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Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name
DN : CN = Weabmaster’s name
O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka
OU = Innovation Centre
Nwamarah Uche
Faculty of Education
Department of Educational Foundations
IMPACT OF CLIMATIC CHANGE ON
SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION IN
BAYELSA STATE
ABIDDE, EBENADE
PG/M.ED/12/62372
2
Title page
IMPACT OF CLIMATIC CHANGE ON SECONDARY
SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION IN BAYELSA STATE
BY
ABIDDE, EBENADE
PG/M.ED/12/62372
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR
THE AWARD OF MASTERS OF EDUCATION (M.ED) IN
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING
SUPERVISOR: DR. S. C. UGWOKE
SEPTEMBER, 2014.
3
APPROVAL PAGE
This project has been approved for the degree of Masters in Educational
Administration and Planning by the Department of Educational Foundations,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
BY
Dr. S. C. Ugwoke Rev. Dr. L. K. Ejionueme (Supervisor) (Internal Examiner)
Prof. G. C. Unachukwu Dr. D. U. Ngwoke (External Examiner) (Head of Department)
Prof. I. C. S. Ifelunni (Dean, Faculty of education)
4
CERTIFICATION
ABIDDE, EBENADE a Post Graduate student in the Department of
Educational Foundations with Registration Number PG/M.ED/12/62372, has
satisfactory completed the requirements for the award of MASTERS IN
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING. The work
embodied in this project is original and has not been submitted in part or full for
any diploma or degree of this or any other University.
DR. S. C. UGWOKE DR. D. U. NGWOKE
(Supervisor) (Head of Department)
5
DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to the Almighty God.
6
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I wish to express my indebtedness and gratitude, first to the Almighty
God who has not failed to give me the inspiration I needed in life.
I sincerely appreciate the committed effort of my supervisor, Dr. S. C.
Ugwoke for his professional guidance and constructive supervision. A very big
thanks to him for making this research work a reality and success out of his
busy schedule. He has been a loco parentis from the start of this programme.
I also acknowledge the goodwillof my lecturers Prof. N. Ogbonaya, Ass.
Prof. A. I. Oboegbulem, Rev. (Dr.) L. K. Ejionueme, Dr. (Mrs.) I. O. Ezenwaji,
Dr (Mrs.) G. T. U. Chiaha, Dr. (Mrs.) J. I. Anyanwu, Dr. M. A. Obidoa and Dr.
L. N. Onuigbo, also my lecturers in Niger Delta University Prof. A. C. Egumu,
Dr. F. G. Paulley, Dr. Y. D. Torunarigha, Dr. TambouGesikeme and Dr.
Lawrence Ikati for the privilege to tap from their wealth of knowledge. Thanks
also to my fiancée Julie Zimoghen and my friends Ebiye John Robert,
Ogboloma Terrence Tarimotimi, Obi Augustine Ifeanyi, Emedolu Chigozie
Ifeanyi, OkenjomGodian Patrick,Emamuzo Margaret, Osunju Johnand my
siblings and a host of colleagues whose support and encouragement made this
research work a reality.
7
Finally I express gratitude to my parents Mr. Akeenawerekumo Fidelis
Abidde, Mr. & Mrs. Tobi, Mr. & Mrs. Felix Abidde for sponsoring and
contributing to the success of my Education and M.ED programme in particular.
May the Almighty God bless you all for your efforts.
8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page - - - - - - - - - i
Approval page - - - - - - - - - ii
Certification - - - - - - - - - iii
Dedication - - - - - - - - - iv
Acknowledgement - - - - - - - - v
Table of content - - - - - - - - - vii
List of tables - - - - - - - - - xi
List of figures - - - - - - - - - xii
Abstract - - - - - - - - - - xiii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study - - - - - - - 1
Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - 11
Purpose of the Study - - - - - - - 12
Significance of the Study - - - - - - - 13
Scope of the Study - - - - - - - 15
Research Questions - - - - - - - 15
Hypotheses - - - - - - - - 16
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Conceptual Framework - - - - - - - 18
Concept of Climate - - - - - - - 18
9
Concept of Climatic Change - - - - - - 20
Concept of Awareness - - - - - - 30
Concept of Principalship - - - - - - 31
Concept of Administration - - - - - - 40
Theoretical Framework - - - - - - 52
Anthropogenic Global Warming Theory - - - - 52
Planetary Process Theory - - - - - - 54
Human Relations Theory - - - - - - 56
Behavioural Science theory - - - - - - 57
Review of Empirical Studies - - - - - - 58
Related studies on climatic change awareness of
secondary school principals - - - - - - 58
Related studies on impact of climatic change on students’ learning in
secondary school - - - - - - - - 60
Related studies on impact of climatic change on human
resource performance - - - - - - - 61
Related studies on impact of climatic change on secondary school
educational facilities - - - - - - - 63
Related studies on extent schools receive financial aids in the event of
climatic change effect - - - - - - - 64
Summary of Literature Review - - - - - 65
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD
10
Design of the Study - - - - - - - 68
Area of the Study - - - - - - - 68
Population of the Study - - - - - - - 69
Sample and Sampling Technique - - - - - - 69
Instrument for Data Collection - - - - - - 70
Validation of Instrument - - - - - - 70
Reliability of Instrument - - - - - - 71
Method of Data Collection - - - - - - 71
Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - 71
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Research Question 1 - - - - - - - 73
Research Question 2 - - - - - - - 75
Research Question 3 - - - - - - - 77
Research Question 4 - - - - - - - 78
Research Question 5 - - - - - - - 80
Hypothesis 1 - - - - - - - - 83
Hypothesis 2 - - - - - - - - 84
Hypothesis 3 - - - - - - - - 85
Summary of the Findings - - - - - - - 86
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS
AND SUMMARY
Discussion of Findings - - - - - - - 87
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Conclusion - - - - - - - - - 92
Educational Implication of the Findings - - - - - 92
Recommendations - - - - - - - 93
Limitations of the Study - - - - - - - 94
Suggestions for further Studies - - - - - - 95
Summary of the Study - - - - - - - 95
REFERENCES - - - - - - - - 97
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: Corrected Questionnaire - - - - 105
APPENDIX B: Validated Instruments - - - - 108
APPENDIX C: Population Distribution - - - - 117
APPENDIX D: Major Greenhouse Gases - - - - 121
APPENDIX E: Sources of Fossil Fuel Combustion - - - 122
APPENDIX F: Mass of Carbon iv Oxide emitted per quantity of
energy for various fuels - - - - - 123
APPENDIX G:Atmospheric lifetime and GWP relative to CO2 at
different time horizon for various greenhouse gases - 124
APPENDIX H: Causal Factors of Climatic Change - - - 125
APPENDIX I: Photos of Communities submerged by water - - 126
APPENDIX J: Data Analysis of Trial Tested Instruments - - 128
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland
Areas of Bayelsa State on Climatic Change Awareness - - 73
12
Table 2: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland Areas of Bayelsa
State on the Extent of Climatic Change Impact on Students’
Learning in Secondary Schools - - - - - 76
Table 3: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland Areas of Bayelsa
State on the Extent of Climatic Change Impact on
Human Resource Performance in Secondary Schools - - 77
Table 4: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland
Areas of Bayelsa State on the Extent of Climatic Change
Impact on Secondary School Educational Facilities - - 79
Table 5: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland
Areas of Bayelsa State on the Extent Principals Receive
Financial Aids to Ameliorate Climatic Change
Impact on Secondary school Educational Facilities - - 81
Table 6: t-test Analysis of Mean Responses of Principals in
Lowland and Upland Areas of Bayelsa State on
Climate Change Awareness - - - - - 83
Table 7: t-test Analysis of Mean Responses of Principals in
Lowland and Upland Areas of Bayelsa State on the Extent of
Climatic Change Impact on Students’ Learning in
Secondary Schools - - - - - - - 84
Table 8: t-test Analysis of Mean Responses of Principals in
Lowland and Upland Areas of Bayelsa state on the Extent of
Climatic Change Impact on Secondary School
Educational Facilities - - - - - - - 85
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1: Functions of Administration - - - - - - 36
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Abstract
The study examined the impact of climatic change on secondary school administration
in Bayelsa State. Five research questions and three null hypotheses guided the study.
Ex-post-facto research design was used for the study. The population of the study was
501 government secondary school principals. The population size (501) was
manageable by the researcher so there was no sample and sampling technique. A self-
developed instrument containing 45 items titled Impact of Climatic Change on
Secondary School Administration Questionnaire (ICCSSAQ) was used for data
collection. The data generated from the trial testing were analyzed using Cronbach
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Alpha statistics and the overall reliability index of 0.95 was obtained. Mean and
Standard Deviation were used to answer the research questions while t-test was used
to analyze the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. Findings of the study
revealed that climatic change awareness among secondary school principals is low.
The findings further showed that climatic change has great extent of impact on
students’ learning, human resource performance, and secondary school educational
facilities, also principals get little extent of financial aid to cushion climatic change
effect on educational facilities. Based on the findings, some recommendations were
made which include; that necessary information and programmes be put in place to
enlighten principals on the causes of climatic change and its outcomes and the effect it
has on the effective administration of secondary schools, and there should be
guidelines in the construction of classroom blocks and be equipped with the necessary
equipment to allow for ventilation, as it will also help the staff in the discharge of their
professional duties among others.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Climate is an area's long-term weather patterns. It could be described as the
average temperature and precipitation of an area over time. According to the
American Meteorological Society, (AMS) (2011), it is the average weather condition
of a place taken over a prolonged period of time. It is the statistics of temperature,
humidity, pressure, wind, rainfall, sunshine intensity, particle count and other
meteorological elemental measurements in a given region over a long period of time,
usually 30years and above(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
2007).While weather is the present atmospheric condition such as the intensity of
sunshine and amount of rainfall for the day, climate is the average of these
meteorological elements collected over a very long period of time. The measure of
these meteorological elements is necessary for the study of climate, which is referred
to as climatology. Climatology is the scientific study of average weather conditions of
a place over a period of time (AMS, 2011). Details of climate records are known
through measurements from instruments like thermometers, barometers, and
anemometers and are usually presented as weather information. The instruments used
in studying weather are periodically modified to fit modern use, and must thus be
considered when studying the climate of past centuries which is referred to as
paleoclimatology (Spencer, 2007).
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Paleoclimatology is the study of prehistoric climates on a global or regional
scale from evidence preserved in glacial deposits, sedimentary structures, and fossils
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 2007). It refers to the
study of past climate over a great period of the earth's history to show periods of
stability and variation which can indicate whether climate follows regular cycles
(IPCC, 2007). It uses evidence from ice sheets, tree rings, sediments, coral, and rocks
to determine climatic change.
Climatic change is the complete variation or average state of the atmosphere
over time scale ranging from decades to millions of years in a region or across the
entire globe which can be caused by processes internal to the earth, external forces
from space (e.g. variations in sunlight intensity) or, human activities(Arctic
Climatology and Meteorology (ACM), 2008). In recent time, especially in the context
of environmental policy, the term ‘climatic change’ often refers to variation in
environmental and atmospheric composition, including the rise in average surface
temperature known as global warming (IPCC, 2007). Global warming is the heating of
the earth’s surface which results when the atmosphere traps heat radiating towards
space (Oreskes, 2004). In some cases, the term climatic change is used with a
presumption of human causation as stated in the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 2008). Climatic change in the context of
this study refers to the variation in the statistical distribution of average weather
conditions over a prolonged period of time.
Climatic change can be described as the biggest environmental issue of our
time. It is a topical issue worldwide because of its attendant problems that are
threatening the sustenance of man and his environment. The effects of climate change
17
are particularly becoming more severe in the under-developed and developing
countries (Small and Nicholis, 2003). Climatic change has become the new reality of
our time. It brings with it changes in weather patterns that can have serious
repercussions on human beings by upsetting seasonal cycles, harming ecosystems and
water supply, affecting agriculture and food production, causing sea-levels to rise
among others. Climatic change has a cumulative effect on natural resources and the
balance of nature. Its effects are already visible in Nigeria.
The causes of climate change have been attributed mostly to human activities.
For the past decades, human activities such as urbanization, deforestation, population
explosion, industrialization and the release of greenhouse gases are the major
contributing factors to climatic change (Odjugo, 2010). Greenhouse gases sometimes
abbreviated GHGs is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within
the thermal infrared rays (National Energy Information Center (NEIC), 2013).
Nigeria’s economy depends largely on natural resources (crude oil) which is
richly deposited in the Niger Delta region. The Niger Delta region of Nigeria is
reported to have over 123 gas flaring sites making Nigeria one of the highest emitters
of greenhouse gases in Africa (Thaddeus, Chukwudumebi, Nnaemeka and Victoria,
2011). A study by the World Bank (2008) revealed that Nigeria accounts for roughly
one-sixth of worldwide gas flaring. For instance, Nigeria flares about 75% of her gas
and all take place in the Niger Delta region. The flares have apparently contributed
more greenhouse gases hence climatic change in the region.
The activities of oil exploration, the release of industrial wastes, and other
household activities such as burning of fossil fuel, have inevitably released more
18
greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, thereby, leading to the depletion of the ozone
layer. Ozone layer is a layer of the upper atmosphere, from 15 to 50km/10 to 30miles
above the earth’s surface, where most atmospheric ozone collects, absorbs harmful
ultraviolet radiation from the sun (NEIC, 2013). According to Ekpoh and Ekpoh
(2011), this results to sea-level rise, killer flooding, water salination, increase in
rainfall among others. The impact could manifest in food security challenges, damage
to infrastructure, social dislocation which also affects educational activities.
Education is absolutely the basic instrument of economic growth and
technological advancement of any society (Oyebade, Oladipo, and Adetoro, 2009). It
is also regarded as instrument par excellence and the means of achieving human
capital and national development (Ayeni, 2012). Education has also been described by
Adegbesan (2010), as the bedrock of every society and tool for nation building.
Education is what each generation gives to its younger ones, which makes them
to develop attitudes, abilities, skills and other behaviours which are of positive value
to the society in which they live (Amaele, 2003). Education is a process of initiating
the child into cherished norms and skills, designed and implemented by the mature or
adult members of the society to effect the desired changes in the younger or less
matured ones, from generation to generation. In this direction, education is the basic
tool that sharpens the mind of the individual preparing him to fit into the society. It is
as a result of its importance that the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) in her
National Policy on Education has organized education into pre-primary education,
primary education, secondary education and tertiary education. However before now
Nigeria had practice 6-3-3-4 system of education, which is six years primary
19
education, three years junior secondary education, three years senior secondary
education and four years tertiary education.
Pre-primary education is the initial stage of organized instruction designed
primarily to introduce very young children to a school-type environment. It includes
the crèche, nursery and kindergarten. It is basically done among others to effect a
smooth transition from home to school and also to prepare the child for primary
education, while primary education comes in between early childhood education and
secondary education. It is the education given to children between the aged 6 to 11.
According to FRN (2004), the primary level is the key to the success or failure of the
whole education system, since the rest of the education system is built on it.
Secondary education is the education children receive after primary education and
before tertiary education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2012). It is the education given
to children between the ages of 12 – 18 (Oboegbulem and Onwurah, 2011). It is
splitted into two parts, three years junior secondary school (JSS) and three years
senior secondary school (SSS).
In Nigeria, secondary schools are located in the urban and rural areas to meet
the demands and aspirations of the people living in both settings, and it is not different
in the case of Bayelsa State. Bayelsa State is mostly surrounded by water, with some
few urban areas, but most villages are in the creeks. For the purpose of this study, the
location will be categorized in to upland and lowland areas. The upland areas are
those communities and villages where secondary schools are sighted and are easily
accessible with the aid of vehicles, motor vans and motor-cycles, due to the
availability of good access roads. The lowland areas are communities and villages in
the creeks where secondary schools are sighted, but can only be accessed through the
20
river with the aid of local wooden boats and engine boats. Both areas were affected
during the 2012 flood disaster and secondary education activities takes place in these
areas.
The broad goals of secondary education are to prepare the individuals for
useful living within the society, and for higher education. Specifically, secondary
education, according to FRN (2012) shall:
Provide all primary school leavers with the opportunity for education of
a higher level, irrespective of sex, social state, religion or ethnic
background, offer diversified curriculum to cater for the differences in
talents, opportunities and future roles, provide trained manpower in the
applied science, technology and commerce at sub-professional grades,
develop and promote Nigerian languages, art and culture in the context
of world’s cultural heritage, inspire students with a desire for self-
improvement and achievement of excellence, foster national unity with
an emphasis on the common ties that unites us in our diversity, raise a
generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views
and feelings of others, respect the dignity of labour, appreciate those
values specified under our broad national goals and live as good
citizens, provide technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for
agricultural, industrial, commercial and economic development (p;14).
In Nigeria, the principal who could be either male or female is the head of the
secondary school. The principal is regarded as the Chief Executive and he/she is
responsible for all that happens in the school (Oyedeji and Fasasi, 2006). As the Chief
Executive, the principal assigns duties to staff according to their ability and
specialization, though all responsibilities still reside in him/her as the accounting
officer. Arikewuyo (2009) sees the Principal as a manager, administrator, an
exemplary leader, counselor, a public relations officer, a nurse and even a messenger.
Being the person in charge of administration, the principal performs the duties of
planning, organizing, directing, staffing, controlling, reporting and budgeting.
21
Administration is the art of organizing human and material resources for the
purpose of achieving organizational objectives. Administration is the component part
of management concerned with facilitating the accomplishment of the objectives of an
organization through the systemic management of constraints and careful utilization of
the available limited resources which include human, material, equipment, supplies,
finance, space and work ethics or technology (Peretomode, 2001). On the other hand,
educational administration is the arrangement of the human and material resources
and programmes available for education and carefully using them systematically for
the achievement of articulated objectives (Mgbodile, 2004). However, for the purpose
of this study, effective administration is the ability of an educational administrator to
coordinate available resources (learning programme, staff personnel, educational
facilities and finance) to produce results that meet educational expectations.
