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The School of EducationThe University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus
Jalan Broga 43500 Semenyih Selangor Darul Ehsan
Malaysia
Authentic Leadership:Paying attention to follower emotions
Student Name : Adam Bryan FreemanStudent Number : 010353Module Title : Effective Leadership and
Change in EducationModule Code : XXDEL2Module Convenor : Dr Ashley NgDate of Submission : 29 July 2013Word Count : 6134
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Authentic Leadership: Paying attention to follower emotions
Table of Contents Page
Abstract 3
1.0 Introduction 3
1.1 Context 4
1.2 Assignment Structure 6
2.0 Authentic Leadership 8
2.1 Authenticity 10
2.2 Authentic Leadership in Individuals and Organisations 10
2.3 Positive Psychological Capital 12
2.4 Identity 13
2.5 Authentic Leadership and Political Skill 16
3.0 Emotional Leadership 17
3.1 Emotional Intelligence 19
3.2 Vulnerability 20
3.3 Teacher Emotions and Educational Change 21
4.0 Applications in Practice 22
5.0 Implications 24
6.0 Conclusion 25
7.0 References 26
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Abstract
What role does an authentic leader take in facilitating positive follower emotions? Varying components of Authentic Leadership; namely, authenticity, behaviours, positive psychological capital, identity and political skill, provide frameworks for a deeper understanding of the skills required in emotionally positive educational change. Set within the context of a current educational initiative within Malaysia, Authentic Leadership theory and Emotional Intelligence theories combine to provide approaches to facilitate relationship-based positive outcomes, specifically through an understanding of leader-follower vulnerability and teacher emotions concerning educational change.
1.0 Introduction
“An essential job requirement for the twenty-first century school leader is to be a whole person in his or her leadership, aware of attitudes that he/she holds, accepting of his/her feelings, and real in his/her relationships with others. Equally important, of course, is that she possess the critical skills and knowledge to lead herself and others toward the improvement of teaching and student learning” (Ackerman & Maslin-Ostrowski, 2004, p. 325).
To examine what role the Authentic Leader takes in facilitating positive follower
emotions and trust, the author asserts a framework comprised of lenses
“consciously selected for their potential to explore and thereby enhance our
research understanding” (Peshkin, 2001). These selected lenses include:
Taysum’s (2003) Holistic Leader Model, chosen to “explore the constructs of a
leader on many levels including the spiritual, emotional and intellectual within a
social, cultural and historical context” which may “help to reveal the true
potential of leadership and what it could look like in the future” (p. 12), and
Algera and Lips-Wiersma’s (2012) consideration of the existentially authentic
leader, specifically related to a way of ‘being’ (p. 119) which posits the concept
of inauthenticity as a distinct consideration in Authentic Leadership (AL)
literature.
It is the contention of the author that an individualised existential authenticity
function throughout AL practices to facilitate improved educational reform in the
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context of Malaysian National Primary Schools (MNPS), and, as such, this
assignment serves as a preface to a dissertation framed in self-study, in which a
focus on personal/professional levels, openness to public critique, collaboration
and vulnerability (Samaras & Freese, 2009) will be explored in more depth.
Biases of the author include: a belief that individual autonomy and self-
awareness (Avolio & Gardner, 2005) are required in the context of organisational
change; that understanding weakness is essential to development of leader-
follower relationships (Diddams & Chang, 2012); and, that educational leaders
should be devoted to developing eudaemonic well-being (Klenke, 2007; Ilies et
al., 2005) within themselves and their followers through the development of
authentic leader-follower relationships and creation of meaningful Professional
Learning Communities (PLCs).
1.1. Context
Within Malaysia, a number of educational initiatives are presently underway,
linked to the Vision 2020 (Mohamad, 1991) Working Paper presented by His
Excellency YAB Dato' Seri Dr Mahathir Mohamad, former Prime Minister of
Malaysia. The current initiatives, in all subjects, while laudable, are at present
located in the realm where “multiple improvement initiatives collide” (Hatch,
2000, cited in Fullan, 2001, p. 186), and are, as such, facilitating an atmosphere
in which teachers are unable to choose between multiple goals, thereby
becoming “literally demoralized” (Nias, 1991, cited in Hargreaves, 1998, p. 323).
As such, many teachers within MNPS experience “vulnerability” (Blase, 1988,
cited in Kelchtermans, 2005, p. 997) that often finds them feeling powerless
(emphasis added) and unable to control their professional careers. Add that
“excessive complexity may arise when teachers are required to teach in areas
for which they are not certified” (Liethwood, 2007, p. 623), as is happening at
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present in many MNPS locations, and a demoralised and confused set of teachers
arises within this system. A prime example is, due to the lack of adequately
trained English teachers in MNPS, ‘non-optionists’, or teachers certified in an
area of expertise other than English, are often co-opted to teach English courses
and participate within national English initiatives. Such ‘non-optionists’ are at the
whim of school principals who choose them to ‘fill the gap’ left by the dearth of
trained English teachers.
