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Cross-Cultural Communication in
Information Technology
Culture is taken for granted. There is no exhaustive definition for culture, so we have to choose our definition.Culture is not defined explicitly. We should always state clearly our suppositions of culture (or the suppositions of the theories and models we are using) and recognise their effects on our study.Culture is limited to national cultures. It is good to remember that culture does not exist at national level only. At least we should avoid assuming that there is one national culture for every country.-- Kamppuri and Tukiainen (2004)
• Cultures are seen as coherent wholes. We should give up the idea that cultures are isolated wholes or that we could draw strict borders between them.
• Culture is seen in the role of maintenance. Culture is capable of both resistance and transformation.
Initial Findings: Cultural Conflicts What happens as CMC technologies are
implemented across a continuum of cultures?
US Europe Middle East Asia indigenous peoples
white middle class malesvis-à-vis …females / African-Americans / Hispanics / Asian-Americans /Native Americans(Stewart et al, 2001)
German-, French-, Italian-speaking Swiss
(2001)
Israel (Dahan, 1999);Kuwait (Wheeler, 2001)
Singapore;Japan (Heaton, 2001);Malaysia (Abdat & Pervan, 2000)Indonesia (Rahmati, 2000);Thailand (Hongladarom, 2001)
Malaysia - Kelabit (Harris et al, 2001);Philippines (Sy, 2001);South Africa (Postma, 2001)
Contrast/C
onflict
ClearBoard: Japanese redesign of CSCW - capturing non-verbal communication elements (© ACM, 1993, TOIS, 11 (4) Ishii, Kobayashi and Grudin)
Consistent with …
Communication theory (Hall, 1976):
High content / low context - dominant cultures in USExample: standard ASCII e-mail
High context /low content - traditional/oral cultures; contemporary Arabic, Asian societies
Hall, Hofstede, and Web-based marketing successes / failures
Hofstede’s cultural factors
Power Distance: Hofstede (1980) defines ‘Power Distance’ as ‘… the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations accept that power is distributed unequally’. Power distance refers to the extent to which unequal distribution of power in institutions and organisations is accepted by members of a society.
Individualism/Collectivism: ‘...the relationship between the individual and the collectivity which prevails in a given society.’
Uncertainty Avoidance: The extent to which members of a society feel threatened by uncertainty is called ‘Uncertainty Avoidance’
Masculinity versus Femininity: Hofstede (1980) states that the predominant socialisation pattern is for men to be more assertive and for women to be more nurturing. His review of the work goals indicated a near consistency on men scoring advancement and earnings as more important, and women scoring supervision, social aspects of the job, working conditions, working hours and ease of work as more important. Hofstede’s calculated scores of Masculinity/Femininity for only a small group of nations are available...
South Asia
A. Abdat and Pervan (2000) analyze Group Support Systems - especially their capacity to allow users to provide anonymous feedback - in light of Indonesian cultural values. They characterize Indonesia (in terms familiar from Hofstede) as low individualism/ high collectivism and high power distance - such that people arrive at major meetings, for example, with the details already negotiated and planned: the point is to avoid surprises - especially those that lead to "loss of face," where saving face is a central value from Confucian ethics (2000, 211).
South Asia
A. Abdat and Pervan (2000):
In this context, anonymity - touted in the West as one of the advantages of CMC technologies, as it encourages more open expression and may contribute to a "flattening" of organizational hierarchies - is janus-faced. On the one hand, in certain pre-meeting contexts (i.e., where details to be approved in the major meeting are negotiated), anonymity may contribute to group efficiency as it reduces status differential. On the other hand, in major meetings in which face is much more at stake, anonymity might encourage comments and questions that threaten face. For these and other reasons, Abdat and Pervan argue that GSS systems need to be re-designed in order to make anonymity a switchable feature (213f.).
South Asia
B. Nasrin Rahmati (2000) characterizes Malaysia as a culture marked by a
distinctive religious commitment factor, as well as
high fatalism, high uncertainty avoidance, collectivism, traditionalism, and the value of keeping face.
Such a society is thus denoted as a "tight" society, in contrast with a "loose" society, such as Australia, which is marked rather by low religious commitment, low fatalism, low uncertainty avoidance, individualism, etc.