Staff personnel are sometimes referred to as human resource are the employees
of an organization. Human resource administration refers to the managing of human
capital within an organization or industry (WiseGeek, 2013). In the school situation,
staff personnel administration forms an important responsibility of the school
administrator in achieving the goals of the school in particular and of education in
general (Mgbodile, 2004). Staff in secondary school include not only the teachers, but
also the non-teaching staff; clerks, watchmen, labourers, cooks, and laboratory
attendants. Mgbodile further stressed that teaching and non-teaching staff are the most
important weapons in the hands of the administrator in achieving educational
objectives. In other to achieve educational goals and objectives, there is the need for
staff to be provided with the necessary educational facilities to discharge their duties.
22
Educational facilities refer to non-human and non-financial resources. They
include all movable and immovable materials, which are used for teaching, learning
and other school activities (Abdulkareem and Fasasi, 2010). They are synonymous
with school physical facilities, school material resources, school plant and school
facilities. Olagboye (2004) stated that educational facilities consist of instructional
resources such as audio and visual aids, graphics, printed materials, display materials
and consumable materials. They also include physical resources such as land,
building, furniture, equipment, machinery, vehicles, electricity, water supply and
infrastructure. In another dimension Ojedele (2004) identified three components of
educational facilities. These are school infrastructure, such as buildings and
playgrounds; instructional facilities (teaching-learning materials, equipment and
furniture) and school physical environment (beautification of the school environment).
Thus, there are different kinds of facilities that could be used for teaching and learning
purposes. They are located within and outside school premises and are under the care
of the school principal. With the availability of quality educational facilities, the
educational programme could be adequately implemented.
The programme of guidance is the aspect of the educational programme which
deals with helping the students to become adjusted to their present situation and to
plan their future in line with their interests, abilities and special needs. As the school
administrator, the principal plans, directs and supervises all teaching and learning
activities to achieve the school’s educational goals and objectives. In other to achieve
this, the school administrator has to be provided with the needed financial resource for
the day-to-day running of the school.
23
Finance is an important resource that helps business organizations to stay alive.
For any organization or society to function well, it must be financially viable. Finance
is a body of facts, principles and theories dealing with the raising and using of funds
by individuals, business firms, educational institutions and government (Ogbonnaya,
2012). Financial management is the managerial activities which deals with planning,
controlling, and organizing the financial resource of an organization; that is, the
management of the finances of a business in order to achieve the financial objectives
of the business (Donnell and Koontz, 2004). More so Onye (2000) opined that
financial management may be defined as the process involved in ensuring that
financial resources are obtained and used both profitably and effectively, that is, in the
accomplishment of the objectives of the organization. The essence of financial
management is the effective and efficient administration of an organization’s financial
resources to achieve the stated goals of the organization.
The principal is the accounting officer is entrusted with the responsibility of
controlling the revenue accruing to the school and ensuring judicious utilization of
Parents Association (PA) levy. In order to raise fund to complement the efforts of the
government, the principal can establish a very good rapport with the Parents
Association, Board of Governors, Old Students’ Association and Non-Governmental
Organizations for fund raising activities (Ekundayo, 2010).
The resources stated above (human, educational facilities, programme of
learning and finance) are of utmost importance to the school administrator for the
achievement of educational goals and objectives. With the availability and good
condition of these resources, effective administration of secondary schools can be
achieved. But climatic change events has affected educational facilities, which has
24
been brought to low quality, teachers and students were displaced, educational
programme could not be successfully implemented due to low quality of educational
facilities and displacement of students and staff, financial resource available to school
administrators are deployed to salvage the situation on ground.
It is expected that as part of his/her duties, the principal is to create a safe
learning and healthy school environment for both the teachers and students for
effective teaching and learning (The Wallace Foundation, 2013). A safe environment
for teachers to discharge their professional duties, free of threats from both internal
and external forces. The American Academy of Pediatrics (2002) defines a healthful
school environment as one that protects students and staff against immediate injury or
disease and promotes prevention activities and attitudes against known risk factors
that might lead to future disease or disability. The physical school environment
encompasses the school building and all its contents including physical structures,
infrastructure, furniture, and the use and presence of chemicals and biological agents;
the site on which a school is located; and the surrounding environment including the
air, water, and materials with which children may come into contact, as well as nearby
land uses, roadways and other hazards (World Health Organization, 2008). For the
safety of the students and staff, the administrator has to be conversant with the
physical environment where the school is situated.
In creating a healthful school environment, the administrator is expected to be
grounded in the climatic and weather conditions of the community/society where
his/her school is located such as the sunshine and rainfall pattern, this will enable the
principal to inform staff and, most especially, students on the pattern of dressing when
there is excessive rainfall and sunshine. Climatic change has its way of affecting the
25
smooth administration of education, according to Das (2010), in the areas of
destruction of school buildings, school facilities, obstruction of academic
programmes, students and staff health, school transportation and impeding the receipt
of educational materials from central authorities.
The 2012 flood disaster in Bayelsa state is as a result of climatic change and it
brought educational activities to a standstill. Children who were supposed to be in
school were at various refugee camps seeking shelter. As critical as the impact of
climatic change is, it is not clear whether secondary school principals in Bayelsa State
are aware of what climatic change is or its impact in the administration of secondary
schools. It is as a result of this that the researcher seeks to find out the impact of
climatic change on secondary school administration in Bayelsa state.
Statement of the Problem
Climatic change is no doubt one of the most important environmental issues
facing the world today. This is evidenced by the spate of conferences, campaigns,
reports and researches on climatic change in the past two decades. Presently, there is
widespread consensus in the scientific community and even among politicians that
climatic change is happening and that the impacts are already present in our
environment. Climatic change phenomenon has serious deleterious consequences for
the earth in the form of significant variations in regional climates, recurrent droughts,
excessive heat waves, windstorms, killer floods, among others. There are noticeable
consequences of climate change in Nigeria such as intense thunderstorms, widespread
floods, incessant droughts, water salination, and desertification, among others.
26
Recently in 2012, some states in Nigeria experienced flooding which had effect
on their economy, political activities, and social activities. This made some schools to
suspend academic activities for months in some states. School plants in various states
were affected. In Bayelsa state, displaced community members used school desks and
chairs for fire woods, schools became refugee camps; students, parents and even
teachers were displaced. With all these consequences, pressure is still on secondary
school principals for effective administration of secondary schools. Notwithstanding
this, there have been warnings from meteorologists about flooding that could be worse
in the coming years compared to the 2012 flooding. But there is doubt of achieving
effective administration of secondary schools by principals amidst climatic change
phenomenon. Are principals aware of climatic change? What impact does it have on
effective administration of secondary schools? Do principals get support to ameliorate
these consequences? These are the basic questions the researcher wants to provide
answers to.
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of climatic change
on secondary school administration in Bayelsa state. Specifically, the study seeks to:
1. Ascertain the extent of principals’ awareness of climatic change in Bayelsa
state.
2. Find out the extent of climatic change impact on students’ learning in
secondary schools in Bayelsa state.
3. Determine the extent of climatic change impact on human resource
performance in secondary schools in Bayelsa state.
27
4. Determine the extent of climatic change impact on secondary school
educational facilities.
5. Find out the extent to which principals of secondary schools receive financial
aids to ameliorate climatic change effects on educational facilities.
Significance of the Study
Theoretical significance of this study will be anchored on the Human Relations
Theory. This theory emphasizes on the human resource as an important factor in the
achievement of organizational goals. It is assumed that workers will achieve better if
their welfare is taken into consideration. This shows that secondary school principals,
staff and students will perform effectively when adequate attention is given to their
welfare and needs. This will help to achieve educational goals.
This implies that principals should be adequately provided with the necessary
resources needed for the day-to-day running of secondary schools as it will ensure the
achievement of educational objectives, which is the basis for effective administration.
Also effective administration of secondary schools will be achieved if the school
principal is able to develop good principal-staff relationship and good principal-
student relationship then they can work as a formidable team.
Practically, the findings of this study will be useful to the following groups;
Ministry of education, school administrators, Non-governmental Organizations,
government and other researchers.
The findings of this study will call for the need for organizing seminars,
workshops and conferences by the Ministry of Education on climatic change. The
Ministry of Education will enlighten principals of secondary schools on climate
28
change and its effects on educational administration. The findings will enable the
Ministry of Education to enlighten community members on school-community
relationship and the importance of physical facilities in the achievement of
educational goals, so as to stop vandalizing school facilities when taking refuge in
school buildings due to climatic change.
The findings of this study will help school administrators to appreciate that
effective administration cannot be achieved singlehandedly hence the benefits of
having team spirit. This will enable them to build good relationship with their
administrative team, staff and students to draw up academic programmes to suite the
times and seasons.
The findings of this study will help Non-governmental organizations and
philanthropists to contribute to the achievement of educational goals, by identifying
areas schools need help and thereby channel their resources to those areas to enable
schools get back on track especially as it relates to provision and or reconstruction of
school facilities destroyed by natural disasters.
The findings of this study will bring to the notice of the government and its
agencies the need to provide adequate resources principals need for the achievement
of educational goals. It will also enlighten various state governments on the need to
fashion out means of ameliorating the consequences schools might face as a result of
climatic change.
Finally, the findings of this study will help other researchers to understand the
level of awareness principals have about climatic change and how it has affected
educational administration. It will also help other researchers to find out other areas in
29
education that climatic change has affected. It will also assist them in their review of
empirical literature.
Scope of the Study
This study shall be carried out in the eight (8) local government areas in
Bayelsa state. It will involve all the principals of government secondary schools in
Bayelsa state.
However, the content dimension will focus on the extent of awareness
secondary school principals have about climatic change, the impact it has on students’
learning, human resource performance, secondary school educational facilities and the
extent of financial aids to secondary schools affected by climatic change.
Research Questions
The following research questions are formulated to guide the study:
1. To what extent are principals aware of climatic change?
2. To what extent does climatic change impact on students’ learning in secondary
schools?
3. To what extent does climatic change impact on human resource performance in
secondary schools?
4. To what extent does climatic change impact on secondary school educational
facilities?
5. To what extent do principals receive financial aid to ameliorate climatic change
effect on educational facilities?
30
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses are formulated to guide the study and will be
tested at 0.05 level of significance.
H01. There is no significant difference between the mean rating scores of principals
in lowland and upland areas on awareness of climatic change.
H02. There is no significant difference between the mean rating scores of principals
in lowland and upland areas on the extent of climatic change impact on
students’ learning in secondary schools.
H03. There is no significant difference between the mean rating scores of principals
in lowland and upland areas on the extent of climate change impact on
secondary schools’ educational facilities.
31
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The literature related to this study was discussed under the following sub
headings: conceptual framework, theoretical framework, review of empirical studies,
and summary of literature review.
Conceptual Framework
• Concept of Climate
• Concept of Climatic Change
• Concept of Awareness
• Concept of Principal
• Concept of Administration
Theoretical Framework
• The
Anthropogenic Global Warming Theory
• The Planetary Processes Theory
• Human Relations Theory
• Behavioural Science Theory
Review of Empirical Studies
Related studies on climatic change awareness of secondary school principals
Related studies on climatic change impact on students’ learning in secondary school
Related studies on climatic change impact on human resource performance
Related studies on climatic change impact on secondary school educational facilities
Related studies on extent schools receive financial aids in the event of climatic change
32
Summary of Literature Review
Conceptual Framework
Concept of Climate
Climate is the average weather for a particular region over a long period
(Washington State Department of Ecology, 2012). It is the weather condition of an
area over a number of years (Mama and Osinem, 2007). It is the regular pattern of
weather conditions of a particular place. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC, 2001) glossary definition shows that:
Climate is the "average weather within a given duration". It is the
statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant
quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or
millions of years. The classical period is usually 30 years and the
quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature,
precipitation, and wind. It includes the statistics other than the average,
such as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations (p;5).
Climate is also defined as the average weather patterns existing throughout
several years over a large portion of earth's surface (Amanda, 2013). It describes the
total of all weather seasons (dry and rainy), and special events (like tornadoes,
cyclones and floods). Climate tells us what it is usually like in a place. Therefore,
climate varies from weather because weather is concerned only with short term
events.
Climate is composed of long-term average weather patterns; it encompasses the
average measurements of various meteorological elements like humidity, atmospheric
pressure, wind, precipitation and temperature (IPCC, 2007). In addition to these
components, earth's climate is also composed of a system consisting of its atmosphere,
oceans, land masses and topography, ice and biosphere. Each of these is a part of the
climate system for their ability to influence long-range weather patterns. Ice, for
33
example, is significant to climate because it has a high albedo, or is highly reflective,
and covers 3% of the Earth's surface, therefore helping to reflect heat back into space
(Amanda, 2013).
An area's climate is normally a result of a 30-35 year average. Scientists have
been able to study past climate patterns for a large part of Earth's history through
paleoclimatology (IPCC, 2007). In order to study past climates, paleoclimatologists
use evidence from ice sheets, tree rings, sediment samples, coral and rocks to
determine how much Earth's climate has changed through time. With these studies,
scientists have found that Earth has experienced various periods of stable climate
patterns as well as periods of climatic changes in the past ( Amanda, 2013). However,
the modern climate record is determined through measurements taken via
thermometers, barometers (an instrument measuring atmospheric pressure) and
anemometers (an instrument measuring wind speed) over the past few centuries.
Climate is the typical weather conditions experienced at any location or area
over series of years. Weather conditions, such as rainfall, sun intensity, surface
temperature and other meteorological elements, are recorded on interval for years and
the average taken at the end of the targeted period is referred to as the climate of the
location where such data are collected. Over historical time span, there have been a
number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, such as latitude, altitude,
proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains (IPCC, 2007).
Many global issues are related to climate, including basic needs such as food, water,
health, and shelter. Climate variations may threaten basic needs with increased
temperatures, sea level rise, changes in precipitation, and more frequent or intense
34
extreme events (Karl, Melillo, and Peterson, 2009). It is predicted that food security,
water and other key natural resources may be threatened by climatic change.
Concept of Climatic Change
Climatic change is the significant and lasting variation in the statistical
properties of the average weather system when considered over long periods of time,
regardless of cause (IPCC, 2001). Climatic change can be referred to as variation in
the average weather that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activities in
addition to natural events that alter the composition of the atmosphere over
comparable time periods. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to climatic
variation caused by human activities, as opposed to earth's natural processes (United
Nations (UN), 2000). In the context of environmental policy, the term climatic change
has become synonymous with anthropogenic global warming. Global warming refers
to the increase in the surface temperature of the earth. Climatic change includes global
warming and everything else affected by increasing greenhouse gases level (IPCC,
2007). Climatic change is a long-term shift in the weather condition of a specific
location, region or planet. The shift is measured by changes in features associated with
average weather, such as temperature, wind patterns and precipitation (UN, 2000). It
may be a shift in average weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather around
the average conditions (IPCC, 2007). When the average weather of a specific area is
altered between two different time periods, then climatic change has occurred
(Peterson, 2009).
Climatic change usually occurs when there is an alteration in the total amount
of the sun's energy absorbed by the earth's atmosphere and surface. It also happens
35
when there is a change in the amount of heat energy from the earth's surface and
atmosphere that escapes to space (the region beyond earth’s atmosphere) over an
extended period of time (IPCC, 2001). A region's climate is generated by the climate
system, which has five components: atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, land
surface, and biosphere (IPCC, 2011). Scientists actively work to understand past and
future climate by using observations and theoretical models. Borehole temperature
profiles, ice cores, floral and faunal records, glacial and periglacial processes, stable
isotope and other sediment analyses, and sea level records provide a climate record
that spans the geologic past (Kasting and Seifert, 2002). Physically-based general
circulation models are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data,
make future projections, and link causes and effects in climatic change. In other
words, what is observed now is used to compare with what was known to determine
and understand the changing trend of climate. Recent data are provided by the
instrumental records which indicate the activities that lead to climatic change. The
activities that lead to climatic change are broadly classified into anthropogenic causes
(human-activity-related) and natural causes (earth’s natural activities which are non-
human-activity-related).
Causes of Climatic Change
Anthropogenic (Human) Causes
Earth is heated by the sun which serves as the natural source of warmth thus
generates the needed temperature for life forms and other activities on the planet.
Most of the sun's energy passes through the space to warm the earth's surface, oceans
and atmosphere. The rate at which energy is received from the sun and the rate at
36
which it is lost to space determine the equilibrium temperature and climate of the earth
(IPCC, 2007). In order to keep the atmosphere's energy budget in balance, the warmed
earth also emits heat energy back to space as infrared radiation (Allison, 2009). As the
energy radiates upward, is absorbed by clouds and molecules of greenhouse gases in
the lower atmosphere. The emitted energy goes in all directions, some back towards
the surface of the earth and some upwards, where other molecules higher up absorb
the energy (Allison, 2009). This process of absorption and re-emission is repeated
until finally, the energy escapes to the region beyond earth’s atmosphere called space.
This natural process is known as the greenhouse effect. However, because much of the
energy is recycled downward, earth’s surface temperatures become much warmer than
usual which would not have been so if the greenhouse gases level were balanced in
the atmosphere (Allison, 2009). Without the abundance of the greenhouse gases,
earth's average temperature would be -19°C instead of +14°C (National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA), 2011). This made scientists under the auspices of
the intergovernmental panel on climate change to agree that the main cause of the
current global warming trend is human’s increase of the greenhouse gases (GHG) into
the atmosphere which blocks heat from escaping to the space (Oreskes, 2004;IPCC,
2007).Over the past centuries, the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has
been relatively stable until greenhouse gas concentrations began to increase due to the
rising demand for energy caused by industrialization, high population, changing land
use, bush burning and human settlement patterns(IPCC, 2011), which have resulted to
climatic change.