It is within this demoralised context the author is employed as a Teacher Mentor
(TM) to local Malaysian English Educators (MEE). The specific educational
initiative is the Native Speaker Programme (NSP), which began in January 2011
and concludes in September 2013. Tasked with leading teachers to improve
English proficiency and facilitate methodological/pedagogical improvement, a TM
visits and works closely with selected teachers from five (5) schools, both in
classroom interaction and Teacher Professional Development (TPD) sessions, to
assist teachers as they ‘come to grips’ with the KSSR curriculum implementation
across MNPS by 2016 (See Appendix 1 for a curriculum overview). The
curriculum incorporates phonics, student-centred methodologies, attention to
critical thinking skills, and an emphasis on improved speaking/listening
strategies. At the time of this writing, the author has participated with the same
teachers for thirty (30) months, within the same cluster of five (5) schools. In this
instance, the majority of the teachers have been within the NSP for the entire
duration, and, as such, formed varying types of relationships with the author.
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; Hogg et al.,
2004), which is concerned with the domains of leadership, specifically, leader-
based, follower-based, and relationship-based, and how leaders develop
interpersonal relationships with their followers, has been a significant element of
relationship creation within the current context, particularly due to the nature of
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the author’s ‘outsider’ status as a foreign educator situated within the Malaysian
context. Concurrently, the author is a member of a private organisation currently
working to implement the Malaysian Ministry of Education initiative. See
Appendix 2 for the TM Job Description.
Due to the organisational construct, a differing ‘identity’ domain exists. Social
Identity processes, specifically concerning prototypicality of group members in
leading initiatives individually and as part of a team (Hogg & Van Knippenberg,
2003), tend to manifest, particularly due to the nature of immersion in MNPS and
subsequent understanding by TMs that the ‘multiple improvements’ have
‘demoralized’ teachers within those schools. It is against this background that a
discussion of MEE emotions and the development of leader-follower trust will
emerge. The definition of leader-follower in this context, for the author, means
that both TMs and MEEs are partners in the improvement of the MEE, pursuant to
the above noted Job Description. Hargreaves (2005) notes, “understanding how
teachers experience and respond to educational change is essential if reform
and improvement efforts are to be more successful and sustainable” (p. 981).
1.2 Assignment Structure
This assignment will consider the recent phenomenon of AL theory (Kernis &
Goldman, 2006; Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Ilies et al., 2005; Gardner et al., 2005;
Walumbwa et al., 2008) and its interaction with teacher emotions (Hargreaves,
1998; Hargreaves, 2004; Hargreaves, 2005; Kelchtermans, 2005) and trust
(Tschannen-Moran, 2007; Clapp-Smith et al., 2009; Walumbwa et al., 2011). In
Section 2, discussion of AL will highlight concepts within the field; namely, 1)
authenticity (Kernis, 2003; Harter, 2002; Ilies et al., 2005), 2) AL considerations
for both individuals (Avolio, Luthans & Walumbwa, 2004) and organisations
(Luthans & Avolio, 2003), 3) positive psychological capital (Walumbwa et al.,
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2011; Clapp-Smith et al., 2009; Caza et al., 2010), 4) identity (Klenke, 2007;
Hogg & Van Knippenberg, 2003) and, 5) political skill (Douglas et al., 2005).
Attention to the literature of teacher emotions and emotional leadership remains
pertinent, particularly in light of its relevance to the impact of the NSP. Section 3
will explore literature from the areas of Emotional Intelligence (EI) (Goleman,
1998) vulnerability (Ackerman & Maslin-Ostrowski, 2004; Kelchtermans, 2005)
and emotional responses of teachers to educational change (Hargreaves, 2004;
Hargreaves, 2005). Based upon the emotional nature of educational change
(Hargreaves, 2005), discussion of the emotional lives of teachers and leaders
proves relevant within the existing literature, and the links/associations between
the emotional lives of teachers and the potential impact of AL behaviours in
mitigating negative emotions and encouraging positive emotional outcomes is a
necessary consideration. Through discussion of Social Identity theory (Hogg &
Van Knippenberg, 2003) and LMX theoretical applications, enacted during the
course of this author’s leadership practice, this assignment will then focus on the
implications for capacity-building through the blend of AL theories and relevant
literature concerning teacher emotions. Concluding remarks will comprise the
final section.