In general, indirect and transformational advertising messages creating emotions through pictures and entertainment are more favored in High-context cultures like France or Japan, for example, whereas direct and rational advertising messages providing first of all product information play a more important role in Low-context cultures like Germany or many parts of the USA, for example.
Layout:
Content appeal:
written text
visual picture
information/rational entertainment/emotional
Low-context communication
High-contextcommunication
ConsciousnessFolklore Grammar
Grammatical Functions Literature Theatre Art
Music Dance Food Clothing CostumePostures/Attitudes Politeness Concepts of Propriety
Representations of Beauty Raising / Educating Children“Going About” (Umgang) With Other Human Beings
“Going About” with Animals Attitudes/Postures Towards NatureHierarchical Relationships
Cleanliness Representations Disease RepresentationsHistorical Understanding
Values Concepts of Virtues, Mistakes, Sins Linguistic Interaction And Discourse Roles
Leadership Qualities Goal Orientation Industriousness Attitudes Towards Work
Concepts of Order Truth Sense Of Justice Concepts Of Time / Space
Concepts Of Self Proxemics Body LanguageSelf Self-perception Philosophy of Life Naturalness
Plausibility LogicFeelings Unconsciousness Role Of Concepts
Hall and South African IndigenousPeoples
• Uncertainty Avoidance: “average” / lower than whites.
• Individualism: low
• Long term orientation: low
• Evidence is inconclusive regarding the dimensions of Power Distance and Masculinity.
Collectivist Culture
• Personal achievement should be underplayed and more group achievement should be displayed
• Success should be demonstrated by achievement of common social-political agenda
• Official slogans could be used, while keeping controversy as low as possible
• The emphasis should be on the aged, experienced and wise leaders
• Group goals should be emphasised as opposed to individualistic goals
• The emphasis of morality should be on relationships
• Emphasis should be on tradition and history
Uncertainty Avoidance culture (Low context)
•Avoid overprotecting users by offering depth in navigation
•Offer users choice and offer maximum content
•Allow less control of navigation, allow for links leading to different destinations
•Offer users variety in terms of color, sound and features
•HP and Cisco more successful than competitors because of “knowledge,” “persuasion” feedback loops from local channels
Knowledge
Knowledge
Confirm.Implement. Decision
Persuasion
Persuasion
Innovation
Knowledge
Knowledge
Confirm.Implement. Decision
Persuasion
Persuasion
Innovation
Knowledge
Knowledge
Confirm.Implement. Decision
Persuasion
Persuasion
Innovation
Knowledge
Knowledge
Confirm.Implement. Decision
Persuasion
Persuasion
Innovation
Important contrasts emerged across scale of individualism (U.S. sites and visitors) vs.collectivism (Hispanic sites and U.S. Hispanic visitors)
The population trend showing that “we” words decrease and “I” words increase with time appears to hold true for each of the regions independently though at different rates. For instance, North American children used "we" words significantly less than the mean, and increased their use at a rate slightly slower than their peers; meanwhile, children from Central and South America started at a lower point but increased at the same rate.
•best practices – –use language as well as images to foster group membership for collectivist cultures;
–use country-specific design whenever possible (e.g., Telefónica divides its site into 8 country-specific sites) - http://www.telefonica.com/
•Those with English as second language – like those with English as first language – prefer alphabetically-organized links over content-based links and search engines: but – higher preference for content-based links among English as first language users. (Kralisch and Berendt 2004)
• Use of animation to assimilate interpersonal communication (high context)
• Promotion of (collectivist/individualist) values
• Level of transparency
• Navigation around the site
Interpersonal communication - Japan
The use of videos to convey what would be conveyed in gestures in real life conversations
Collectivistic/individualistic valuesCollectivistic/individualistic values
CCollectivistic cultures tend to emphasize being in good physical shape and time spent with family and friends as their dominant values, whereas the notion of freedom and personal time valued in individualist societies implies relaxation and time spent by oneself.
Images of individuals dancing or doing sports are more prominent in HC websites than LC websites, whereas in LC countries, individuals will tend to be portrayed in more relaxed situations, or situations connoting holiday activities, such as a trip to the lake or listening to music.