The earth's climate has changed throughout history but the current warming
trend is of particular significance because most of it is human-induced and occurring
37
at an unmatched rate for the past centuries (Gabriele, 1996).In its recently released
Fourth Assessment Report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, a group
of 1,300 independent scientific experts from countries all over the world under the
auspices of the United Nations, concluded that there is more than 90% probability that
human activities over the past centuries have warmed planet earth (IPCC, 2007). The
industrial activities which modern civilization depends on have raised atmospheric
CO2 (Carbon dioxide) levels from 280 parts per million to 379 parts per million in the
last centuries. The report also concluded that there is a better than 90% probability
that human-produced greenhouse gases such as CO2, methane and nitrous oxide have
caused much of the observed increase in earth's temperature in the last century.
Over the last century, the burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil and the
increased level of deforestation has raised the concentration of atmospheric gases such
as CO2 (IPCC, 2007). Industrial and other steam engines are also known to release
CO2. The clearing of land for agriculture, industry, and other human activities have
also contributed to the abundance of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Trees and
other smaller plants replenish the atmosphere with oxygen while utilizing the
available CO2 during photosynthesis (Osinem, 2005). During respiration, the trees and
grasses inhale CO2 and exhales oxygen (O2). This process decreases the harmful level
of CO2 in the atmosphere and increases the supply of O2. The variation in the supply
and utilization of CO2 affects the percentage composition of gases in the GHG layer in
the atmosphere. The layer of GHG primarily contains water vapour and other gases
such as CO2, methane, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (IPCC, 2007).
The GHG layer at normal and balanced composition of gases acts as a thermal blanket
for the earth, absorbing heat and warming the surface to a life-supporting average of
38
59 degrees Fahrenheit (15°C), (United States Global Change Research Program
(USGCRP),2009). Excess or deficient supply of any of the GHGs affects the balance
of the GHG layer. The GHGs, when in excess supply in the GHG layer, block heat
from escaping from the earth’s atmosphere into space. The excess long-lived GHGs
which remain semi-permanent in the atmosphere, which do not respond physically or
chemically to changes in temperature, are described as "forcing" climatic change
whereas gases, such as water vapour, which respond physically or chemically to
changes in temperature are seen as "feedbacks" (Lockwood, 2009).
A natural system known as the "greenhouse effect" regulates temperature on
earth. Both natural and human factors that can cause climatic change are called
‘climate forcings', since they push, or ‘force' the climate to shift to new values. The
greenhouse gases (forcings) are ranked according to their importance and
contributions (see appendix D). This means that gases contributing to the greenhouse
effect include: water vapour, CO2, methane, nitrous oxide and halocarbons (Kiehl &
Kevin, 1997).
Carbon iv oxide (CO2) is a very important component of the atmosphere. CO2
is released through natural processes such as respiration and volcanic eruptions and
through human activities such as deforestation, land use changes, and burning of fossil
fuels. Humans have increased atmospheric CO2 concentration by a third (1/3) since
the Industrial Revolution began (Naomi, 2004). This is the most important long-lived
"forcing" of climatic change. The seven sources of CO2 from fossil fuel combustion
(with percentage contributions for 2000–2004) are liquid fuels, solid fuels, gaseous
fuels, cement production, flaring gas industrially and at wells, non-fuel hydrocarbons
and international bunker fuels of transport (see appendix E).
39
CO2 is relatively emitted from various fuels. One liter of gasoline, when used
as a fuel, produces 2.32 kg (about 1300 liters or 1.3 cm3) of carbon iv oxide, a
greenhouse gas (Engber, 2006).Mass of carbon iv oxide emitted per quantity of energy
for various fuels is shown in appendix F.
Methane is a hydrocarbon gas produced both through natural sources and
human activities, including the decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, and
especially rice cultivation, as well as ruminant digestion and manure management
associated with domestic livestock. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, methane is a
far more active greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, but is much less abundant in the
atmosphere (Naomi, 2004). Nitrous oxide is a powerful greenhouse gas produced by
soil cultivation practices, especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers,
fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning.
Halocarbons is a family of chemicals that include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
(which damage the ozone layer), and other human-made chemicals that contain
chlorine and fluorine. CFCs are synthetic compounds of entirely industrial origin used
in a number of applications, but now largely regulated in production and released to
the atmosphere by international agreement for their ability to contribute to destruction
of the ozone layer (Naomi, 2004).Ozone layer is a thin veil of ozone 25 - 40 km above
the earth’s surface, which protects life below from the portion of the sun’s ultraviolent
radiation that otherwise damage forms of life (Osinem, 2005). The ozone veil is being
damaged by chemical released on the earth’s surface, notably CFC. Each 1%
reduction in ozone is likely to cause an increase of about 2% in ultraviolent rays
(Osinem, 2005). Examples of the atmospheric lifetime and Global Warming Potential
(GWP) for several greenhouse gases see (appendix G).
40
Most greenhouse gases are extremely effective at absorbing heat escaping from
the earth and keeping it trapped (Church and White, 2006). In other words, it takes
only small amounts of these gases to significantly change the properties of the
atmosphere. By comparison, the atmospheric greenhouse gases that cause the earth's
natural greenhouse effect total less than 1% of the atmosphere while 99% of the dry
atmosphere consists of nitrogen and oxygen, which are relatively transparent to
sunlight and infrared energy, and have little effect on the flow of sunlight and heat
energy through the air (NASA, 2011). A little bit of greenhouse gas goes a long way
as that small percentage increased the earth's average surface temperature from -19°C
to +14°C - a difference of about 33°C (NASA, 2011). Because the concentration of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is so low, human emissions can have a significant
effect. For example, human emissions of CO2 currently amount to roughly 28 billion
metric tons per year (IPCC, 2001). In the next century human emissions will increase
the concentration of CO2in the atmosphere from about 0.03% currently to almost
certainly 0.06% (doubling), and possibly to 0.09% (tripling)(IPCC, 2001).
Currently, CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in the past several
million years (AMS, 2011). This corresponds to the increase during the transition
from a glacial to an interglacial period, which under natural conditions, however,
would have taken several thousand years. According to Lemke (2006);
The natural climate system has produced interglacial periods and ice
ages, which caused dramatic changes, especially in the northern
hemisphere. However, during the past eight ice ages, the CO2
concentration was always about 180 CO2ppmv (parts per million by
volume). In the warm periods, this value increased to 280 CO2ppmv.
The duration of the transition between the CO2 minimum (180) in a
glacial period and the CO2 maximum (280) in an interglacial period
took about 20,000 years. Currently we live in an interglacial period and
CO2ppmv measures as high as385, which are due to anthropogenic
41
greenhouse gas emissions. This means that man have released to the
atmosphere as much CO2 as was recorded during the transition from a
glacial to interglacial period, what took 20,000 years to change, we have
now realized in only 200 years (p;18).
In summary, human activities which are regarded as the anthropogenic causes
of climate change include mainly the release of CO2 and other greenhouse gases
through burning of fossil fuel, gas flaring, emissions from combustion engines and
other numerous industrial activities. Others include, but not limited to, deforestation
and clearing of land as well as urbanization.
Non-anthropogenic (Natural) Causes
This refers to the non-anthropogenic (non-human-related) activities but of the
natural processes. Natural causes of climatic change include variations in ocean
currents (which can alter the distribution of heat and precipitation), orbital variation
(alteration of the earth’s eccentric, angular and precession axis),solar output (variation
in sun’s intensity), plate tectonics (motion resulting from deformation of rocks) and
large eruptions of volcanoes, which can sporadically increase the concentration of
atmospheric particles, blocking out more sunlight (IPCC, 2001).Climatic changes can
be attributed to very small variations in earth’s orbit that alters the amount of solar
energy which the earth planet receives (Lockwood, 2009). The energy from the sun is
distributed around the globe by wind, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect
the climates of different regions (Allison, 2009). Thus a change in the direction and
speed of global wind and ocean currents results in a variation in the pattern of
distribution of solar energy which directly alters average weather of earth, particularly
in regions surrounded by water bodies.
42
These causative activities of nature and man have resulted to chemical and
physical change of activities on earth, most of them are not favourable to the
environment and occupants of earth; plants and animals, and their effects are visible
on earth.
Consequences of Climatic Change
In a report titled, Preparing for a Changing Climate, the Washington State
Department of Ecology (2012) observed that rising levels of carbon dioxide and other
heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere have warmed the Earth and are causing wide-
ranging consequences, including rising sea levels; melting snow and ice; more
extreme heat events, fires and drought; and more extreme storms, rainfall and floods.
Scientists project that these trends will continue and in some cases accelerate, posing
significant risks to human health, our forests, agriculture, freshwater supplies,
coastlines, and other natural resources that are vital to economy, environment, and
quality human life.
In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicted that
warming oceans and melting glaciers due to global warming and climatic change
could cause sea levels to rise 7-23 inches by the year 2100. Worldwide, densely
populated coastal communities and infrastructure that supports them would be
affected (such as city buildings and homes, roads, ports, and wastewater treatment
plants). Some would be flooded or more vulnerable to storm damage. In flat terrain,
the shoreline could move many miles inland. However, according to Ishaya and Abaje
(2008), despite the fact that efforts have been made towards fighting climatic change
43
from scientific views, research and policies directed towards indigenous knowledge
and perception are highly needed.
Global concern regarding the devastating consequence of climatic change has
emphasized the need for creating awareness and building community capacity for
adaptation strategies to mitigate the effects of climatic change. As pointed out by
Naclimuthu and Vijayakumari (1993), the need of the hour is to make people sensitive
towards nature through a strong programme of climatic change awareness. This is
imperative in the sense that, there are some misconception and misunderstanding of
climatic change issues.
In a study conducted by Ishaya and Abaje (2008) on indigenous people’s
perception on climatic change and adaptation strategies in Jema’a local government
area of Kaduna State, Nigeria, it was reported that in terms of awareness, 13% of the
respondents agreed that there is a high level of awareness on climate change in the
study area, 33% of the respondents said they do not know, and majority, 54% of the
respondents, declined saying that the awareness on climatic change is very weak in the
study area and Nigeria as a whole. According to the UNDP report (2010), the level of
awareness about climatic change is rather low in Nigeria, and it is likely to continue if
no intervention measures are taken. The survey noted that the awareness of climatic
change was highest at the federal level. This dropped sharply at the state and local
government levels, where real action is needed. These misconceptions, according to
Aladag and Ugurlu (2009), are probably due to, among other things, the complexity of
the science involved, the uncertainties and controversies surrounding them. Climatic
change awareness involves creating knowledge, understanding and values, attitude,
44
skills and abilities among individuals and social groups towards the issues of climatic
change for attaining a better quality environment (Ekpoh and Ekpoh, 2011).
Concept of Awareness
Awareness is a word derived from aware. According to Merriam Webster’s
online Dictionary (2013), aware means having knowledge of something. It implies
vigilance in observing or alertness in drawing inferences from what one experiences
(aware of changes in climate). Awareness is having knowledge about something. It is
the ability to know that something exists, having knowledge or experience of a
particular thing (Walter, 2007). Awareness also means having special interest in or
experience of something and so being well informed of what is happening in that
subject at the present time. According to Dictionary.com (2013) it is the state or
condition of being aware; having knowledge. Awareness is the state or ability to
perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns. However,
knowledge is understanding of or information about a subject which has been obtained
by experience or study, and which is either in a person’s mind or possessed by people
generally (Walter, 2007). Hence, knowledge is derived from information but it is
richer and more meaningful. It includes familiarity, awareness and understanding
gained through experience or study, and results from making comparisons, identifying
consequences, and making connections. Consciousness is awareness of or sensitivity
to a particular issue (Microsoft Encarta Dictionary, 2009). Consciousness is the
quality or state of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. It is
sentience, awareness, subjectivity, the ability to experience or to feel, wakefulness,
having a sense of selfhood, and the executive control system of the mind. Conscious
awareness is a process of recognizing what is going on inside and out, the effects of
45
decisions and actions, and the interaction between a complex array of factors and
forces (Working for Good, 2012). Hence, it is seeing, observing our thoughts and
recognizing our feelings and the effect they have on us, others and our surroundings.
Awareness also is seen as the constant energy that underlies our consciousness,
regardless of content, regardless of functionality or irrationality, regardless of culture
(Cohen, 2009). Awareness itself is the constant in a field of constant change. It may be
focused on an internal state, such as a visceral feeling, or on external events by way of
sensory perception. Awareness is an understanding of the activities of others, which
provides a context for one’s own activity (Wolfgang, Christian, Peter and Hendrik,
2000). It therefore, can be defined as what is manifest in all forms of perception, in all
forms of knowing. Awareness is qualified by different objects such as global
awareness, self-awareness, consumer awareness, environmental awareness, among
others. It is observed from the assertions however, that awareness is the understanding
of an individual about a thing, the understanding of happenings, events and changes
taking place in one’s environment/vicinity. Lipman (2013) emphasized that awareness
is a critical and important trait of successful leaders. A successful leader must be
abreast about happenings in his/her immediate environment to make right decisions
and to lead effectively.
Concept of Principalship
A principal is an individual who directs and monitors the academic and non-
academic activities within a school environment. The principal is the individual who
plans and implements the daily routines within an educational setting (Exforsys,
2006). The school principal is the highest-ranking administrator in secondary school
46
(Kermit, 2012). According to Peretomode (2001), the principal as the head of the
school, is usually appointed as a result of qualification and seniority.
At the head of every secondary school in Nigeria is the principal, who is
regarded as the chief executive and responsible for all that happens in the school
(Oyedeji and Fasasi, 2006). As the chief executive, the principal assigns duties to
those who could perform the duties, though all responsibilities still reside in him/her
as the accounting officer. Arikewuyo (2009) sees the Principal as a manager,
administrator, an exemplary leader, counselor, a public relations officer, a nurse and
even a messenger. It is he that develops and implements the educational programmes
of the school, procures staff, provides facilities and equipment, keeps school records
including records of school funds, as well as creates a conducive teaching and learning
atmosphere in school (Mgbodile, 2004).
Functions of the Principal
In specific terms, Oboegbulam and Onwurah (2011) viewed the functions of
the Principal as follows:
• Development and implementation of educational programme
This function according to Peretomode (2001) can be further broken down into
two categories which are namely:
Structuring of school for purpose of instruction:
For effective teaching and learning to take place in a school, a conducive
atmosphere which is devoid of confusion must be created. One of the ways by which
the principal can do this, is by clearly identifying positions and roles, and acquainting
47
position occupants with their roles and the relationship that is supposed to exist
between role occupants.
Curriculum Implementation:
The principal should be seen to be playing the role of the team leader in
relation to curriculum implementation. The principal should play this role by way of
serving as a guide to the various teachers either directly or in conjunction with the
heads of various department in terms of helping identify relevant goals to the
community, planning and selecting relevant learning experiences, helping to
implement programme improvement and evaluating programmes change.
• Staff Personnel Administration.
One of the first responsibilities of the secondary school principal in the area of
staff personnel administration is identification of the staff needs of his school
(Mgbodile, 2004). The identification of staff needs involves determining the
qualifications and the area of specialization of staff for recruitment. Once this is done,
the principal then makes request to the Post Primary Schools’ Management Board, or
the Secondary Education Management Board or the Teaching Service Commission as
the case may be for recruitment and posting of staff to his school.
The second responsibility of the principal in the area of staff personnel
administration is orientation of new members of staff, students and community
members into the school. This will help students and staff to settle down in their new
school and job. The third responsibility of principal in the area of staff personnel
administration is the assignment of duties to staff. The fourth is conducting a
programme of staff improvement through classroom observations and other forms of
48
evaluation. This includes supervising instruction and supervision of co-curricular
programmes like sports activities (Peretomode, 2001).
• Students’ Relations Functions:
The principal ensures that students offered admission meet government
regulations (Mgbodile, 2004). The next thing he does is grouping students accordingly
for purposes of instruction. This move would help to save time that would be
judiciously used for the provision of instruction. Actually students are classified in
learning groups in keeping with the experience that instruction becomes easier if
students are taught in groups whose members have the same level of assimilation.
The principal supervise and monitor the admission of students into boarding
houses and should take care of the welfare of boarders. He is expected to ensure that
students who are repeating are adequately cared for. The principal is expected to
address students’ transfer as the occasion demands and take note of all students who
are withdrawing from the school for whatever reasons.
• Community Relations Function:
Community relation is the degree of understanding and goodwill existing
between the school and the community. The principal, based on his training and
interaction finds out and articulates the perceived educational needs and expectations
of the immediate community (Peretomode, 2001). For the development of human
relations, the principal endeavours to participate in communal activities to which he is
invited. The principal maintains a good channel of communication with the Parents
Association for purposes of getting new ideas, remaining sensitive to the feelings of
parents and acquainting parents and guardians with the problems of the school.
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• Financial Function:
Principals are usually delegated authority from the board of trustees for the
day-to-day financial management of the school. Principals are responsible for
monitoring and controlling school expenditure to make sure that money is carefully
spent on the school’s priorities, as planned and budgeted. Principals report regularly
to the school board of trustees on financial management; and prepare annual audited
financial reports. Principals may delegate financial management tasks to school
employees and may also pay for external accounting services (New Zealand Ministry
of Education, 2013). The Principal however retains full responsibility for the financial
records and reporting. Every Principal has a responsibility to maintain sound financial
systems, understand key financial information about their school and provide
appropriate reporting.
The Commonwealth Secretariat (1993) also adduced the functions of the
Principal to include the following: managing and deploying school resources
efficiently, allocating school accommodation appropriately, ensuring satisfactory
standards of maintenance and cleanliness of school facilities, organizing staff
development in school, guiding curriculum implementation and change, managing the
developmental appraisal system, whole school evaluation and new integrated quality
management system, creating a professional ethos within the school by involving staff
members in decision making, and Managing restructuring and redeployment of
teachers.