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2.0 Authentic Leadership
Throughout the AL literature, varying definitions of AL exist, yet most remain
framed within the construct of authenticity (Klenke, 2007). Ladkin & Taylor
(2010) note that the construct itself encounters difficulties due to the fact that “a
unified, agreed definition of authentic leadership does not exist” (p. 65).
Authentic leaders themselves have been defined as “those who are deeply
aware of how they think and behave and are perceived by others as being aware
of their own and others’ values/moral perspectives, knowledge, and strengths;
aware of the context in which they operate; and who are confident, hopeful,
optimistic, resilient, and of high moral character” (Avolio, Luthans & Walumbwa,
2004, p. 4). The concept itself has also been categorised as a process which will
“foster the development of authenticity in followers” (Avolio & Gardner, 2005, p.
317) through a “dynamic process of development in context” (Ibid.) which allows
them to “consider multiple sides of an issue and multiple perspectives as they
assess information in a relatively balanced manner” (Ibid.).
Cooper et al., (2005) indicate that the multi-dimensional definition defined by
Avolio et al. (2004) poses significant measurement challenges and call for a
refined definition including: 1) a specification of the nature of the dimension, 2)
the observer/perspective of the person(s) providing the report, 3) the level(s) of
analysis involved, 4) the response category measurement units to be employed,
and 5) the dimension’s content domain (p. 478). Cooper et al. argue that,
without a refined definition based upon providing rigorous measurements of the
impact of AL practices, the field itself can hardly be taken seriously. Algera &
Lips-Wiersma (2012) have even advocated that AL is in danger of being
relegated to the status of ‘technique’ (p. 120) and argue that one of the inherent
flaws within the prevailing literature is the supposition that “the leader can role
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model authenticity for the follower but not that the follower could role model
authenticity for the leader” (Ibid.). Algera & Lips-Wiersma further advocate that
current AL theory “almost immediately rejects the structural implications of
authenticity” (Ibid.) and implicitly ignores the nature of inauthenticity.
Practitioners such as George (2004) have advocated dimensions of authentic
leaders, specifically, purpose, values, leading with ‘heart’, establishing
connected relationships, demonstrating self-discipline (p.30). Further authentic
leader behaviours include a focus on transparency, positivity and high ethical
standards (Avolio et al., 2004). AL is conceived as a root construct for other
positive approaches such as transformational, charismatic and ethical/moral
leadership (Avolio & Gardner, 2005), and the implication that, due to an
emphasis on follower development (Gardner et al., 2005), AL approaches may
impact Distributed Leadership (Spillane et al., 2004) remains a compelling area
for continued research. Regardless of the oppositions the field of AL may face,
the concept of leadership as a relational construct may provide a possibility for
mitigating leader-follower relationships, and thereby forming an “authentic
relationship” (Gardner et al., 2005, p.348) which validates the espoused theory
of AL. If indeed authentic leaders do not “distort, exaggerate, or ignore
externally based evaluations of the self nor internal experiences and private
knowledge that might inform self-development” (Gardner et al., 2005, p. 347), a
process of refining adequate quantitative measurement techniques may further
validate AL as a root construct.
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2.1 Authenticity
Generally accepted definitions of authenticity include “the unobstructed
operation of one’s true, or core, self in one’s daily enterprise” (Kernis, 2003, p. 1)
and “owning one’s personal experiences, be they thoughts, emotions, needs,
wants, preferences, or beliefs, processes captured by the injunction to ‘know
oneself’” (Harter, 2002, p. 382). Kernis (2003) advocates authenticity as the
“free expression of core feelings, motive and inclinations” (p. 14). Shamir &
Eilam (2005, pp. 396-7) have outlined a series of authentic characteristics they
believe arise from the authenticity of the leader, specifically, authentic leaders:
1) do not fake their leadership (i.e. leadership is considered a self-expressive
act); 2) lead from conviction (i.e. status, honour or rewards are not actively
sought); 3) are originals, not copies (i.e. they have experienced their values to
be true); and, 4) exhibit actions based upon values/convictions (i.e. their actions
are consistent with their beliefs), which is verifiable by the authentic responses
of followers who: follow the leader for authentic reasons, have a realistic view of
the leader’s strengths and weaknesses, and determine the leader’s consistency
with their perceived beliefs and values (Ibid., p. 401). Issues within the literature
pertaining to authenticity include: inauthenticity (Algera & Lips-Wiersma, 2012),
image management (Criswell & Campbell, 2011), and inauthentic leaders posing
as authentic leaders (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999). These issues lead to
consideration of the behaviours authentic leaders are considered to exhibit both
as individuals and within the organisational context.
