮผ|H|2
V๐๐ (2.73)
Time-average stored electric energy is
๐๐๐๐ฃ=
1
2โญ
1
2 ฮต|E|2
V๐๐ (2.74)
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 22/24 Part II
If the source power is not known explicitly, it may calculated from the
volume current density
๐๐ = โ1
2โญ (๐ โ ๐โ)
V๐๐ (2.75)
Or
๐๐ = โ1
2โญ (๐โ โ ๐)
V๐๐ (2.76)
The real power flowing through surface (S) is
๐๐๐ฃ =1
2๐ ๐[โฏ (๐ ร ๐โ)
Sโ ๐๏ฟฝฬ ๏ฟฝ] (2.77)
2.8. Solution of Maxwellโs Equations for Radiation Problems
Summarize the procedure for finding the fields generated by an electric
source current density distribution (J).
1) The auxiliary magnetic vector potential A is found from
๐ = โญ ๐ eโjฮฒR
4ฯR๐โฒ ๐๐โฒ (2.78)
2) H field is found from
๐ = ๐ ร ๐ (2.79)
3) E field is simpler to find from
a) If we are in the source region, or from just
๐ =1
๐๐๐(๐ ร ๐ โ ๐) (2.80)
b) If the field point is removed in distance from the source, ๐ = 0 at point
p.
๐ =1
๐๐๐๐ ร ๐ (2.81)
Note that: term ๐๐๐๐ก is eliminating. In free space case
Phase constant (beta) ๐ฝ = ๐ โ๐๐๐๐ =๐
๐=
2๐
๐๐ (2.82)
And ๐ =1
โฮผoฯตoโ 3 ร 108
๐
๐ ๐๐ (2.83)
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 23/24 Part II
2.9. Field Regions
The space surrounding an antenna is usually subdivided into three regions
as shown in Figure 2.8:
(a) Reactive near-field,
(b) Radiating near-field (Fresnel) and
(c) Far-field (Fraunhofer) regions.
Figure 2.8 Field regions of an antenna.
The boundaries separating these regions are not unique, although various
criteria have been established and are commonly used to identify the regions.
Reactive near-field region is defined as โthat portion of the near-field region
immediately surrounding the antenna wherein the reactive field
predominatesโ.
1) For most antennas, the outer boundary of this region is commonly
taken to exist at a distance ๐ < 0.62โ๐ท3/๐ from the antenna surface,
where ฮป is the wavelength and D is the largest dimension of the antenna.
Dept. of Communication Eng. - U.O.T. Radio Wave Propagation [CEM 2206] Assist. Prof. R.T. Hussein (Ph.D.)
2017 Page 24/24 Part II
2) For a very short dipole, or equivalent radiator, the outer boundary is
commonly taken to exist at a distance ๐ 1 = ๐/2๐ from the antenna
surface.
Radiating near-field (Fresnel) region is defined as โthat region of the
field of an antenna between the reactive near-field region and the far-field
region wherein radiation fields predominate and wherein the angular field
distribution is dependent upon the distance from the antenna. If the antenna
has a maximum dimension that is not large compared to the wavelength,
this region may not exist. For an antenna focused at infinity, the radiating
near-field region is sometimes referred to as the Fresnel region on the basis
of analogy to optical terminology. If the antenna has a maximum overall
dimension which is very small compared to the wavelength, this field
region may not exist.โ The inner boundary is taken to be the distance ๐ โฅ
0.62โ๐ท3/๐ and the outer boundary the distance ๐ < 2๐ท2/๐ where D is
the largestโ dimension of the antenna. This criterion is based on a
maximum phase error of ฯ/8. In this region the field pattern is, in general,
a function of the radial distance and the radial field component may be
appreciable.
* To be valid, D must also be large compared to the wavelength (D > ฮป).
Far-field (Fraunhofer) region is defined as โthat region of the field of an
antenna where the angular field distribution is essentially independent of
the distance from the antenna. If the antenna has a maximumโ overall
dimension D, the far-field region is commonly taken to exist at distances
greater than 2๐ท2/๐ from the antenna, ฮป being the wavelength.
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