In carrying out these functions, Wong and NG (2003) contended, Principals are
to demonstrate their ability to lead through: professional knowledge, organizational
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and administrative competence, ability to work out a good school policy and put it
into effect, skill in the delegation of authority, ability to understand the professional
problems of teachers, and give professional guidance, and ability to establish good
working relationships with staff and parents.
Leadership functions of the Principal
Principals combine and coordinate various kinds of resources by carrying out
four basic leadership functions: planning, organizing, leading and monitoring
(Lunenburg, 2010). The relationships of these functions are shown in figure 1 below.
Figure i: Four functions of administration.
Source: Adopted from; Lunenburg, F.C. (2010). The principal and the school: what
do principals do?
Planning
Generally, planning defines where the school wants to be in the future and how
to get there (Parker, 2011). Plans and the goals on which they are based give purpose
and direction to the school, its subunits, and contributing staff. For example,
1. Planning
2. Organization
3. Leading
4. Monitoring
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supposing the principal in a school decides that the school should attempt to increase
the number of students reading in each of the class by 20 percent by the year 2014,
this goal and the methods needed to attain it would then serve as the planning
framework for the school (Gardiner, 2011). The school counselors, social workers,
school psychologists, library media specialists, department heads, and teachers would
direct all efforts to the achievement of the set goal.
Planning is important because it provides staff with a sense of purpose and
direction, outlines the kinds of tasks they will be performing, and explains how their
activities are related to the overall goals of the school (Oosterlynck, 2011). Without
this information, staff would not know precisely how to use their time and energies
efficiently and effectively. Subsequently, they would respond to their job
responsibilities randomly, wasting valuable human resources.
Planning is a prerequisite to other leadership functions. In particular, it
becomes the basis for monitoring and evaluating actual performance (McDonnell,
2011). That is, plans made during the first step become benchmarks or criteria against
which to measure actual performance in the monitoring step. Unless plans are
formulated and mutually agreed on, there is relatively little value or basis for
measuring the effectiveness of the school outcomes (Lunenburg and Irby, 2006;
Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2008). In addition, comparing planned and actual results
provides the principal with a sound basis on which to make necessary adjustments in
the school's plan of action.
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Organizing
Once principals have developed workable plans and the methods for attaining
them, they must design an organization that will successfully implement the plans.
Organizing involves three essential elements (Argyris, 2011): developing the structure
of the organization, acquiring and developing human resources, and establishing
common patterns and networks.
In a very basic sense, designing the structure of the organization involves
creating the organizational chart for a school (Jones, 2010). The principal establishes
policies and procedures for authority relationships, reporting patterns, the chain of
command, departmentalization, and various administrative and subordinate
responsibilities. Then the principal takes steps to hire competent personnel. When
necessary, the principal establishes programmes for training new personnel in the
skills necessary to carry out their task assignments. Finally, the principal builds formal
communication and information networks, including the types of information to be
communicated, direction of communication flows, and reductions in barriers to
effective communication.
Organizing at the upper levels of an organization usually includes designing the
overall framework for the school (Grant, 2011). Organizing in the school is usually
more specific and may involve the following specific activities (Burton, 2007):
developing methods to help people understand what portion of the job is their
responsibility; coordinating individual efforts through work schedules to avoid
unnecessary delay in task accomplishment; designing an efficient system for making
day- to-day work assignments when these are necessary; and cross-training personnel
53
or providing for substitute personnel to avoid disruptions in the flow of work caused
by absenteeism.
Leading
Once plans are formulated and activities are organized, the next step is leading
staff members to achieve the school's goals. Although planning tells principals what to
do and organizing tells principals how to do it, leading tells principals why the staff
member should want to do it. Recently, the leading function is also called facilitating,
collaborating, or actuating (Lunenburg, 2010). Leading entails guiding and
influencing people.
The principal's role can be defined as getting things done by working with all
school stakeholders in a professional learning community (Hord and Sommers, 2008).
Principals cannot do all of the work in schools alone. They must, therefore, influence
the behavior of other people in a certain direction. To influence others, the principal
needs to understand something about leadership, motivation, communication, and
group dynamics. Leading means communicating goals to staff members, and infusing
them with the desire to perform at a high level (English, 2008). Because schools are
composed largely of groups, leading involves motivating entire departments or teams
as well as individuals toward the attainment of goals.
Monitoring
When principals compare expected results with actual results, and take the
necessary corrective action, they are performing the monitoring function. Deviations
from past plans should be considered when formulating new plans. As shown in
Figure 1, monitoring completes the cycle of leadership functions.
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Monitoring is the responsibility of every principal. It may simply consist of
walking around the building to see how things are going, talking to students, visiting
classrooms, talking to staff, or it may involve designing sophisticated information
systems to check on the quality of performance, but it must be done if the principal is
to be successful (Blankstein, Houston, and Cole, 2010).
The success with which principals carry out these functions determines how
effectively the school operates. A school is created to perform a set of tasks and
achieve a number of stated goals, the most important of which is student learning
(Blankstein, 2010). It is the principal's job as the administrator to attain goals by
working with all school stakeholders in an atmosphere of a professional learning
community (DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, and Karhanek, 2010). This involves planning,
organizing, leading, and monitoring. It is the principal who will lead the school
through administrative success.
Concept of Administration
Administration is the coordination and organization of the efforts of a group of
people and materials for the achievement of set goals and objectives of an
organization. According to Manilla (2003), administration is the coordination of
human and material resources towards the attainment of some predetermined
objectives. It is concerned with working with people and materials to accomplish the
purpose of an enterprise.
Administration is also concerned with the guidance, leadership and control of
the effort of a group of people towards the achievement of common goal. Peretomode
(1996) defined administration as performance of executive duties, the carrying out of
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the policies and decisions to fulfill a purpose and controlling of the day-to-day
running of an organization. The definition implies that administration involves not just
implementation of policies and programmes of an organization, but also its day-to-day
functioning. Okon (2004) stated that administration involves directing the affairs of an
organization in such a way that its pre-determined objectives and goals are achieved
through the use of appropriate resources. From the definitions, it can be deduced that
administration is the use of men, materials and funds to achieve set objectives. It is
concerned with making the personnel to perform effectively by using available tools
provided for them.
On the other hand, educational administration is the activities of planning,
organizing and coordinating the human, materials and financial resources for the
attainment of the objectives of a school. Ochai (2012) defined educational
administration as a way of coordinating the scarce resources of educational
institutions namely; manpower, finance, and capital equipment so as to achieve
desired educational objectives. Ogbonnaya (2007) defined educational administration
as the planning, organization, coordination and control of human and material
resources towards the attainment of pre-determined objectives. According to Anuna
(2004), educational administration is the process through which manpower, funds and
instructional materials are harnessed for the attainment of educational goals. It is the
process of mobilizing the staff to perform effectively and efficiently by using the
materials provided for them to achieve educational goals. It is observed from the
definitions that all administrative efforts in the context of formal education are geared
towards the enhancement of effective teaching and learning. According to Ochai
(2012), the concern of the school administrator or school head is to direct the efforts
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of teachers, students and other staff in the school towards the achievement of school
goals and objectives.
Human Resource Administration
Human resource administration is the planning, procuring, directing and
harnessing of personnel for the achievement of organizational goals and objectives. It
is the practice of managing people at work. According to Ibukun (2003), it is
concerned with the recruitment, welfare, training, promotion, motivation, transfer and
discipline of staff.in essence, human resource administration is the act of staff
selection, recruitment, development, transfer, posting, discipline and supervision. It is
also the function of organization which provides for the utilization of human resources
to achieve both the objectives of the enterprise and the satisfaction and development
of the employees.
Human resource administration refers to manpower activities of an
organization which embrace recruitment of staff, staff maintenance, training and
development compensation, personnel policies and evaluation of staff for educational
activities (Mgbodile, 2004). It is the harnessing of the totality of people’s skills,
energies, talents, latent capacities, social characteristics like belief to achieve
educational objectives and simultaneously making the people to be part and parcel of
an organization in fulfilling its goals (Peretomode, 2001). It is the systematic
utilization of human potentials to realize educational objectives and staff contentment.
Human resource administration form an important responsibility of the school
administration in achieving the goals of the school in particular and of education in
general in the sense that it involves identifying and satisfying staff needs of the school
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and satisfying them. According to Peretomode (2001), teaching and non-teaching staff
are the most important weapons in the hands of the administrator in achieving
educational objectives. In this respect, the welfare of the staff is a priority to the
school administrator.
However, owing to climatic change events in the society, the health and
welfare of staff could be threatened. The wellbeing of the staff as well as their families
are of great importance as long as effective job performance is concerned. Staff could
be distracted as well as displaced as sea level rise will increase risk of flooding,
displacement of people, salinization of drinking water resources. Sickness and death
due to diarrheal and other climatic change related diseases and sicknesses such as
malaria, rift valley fever, yellow fever, meningitis, plague, cholera and dengue fever
are projected to increase due to alteration in the hydrological cycle and decrease in
freshwater availability (Cruz, Harasawa, Lal, Wu, Anokhin, Punsalmaa and Huu-Ninh
(2007). In many African countries, these factors already threaten human health, such
as malaria increase due to climatic change as varying weather condition favour the
proliferation of carrier agents (Boko, Niang, Nyong, Vogel, Githeko, Medany and
Yanda, 2007). By 2020, between 75 and 250 million people are projected to be
exposed to increased water stress and by 2050, between 350 million and 600 million
people in Africa are projected to experience increased water stress due to climatic
change (Boko et al, 2007). They also stand the chances of facing hunger as climatic
change affects food production.
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School Facility Administration
School facility administration refers to the activities of the school administrator
that has to do with planning, controlling, procurement, provision, maintenance, and
directing the use of school facilities. School facilities, school physical facilities, school
plant and educational facilities are words used interchangeably and they all have the
same meaning. School facilities are the non-human and non-financial educational
resources belonging to the school. According to Mgbodile (2004), they refer to the
school site, the buildings, the play grounds, the equipment and material resources
provided in the school for effective teaching and learning operations. They also
include all movable and immovable materials, which are used for teaching, learning
and other school activities.
Educational facilities consist of instructional resources such as audio and visual
aids, graphics, printed materials, display materials and consumable materials
(Olagboye, 2004). They also include physical resources such as land, building,
furniture, equipment, machinery, vehicles, electricity and water supply infrastructure.
In another dimension Ojedele (2004) identified three components of educational
faculties. These are school infrastructure, such as buildings and playgrounds;
instructional facilities (teaching-learning materials, equipment and furniture) and
school physical environment (beautification of the school environment).Thus, they are
different kinds of facilities that could be used for teaching and learning purposes.
They are located within and outside school premises. They enable the teacher to do
his/her work very well and help the learners to learn effectively.
School facilities are directly related to the school curriculum. The programmes
of the school are expressed, as it is, through the school site, the buildings, play
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grounds, the arrangement and design of the buildings. The successful implementation
of any educational programme depends mostly on the quality of available school
facilities that are to be provided for such programme (Lawanson and Gede, 2011).
According to Abraham (2003), the type of atmosphere required for effective learning
is that consisting of better school buildings, more and better teaching facilities.
Abraham further stated that the quality of education that our children get bears direct
relevance to the availability or the lack of physical facilities and overall atmosphere
where the learning takes place. Also in the words of Lawanson and Gede (2011) are
these wise saying “Excellent school facilities and dedicated teachers are basic
ingredients of good educational programme. It is of this importance that the school
administrator draws a good plan on the effective usage of available facilities, when it
will be used, and the number of students and staff at a time. The principal provides
adequate maintenance and replacement of facilities if need be.
Educational facilities in Nigerian schools are already in a decrying state.
Adding to this state of appalling facilities, climatic change will cause more damage to
the limited available facilities. According to IPCC (2007), the rising level of the sea
could affect densely populated coastal communities and infrastructure that supports
them would be affected such as city buildings and homes, roads, ports and wastewater
plants. School infrastructures including school buildings, play grounds, laboratories,
and other school equipment could be submerged as a result of the incessant rain falls
that could lead to over flooding.
School facilities are subject to depreciation. Depreciation is the wear and tear
of an asset. Depreciation could occur naturally or man-made. School facilities when
submerged in water could lose their value, play grounds will become water logged or
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be affected by excessive heat from the increase in temperature, books in school
libraries could be destroyed by wide spread flooding. There have been recorded cases
of destruction of school properties. According to Das (2010), in countries such as
Bangladesh, there are already instances of very negative impact on educational
infrastructure due to severe cyclone and flood that had destroyed school infrastructure,
disrupting transport, and interrupting teaching and learning.
School Finance Administration
School financial administration is that area of the school principal’s
administrative duty that deals with the financial resources of the school. It is that
activity of management which is concerned with the planning, procuring and
controlling of school financial resources (Ochai, 2012). Financial management is the
managerial activities which deals with planning, controlling, organizing the financial
resource of an organization; that is, the management of the finances of a business in
order to achieve the financial objectives of the business (Donnell and Koontz, 2004).
Onye (2000) opined that financial management may be defined as the process
involved in ensuring that financial resources are obtained and used both profitably and
effectively, that is, in the accomplishment of the objectives of the organization. It is a
managerial activity which is concerned with the planning and controlling of an
organization’s financial resources (Anene, 2001).
A school’s financial management is the “execution by a person in a position of
authority of those management actions (regulated tasks) connected with the financial
aspects of schools and having the sole purpose of achieving effective education”
(Motsamai, Lynette and Corene, 2011). Similarly, Joubert and Bray (2007) describe a
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school’s financial management as the performance of management actions connected
with the financial aspects of a school for the achievement of effective education.
Financial resources mean purchasing power, in the form of cash or credit Ukeje
(2006). The essence of financial management is the effective and efficient
administration of an organization’s financial resources to achieve the stated goals of
the organization.
The backbone of an institution is finance and the principal is the manager of
this finance. The principals are therefore the officers controlling vote. The school
principal has been recognized as a key position in administration of schools. The
administrative effectiveness and efficiency of the principal in management of the
school and human resource tend to determine, to a large extent, the organizational
climate of the school, especially in the area of finance (Bessong, Ubana and Udo,
2012). Whether or not he has a bursar, he has the responsibility of seeing to it that
adequate financial position is made in the budget for his school. It is often his
responsibility to see that the allocation in the school budget is spent according to the
directives of his employer and in accordance with the financial regulations and
procedures (FGN 2004). He invariably has to decide in the order of priority how to
carry out his expenditures. He may be responsible for certain types of revenue
collection, such as tuition fees, caution fees, caution deposits, examination fees, and
uniform fees and so on. Receipts have to be issued for all such monies. If he is an
imprest holder, he should see that records are carefully kept of all items of
expenditure.
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He has to see that a good system of accounting is often maintained in the
school. In this respect, proper accounting procedure laid down by his employer should
be followed. In most schools, this is the responsibility of the bursar but the principal
still has to fulfill a supervisory function. The principal is the chief executive and
accounting officer who is entrusted with the responsibility of controlling the revenue
accruing from the school and ensuring judicious utilization of PA levy. According to
Ekundayo (2010), in order to raise fund to complement the efforts of the government,
the principal can establish a very good rapport with the Parents Association, Board of
Governors, Old Students’ Association and Non-Governmental Organizations for fund
raising activities.
For decades one of the main problems facing education in Nigeria is inadequate
funding. The funding of education has been on the decline. This in turn has had
adverse effect on the quality of education and effective educational administration
(Ekundayo, 2010). There has been other pressing issues (infrastructure, health,
security among others) competing with education on the budget of the federal
government. With the upsurge of climatic change, revenue accruing to education will
be on the decline as government attention will be directed to emergency and pressing
issues such as reconstruction of roads affected by climatic change, provision of food
as there is food insecurity, housing and provision of health services for displaced
persons during disasters. More so, administrators of secondary schools affected by
climatic change could be forced to channel available limited financial resources to the
servicing of affected educational facilities. This will however have a serious effect on
effective administration of schools and the delivery of qualitative education.
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Student Personnel Administration
Student personnel administration refers to the activities of the school
administrator in directing, organizing and teaching students in such a way as to ensure
the attainment of the desired objective of secondary education (Mgbodile, 2004). It is
aimed at the satisfaction of learners needs in the areas of provision of admission,
registration, orientation, hostel accommodation, health services, and computation of
results and supervision of school programmes, apart from the normal classroom
instruction, which facilitates the attainment of the desired educational objectives
(Ochai, 2012).
In every school system, the student is at the centre of the education. It therefore
becomes the responsibility of the school administrator to ensure that all school
programmes are propelled toward developing to the fullest the personality of the
student. According to Ochai (2012), if the students are to benefit from the education
process, their intellectual, physical, social and psychological needs as well as the
educational needs of the students have to be well catered for. To cater for the needs of
the students, the school administrator ensures that the institution’s instructional
programmes are well planned and executed for the benefit of the student.
Student personnel administration involves decision making and implementation
of policies of the school with regards to student education. The decision making
process involves forecasting, planning and organizing the students and other resources
such as manpower, capital, equipment and financial resources which are necessary for
effective teaching and learning in secondary schools (Mgbodile, 2004).
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According to Save the Children’s ‘Legacy of Disasters’ and UNICEF’s ‘Our
Climate, Our Children, Our Responsibility’ (Das, 2010), the children will be the
hardest hit by the increasingly frequent and severe weather events, desertification and
flooding brought by climate change. It is obvious that students in riverine areas will
suffer from vector borne diseases, such as malaria (mosquitoes) and sleeping sickness
(tsetse fly) as a result of flooding and children in dry lands may suffer from chronic
heat rashes as a result of increase in temperature. The increased risk of diseases such
as malaria, dengue fever and water-borne infections for both students and teachers due
to these events further disrupts educational programmes (Das, 2010).