2.2 Authentic Leadership in Individuals and Organisations
For the individual, Walumbwa et al. (2008) further defined Kernis & Goldman’s
(2006) multicomponent definition to include the following behaviours: self-
awareness, balanced processing, relational orientation and internalized moral
10
perspective. According to Klenke (2007), self-awareness is a “measure of the
person’s ability to be truly conscious of the components of the self and to
observe it accurately and objectively” (p. 77). Balanced processing may be
defined as a “self-regulatory process” (Walumbwa et al., 2008) wherein the
leader participates in “an active state of seeking input and non-defensively
considering other’s ideas (Diddams & Chang, 2012, p. 597) in order to be “able
to more objectively evaluate and accept both positive and negative aspects,
attributes and qualities of themselves, including skill deficiencies, suboptimal
performance, and negative emotions” (Gardner et al., 2005, p. 356) Relational
orientation includes a relational authenticity (Eagly, 2005) that involves “valuing
and striving for openness, sincerity, and truthfulness in one’s close relationships”
(Kernis & Goldman, 2006, p. 300). Finally, internalized moral perspective refers
to “being guided by internal moral standards, which are used to self-regulate
one’s behaviour” (Avolio et al., 2009, p. 424). Walumbwa et al., (2008) further
posit that they see AL as “reflecting an interactive and authentic relationship
that develops between the leader and followers” (p. 95).
However, for the organisation, AL is considered a process that “results in both
greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviours on the part of
leaders and associates, fostering positive self-development” (Luthans & Avolio,
2003, p. 243). Returning to the Holistic Leader Model (Taysum, 2003), there
remains a proposition to “shift our gaze from linear lives and the need to
understand how agency interplays with historical, social and organisational
structures” (p. 10). Within MNPS, the historical structure is one of multiple
initiatives colliding paired with general teacher apathy, a lack of PLCs wherein
teachers continue to work in professional isolation, and a bureaucratic structure
which often causes teacher confusion. In shifting our gaze, Cooper et al. (2005)
have advocated that scholars be aware of the history of the field so that
11
researchers may “avoid historical problems” (p. 476). To that end, Klenke (2007)
has proposed “the use of critical incidents of authentic and inauthentic leader
behaviors to produce typologies of authentic leader behaviors that may be
instrumental in defining the nomological network of the construct domain more
precisely” (p. 89). The narrative structure of qualitative research (Shamir &
Eilam, 2005; Sparrowe, 2005) is one method which may potentially be useful in
determining such typologies. In fact, further research may require a definition of
authenticity within the specific cultural context. Narratives of authenticity may
prove fruitful in determining a context-specific identity incorporating
authenticity. What is considered an authentic leader-follower relationship within
this context? How does that leader-follower relationship impact the formation of
individual and collective identity? Such research may qualify the positive self-
development of individuals and organisations advocated by Luthans & Avolio
(2003), particularly in light of contextual factors. One limitation is that AL
behaviours, attitudes and emotions may be constrained by organisational
contexts in which there is no attention paid to “caring, nurturing of the human
spirit at the workplace, and providing opportunities for all members of the
organization to develop their full potential” (Klenke, 2007). Examination of such
authentic leader behaviours would heavily depend upon organisational context,
as well as the leader’s identity.
2.3 Authenticity and Psychological Capital
Psychological Capital is a second-order factor comprised of four (4) components:
1) optimism; 2) hope; 3) self-efficacy; and, 4) resilience, and refers to
“individual’s tendencies to be motivated toward goal achievement, to recognize
paths for achieving those goals, to believe they can succeed in reaching the
goals, and to recover from the inevitable setbacks of goal pursuit” (Luthans et
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al., 2007a, cited in Caza et al., 2010). As authentic leadership posits that a
leader maintain self-awareness, balanced processing, relational authenticity and
individualized moral perspective (Walumbwa et al., 2008), the question of
whether authentic leaders develop the psychological capital of their followers
has been predicted. However, this prediction remains troublesome. Clapp-Smith
et al. (2009) conducted a study utilising the social contagion premise advanced
by Meindl (1995, cited in Clapp-Smith et al., 2009) to evidence the role of peers
in the construction of leader-follower perception. Evidence from that study
suggests that “followers and their psychological states are equally important to
understanding how leadership processes influence performance” (p. 237). A core
argument of AL advocates that the authentic leader model and facilitate the
authenticity of their followers (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Gardner et al., 2011; Ilies
et al., 2005), yet research is limited as to the impact of follower authenticity
upon leaders. Such impact remains an area of possible research of psychological
capital and authentic leadership. Caza, et al. (2010) further confirm that leader
authenticity and follower psychological capital show a “sizeable positive
correlation between the two constructs (p. 65) and suggest more research
concerning the authentic leader’s impact upon the psychological capital of
followers.