[see http://www.mcdonalds.co.jp/community/sports_h_f.html for example of sports / community themes in Japan]
IndividualismIndividualism - - Germany, Switzerland
Individualism - Switzerland
“You’re immediately at the centre of attention - your individuality, your everyday life, situations in which you recognize yourself and where you would like to see yourself.”<http://www.mcdonalds.ch>
CollectivisticCollectivistic / / individualisticindividualistic valuesvalues - - India
Transparency
“… the extent to which the user is required to make an extra effort in order to find the information he is looking for. The term is borrowed from the usability field, referring to the apparentness and obviousness of the method of use of a website or other user interface.”
Transparency
In contrast with Low Context / high transparency sites -Most HC sites depend on links and information being described by a limited amount of text, sometimes exchanged with an illustration. This gives a less transparent, more vague overview of the content in the website compared to LC sites, and often requires that the user “chases” the information, through exploration of the site and performing “mouse-overs” (placing the cursor over a link to reveal more content information before finally clicking it).
• This tendency coincides neatly with the idea that in LC cultures, it is the sender that does all the work in clarifying information and getting the point across, while in HC cultures, it is the receiver who has to work to retrieve the information. (Würtz 2004, 118f.)
Transparency: Denmark
Transparency: Japan
Linear (LC) versus parallel (HC) navigation
China Hyperstructure
Implications for Site Design
• Non-verbal communication such as body-language may represent itself on HC websites through imagery and animated effects on the website.
• Thought patterns are especially reflected in the navigation of the site, for instance through the subtle or obscure guidance and opening of new pages in new browser windows common on HC websites. Navigation reflecting the linear thought pattern prevailing in LC cultures is evident in the restricted amount of new browser windows as well as apparent and specific guidance.
Implications for Site Implications for Site DesignDesign
•The collectivism/individualism variable is reflected in the values that are reflected in the imagery the website, such as images of individuals versus groups, products placed together with individuals, the situations that the individuals are placed in and the extent to which emphasis is placed on community work.
•The power distance dimension is apparent in the hierarchical structure of the website. High power distance is reflected in tall hierarchical website structures, either through the implementation of many pages with incoherent layout, or the opening of new browser windows for new pages, instead of in the same browser window. Low power distance is reflected in flat or shallow hierarchical structures, either through the implementation of few pages with coherent layout, or the opening of pages within the same browser window.
Implications for Site Design
• The time perception variable, which is tightly bound with the thought pattern, is also apparent in the navigation of the site. It is also apparent in the transparency of the site, and whether the designer relies on the user’s patience and will to explore the site to seek information.
• The message speed dimension is apparent in the transparency/non-transparency of the site, implying the amount of effort expected from the visitor to understand navigational clues. The inclusion of a virtual, personal representative of the company, as illustrated on the Japanese McDonald’s website, can perhaps also be considered a reflection of slow message speed, in relation to the emphasis on relationships. (Würtz 2004, 120f.)
Matters of …tone
context metaphor
Has the Tone of Online English Become Globalized?
Below-surface differences?
Icons, symbols, colors, graphic design
Information structure; semanticsand syntax
Tone• Varies along multiple dimensions
–We focus on formality
• May influence credibility of a text
• May be judged differently by people from different cultures
• May be related to cultural dimensions
–e.g., power distance
Methodology
• 320 university Web sites from 20 countries–Inner and Outer Circles of English
(Kachru, Gilsdorf)• “About Us” text analyzed
• 3 coders tallied frequencies of tone elements:–Personal pronouns (e.g., I, we, you)–Passive and active voice clauses–Verb contractions (e.g., it’s, you’re, we’re)– Informal punctuation (dashes, ellipses,
fragments)–Friendly language (“Welcome”)
• Overall formality score computed for each site
Formality defined
• Frequencies of individual tone elements were expressed in standard units (z-scores).
• Z-scores were summed into tone formality scores.
• Passive voice contributes positively and other tone elements contribute negatively to the score.
• A related study found that the tone elements influenced perceptions of tone (in the US).