Since climatic change will affect every citizen, every part of our environment,
infrastructures and every aspect of our lives, students’ academic programmes and
learning activities and academic achievement will be affected. This is due to the fact
that other school resources (human, school facilities and school finance) are seriously
affected by climatic change events. The 2012 flooding forced both staff and students,
and even administrators out of school, they became refugees in various camps in
Bayelsa State.
Effective School Administration
Administration is the art of combining and coordination of resources for the
achievement of set goals and objectives. Administration is the component part of
management concerned with facilitating the accomplishment of the objectives of an
organization through the systematic management of constraints and careful utilization
of the available limited resources which include human, material, equipment, supplies,
finance, space and work techniques or technology (Peretomode, 2001). On the other
65
hand, educational administration is the arrangement of the human and material
resources and programmes available for education and carefully using them
systematically for the achievement of articulated objectives (Mgbodile, 2004). In other
words, to achieve set educational objectives the school head/administrator must carry
out certain administrative functions such as planning, controlling, coordinating,
organizing, budgeting and directing all available resources. The resources available to
school administrators are the staff personnel (teaching and non-teaching staff), school
physical facilities, school finances and the student personnel.
In achieving effective administration, school heads anchor their work on
central issues of teaching and learning and continuous school improvement.
According to School Improvement in Maryland (2013), the combination of three
concepts constitutes the foundation for positive improvement results: meaningful
teamwork; clear, measurable goals; and the regular collection and analysis of
performance data. Effective administrators lead their school through the goal-setting
process in which student achievement data is analyzed, improvement areas are
identified and actions for change are initiated. This process involves working
collaboratively with staff and school community to identify discrepancies between
current and desired outcomes, to set and prioritize goals to help close the gap, to
develop improvement and monitoring strategies aimed at accomplishing the goals, and
to communicate goals and change efforts to the entire school community. Effective
Principals ensure that staff development needs are identified in alignment with school
improvement priorities and that these needs are addressed with appropriate
professional learning opportunities.
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Effective principals, according to The Wallace Foundation (2013), do the
following; Shaping a vision of academic success for all students, one based on high
standards, creating a climate hospitable to education in order that safety, cooperative
spirit and other foundations of fruitful interaction prevail, cultivating leadership in
others so that teachers and other adults assume their parts in realizing the school
vision, improving instruction to enable teachers to teach at their best and students to
learn to their utmost, managing people, data and processes to foster school
improvement.
Climatic change poses threat to school administrators in the areas of school
improvement and effective school administration, since effective administration is the
ability of the school administrator to effectively coordinate available human, material
and financial resources. School teachers will not be available to teach students when
they are affected and displaced by climatic change events, students will not be
available for teachers to teach, hence the disruption of educational programme
mapped out for the school calendar year. This could also affect the effective
monitoring of educational activities in schools by administrators.
Theoretical Framework
This study will adopt the anthropogenic global warming theory, planetary
process theory, human relations theory and the behavioural science theory.
Anthropogenic Global Warming Theory
The anthropogenic global warming theory of climate change as propounded by
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change of the United Nations (2007) states
that man and his activities is the sole cause of the recent climatic change. The theory
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contends that human emissions of greenhouse gases (principally CO2, methane, and
nitrous oxide), industrialization and development, burning of fossil fuel and coal, gas
flaring, jet contrails, irrigation of deserts and deforestation are causing catastrophic
rise in global temperatures. The mechanism whereby this happens is called the
enhanced greenhouse effect. Energy from the sun travels through space and reaches
earth. According to the theory, the earth’s atmosphere being transparent, allows free
passage of the sun’s ray to reach the planet’s surface where some of it is absorbed and
others reflected back as heat. Certain gases in the atmosphere, called “greenhouse
gases,” absorb the reflected radiation, resulting to warmer atmosphere.
The theory further indicated that water vapour is the major greenhouse gas,
responsible for about 36 to 90% of the greenhouse effect, followed by CO2 (<1 to 26
percent), methane (4 to 9 percent) and ozone (3 to 7 percent). These estimates are the
subject of much dispute among scientists, hence their wide ranges. During the past
century, human activities such as burning wood and fossil fuels and cutting down or
burning forests are thought to have increased the concentration of CO2 in the
atmosphere by approximately 50%. Continued burning of fossil fuels and
deforestation, the theory postulates doubled the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere.
Earth’s climate responds to several other types of external influences, such as
variation in solar radiation and in the planet’s orbit, but these “forcings,” according to
the proponents of AGW, cannot explain the rise in earth’s temperature over the past
three decades. The forcing caused directly by man-made greenhouse gases is also
small, but the AGW theory posits that positive feedbacks increase the effects of these
gases between two- and four-fold. A small increase in temperature causes more
evaporation, which places more water vapour in the atmosphere, causing more
68
warming, less ice and snow cover, more exposed ground and open water and thus
increase in absorption of solar radiation.
The AGW theory believes that man-made CO2 is responsible for floods,
droughts, severe weather, crop failures, species extinctions, spread of diseases, ocean
coral bleaching, famines, and literally hundreds of other catastrophes. All these
disasters will become more frequent and more severe as temperatures continue to rise.
Nothing less than large and rapid reductions in human emissions of greenhouse gases
will save the planet from these catastrophic events. This implies that school principals
need to pay attention to human activities in their school environment and communities
where there schools are located that could aggravate climatic change and have adverse
environmental changes that could affect the effective administration of educational
activities. The anthropogenic global warming theory helped the study to understand
that climatic change is caused by human activities.
Planetary Processes Theory
This theory as propounded by Milankovic (1941) and modified by Gray (2009)
holds that climatic change is as a result of natural processes which take place within
and outside the earth without man’s influence. The planetary process theory postulates
that bio-thermostat, ocean currents, and planetary motion in addition to solar
variability through gradual processes result to climatic change over prolong time. The
theory explains that bio-thermostatic processes involving the negative feedbacks from
biological and chemical progressions entirely offset positive feedbacks by rising CO2.
These processes act as a “global bio-thermostat” keeping temperatures in equilibrium.
Such bio-thermostatic processes include the planetary motion, solar variability and
ocean current processes.
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The ocean currents process explains that global temperature variations over the
30 years were due to the slow-down of the ocean’s Thermohaline Circulation (THC).
THC refers to a part of the large-scale ocean movement that is driven by global
density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes. The term
“thermohaline” is derived from “thermo” referring to temperature and “haline”
referring to salt content, factors which together determine the density of sea water.
Wind-driven surface currents (such as the Gulf Stream) travel polewards from the
equatorial Atlantic Ocean, cooling en route, and eventually sinking at high latitudes
(forming North Atlantic Deep Water). This dense water then flows into the ocean
basins. When the THC is relatively weak (as it was during the periods 1910–1940 and
1970–1994), the earth-system typically has less evaporation, cooling and deep ocean
upwelling of water, during which energy accumulates in the ocean’s upper mixed
layer over a period of a decade or two and after which the global ocean begins to
warm. The warmed oceans result in increased global temperature thus ice melting,
change in precipitation, sea level rise leading to general flooding and coastal erosion.
The planetary processes theory further attributes the change in climate to the
movement and rotation of the earth. The earth, like every other planet, orbits in the
galaxy with the sun at one point or the other, referred to as planetary motion process.
The planetary motion process explains that most or all of the warming of the latter
part of the twentieth century is due to natural gravitational and magnetic oscillations
of the solar system induced by the planet’s movement through space. The position of
the earth relative to the sun determines the amount of solar energy to reach the
surface. The closer the earth to the sun the higher the solar energy thus increased
surface heat which influences the global temperature. These relative positions
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modulate solar variations and/or other extraterrestrial influences of the earth, which
then drive climatic change. Solar variability process explains that the sun accounts for
most or all of the warming in the late twentieth century and will determine climate in
the twenty-first century regardless of man-made greenhouse gas emissions. Changes
in the brightness of the sun are caused by sunspots – bursts of energetic particles and
radiation – that vary in frequency in cycles of roughly 11, 87, and 210 years. These
cycles cause changes in the amount of electromagnetic radiation – also called “solar
wind” – that reaches earth and its atmosphere, which in turn affects earth’s climate. In
summary, the planetary processes theory posits that these naturally occurring
progressions combined influence the climatic makeup of the earth over a long period
of time thereby leading to climate change.
The planetary process theory is relevant to this study to understand that
climatic change occurs naturally, and that natural occurrences like earthquake could
lead to climatic change. This implies that school administrators should note that there
are natural occurrences that could affect the effective administration of schools.
Each of anthropogenic global warming theory and the planetary processes
theory of climatic change is unique and relates to this study as they distinguishably
explains the various causes of climatic change, separating between human and natural
causes. These theories aided this research in understanding the various causes of
climatic change.
Human Relations Theory
This theory as propounded by Mary Parker Follet in 1868 holds that the human
factor is the most important in any organization. It sees the people and their
relationship in organization as key factor. It is of importance that the needs, feelings,
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beliefs and attitudes of organizational members are taken into consideration, as it is
only when individuals are humanly treated that they can have the motivation to
participate actively in the achievement of organizational goals. The theory is
applicable to all organizations, establishments and institutions.
The implication of this theory to this study is that it creates an environment
where the school administrator and staff (teaching and non-teaching) will work
harmoniously towards the achievement of educational goals and objectives. Based on
the basic elements of this theory, the principal should pay attention to teachers’ and
students’ welfare. The teachers as the tools for achieving educational goals and
objectives should be motivated, developed and maintained. The principal as the school
administrator must have a good relationship with school staff as it will help them to
have knowledge on the challenges facing the school. The school staff will work
effectively and efficiently when their needs are met. This implies that it is of great
importance that the school administrator considers the welfare and well-being of
teachers and students during climatic change events as they play a very important role
in the achievement of educational goals and objectives of the school.
Behavioural Science Theory
Behavioural science theory focuses on human behaviour in a formal
organization. The proponent of this theory is Chester I. Bernard (1886 – 1961). The
theory emphasizes on the study of observable and verifiable human behaviour in
organizations using scientific procedures. The basic assumption of the behavioural
science theory is that managers must know how to deal with people. The theory also
emphasizes that people achieve much when they work together than when they are
working alone in a formal organization. Furthermore, Bernard stressed that the
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survival of a formal organization is dependent upon two concepts which refers to as
“effectiveness and efficiency”. Effectiveness is system oriented, having to do with the
achievement of cooperative purposes or organizational goals, while efficiency is
personal (person oriented). It refers to feeling of satisfaction one derives from one’s
membership in the organization.
The behavioural theory shows that it is no longer desirable to concentrate either
on the work alone or on the worker alone, but an integration of the two is considered
more helpful in the realization of organizational and personal goals.
This means that school administrators must ensure that there is equal attention
to human welfare as well as the achievement of set educational objectives. This also
means that neither human element nor achievement of educational objectives should
be sacrificed for another.
The relevance of this theory to this study is that school administrators must
give attention to the interest of their staff (teaching and non-teaching) as well as the
achievement of educational goals. This will however enable administrators and staff to
work as a team to achieve effective school administration and improve students
learning. This implies that school administrators should be able to tolerate the attitude
of teachers towards work during climatic change events, as they could be affected
adversely.
Review of Empirical Studies
The review of empirical studies was based on the following headings:
Related studies on climatic change awareness of secondary school principals.
A study was conducted by Ekpoh and Ekpoh (2011) on assessing the level of
climate change awareness among secondary school teachers in Calabar municipal,
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Nigeria: implication for management effectiveness. The purpose of the study was to
examine the level of climate change awareness among secondary school teachers in
Calabar municipal. Three hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. Descriptive
survey research design was employed for the study. The population comprised of 936
secondary school teachers, and stratified random sampling technique was used to draw
200 school teachers as sample for the study. Questionnaire was the instrument used
for data collection. Data collected were analyzed using t-test. The findings of the
study indicated that the level of climate change awareness was low generally among
teachers, that the awareness varied with sex, and that teachers’ access to sources of
information on climate change was low. The study is similar to the present study as
both aims at determining climate change awareness but differs in scope and study area
as the former was carried out in a different state. The present study is being carried out
specifically on school principals for effective school administration.
Another study was carried out by Thaddeus, Chukwudumebi, Nnaemeka and
Victoria (2011) on climate change awareness and adaptation in the Niger Delta region
of Nigeria. Four research questions and two hypotheses were formulated to guide the
study. The study adopted the descriptive survey research design. The population
comprised of farmers estimated to be 7,814,858 which represented about 60% of the
population of the sample states in the study area. Multistage (random) sampling
technique was used. Three states – Cross Rivers, Delta and Rivers were randomly
selected from the nine Niger Delta states for the study. A total of 400 farmers
constituted the sample size for the study. Questionnaire and interview schedule were
the instrument for collection of data. Percentage, mean score, standard deviation and
factor analysis with varimax rotation were used in data analysis. Findings of the study
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revealed that institutional problems, government failures and resistance to change are
the major constraints to adaptation strategies. Results of the study further revealed that
81.0% of the total number of respondents in the study did not know of the existence of
a bill on climate change in the National Assembly. This study like the present study,
seeks to ascertain climate change awareness, but different in scope as it focused on
agriculture and included adaptation by farmers. However, the present study is
focusing on education.
Related studies on climatic change impact on students’ learning in secondary
school
Oghuvbu (2010) researched on attendance and academic performance of
students in secondary school: a correlate approach. The main purpose of the study was
to determine the level of absenteeism on students’ academic performance. Three
research questions and two hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The design
for the study was ex-post-facto in the form of descriptive research format. The
population comprised of all the students in the 398 secondary schools in Delta State.
Multi-stage random sampling technique was used to draw 2860 secondary school
students. The instrument for data collection was a checklist. The three research
questions were analyzed using percentage mean and linear regression equation, while
the hypotheses were tested using Pearson Product Moment Correlation. The major
finding was that there is a relationship between attendance and academic performance;
hence students’ academic performance was influenced by attendance. This study is
related to the present study as both trace factors that could possibly affect students
learning and academic performance. While the former focused on attendance as a
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problem, the present study is focused on climatic change as a problem that could
affect students learning and academic performance.
Also another research was carried out by Ajayi and Yusuf (2009) on
instructional space planning and students’ academic performance in South West
Nigeria secondary schools. The main purpose of the study was to examine the
relationship between instructional space planning and students’ academic
performance. Five null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The study
employed a descriptive survey design. The population comprised of all students,
teachers and principals. Multistage, stratified and simple random sampling techniques
were used to draw a sample size of 1650 students, teachers and principals. The
instrument for data collection was a questionnaire. Data collected were analyzed using
percentages and Pearson Product Moment Correlation. The findings of the study were
that the level of instructional space planning were related to students’ academic
performance, students’ academic performance was significantly related to
instructional space planning, classroom planning, library planning and technical
workshop planning.
This study is related to the present research work in the sense that they are both
interested in factors that could influence students’ learning that will lead to students’
academic performance. But the present research work is different from the former in
the area and location of the study. Also the present work is picking on climatic change
as a factor that could impinge on students’ learning and academic performance.
Related studies on climatic change impact on human resource performance
Osim, Uchendu and Mbon (2012) carried out a research on management’s
innovation behaviours and task performance among secondary school teachers in
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Cross Rivers State, Nigeria. The main purpose of the study was to find out the
influence of principals’ innovative behaviour on secondary school teachers’ task
performance. One research question and one hypothesis were formulated to guide the
study. The study employed the ex-post-facto research design. The population
comprised of teachers and students. Stratified random sampling technique was used to
draw 2500 teachers and students for the study. Instrument for data collection was a
questionnaire. Data collected were analyzed using one way analysis of variance
(ANOVA). The findings was that there was a significant influence of principals’
innovative behaviour on teachers’ task performance and School principals as change
agents should encourage teachers to initiate innovations even in their own teaching
professions. This study and the present study are both based on factors that could
affect teachers’ performance. But, the present study is identifying climatic change as a
factor that could affect teachers’ task performance.
Another research was carried out by Muhammad, Humaira, Shabnam, Allah
and Anjum (2012) on factors affecting teacher motivation at secondary school level in
Kohat City, Pakistan. The main objective of the study was to identify the factors
affecting the motivation of teachers at secondary school level. Two research questions
were formulated to guide the study. The study employed the descriptive survey
research design. The population of the study was made up of all teachers of the
government secondary schools at Kohat City. Simple random sampling technique was
used to draw 40 teachers for the study. Instrument for data collection was a
questionnaire; data collected were tabulated and analyzed using mean and standard
deviation. The findings were that rewards and incentives, self-confidence, economic
status of teacher and financial incentive more affect the performance of teachers more,
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while socio- status of the teacher, examination stress and teaching as first Choice of
the teacher less affect the performance of teachers. The empirical study and the
present research work are related in the sense that their quest is to establish factors
affecting employee performance. But the empirical study was researched in a different
geographical location and is centred on motivation. However, no work has been
carried out on the effect climatic change could have on staff performance and this
study intends to fill in that gap.
Related studies on climatic change impact on secondary school educational
facilities
A research was carried out by Ijaiya (2008) on the effects of free and
compulsory universal basic education on educational facilities in Ilorin metropolis.
The main purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of overcrowding on school
facilities. Two research questions guided the study. The design used for the study was
ex-post-facto. The population comprised of 870 principals of junior secondary
schools. Simple random sampling technique was used to draw 430 principals for the
study. A 20 item questionnaire was the instrument used for data collection. Data
collected were analyzed using one way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The findings
were that overcrowding diminishes the life expectancy rate of school facilities, and it
also leads to destruction of school facilities. This study is similar to the present study
as they both emphasis on factors affecting the life span of school facilities, but differ
in area and location of the study. The present study seek to fill the gap created by the
empirical by establishing that climatic change could also reduce the life span of school
facilities.