2.4 Identity
Klenke (2007) has proposed a series of identities which may play a critical role in
AL, while operating at different levels of analysis: “individually, identity is
captured by the self-identity system and its component elements; collectively, as
the leader identity system and its correlated subidentities; and holistically, as the
spiritual identity subsystem also comprised of several constituent components”
(p. 88). This author has opted for a personal spiritual subsystem of atheistic
13
existentialism, which forms both self- and leader-identities; this subsystem
manifests in the ‘conscious intention’ (Diddams & Chang, 2012, p. 597) to create
and re-create identities in line with an existential, evolutionary life path,
exemplified here by a reflective journal entry from April 17, 2013:
“Ownership (of one’s experience/thoughts) implies responsibility, which implies existentialism. To be authentic to the core, we must take responsibility for the formation of that core, and recognise that it is related to others, both in formation and personal relation; there is no vacuum that helps us form our authenticity…often times, it’s a self-discovery process that will require significant reflection, questioning, confronting ugly truths about ourselves; however, the process of discovering the ‘authentic self’ is infinitely more rewarding, especially in light of the effort expended to understand it.”
A self-identity system is highly contingent upon how we see ourselves; it
“strongly informs our feelings, beliefs, attitudes, goals and behavior” (Leary &
Tangney, 2003, cited in Klenke, 2007, p. 79). The self-awareness and self-
regulatory processes advocated within AL (Gardner et al., 2005; Ilies et al., 2005;
Avolio & Gardner, 2005) remain linked to self-reflection, a practice at the heart of
the authentic leader (Gardner et al., 2005). As such, a reflective practitioner
possesses a significant tool with which to define, or redefine, their own individual
self-identity, at any time within their career: “by reflecting through introspection,
authentic leaders gain clarity and concordance with respect to their core values,
identity, emotions, motives and goals (Gardner et al., 2005, p. 347).
Leadership identity research is built upon Social Identity theory (Hogg, 2001),
which proposes that “as people identify more strongly with a group, the basis for
leadership perceptions, evaluations and endorsement becomes increasingly
influenced by prototypicality; prototypical members are more likely to emerge as
leaders, and more prototypical leaders will be perceived to be more effective
leaders” (p. 191). Klenke (2007) expands upon Hogg’s argument, proposing that
authentic leaders are more likely to emerge as prototypical members of a group,
thereby assuming leadership more readily. Oppositely, Wang et al. (2012)
14
conducted a study employing LMX Theory components to determine the
influence between authentic leadership and follower performance. The results
were generally positive, yet linked to follower positive psychological capital. In
other words, the lower the positive psychological capital of the follower, the less
an impact AL had. However, in relation to leadership identity, just as it is possible
for leaders to “embrace multiple self-identities” (Klenke, 2007, p. 81), the
possibility of leader reputation to follow a similar pattern may mean that both
Social Identity conceptualisation and LMX Theory processes may concurrently be
at work. An authentic leader may or may not rise to leadership based upon the
culture of the workplace; however, the authentic leader may conduct herself in a
manner in line with authentic leader behaviour while implementing a strategy
based in LMX theory and application. The author, throughout the NSP, has
implemented LMX strategies, focusing on relationship-based approaches through
praise and positive reinforcement to encourage and sustain the formation of
PLCs between cluster schools. The political skills of the leader (Douglas et al.,
2005) have worked together with LMX theory to engender trust, confidence and
authenticity in varying levels based upon the individualised leader-follower
relationships. An example of one such relationship is included in Appendix 3.
2.5 Authentic Leadership and Political Skill
An element of AL that has received limited attention in the prevailing literature is
that of the political skill of an authentic leader. Douglas et al. (2005) note that
“politically skilled individuals combine social astuteness with the ability to adjust
their behaviour to different and changing situational demands in a manner that
inspires support and trust, appears to be sincere, and effectively influences
others” (p. 141). Further, they note that political skill is related to emotional
intelligence, and allows the “behavioral flexibility and adaptability necessary to
15
effectively address the needs and aspirations of followers in ways that favourably
influence their work reactions and behavior” (p. 145).