Culture remains influential
• Strong positive correlation between power distance and tone formality– The greater the power distance, the more
formal the tone– Evidence that culture influences online tone
• No correlation between willingness to express emotion and tone formality
Inner and Outer Circles differ
• Tone is significantly more formal in Outer Circle countries (India, Philippines, etc.)– E.g., passive voice significantly more common
• Tone is significantly less formal in Inner Circle countries (UK, Australia, US, etc.)– E.g., informal punctuation, personal pronouns
significantly more common
Context, Metaphors• Context mattersthe context of users - especially if social /
active / collective / performative - can offset “offputting” effects of (Western) computer culture (individualism / literate / text-based) - (Crump 2004)
• Metaphors matter“Pipeline vs. river metaphor” vis-à-vis male /
female acceptance / use of computing technologies (Clayton 2004)
• China – websites are more complex, more oriented towards entertainment (high context / collectivist)
--> more complex because of
1. guiding principle of “give the people what they want at once”
--> “…clearness and transparency in Chinese not only means, to ‘get an overview’ but also means ‘ to find quickly what one is looking for’. …In contrast to western website that are characterized by a deep hierarchy and fewer elements on each level, Chinese websites have a flat hierarchy with as many elements on each level as possible. (Bucher 2004, 424)
--> more complex because of – 2) “aesthetics of abundance” –Chinese popular culture, e.g., in New Year’s pictures, calendars, paintings. “…strong and rich color, density, and opulent presentation symbolize happiness and wealth.” (424)
– 3) search patterns:– mainland Chinese prefer vertical layout /
– Hong Kong Chinese prefer horizontal
Yahoo! China Yahoo! US
Yahoo! China Yahoo! US
Main Features
Web Site Directory(14 Main Subjects)
News
Yahoo! Worldwide
Ente
rtai
nmen
t
Search Field
Overview: Yahoo! Services
Main Features
Overview: Yahoo! Services
Web Site Directory(14 Main Subjects)
News
Entertainment
Search FieldSearch Field
Yahoo! Worldwide
SMS Services
Sport: Chinese Soccer League
Advertisement
Music & Email
Film
Headlines
WallpaperDownloads
Film
Shopping
Member Section
Yahoo! Announcement
US Local Yahoo!
Search Field (2)
Other Yahoo! Services
News
Tabloid News
Tabloid News
Tabloid News
Advertisement
Advertisement
Advertisement
Advertisement
Advert
isem
ent
Ads
Service(SMS)
Service (Games)
Service(Search Maschine)
Serv
ice
Navigation
NavigationMember Section
Classified Ads
TV
Pro
gra
mIn
tera
ctiv
e
Poll
Pre
ssR
ele
ase
About Us
Sina´s Customer
News
Tabloid News
Tabloid News
Tabloid News
Advertisement
Advertisement
Advertisement
Advertisement
Advert
isem
ent
Ads
Service(SMS)
Service (Games)
Service(Search Maschine)
Serv
ice
Navigation
NavigationMember Section
Classified Ads
TV
Pro
gra
mIn
tera
ctiv
e
Poll
Pre
ssR
ele
ase
About Us
Sina´s Customer
Yahoo USA: 14 Page elements
Yahoo China: 14 Page elements
Sina 23 Page elements
Comment on Sina.com
I understand that a portal…needs to arrange much information on the front page. But since I’m familiar with Sina, I know where I should go…but for people unfamiliar, this arrangement is messy…[it] will be really confusing.
(Hu, Qiping 2002, 22)
In summary……design indeed is highly culturally specific and …universal principles – for example of website usability – are implausible.-- Bucher 2004, 425
Beyond traditional localization (language, law, appearance, usability) sense-making as a function of worldview vs. “design from nowhere” (Suchman)
…internationalization practices should not be reduced to the interface as the visible part and operable layer of the system, but to a consideration of the whole computing system as the “interface” linking people to their socially constructed and determined activities (Grudin 1993, in Nocera and Hall 2004)
In summary…Soraj Hongladarom: local cultural values may be preserved if our
research agenda becomes: In what way should the ICTs be adopted such that they become merged with the lifeworld of the people?
• Provide education (but how and what kind?).• Develop local content for the locals and let
them do it.• Break the one way flow of information from
the West to Thailand and then to the community.
• Strengthen local values and traditions and at the same time promote active interaction with outside world
In summary…
The democratic potential of the Net for promoting ‘civic pluralism’ will partly rely on its being constructed by those capable of negotiating global differences, creating multiple, complex meanings and crossing boundaries (2003).
Beverly Bickel, “Voices of Afghan Women” <http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol8/issue2/bickel.html>
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