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A study was carried out by Ebiye and Ogboloma (2005) on students’ deviant
behaviour: a factor affecting school physical facilities in Yenagoa local government
area of Bayelsa State. The purpose was to investigate how students’ deviant acts affect
school physical facilities. One research question and one hypothesis were formulated
to guide the study. The study employed a descriptive survey research design. The
population comprised of all the government secondary school principals in Yenagoa
local government area. Simple random sampling technique was used to draw 30
secondary school principals. A 20 item questionnaire was the instrument used for data
collection. Data collected were analyzed using percentage mean and t-test was used to
test the null hypothesis. The major finding was that some students when disciplined
vent anger on school properties. This study and the present study are alike in the study
area and they both investigates factors affecting school physical facilities, but the
present study focuses on effects posed by climatic change on educational facilities.
Related studies on principals’ receipt of financial aids in the event of climatic
change
A study was carried out by Das (2011) on financial assistance of primary schools
affected by climate change in Barisal region, Bangladesh. The main purpose was to
ascertain schools financial aid for the reconstruction of schools affected by climate
change disasters. The study was guided by three research questions. The study
adopted the ex-post-facto research design. The population comprised of all the
primary schools in Barisal region. There was no sample and sampling technique as all
the schools were covered by the researcher. A 30 item questionnaire was the
instrument used for data collection. Data collected were analyzed using percentage
mean and standard deviation. The findings were that primary school educational
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facilities were adversely affected by climatic change, and that financial aids for the
reconstruction of educational facilities are gotten from the government and some
international donor agencies. This study and the present study are similar as they both
focused on financial aids to schools affected by climatic change, but are different in
the study location and focus. While the former focuses on primary school, the present
is focused on secondary school. However there is no work on assisting secondary
schools in climatic change events and this work intend to fill in that gap.
Summary of Literature Review
The literature review for this study was presented under conceptual framework,
theoretical framework and review of empirical studies. The concepts looked into are
climate, climatic change, awareness, principalship, and concept of administration.
Climate as a concept was defined as the weather condition of an area over a number of
years. Climatic change is the significant and lasting variation in the statistical
properties of the average weather system when considered over long periods of time,
regardless of cause. This concept gave a detailed explanation of the causes of climatic
change and its consequences on human life, other living organisms, infrastructures
and our environment. Awareness is the knowledge an individual or a group of people
have about events or things and happenings on their environment. The principal is the
highest ranking officer in the secondary school. He acts as the leader, control and
plans all activities including academic activities taking place in the secondary school
system. Administration is the coordination of human and material resources towards
the attainment of some predetermined objectives. While educational administration is
the activities of planning, controlling, coordinating and directing of human and
material resources for the attainment of educational goals and objectives.
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The theoretical framework reviewed the anthropogenic global warming theory,
the planetary process theory, the human relations theory, and the behavioural science
theory. The anthropogenic global warming theory explained the role of human
activities to the current trend in climatic change, while the planetary process theory of
climate change posits that variations in average weather is as a result of natural
progressions occurring within and outside earth. The human relations theory explained
that it is only when workers are treated humanly that they can have the motivation to
participate actively in the achievement of organizational goals, while the behavioural
science theory posits that emphasis should neither be laid on the job/task performance
nor workers, rather both be taken care of equally. This study is anchored on these
theories as they form the basis of understanding the effect climatic change could have
on every aspect of human life, our environment, and social activities including
education.
The review of related empirical studies was based on the purpose of study.
Studies related to principal’s climatic change awareness, effects of climatic change on
students’ learning in secondary schools, effects of climatic change on human
resources performance, effects of climatic change on secondary school educational
facilities, and studies related to extent to which schools receive financial aid in the
event of climatic change were reviewed. However, from the related empirical studies
reviewed, it can be deduced that there has not been any known studies carried out on
climatic change as it affect the smooth administration of secondary schools in Bayelsa
State. Therefore, this study seeks to fill this gap by establishing the impact climatic
change has on the effective administration of secondary schools in Bayelsa State. This
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study could not have come in a better time than now as climatic change consequences
are now visible and is felt all over the world.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD
This chapter describes the procedure that was adopted in carrying out the study.
The procedure is presented under the following sub-headings: design of the study,
area of the study, population of the study, sample and sampling technique, instrument
for data collection, validation of the instrument, reliability of the instrument, method
of data collection, and method of data analysis.
Design of the Study
The study adopted ex-post-facto research design. According to Nworgu (2006),
ex-post-facto research design is a design in which the researcher attempts to link some
already existing effects or observation to some variables as causative agents. This
design is considered appropriate for this study since the researcher is not interested in
the manipulation of variables.
Area of the Study
The study was carried out in Bayelsa State. Bayelsa State is located in the Niger Delta
Region, South/South of Nigeria. It is bordered by Rivers State to the East, Delta State
to the West, both Delta State and Rivers States to the North and the Atlantic Ocean to
the South. Bayelsa State is made up of eight local government areas, they are:
Yenagoa, Kolokuma/Opokuma, Sagbama, Ekeremor, Southern Ijaw, Ogbia, Brass and
Nembe local government areas. Bayelsa State is a lowland maritime area that is
largely occupied by water. All the local government areas have most of their
communities in the creeks (lowland areas) and few communities are accessible with
the aid of motor cars, vans and motor cycles (upland areas). It has almost the largest
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supply of crude oil which is the main stay of the Nigerian economy, hence the heavy
presence of oil exploration companies such as Shell Petroleum Development
Company (SPDC), Nigerian Agip Oil Company (NAOC), Chevron, and Mobil,
among others. Besides these, there are a number of servicing companies such as
Willbros, Saipem, Panalpina, among others, hence the heavy gas flaring in the area.
The state was one of the most affected states in the 2012 flood disaster. The study was
carried out in all the eight local government areas which is made up of 167
government secondary schools.
Population of the Study
The population of the study consist of 501 government secondary school principals
and vice principals (administration and academics). This is made up of 167 principals,
167 vice principals academics and 167 vice principals administration (source: Bayelsa
State Senior Secondary Schools’ Board, September, 2013). In order to attain a
sizeable number of population for the study, the principals and vice principals were
merged to form the final figure (501). (See appendix C).
Sample and Sampling Technique
Due to the narrow size of the population of the study, the researcher considers the
population size manageable. Therefore, there was no sample and sampling technique
for the study. (See appendix C)
Instrument for Data Collection
A 45 item questionnaire generated from the research purposes by the researcher
and titled “Impact of Climatic Change on Secondary School Administration
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Questionnaire - ICCSSAQ”, was used to collect information from the respondents.
The questionnaire is divided into two parts (I & II). Part I which has five items
solicited information on the demographic data of the respondents, while part II has 40
items which collected information on impact of climatic change on secondary school
administration in Bayelsa State based on the specific purposes of the study and is
divided into five clusters (A-E). Each item has a four point response scale of Very
Great Extent (VGE), Great Extent (GE), Low Extent (LE) and Very Low Extent
(VLE) weighted 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively. Cluster A addressed principals’ climatic
change awareness, cluster B addressed the effect of climatic change on students’
learning in secondary schools, cluster C addressed climatic change effect on human
resource performance, however, cluster D addressed the effect of climatic change on
educational facilities, and cluster E find out if there has been financial aid to cushion
the effect of climatic change on educational facilities.
Validation of Instrument
The research instrument was subjected to face validation by three experts; two
from Educational Administration and Planning in the Department of Educational
Foundations, and one from Science Education (Measurement and Evaluation) all in
the Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The validates were asked to
read and correct statements with respect to clarity, sentence construction, suitability of
items and other observed errors. However, the validates made suggestions for the
improvement of the instrument. Their corrections and suggestions were used to
produce the final copy of the instrument.
Reliability of the Instrument
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In order to ascertain the reliability of the instrument for the study, 20 copies of
the instrument were trial tested in secondary schools in Delta State which is outside
the study area. It was done to generate data used to determine the reliability of the
instrument. The questionnaires administered were retrieved and analyzed using
Cronbach Alpha procedure to determine the internal consistency of the instrument.
The use of Cronbach Alpha procedure applies to instruments that are polytomously
scored, where every response attracts a score (Nworgu, 2006). From the analysis, the
reliability coefficient obtained for clusters A, B, C, D and E were 0.89, 0.78, 0.80,
0.84 and 0.76 respectively, while the overall reliability coefficient obtained was 0.95.
Method of Data Collection
A total number of 501 questionnaires was administered to the respondents by
the researcher with the help of two research assistants each covering the three
Senatorial Districts in the State. The research assistants were instructed on how to
distribute and collect the copies of the completed questionnaires.
Method of Data Analysis
Data collected from the respondents were analyzed using mean and standard
deviation to answer the research questions while t-test was used to test the null
hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.
The research questions were interpreted using real limit of numbers and values
as follows: Very Great Extent (VGE) (4) 3.50 – 4.00, Great Extent (GE) (3) 2.50–
3.49, Little Extent (LE) (2) 1.50 – 2.49 and Very Little Extent (VLE) (1) 1.00 – 1.49
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In taking decision any item with a mean value ranging from 3.50 – 4.00 were
interpreted as Very Great Extent, 2.50 – 3.49 as Great Extent, 1.50 – 2.49 as Little
Extent while any item with a mean value below 1.50 (1.00 – 1.49) were interpreted as
Very Little Extent.
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
This chapter presents the results of data analyzed based on the five research
questions and three null hypotheses that guide the study. The results were presented in
tables according to the individual questions and hypotheses.
Research Question 1: To what extent are principals aware of climatic change?
The data collected with items 1 – 14 of the instrument which dwelt on the
principals in lowland and upland areas in Bayelsa State on their climatic change
awareness were used to answer the above research questions. Data were also analyzed
using mean and standard deviation. Summary of the results was presented in table 1.
Table 1: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland Areas in Bayelsa
State on Climatic Change Awareness.
S/N Items Principals (n= 501)
Lowland (n=385) Upland (n=116) Av Resp. (NT= 501)
1
SD1 Dec1 2
SD2 Dec3 3
SD3 Dec3
1 Gas flaring 2.17 0.89 LE 2.14 0.73 LE 2.16 0.81 LE
2 Bush burning 1.41 0.64 VLE 1.42 0.64 VLE 1.42 0.64 VLE
3 Volcanic eruption 1.58 0.64 LE 1.56 0.63 LE 1.57 0.64 LE
4 Deforestation 1.33 0.47 VLE 1.32 0.47 VLE 1.33 0.47 VLE
5 Burning of fossil fuel 1.50 0.64 LE 1.49 0.65 VLE 1.50 0.65 LE
6 Urbanization 1.32 0.61 VLE 1.33 0.63 VLE 1.33 0.62 VLE
7 Changes in solar
radiation
1.16 0.37 VLE 1.16 0.37 VLE 1.16 0.37 VLE
8 Population explosion 1.33 0.47 VLE 1.33 0.47 VLE 1.33 0.47 VLE
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9 Extreme heat events 1.41 0.64 VLE 1.41 0.64 VLE 1.41 0.64 VLE
10 Excessive rainfalls 1.66 0.47 LE 1.66 0.47 LE 1.66 0.47 LE
11 Incessant flooding 1.49 0.64 VLE 1.48 0.63 VLE 1.49 0.64 VLE
12 Cyclones 1.66 0.94 LE 1.64 0.92 LE 1.65 0.93 LE
13 Extreme storms 1.83 0.68 LE 1.82 0.70 LE 1.83 0.69 LE
14 Droughts 3.11 0.86 GE 3.07 0.91 GE 3.09 0.89 GE
Cluster Response 1.64 0.64 LE 1.63 0.63 LE 1.64 0.64 LE
Key:
1 – Mean for lowland principals
SD1 – Standard deviation for lowland principals
Dec1 - Decision for lowland principals
2 – Mean for upland principals
SD2 – Standard deviation for upland principals
Dec2 - Decision for upland principals
n – Sample of principals
3 – Average mean for lowland and upland principals
SD3 – Average standard deviation for lowland and upland principals
Dec1 – Average decision for lowland and upland principals
The data presented on Table 1 above showed the mean rating scores of
principals in lowland areas on one hand and principals in upland areas on the other
hand, on their extent of climatic change awareness. Based on the data on the Table I,
principals in lowland areas rated items 1, 3, 5, 10, 12 and 13 as low extent (LE), and
items 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 11 as Very Low Extent, while item 14 was rated Great
Extent. On the other hand, principals of upland areas rated items 1, 3, 10, 12 and 13 as
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Low Extent, and items 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 11 as Very Low Extent, while item 14
was rated Great Extent.
On average response of both principals in lowland and upland areas, items 1, 3.
5, 10, 12 and 13 were rated little extent (LE) of awareness, while items 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9
and 11 were rated very little extent (VLE) of awareness and item 14 was rated great
extent (GE) of awareness. In summary, the extent of climatic change awareness of
principals in Bayelsa State is at a little extent (LE) as indicated by the average mean
response (1.64) of both principals in lowland and upland areas and an average
standard deviation 0.64 was obtained for the items.
Research Question 2: To what extent does climatic change impact on students’
learning in secondary schools?
The data collected with items 15 – 20 of the instrument which dwelt on the
extent of climatic change impact on students’ learning in secondary schools were used
to answer the above research question 2. Data were also analyzed using mean and
standard deviation. Summary of the results was presented in table 2.
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Table 2: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland Areas of Bayelsa
State on the Extent of Climatic Change Impact on Students’ Learning in
Secondary Schools.
S/
N
Items Principals (n= 501)
Av Resp. (NT= 501)
Lowland (n=385) Upland (n=116)
1
SD1 Dec1 2
SD2 Dec2 3
SD3 Dec3
15 Excessive rainfalls and
flooding affects the
transportation of students
to school
3.08 0.79 GE 3.00 0.82 GE 3.04 0.81 GE
16 Excessive heat affects
students’ assimilation rate
in academic activities
2.97 0.65 GE 2.93 0.68 GE 2.95 0.67 GE
17 Extreme heat affects
students’ comfortability in
classrooms
3.19 0.83 GE 3.07 0.89 GE 3.13 0.86 GE
18 Extreme heat helps in easy
spread of diseases in
classrooms
2.93 0.93 GE 2.87 0.93 GE 2.90 0.93 GE
19 Displacement of students
during excessive flooding
events affects students’
learning in school.
2.92 0.92 GE 2.85 0.98 GE 2.89 0.95 GE
20 Excess rainfalls and
flooding affects students’
school attendance rate
2.92 0.75 GE 2.81 0.83 GE 2.87 0.79 GE
Cluster Response 3.00 0.81 GE 2.92 0.85 GE 2.96 0.84 GE
From the data presented on table 2 revealed that principals in lowland areas of
Bayelsa State rated items 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20 great extent (GE) showing that
climatic change affects students’ learning in secondary schools. On the order hand,
principals in upland areas of Bayelsa State also rated items 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20
great extent (GE), also indicating that climatic change affect students’ learning in
secondary schools. This shows that principals in both areas are in agreement in their
responses.
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On the average response of principals in lowland and upland areas in Bayelsa
State, all of the items were rated great extent (GE) showing that students’ learning in
secondary school is affected. In summary, the extent to which climatic change affect
students’ learning in secondary schools in Bayelsa State is to a great extent (GE) as
indicated by the average mean response (2.96) of both the principals in lowland and
upland areas, with average standard deviation 0.84 obtained for all the items.
Research Question 3: To what extent does climatic change impact on human
resource performance in secondary schools?
The data collected with items 21 – 26 of the instrument which dwelt on the
extent of climatic change impact on human resource performance in secondary
schools were used to answer research question 3. Data were analyzed using mean and
standard deviation. Summary of the results were presented in table 3.
Table 3: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland Areas of Bayelsa
State on the Extent Climatic Change Impact on Human Resource Performance
in Secondary Schools.
S/
N
Items Principals (n= 501)
Av Resp. (NT= 501)
Lowland (n=385) Upland (n=116) 1
SD1 Dec1 1
SD2 Dec2 1
SD3 Dec3
21 Extreme heat affects staff
health.
3.35 0.72 GE 3.33 0.73 GE 3.34 0.73 GE
22 Staff displacement during
excessive flooding affects
staff performance.
3.10 0.71 GE 3.08 0.65 GE 3.09 0.68 GE
23 Extreme heat affects staff
performance in
classroom.
3.34 0.79 GE 3.37 0.78 GE 3.36 0.79 GE
24 Flooding affects the
transportation of staff to
school.
3.10 0.82 GE 3.10 0.85 GE 3.10 0.84 GE
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25 Excessive rainfalls affect
staff methods of teaching
in secondary school.
2.99 0.95 GE 3.03 0.95 GE 3.01 0.95 GE
26 Excessive rainfall and
flooding affects staff
school attendance rate
3.19 0.86 GE 3.20 0.89 GE 3.20 0.88 GE
Cluster Response 3.17 0.81 GE 3.18 0.81 GE 3.18 0.81 GE
The data present on table 3 show that principals in lowland areas rated items
21, 22, 23, 24, 25 and 26 great extent (GE), also principals in upland areas rated items
21, 22, 23, 24, 25 and 26 great extent (GE). This is an indication that both groups
agree that climatic change affect human resource performance in secondary schools.
On the average response of principals in lowland and upland areas in Bayelsa
State, all the items was rated great extent (GE) showing that climatic change affects
human resource performance in secondary schools. In summary, the extent to which
climatic change affect human resource is to a great extent (GE) as indicated by the
average mean response (3.18) of both principals in lowland and upland areas, with the
average standard deviation of 0.81 as obtained from table V above for all the items.
Research Question 4: To what extent does climatic change impact on secondary
school educational facilities?
The data collected with items 27 – 33 of the instrument which dwelt on the
extent of climatic change impact on secondary school educational facilities were used
to answer research question 4. Data were analyzed using mean and standard deviation.
Summary of the results were presented in table 4.
93
Table 4: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland areas of Bayelsa
State on the Extent Climatic Change Impact on Secondary School Educational
Facilities.