As AL is partially defined by the concept of relational transparency, further
research in how political skill and emotional intelligence interact with AL,
specifically in how a leader motivates authentic followership in the direction of
positive educational reform, is needed. Gardner et al. (2005) advocate that the
process involves “presenting one’s genuine as opposed to a ‘fake’ self through
selective self-disclosure to create bonds based on intimacy and trust with close
others, and encouraging them to do the same” (p. 357). Just as an authentic
leader may define differing self-identities and leader reputations, ‘appearing’ to
be sincere may not necessarily be construed as inauthenticity. It is assumed that
“authentic leaders will be relatively transparent in expressing their true emotions
and feelings to followers, while simultaneously regulating such emotions to
minimize displays of inappropriate or potentially damaging emotions (emphasis
added)” (Ibid., p. 358), an example of which can be found in Appendix 3.
Inclusion of elements of a self-identity which may contrast with the prevailing
cultural norms or ‘ways of being’ could potentially cause an authentic leader to
lose influence with followers if the behaviours do not align with the context of the
organisation or country. In order to effectively lead the group, authentic leaders
should adopt or reinforce the group prototype, yet remember that, “successful
authentic leaders do not change who they are, but rather they modify their
presentations based on leader-follower interactions” (Douglas et al., 2005, p.
144). Such interactions inherently allow for emotions to interact therein. Leader
political skill and authenticity remains a question for further research.
3.0 Emotional Leadership
If, as Hargreaves (2004) suggests, “there is no human change without emotion”
(p. 287), the emotional impact of educational reform cannot be discarded in
16
considering how teachers react to change initiatives. That teachers ‘harden’
(Ibid., p. 288) themselves to change initiatives does not imply that they fail to
consider the emotional act of teaching. In circumstances of ‘initiative overload’
or ‘change-related chaos’ (Abrahamson, 2004, cited in Hargreaves, 2004, p.
288), it follows that “educational change for today’s teacher, it seems, is largely
conceived of as external change that is unwanted, imposed, repetitious and
sometimes repellent, compared with more professionally positive, self-directed
change realities in the past” (Ibid., p. 294). Perhaps it is this externally warranted
change that demoralises teachers and, in effect, discourages them from initiating
holistic self-directed change realities. Hargreaves (1998) posits seven (7)
interrelated points that inform a conceptual framework to develop effective
educational change. They are:
1) teaching is an emotional practice;2) teaching and learning involve emotional understanding;3) teaching is a form of emotional labour;4) teacher’s emotions are inseparable from their moral purposes and
their ability to achieve those purposes;5) teachers’ emotions are rooted in and affect their selves, identities
and relationships with others;6) teachers’ emotions are shaped by experiences of power and
powerlessness;7) teachers’ emotions vary with culture and context (p. 319).
Based upon this framework of emotional politics within teaching and teacher
development, Hargreaves (1998, pp. 330-333) recommendations “the discourse
of educational reform and school leadership must acknowledge and even honour
the centrality of the emotions to the processes and outcomes of teaching,
learning, leadership and caring in our schools” (pp. 330-331). A further
delineation of the teacher emotions and approaches to their practice to
‘acknowledge’ and ‘honour’, is categorised by Liethwood (2007), specifically,
17
individual teacher efficacy, collective teacher efficacy, job satisfaction,
organisational commitment, the conditions of stress and burnout, morale and
engagement/disengagement in the school or profession.
Further, if the educational policy environment is eroding teacher job satisfaction,
organisational commitment and engagement in the school as “the pace of
externally initiated changes seems too rapid, and when such changes demand
significant amounts of extra time from teachers to both learn and implement”
(Ibid., p. 627), school leaders should give priority to reculturing (Hargreaves,
1998; Fullan, 2001) their schools toward a more emotionally intelligent
(Goleman, 1998) culture, enacted through AL behaviours and attention to the
emotions and/or relational approaches to practice elucidated by Leithwood
(2007). Such efforts may facilitate authentic improvement, effectively changing
elements of the demoralising context and encouraging MEEs to implement self-
initiated and self-directed change realities.
3.1 Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence (EI) is a construct comprised of five (5) essential skills:
self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skill (Goleman,
1998). Self-awareness is defined as “having a deep understanding of one’s
emotions, strengths, weaknesses, needs, and drives” (p.6). Self-regulation “is
the component of emotional intelligence that frees us from being prisoners of our
feelings” (p. 8). Motivation implies that people be “driven to achieve beyond
expectations” (p. 9). Empathy means “thoughtfully considering employees’
feelings – along with other factors – in the process of making intelligent
decisions” (p. 10), and Social skill is purposeful: to move people “in the direction
you desire” (p. 11).
18
As leaders seek to develop their own skills in these areas, an implied ‘trickle-
down effect’ is hypothesised to form. Moreover, EI relates to the core
components of AL, signalling that authentic leaders who have spent the
necessary time to cultivate same can achieve higher levels of authenticity with
followers, specifically when they cultivate working relationships that help people
“find meaning and connection at work through greater self-awareness; by
restoring and building optimism, confidence and hope; by promoting transparent
relationships and decision making that builds trust and commitment among
followers” (Avolio & Gardner, 2005, p. 331), but that also allow for leader
vulnerability in the creation of authentic relationships.
19
3.2 Vulnerability
The concept of vulnerability is a bit of a double-edged sword, implying both a
“structural condition” of educational contexts (Kelchtermans, 2005, p. 998), and
an emotion deeply connected to the work of leadership (Ackerman & Maslin-
Ostrowski, 2004). If the “basic structure in vulnerability is always one of feeling
that one’s professional identity and moral integrity, as part of being ‘a proper
teacher’, are questioned” (Kelchtermans, 2005, p. 997), the work of leaders in
expressing a “genuine vulnerability” is to model how vulnerability can be
considered as a “strength instead of a weakness” (Ibid., p. 318). This genuine
vulnerability extends when authentic leaders initiate open discussion of both
vulnerabilities of the leader and follower in an effort to continue personal growth
of both (Avolio et al., 2004). Similarly, Brené Brown, in a discussion at
TEDxHouston, indicated that, due to a fear of true emotional vulnerability, people
generally tend to numb themselves to being authentically vulnerable in social
situations (Brown, 2010). However, it is precisely this feeling of “genuine
vulnerability” that, in effect, allows the leader to become “responsible for and
‘author’ of his/her feelings and emotions about something he/she cannot control”
(Ackerman & Maslin-Ostrowski, 2004, pp. 316-317). What empowers people
through the vulnerability is to take control over those feelings instead of
numbing them into oblivion. If indeed teacher professional identity and moral
integrity are consistently questioned, the leader, through a sense of genuine
vulnerability, may model a way of being (emphasis added) that incorporates
vulnerability and weakness (Diddams & Chang, 2012) as a way to eradicate the
professional numbness that may arise due to this very questioning of teacher
integrity. In this way, the follower may determine to ‘author’ his/her emotions in
much the same way the vulnerable authentic leader can, thereby improving
leader-follower relationships and potential outcomes as followers learn to better
20
cope with their approaches to educational change. Note that again, self-selected
behaviour in line with the contextual considerations, dependent upon the leader-
follower relationship deserves consideration.
3.3 Teacher Emotions and Educational Change
Aside from the general demoralisation created by competing multiple initiatives
as cited above, additional emotional responses from teachers arise. From
experiencing frustration related to difficulty achieving their own purposes
(Hargreaves, 2004) to feelings of powerlessness (Hargreaves, 1998), and further,
to vulnerability which lies at the heart of educational reform (Kelchtermans,
2005), it might seem that successful, sustained educational reform might seem
elusive, both in the short- and long-term. However, the strength of self-initiated
change, or “change that creates positive emotions by fulfilling teachers’
purposes (through compatible goals and supportive conditions) and by
connecting them to and granting them recognition from their colleagues”
(Hargreaves, 2004, p. 302), is that it connects teachers to individualised
satisfactions. These satisfactions can differ based upon the stage of career in
which the teacher finds themselves.
In a study of early career, mid-career and late career teachers, Hargreaves
(2005) found differing approaches to educational reform based on primarily on
career stage. Early career teachers were energetic, adaptable and flexible, yet
were not assured of career security. Mid-career teachers were more relaxed,
accepting educational change in stride, and generally not allowing their feathers
to get ruffled. Late career teachers, by and large, were unfazed by educational
reform initiatives, mostly because they had participated in several reform
initiatives throughout their career, and things had hardly changed, thereby
allowing them the comfort of emotional distance in the face of new reform
21
initiatives. In the NSP programme, the same pattern has manifested in
conversation with teachers by this author, and the findings of Hargreaves’ study
are hardly surprising. Accepting that, emphasis of PLC formation through LMX-
based exchange between TM and MEEs to foster authentic leader-follower
connections has manifested in some form of information sharing, thereby
creating a more suitable climate for prototypical MEEs to arise as leaders
through Social Identity practices.
4.0 Applications in practice
Participation in this MA programme has allowed the author to modify his practice
in relation to teachers within the NSP programme. Bearing in mind that the
context itself as a government-initiated, top-down initiative, various theories
relating to AL, EI, LMX theory and PLC creation culled from the literature
presented through the coursework of this MA programme have found practical
implementation in the field. The social and emotional context in MNPS is one in
which the seeds of reflection, lesson planning, formative assessment or teacher
collaboration potentially find the space to germinate.