S/N Items Principals (n= 501)
Av Resp. (NT= 501)
Lowland (n=385) Upland (n=116)
1
SD1 Dec1 2
SD2 Dec2 3
SD3 Dec3
27 Destruction of books in
the library through
incessant rainfall and
flooding
3.30 0.45 GE 3.30 0.46 GE 3.30 0.46 GE
28 Damage of school
furniture and fittings
through flooding
3.36 0.72 GE 3.29 0.73 GE 3.33 0.73 GE
29 Damage to school roofs
by acid rain and
cyclone
3.54 0.49 VGE 3.56 0.49 VGE 3.55 0.49 VGE
30 Destruction of school
laboratory equipment
3.60 0.49 VGE 3.58 0.49 VGE 3.59 0.49 VGE
31 Damage to school
buildings
3.35 0.65 GE 3.36 0.66 GE 3.36 0.66 GE
32 Damage to teaching
aids by flooding and
cyclone
3.35 0.57 GE 3.31 0.58 GE 3.33 0.58 GE
33 Destruction of sporting
equipment due to
extreme heat and
flooding events
3.55 0.49 VGE 3.55 0.49 VGE 3.55 0.49 VGE
Cluster Response 3.43 0.55 GE 3.42 0.56 GE 3.43 0.56 GE
The data on table 4 revealed that principals in lowland areas rated items 27, 28,
31 and 32 great extent (GE), showing that climatic change affect secondary school
educational facilities, they also rated items 29, 30 and 33 very great extent (VGE),
indicating that climatic change affects secondary school educational facilities to a very
great extent. On the other hand, principals in upland areas rated items 27, 28, 31 and
32 great extent (GE), showing that climatic change affect secondary school
educational facilities and also rated items 29, 30 and 33 very great extent (VGE),
94
indicating a very great extent to which climatic change affects secondary school
educational facilities. The response of both groups agreed that climatic change affect
secondary school educational facilities to a great extent.
On the average response of both groups items 27, 28,31 and 32 was rated great
extent (GE), while items 29, 30 and 33 was rated very great extent (VGE). In
summary, the extent to which climatic change affect secondary school educational
facilities is to a great extent (GE) as indicated by the average mean response (3.43) of
both the principals in lowland and upland areas in Bayelsa state and average standard
deviation of 0.56, showing that the responses are not far from each other.
Research Question 5: To what extent do principals receive financial aid to
ameliorate climatic change impact on secondary school educational facilities?
The data collected with items 34 – 40 of the instrument which dwelt on the
extent to which principals receive financial aids to ameliorate climatic change impact
on secondary school educational facilities were used to answer research question 5
above. Data were analyzed using mean and standard deviation. Summary of the results
were presented in table 5.
95
Table 5: Mean Ratings of Principals in Lowland and Upland Areas of Bayelsa
State on the Extent Principals Receive Financial Aid to Ameliorate Climatic
Change Impact on Secondary School Educational Facilities.
S/N Items Principals (n= 501)
Av Resp. (NT= 501)
Lowland (n=385) Upland (n=116)
1
SD1 Dec1 2
SD2 Dec2 3
SD3 Dec3
34 School principals
receive financial aids
from the Government
in respect of climatic
change effects on
school facilities.
1.36 0.54 VLE 1.37 0.55 VLE 1.37 0.55 VLE
35 Communities where
schools are located
assist school principals
financially during
climate change events.
1.63 0.48 LE 1.62 0.48 LE 1.63 0.48 LE
36 Philanthropists assist
secondary school
principals with
financial aids to
cushion climatic
change effects on
school facilities.
1.90 0.59 LE 1.88 0.60 LE 1.89 0.60 LE
37 Secondary school
principals get financial
aids from non-
governmental
organizations for
climatic change effects
on school facilities.
1.43 0.49 VLE 1.43 0.49 VLE 1.43 0.49 VLE
38 Petroleum Trust Fund
(PTF) assists school
principals with
financial aids for
damaged school
facilities as a result of
climatic change.
1.33 0.47 VLE 1.33 0.47 VLE 1.33 0.47 VLE
39 Secondary school
principals receive
financial aids from
Parents Association
(PT) for climatic
change effects on
1.74 0.43 LE 1.72 0.44 LE 1.73 0.44 LE
96
school facilities
40 Multinational oil
companies assist
secondary schools
financially for damaged
school properties as a
result of climatic
change events.
1.57 0.71 LE 1.56 0.71 LE 1.57 0.71 LE
Cluster Response 1.56 0.53 LE 1.55 0.53 LE 1.56 0.53 LE
The data presented on table 5 above show that principals in lowland areas rated
items 34, 37 and 38 very little extent (VLE), indicating that very little extent of
financial aids were gotten from the government, non-government organizations and
the petroleum trust fund to ameliorate climatic change effects on educational facilities.
They also rated items 35, 36, 39 and 40 little extent (LE), indicating that little extent
of financial aids were gotten from communities where schools are located,
Philanthropists, parents association and multinational oil companies to cushion
climatic change affected educational facilities. On the order hand, principals in the
upland areas rated items 34, 37 and 38 very little extent (VLE) showing that very little
extent of financial aids were gotten from the government, non-governmental
organizations and the petroleum trust fund to cushion climatic change effects on
educational facilities. They also rated items 35, 36, 39 and 40 little extent (LE), also
showing that little extent of financial aids were gotten from communities,
philanthropists, parents associations and multinational oil companies to ameliorate
climatic change effects on educational facilities.
On the average response of principals both in lowland and upland areas, items
34, 37, and 38 were rated very little extent (VLE) of financial aids gotten from
government, non-governmental organizations and petroleum trust fund for the purpose
97
of climatic change affected educational facilities, while items 35, 36, 39 and 40 were
rated little extent (LE). In summary, little extent (LE) of financial aids were received
by principals of both lowland and upland areas of Bayelsa State to cushion climatic
change affected secondary school educational facilities as indicated by the average
mean response (1.56) of both principals in lowland and upland areas, with a
corresponding average standard deviation of 0.53.
Hypothesis 1(Ho1)
There is no significant difference between the mean rating scores of principals
in upland and lowland areas on awareness of climatic change.
Table 6: t-test Analysis of Mean Responses of Principals in Lowland and Upland
Areas of Bayelsa State on Climatic Change Awareness
Principals N SD df LS t-cal. t-tab Dec
Lowland 385 1.64 0.64 449 0.05 1.49 1.97 Not
Significant Upland 116 1.63 0.63
Key: df = Degree of freedom, t-cal = Calculated value, t-tab = Table value, LS = Level of
significance, SD = Standard deviation, = Mean, n = Sample, Dec. = Decision
Table 6 above presents the independent t-test analysis of the mean response of
principals in lowland areas on one hand and principals in upland areas on the other
hand, on the extent of principals’ climatic change awareness in Bayelsa State.
From table 1above, the response of both principals in lowland and upland areas
in Bayelsa State on items 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 were the same,
except item 5 which indicated otherwise on the extent of principals climatic change
awareness. However, the analysis on table 6 shows that t-calculated (1.49) is less than
the t-table value (1.97) indicating that there is no significant difference of climatic
98
change awareness between the two groups. Thus the null hypothesis (H01) of no
significant difference is accepted.
Hypothesis 2 (Ho2)
There is no significant difference between the mean rating scores of principals
in lowland and upland areas on the extent of climatic change impact on students’
learning in secondary schools.
Table 7: t-test Analysis of Mean Response of Principals in Lowland and Upland
Areas of Bayelsa State on the extent of Climatic Change Impact on Students’
Learning in Secondary Schools
Principals N SD df LS t-cal. t-tab Dec.
Lowland 385 3.00 0.81 499 0.05 3.18 1.97 Significant
Upland 116 2.92 0.85
The data presented on table 7 above shows the independent t-test analysis of
the mean difference in the response of principals in lowland and upland areas of
Bayelsa State on the extent of climatic change impact on students’ learning in
secondary schools.
From table 2 above, the response of both principals in lowland and upland
areas in Bayelsa State on items 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20 were the same, but there is a
difference in their cluster responses which indicated otherwise on the extent of
climatic change impact on students’ learning in secondary schools. However, the
analysis on table 7 shows that t-calculated (3.18) is greater than the t-table value
(1.97) indicating that there is significant difference on the extent of climatic change
impact on students’ learning between the two groups. Thus the null hypothesis (H02)
of no significant difference is therefore rejected.
99
Hypothesis 3 (Ho3)
There is no significant difference between the mean rating scores of principals
in lowland and upland areas on the extent of climate change impact on secondary
schools’ educational facilities.
Table 8: t-test Analysis of Mean Responses of Principals in Lowland and Upland
Areas in Bayelsa State on the Extent of Climatic Change Impact on Secondary
School Educational Facilities.
Principals N SD df LS t-cal. t-tab Dec
Lowland 385 3.43 0.55 499 0.05 1.69 1.97 Not
Significant Upland 116 3.42 0.56
Table 8 above indicates the independent t-test analysis of the mean response of
principals in lowland areas on one hand and principals in upland areas in Bayelsa
State on the other hand, on the extent of climatic change impact on secondary school
educational facilities.
On table 4 above, the response of both principals in lowland and upland areas
in Bayelsa State on items 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32 and 33 were the same, but there is a
little difference in their cluster responses on the extent of climatic change impact on
secondary schools educational facilities. However, the analysis on table 8 above
shows that t-calculated (1.69) is less than the t-table value (1.97) indicating that there
is no significant difference on the extent of climatic change impact on secondary
school educational facilities between the two groups. Therefore, the null hypothesis
(H03) of no significant difference is therefore accepted.
Summary of the Findings
100
Based on the data analysed and the result obtained from the research questions
answered and hypotheses tested, the following are the major findings:
That climatic change awareness among secondary school principals in Bayelsa
State is low. It was discovered that there is no significant difference between
principals in lowland and upland areas on climatic change awareness.
That climatic change affects learning in secondary schools in Bayelsa state in
the areas of students’ transportation to school, displacement of student, spread of
diseases in classrooms and affects students health and assimilation rate in class
activities. However, it was discovered that there is a difference on how it affect
learning in lowland and upland areas.
It was discovered that climatic change affects human resource performance in
secondary schools. This ranges from displacement of teachers and their families,
effects on teaching method (practical on the field/farm), teachers health and
transportation to school.
That climatic change affects secondary school educational facilities such as the
school libraries, laboratories, desks and chairs, the school buildings and the
playgrounds. It was also discovered that there is no difference in the perception of
principals of climatic change impact on educational facilities both in lowland and
upland areas.
It was discovered that there are no special financial aids given to secondary
school principals to cushion climatic change effects on secondary school education
facilities.
101
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, IMPLICATION, RECOMMENDATIONS,
CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES
AND SUMMARY
This chapter presents the discussion of findings of the study, implication of the
research findings, recommendations, conclusions, limitations of the study, suggestions
for further studies and summary. Discussions are made taking cognisance of the
research questions and hypotheses formulated for the study.
Discussion of Findings
The findings of the study are based on the research questions and hypotheses
guiding the study.
Extent of climatic change awareness of secondary school principals
The responses gathered from principals on climatic change awareness revealed
that principals of secondary schools in Bayelsa State have little or very little
knowledge of climatic change. This finding is in line with the UNDP report (2010),
which states that the level of awareness about climate change is rather low in Nigeria,
and it is likely to continue if no intervention measures are taken. The survey further
noted that the awareness of climate change was highest at the federal level, but
dropped sharply at the state and local government levels, where real action is needed.
However, the level of awareness of principals in both lowland and upland areas are
not distinct from each other.
102
Extent of climatic change impact on students’ learning in secondary schools
In view of research question two of the study, the response gathered from
principals revealed that climatic change affect students’ learning to a great extent. Its
effect on students’ learning ranges from the displacement of students’ during flooding
which also affects the transportation of students to school, excessive rainfalls, and
spread of diseases in the classroom with the help of excessive heat rays which also
affects the rate of assimilation of students’ in classroom activities. This finding
affirms the words of Das (2010), the children will be the hardest hit by the
increasingly frequent and severe weather events, desertification and flooding brought
by climate change.
The research question two revealed that there is a difference in climatic change
effects on students’ learning in the lowland and upland areas. Students’ in lowland
areas are affected more compared to their counter parts in the upland areas by killer
floods and the spread of malaria as they live along the coastal areas in Bayelsa state.
According to Etiosa and Matthew (2007), climate change will lead to increase aridity
and desertification in northern Nigeria; it will lead to increase in flooding in the
southern part especially in the coastal regions. This was the case of the 2012 flooding
in Bayelsa state, as students in the lowland areas had stopped learning for weeks and
already seeking shelter in the upland areas, before the upland areas were affected.
Extent of climatic change impact on human resource performance in secondary
schools
The findings of this study on research question three showed that climatic change has
deleterious impact on human resource performance in secondary schools in Bayelsa
103
state. This ranges from staff transportation to school, teaching methods, the
displacement of staff and their families by flood disasters and health related issues
which could also lead to loss of life. According to Andrew (2007), Climate change can
modify ecosystems in ways that not only increase physical disease but also create
health burdens that affect mental and social well-being via flood and drought impacts
on housing, food security, and livelihoods. Also in agreement with this finding, the
World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 150,000 lives have been lost
annually over the last 30 years that are directly attributable to climate change; this
number is based on a partial list of outcomes for diseases, flooding, and malnutrition
and it represents a conservative estimate (Das, 2010). According to Das, many of
these deaths are in developing countries within the world's tropical regions. Future
impacts of climate change on human health could also be dramatic, especially if some
tropical diseases expand into formerly temperate areas.
Extent of climatic change impact on secondary school educational facilities
The responses of principals as regards research question four brought to bear
that climatic change has serious effects on educational facilities and there is no
significant difference on its effect on educational facilities both in lowland and upland
areas. It affects educational facilities such as the school buildings, laboratories,
libraries, playgrounds, desks and chairs among others through excessive rainfalls,
flooding, extreme heat, thunder storms and cyclones. This is in line with the
Environmental Protection Agency (2012) in Ghana, stating that climate change will
affect the education sector directly through the increased frequency and/or severity of
extreme weather events resulting in damage to educational infrastructure. Other
infrastructure considered essential for the functioning of the education sector, such as
104
local transport, energy, and water may also be damaged or temporarily disrupted by
extreme weather events causing disruption in the functioning of education facilities
and the delivery of educational services.
Further buttressing her point, EPA stated that in 2007, the Northern Region in
Ghana reported of a number of collapsed school buildings due to the floods. Two
hundred and ten (210) schools were affected by the flood with one hundred and ninety
nine (199) classrooms reported to have collapsed.
Extent principals receive financial aid to cushion climatic change impact on
educational facilities.
Regarding the receipt of financial aid of secondary school principals to
ameliorate climatic change effect on educational facilities, it was revealed that they
receive little extent of financial aid from communities where schools are located,
philanthropists, parents association and multinational oil companies. It was also
revealed that very little extent of financial aid was gotten from the petroleum trust
fund, non-governmental organizations and the government.
From the finding, given the extent of climatic change effects on educational
facilities, it is of importance that financial aids be given to principals of secondary
schools to either reconstruct/rebuild affected school buildings and to replace affect
equipment. Onyedineke (2011) maintained that effective education depends to a large
extent on how well the educational system is financed.
Discussion of hypothesis one
Hypothesis one was accepted as postulated in the decision table 6 as not
significant. This means that the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the
mean responses of principals in lowland and upland areas of Bayelsa State on climatic
105
change awareness is accepted. This being that their responses on the causes and
outcomes/effects of climatic change is on a little extent. Their knowledge of the
causes and effects/outcomes of climatic change will help principals of secondary
schools to fashion means of adaptability to reduce climatic change effects on the
limited available resources at their disposal for the achievement of effective
administration of secondary schools.
Discussion of hypothesis two
Hypothesis two was rejected as postulated on the table 7 as being significant.
This means that the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean responses
of principals in lowland and upland areas of Bayelsa State on climatic change impact
on students’ learning in secondary schools is significant and so the assertion is
rejected. This shows that secondary school principals have a different perception on
how climatic change affects students’ learning. They are of the opinion that students
living in lowland areas will be worse affected compared to students in the upland
areas.
Discussion of hypothesis three
Hypothesis three was accepted as postulated on the decision table 8 as not
significant. This means that the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the
mean responses of principals in lowland and upland areas of Bayelsa State on the
extent of climatic change impact on secondary school educational facilities is
accepted. This mean that secondary school principals are of the perception that
climatic change affect secondary school educational facilities in both lowland and
upland areas of Bayelsa state equally.
106
Conclusion
The following conclusions have been drawn based on the findings;
The level of climatic change awareness among secondary school principals in
Bayelsa State in general is low. This is evidenced from their responses on the causes
of climatic change which includes; bush burning, deforestation, burning of fossil fuel,
urbanization, population explosion among others and its deleterious effects/outcomes
such as extreme heat events, incessant flooding, and excessive rainfalls among others.
Its effect on students’ learning ranges from; the displacement of student during
flooding from their homes and schools, effects on students’ health that may lead to
their death, effect on their rate of assimilation in classroom and the transportation of
students to school.
Climatic change also affects human resource performance in various areas such
as their health, the displacement of staff and their family members during excess
flooding, staff transportation to school, and their teaching methods. Climatic change
has great impact on secondary school educational facilities; it destroys available
learning facilities through cyclones, flooding extreme heat and thunder storm. The
financial aid given to secondary school principals to manage affected educational
facilities is on a little extent. Climatic change has a negative impact on the effective
administration of secondary schools.
Educational implication of the findings
The findings of this study have some educational implications for the
government through the ministry of education, principals of secondary schools and
other stakeholders in the education sector.
107
The results of this study have provided empirical evidence of the impact of
climatic change on secondary school administration in Bayelsa State. It provides a
guide to the government through the ministry of education that climatic change effect
is already being felt in the state, and that it has deleterious consequences on the
effective administration of secondary schools. With this, the government and other
stakeholders in the education sector should know that secondary school principals are
not finding it easy to effectively administer secondary schools as expected of them
due to climatic change effects.
The findings explains the need for secondary school principals to fashion out
adaptive measures or adopt adaptive measures already put in place if there are any to
help them in the administration of secondary school.
The results of this study also explains that finance is an important resource
needed by secondary school principals for the effective administration of secondary
schools in this era as the education sector is being affected by climatic change either
directly or indirectly and so government and other stakeholders are expected to rally
round principals helping them with the needed financial support in the administration
and achievement of educational objectives.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations have been
proffered:
1. It is recommended that necessary information and programmes be put in place
to enlighten principals on the causes of climatic change and its outcomes and
the effect it has on the effective administration of secondary schools.
108
2. There should be guidelines in the construction of classroom blocks and be
equipped with the necessary equipment to allow for ventilation. This will also
help the staff in the discharge of their professional duties.
3. The government through the ministry of education should make available
financial aids to school principals for purposes of climatic change effect on
educational facilities and modalities for private sector participation as it is
necessary for the smooth administration of secondary schools by principals.
4. Community members taking refuge in secondary schools in times of climatic
change disasters should be enlightened on the importance of the school
facilities for learning to produce good citizens for the society.
Limitations of the Study
The limitations of the study are such that it was expensive to conduct the
research due to lack of resources and funds. Another problem was the poor
transportation network to many places in the state as most communities could be
reached only with boats. This led the researcher and the research assistants to utilized
longer period in the retrieval of the completed instrument from the respondents. Also,
some of the questionnaires filled by the respondents were not properly done and their
responses may not provide the true position of things in the area of study. It was also
difficult getting information about secondary schools from the senior secondary
schools board as they try to hoard the list containing the names of secondary schools
in the state.
109
Suggestions for further studies
The following suggestions are made for further investigation;
1. Investigation on climatic change should be extended to cover other educational
institutions such as primary schools and the universities in Bayelsa state.
2. The impact of climatic change on students’ learning and their performance in
external examinations.
Summary of the Study
The study was carried out to investigate the impact of climatic change on secondary
school administration in Bayelsa State. Five research questions and two null
hypotheses guided the study. Ex-post-facto research design was used for the study.
Population of the study was 501 senior secondary school principals which comprises
of 167 principals, 167 vice principals academics, and 167 vice principals
administration. There was no sample and sampling technique as the population size is
manageable by the researcher. A 45 item questionnaire was the instrument used for
data collection. The instrument was subjected to face validation by three experts, two
from Educational Administration and Planning Unit, Department of Educational
Foundations and one from Measurement and Evaluation, Department of Science
Education all in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Their modifications were used to
produce the final copies of the instrument. 20 copies of the validated instrument was
trial tested in 20 government secondary schools in Patani Local Government Area in
Delta State which is outside the study area. Cronbach Alpha technique was used to
analyze the instrument. The reliability coefficient obtained for clusters A, B, C, D, and
E were 0.89, 0.78, 0.80, 0.84 and 0.76 respectively and the overall value of 0.95 was
110
obtained. Real limit of numbers were used to interpret the data. Mean and standard
deviation were used to answer the research questions, while t-test was used to analyze
the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.
The study revealed that climatic change awareness among secondary school
principals is low, that climatic change effects such as extreme heat, flooding, and
incessant rainfalls among others affect students’ learning, human resource
performance and secondary school educational facilities.
Based on the findings, the researcher recommended that necessary information
and programmes be put in place to enlighten principals on the causes of climatic
change and its outcomes and the effect it has on the effective administration of
secondary schools, and there should be guidelines in the construction of classroom
blocks and be equipped with the necessary equipment to allow for ventilation, as it
will also help the staff in the discharge of their professional duties. Again, Community
members taking refuge in secondary schools in times of climatic change disasters
should be enlightened on the importance of the school facilities for learning to
produce good citizens for the society.
111
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119
APPENDIX A
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS
(EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING)
IMPACT OF CLIMATIC CHANGE ON SECONDARY SCHOOL
ADMINISTRATION QUESTIONNAIRE
Note: Please kindly fill the questionnaire honestly as possible as any information
given here will be treated as confidential and will be strictly used for the purpose of
this study.
Part I: Demographic data of respondents
Please complete the information below as appropriate by ticking [√]
1. Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ]
2. Highest educational qualification: NCE/OND/ND [ ] B.SC/ B.ED/HND [ ]
MSC/MED/PGD [ ] Any other (please specify) ……………………….
3. Location: Upland [ ] Lowland [ ]
4. Name of school: …………………………………………………………..
5. Local government area of school:
……………………………………………………..
Part II
For these sections below, please indicate by ticking [√]
The response categories are:
Very Great Extent = VGE Great Extent = GE Little Extent = LE Very Little Extent
= VLE
Cluster A: Extent of Principals’ climatic change awareness.
S/NO To what extent are you aware that the following
climatic conditions affect your school?
VGE GE LE VLE
1 Gas flaring
2 Bush burning
3 Volcanic eruption
4 Deforestation
5 Burning of fossil fuel
6 Urbanization
7 Changes in solar radiation
120
8 Population explosion
To what extent are you aware the following are the results/effects of climatic
change in your environment
9 Extreme heat events
10 Excessive rainfalls
11 Incessant flooding
12 Cyclones
13 Extreme storms
14 Droughts
Cluster B: Extent to which climatic change affect students’ learning in secondary
school.
S/NO To what extent does the following affect students’
learning in your school?
VGE GE LE VLE
15 Excessive rainfalls and flooding affects the
transportation of students to school
16 Excessive heat affects students’ assimilation rate in
academic activities.
17 Extreme heat affects students’ comfortability in
classrooms
18 Extreme heat helps in easy spread of diseases in
classrooms
19 Displacement of students during excessive flooding
events affects students’ learning in school.
20 Excess rainfalls and flooding affects students’
school attendance rate
Cluster C: Extent to which climatic change affect human resource performance
S/NO To what extent does the following affect human
resource performance in your school?
VGE GE LE VLE
21 Extreme heat affects staff health.
22 Staff displacement during excessive flooding
affects staff performance.
23 Extreme heat affects staff performance in
classroom.
24 Flooding affects the transportation of staff to
school.
25 Excessive rainfalls affect staff methods of
teaching in secondary school.
26 Excessive rainfall and flooding affects staff
school attendance rate
121
Cluster D: Extent to which climatic change affect educational facilities in the
state.
S/NO To what extent does climatic change affect
educational facilities in your school?
VGE GE LE VLE
27 Destruction of books in the library through
incessant rainfall and flooding
28 Damage of school furniture and fittings through
flooding
29 Damage to school roofs by acid rain and cyclone
30 Destruction of school laboratory equipment
31 Damage to school buildings
32 Damage to teaching aids by flooding and cyclone
33 Destruction of sporting equipment due to extreme
heat and flooding events
Cluster E: Extent to which principals receive financial aid to ameliorate climatic
change effect on educational facilities
To what extent do you receive financial aid to
cushion climatic change effects on your school
educational facilities?
VGE GE LE VLE
34 School principals receive financial aids from the
Government in respect of climatic change effects
on school facilities.
35 Communities where schools are located assist
school principals financially during climate change
events.
36 Philanthropists assist secondary school principals
with financial aids to cushion climatic change
effects on school facilities.
37 Secondary school principals get financial aids from
non-governmental organizations for climatic
change effects on school facilities.
38 Petroleum Trust Fund (PTF) assists school
principals with financial aids for damaged school
facilities as a result of climatic change.
39 Secondary school principals receive financial aids
from Parents Teachers (PTA) for climatic change
effects on school facilities
40 Multinational oil companies assist secondary
schools financially for damaged school properties
as a result of climatic change events.
122
APPENDIX B
123
124
455
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
APPENDIX C
Population distribution
LOCAL
GOVERNMENT
AREA
NO. OF
SCHOOL
S
NO. OF
PRINCIPAL
S
NO. OF VICE
PRINCIPALS
ADMIN.
NO. OF
VICE
PRINCIPAL
S
ACADEMIC
S
Brass 12 12 12 12
Ekeremor 19 19 19 19
Kolokuma/Opokuma 18 18 18 18
Nembe 17 17 17 17
Ogbia 21 21 21 21
Sagbama 18 18 18 18
Southern Ijaw 32 32 32 32
Yenagoa 30 30 30 30
Total Population 167 167 167 167
NAMES OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN BAYELSA STATE
Government Sec. School, Anyama-Ogbia
Community Sec. School, Onuebum
Community Sec. School, Otuokpoti
Community Sec. School, Okodi
Government Comprehensive Sec. School,
Epebu
Community Sec. School, Ologi
Community Sec. School, Ewoi
Community Comprehensive Sec. School,
Ologoghe
Community Sec. School, Otuedu
Community Sec. School, Ayakoro
Community Sec. School, Otuegwei I
Community Sec. School, Otuegwei II
Community Sec. School, Okiki Government Sec. School, Twon-Brass
Government Sec. School, Okpoama Community Sec. School, Sangana
Community Sec. School, Akassa Community Sec. School, Beletiema
Community Sec. School, Odioma Community Sec. School, Egweama
132
Community Sec. School, Minibie Community Sec. School, Liama
Government Sec. School, Opuama Community Sec. School, Ekowe
Community Zsec. School, Diebu Community Sec. School, Igbomotoru
Community Sec. School, Eniwari Community Sec. School, Peremabiri
Community Sec. School, Kemeinama Community Sec. School, Polobubou
Community Sec. School, Okiama Government Science & Tech. College,
Aleibiri
Government Sec. School, Ekeremor Community Sec. School, Aleibiri
Government Comprehensive Sec. School,
Tamogbene
Community Sec. School, Ayamassa
Ekere Sec. School, Amabulou Community Sec. School, Ogbosuware
Community Sec. School, Foutorugbene Community Sec. School, Obrigbene
Government Sec. School, Odi Kaiama Grammar School, Kaiama
Opokuma Grammar School, Opokuma Government Girls Sec. School, Kaiama
Amatugu Comprehensive Sec. School,
Igbedi
Sampou Grammar School, Sampou
Opokuma South Sec. School, Opokuma Community Girls’ Sec. School, Odi
Community Sec. School, Odi Community Sec. School, Okoloba
Community Sec. School, Sabagreia Nember National Grammar School,
Nembe
Community Sec. School, Okoroma Community Girls’ Sec. School, Nembe
Community Comprehensive Sec. School,
Ologoama
Community Comprehensive Sec. School,
Igbeta-Ewoama
Community Sec. School, Fantuo Community Sec. School, Ewelesuo
Government Girls’ Sec. School, Nembe Community Sec. School, Oluasiri
Community Sec. School, Okoroba Community Boys’ Sec. school, Nembe
Mini-Ikensi Community Sec. School,
Agrisaba
Community Sec. School, Obioku
Community Sec. School, Otumoama Mater Dei High School, Imiringi
Government Sec. School, Ogbia Town Oloibiri Grammar School, Oloibiri
Community Sec. School, Kolo Community Sec. School, Otuasega
Odinade Community Sec. School,
Emakalakala
Community Sec. School, Idema
Owema Community Comprehensive Sec.
School, Otakeme
Community Sec. School, Otuoke/Otuaba
Community Sec. School, Oruama Community Sec. School, Emeyal
Community Comprehensive Sec. School,
Elebele
Community Comprehensive Sec. School,
Opume
Community Sec. School, Akipele Gbarainowei Grammar School, Okoloibiri
Agudama Comprehensive Sec. School,
Agudama-epie
Community Sec. School, Bumoundi
Ekpetiama Comprehensive High School,
Tombia
Ogbopuru Community Sec. School,
Koroama
Community Sec. School, Polaku Ogbein Comprehensive High School,
Nedugo-Agbia
Biseni Community Sec. School, Biseni Community Sec. School, Zarama
Community Sec. School, Okordia Community Comprehensive Sec. School,
133
Okordia/North
Government Sec. School, Toru-Ebeni Community Sec. School, Okumbiri
Community Sec. School, Kabeama Community Sec. School, Ossiama
Community Sec. School, Akeddei Community Sec. School, Agorogbene
Mein Grammar School, Ogobiri Community Sec. School, Agoro
Community Comprehensive Sec. School,
Egbopuloama
Community Sec. School, Isoni
Community Sec. School, Toru-Ndoro Community Sec. School, Peretorugbene
Community Sec. School, Aghoro Idowuni Community Sec. School,
Letugbene
Ido Community Sec. School, Egbemo-
Angalabiri
Central Community Sec. School,
Ogbotobo
Egbemo Comprehensive Sec. School,
Azagbene
Agbidiama Community Sec. School,
Agbidiama
Community Sec. School, Agge River Nun Grammar School,
Agbere/Odoni
Government Comprehensive Sec. School,
Tungbo
Community Sec. School, Trofani
Community Sec. School, Sagbama Community Sec. School, Ebedebiri
Community Sec. School, Ofoni Community Sec. School, Angalabiri
Community Sec. School, Asamabiri Community Sec. School, Bolou-Orua
Community Sec. School, Adagbabiri Community Sec. School, Elemebiri
Community Sec. School, Totu-Angiama Southern Ijaw Sec. School, Oporoma
Government Sec. School, Amassoma Community Sec. School, Otuan
Community Sec. School, Aguobiri Community Sec. School, Korokorosei
Community Sec. School, Olugbobiri Community Comprehensive Sec. School,
Angiama
Tarakiri Community Sec. School,
Anyama-Ijaw
Community Sec. School, Ondewari
Olodiama Comprehensive High School,
Ikebiri
Community Sec. School, Igeibiri
Community Sec. School, Olugboboro Obolo Grammar School, Oweikorogha
Ogboin Grammar School, Amatolo Community Sec. School, Onyomo
Community Sec. School, Obololi Community Sec. School, Tebidaba
Akpalakpa Grammar School, Ukubie Community Sec. School, Foropa
Community Sec. School, Ogboinbiri Comprehensive High School, Azuzuama
Community Sec. School, Gbanraun Community Sec. School, Koluama II
Community Sec. School, Ekeni Community Sec. School, Koluama I
Community Sec. School, Lobia Community Comprehensiv Sec. School,
Ezetu
Community Sec. School, Azama Community Sec. School, Ukparatubu
Community Sec. School, Keme-Ebiama Bishop Dimieari Grammar School,
Yenagoa
ST. Jude’s Girls’ Sec. School, Amarata Community Sec. School, Agudama-Epie
Ogbo Memorial Grammar School, Ikibiri Community Sec. School, Famgbe
Community Sec. School, Igbogene Community Comprehensive Sec. School,
Agbura
134
Central Epie Sec. School, Opolo Community Comprehensive Sec. School,
Biogbolo/Yenezuegene
Ogu Grammar School, Ogu Epie National High School, Kpansia
Community Sec. School,
Okutukutu/Etegwe
Community Sec. School, Ikolo
Community Sec. School, Azikoro Community Sec. School, Yenaka
Community Sec. School, Akenfa
Source: Bayelsa State Senior Secondary Schools’ Board, 2013.
135
APPENDIX D
Major greenhouse gases
Compound Formula Contribution (%)
Water vapour and clouds H2O 36 – 72%
Carbon dioxide CO2 9 – 26%
Methane CH4 4 – 9%
Ozone O3 3 – 7%
136
APPENDIX E
Fossil fuel combustion
Sources of fossil fuel combustion Contribution (%)
Liquid fuels (e.g., gasoline, fuel oil) 36%
Solid fuels (e.g., coal) 35%
Gaseous fuels (e.g., natural gas) 20%
Cement production 3 %
Flaring gas industrially and at wells < 1%
Non-fuel hydrocarbons < 1%
International bunker fuels of transport 4 %
Source: Grubb, 2003. World Economics.
137
APPENDIX F
Voluntary Reporting of Greenhouse Gases Program
Fuel name CO2 emitted (lbs/106 Btu) CO2 emitted(g/10
6 J)
Natural gas 117 50.30
Liquefied petroleum gas 139 59.76
Propane 139 59.76
Aviation gasoline 153 65.78
Automobile gasoline 156 67.07
Kerosene 159 68.36
Fuel oil 161 69.22
Tires/tire derived fuel 189 81.26
Wood and wood waste 195 83.83
Coal (bituminous) 205 88.13
Coal (sub-bituminous) 213 91.57
Coal (lignite) 215 92.43
Petroleum coke 225 96.73
Coal (anthracite) 227 97.59
Source: Energy Information Administration, 2010.
138
APPENDIX G
Atmospheric lifetime and GWP relative to CO2 at different time horizon for
various greenhouse gases
Gas name
Chemical
formula
Lifetime
(years)
Global warming potential (GWP) for
given time horizon
20-yr 100-yr 500-yr
Carbon dioxide CO2 About 100 1 1 1
Methane CH4 12 72 25 7.6
Nitrous oxide N2O 114 289 298 153
CFC-12 CCl2F2 100 11 000 10 900 5 200
HCFC-22 CHClF2 12 5 160 1 810 549
Tetrafluoromethane CF4 50 000 5 210 7 390 11 200
Hexafluoroethane C2F6 10 000 8 630 12 200 18 200
Sulfur hexafluoride SF6 3 200 16 300 22 800 32 600
Nitrogen trifluoride NF3 740 12 300 17 200 20 700
Source: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, 2007.
139
APPENDIX H
Causal Factors of Climate Change
140
APPENDIX I
Photo showing a section in Odi Community in Bayelsa State submerged by water (Sahara
reporters, 2012).
Photo showing a section of a Community in Bayelsa State submerged by water (Sahara
reporters, 2012).
141
Photo showing a section of Amassoma Community in Bayelsa State submerged by water
(Sahara Reporters, 2012).
Photo of a primary school in Odi community in Bayelsa State gradually going submerged
water (A snap shot by the researcher during the 2012 flooding).
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