The author has taken the following steps to incorporate elements of these
theories into his practice. Firstly, attempts to form PLCs among and across
cluster schools took the form of encouraging teachers from up to fifteen (15)
differing clusters schools to share knowledge and ideas relating to their practice
within TPD sessions. The author simultaneously began to use technology to stir
discussion or disseminate information/resources to teachers in isolation. Both a
website, challengeaccepted2013.weebly.com and a Whatsapp group (See
Appendix 4) were formed, and informal resource sharing, as well as highlighting
the work of teachers within the clusters, began slowly but surely. When authentic
leaders “demonstrate their openness in terms of information sharing, are
22
transparent, and accept other members’ views, this should create a positive
environment where group members understand the importance of helping others
for the benefit of attaining group goals” (Walumbwa et al., 2011, p.11). The
author, implementing LMX theory to determine differing qualities of relationships
with NSP teachers, found varying versions of success, as noted in Appendices 3
and 4. As is highlighted within the conversation, most teachers did not actively
participate in resource/idea sharing. A contingency of mid-career, motivated
teachers began to share and actively take part in information sharing
(Walumbwa et al., 2011) and communicating concerning new resources created,
or lesson plans implemented within class. Independently, they began to
communicate via Facebook, Whatsapp and by partnering in TPD sessions.
Certain “citizenship behaviors” within the group began to surface, thereby
allowing for increased confidence and motivation in implementing KSSR
practices within the classroom.
An examination of challengeaccepted2013.weebly.com (See Appendix 5)
exposes a narrative over time that helped facilitate the seeds of trust within this
demoralised context. Teachers in MNPS are not typically praised, and the culture
itself is not keen to single out specific exemplary models of performance,
particularly within a bureaucratic department such as Primary Schools. The
author, as a result of the biases of individual autonomy and self-awareness,
understanding weakness, and developing eudaemonic well-being within himself
and his followers, sought to challenge teachers to exhibit their successes and
downplay their failures. Through prizes, praise in TPD, praise on
challengeaccepted2013.weebly.com, praise through verbal interactions or face-
to-face meetings, the author found that the teachers themselves, when provided
the space to set self-initiated improvements, began to independently, and in
23
teams, implement the methodologies the author originally purported throughout
the initiative, as noted by reporting of MEEs within Appendix 4.
5.0 Implications
Through the process of applying theory to practice within the current context,
implications concerning the interweaving of authenticity, positive psychological
capital, identity and political skill together with emotionally intelligent
approaches based in vulnerability and an understanding of teacher emotions
demand further research. First, authentic leaders within the MNPS context may
use LMX relationship-based strategies to develop authentic leader-follower
relationships that help mitigate the emotional demoralisation teachers feel within
the multiple initiative context. Further, authentic leaders can, based upon their
own vulnerabilities in teaching and learning, empower teachers to explore the
emotional labour of teaching through forming PLCs that assist them in
information sharing and reflective practices. As authentic leaders model effective
leader identities that incorporate elements of self-identity (i.e. values, emotion,
goals, motives), paired with an understanding of weakness, the exhibition of
authenticity through self-selective behaviours provides an avenue for both
authentic leaders and followers to take ownership of and responsibility for
improving upon those weaknesses. Work within both self- and leader-identities,
supported by an individualised spiritual subsystem can create an environment
conducive to facilitating the same within teacher followers, thereby facilitating
authentic leader-follower relationships and a differing approach to educational
change by demoralised educators.
6.0 Conclusion
Through the lens of the Holistic Leader Model (Taysum, 2003), the potential for
authentic, vulnerable leaders and followers set within a social/cultural context
24
can serve as a proposed model of interaction wherein the way of being is
authored and owned by authentic leader-follower dynamics. It is asserted that
this way of being may help to stem the manifestations of teacher demoralisation
through the construction of PLCs, thereby alleviating MEE isolation while
providing for higher information sharing which may contribute to improved
eudaemonic well-being and teacher emotions toward educational change.
Attention to self- and leader-identities through both Social Identity and LMX
exchanges can facilitate deeper reflective practices of both leader and follower,
and assist in the co-creation of conditions required for authenticity throughout
the organisational system (Algera & Lips-Wiersma, 2012). Willingness to
understand and approach vulnerability in weakness in leader-follower exchanges
further deepens the possibility of authentic relationships, which may either
directly or indirectly impact how teachers approach their practice and
considerations of educational change. Based upon implementation of these
reflective and emotionally intelligent approaches, authentic leaders are likely to
have a surprising role in the emotional lives of their followers; such
implementation may expose the true potential of leadership and implications for
the future.
25
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