Cross-Cultural Communication in

Information Technology

Culture is taken for granted. There is no exhaustive definition for culture, so we have to choose our definition.Culture is not defined explicitly. We should always state clearly our suppositions of culture (or the suppositions of the theories and models we are using) and recognise their effects on our study.Culture is limited to national cultures. It is good to remember that culture does not exist at national level only. At least we should avoid assuming that there is one national culture for every country.-- Kamppuri and Tukiainen (2004)

• Cultures are seen as coherent wholes. We should give up the idea that cultures are isolated wholes or that we could draw strict borders between them.

• Culture is seen in the role of maintenance. Culture is capable of both resistance and transformation.

Initial Findings: Cultural Conflicts What happens as CMC technologies are

implemented across a continuum of cultures?

US Europe Middle East Asia indigenous peoples

white middle class malesvis-à-vis …females / African-Americans / Hispanics / Asian-Americans /Native Americans(Stewart et al, 2001)

German-, French-, Italian-speaking Swiss

(2001)

Israel (Dahan, 1999);Kuwait (Wheeler, 2001)

Singapore;Japan (Heaton, 2001);Malaysia (Abdat & Pervan, 2000)Indonesia (Rahmati, 2000);Thailand (Hongladarom, 2001)

Malaysia - Kelabit (Harris et al, 2001);Philippines (Sy, 2001);South Africa (Postma, 2001)

Contrast/C

onflict

ClearBoard: Japanese redesign of CSCW - capturing non-verbal communication elements (© ACM, 1993, TOIS, 11 (4) Ishii, Kobayashi and Grudin)

Consistent with …

Communication theory (Hall, 1976):

High content / low context - dominant cultures in USExample: standard ASCII e-mail

High context /low content - traditional/oral cultures; contemporary Arabic, Asian societies

Hall, Hofstede, and Web-based marketing successes / failures

Hofstede’s cultural factors

Power Distance: Hofstede (1980) defines ‘Power Distance’ as ‘… the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations accept that power is distributed unequally’. Power distance refers to the extent to which unequal distribution of power in institutions and organisations is accepted by members of a society.

Individualism/Collectivism: ‘...the relationship between the individual and the collectivity which prevails in a given society.’

Uncertainty Avoidance: The extent to which members of a society feel threatened by uncertainty is called ‘Uncertainty Avoidance’

Masculinity versus Femininity: Hofstede (1980) states that the predominant socialisation pattern is for men to be more assertive and for women to be more nurturing. His review of the work goals indicated a near consistency on men scoring advancement and earnings as more important, and women scoring supervision, social aspects of the job, working conditions, working hours and ease of work as more important. Hofstede’s calculated scores of Masculinity/Femininity for only a small group of nations are available...

South Asia

A. Abdat and Pervan (2000) analyze Group Support Systems - especially their capacity to allow users to provide anonymous feedback - in light of Indonesian cultural values. They characterize Indonesia (in terms familiar from Hofstede) as low individualism/ high collectivism and high power distance - such that people arrive at major meetings, for example, with the details already negotiated and planned: the point is to avoid surprises - especially those that lead to "loss of face," where saving face is a central value from Confucian ethics (2000, 211).

South Asia

A. Abdat and Pervan (2000):

In this context, anonymity - touted in the West as one of the advantages of CMC technologies, as it encourages more open expression and may contribute to a "flattening" of organizational hierarchies - is janus-faced. On the one hand, in certain pre-meeting contexts (i.e., where details to be approved in the major meeting are negotiated), anonymity may contribute to group efficiency as it reduces status differential. On the other hand, in major meetings in which face is much more at stake, anonymity might encourage comments and questions that threaten face. For these and other reasons, Abdat and Pervan argue that GSS systems need to be re-designed in order to make anonymity a switchable feature (213f.).

South Asia

B. Nasrin Rahmati (2000) characterizes Malaysia as a culture marked by a

distinctive religious commitment factor, as well as

high fatalism, high uncertainty avoidance, collectivism, traditionalism, and the value of keeping face.

Such a society is thus denoted as a "tight" society, in contrast with a "loose" society, such as Australia, which is marked rather by low religious commitment, low fatalism, low uncertainty avoidance, individualism, etc.

In general, indirect and transformational advertising messages creating emotions through pictures and entertainment are more favored in High-context cultures like France or Japan, for example, whereas direct and rational advertising messages providing first of all product information play a more important role in Low-context cultures like Germany or many parts of the USA, for example.

Layout:

Content appeal:

written text

visual picture

information/rational entertainment/emotional

Low-context communication

High-contextcommunication

ConsciousnessFolklore Grammar

Grammatical Functions Literature Theatre Art

Music Dance Food Clothing CostumePostures/Attitudes Politeness Concepts of Propriety

Representations of Beauty Raising / Educating Children“Going About” (Umgang) With Other Human Beings

“Going About” with Animals Attitudes/Postures Towards NatureHierarchical Relationships

Cleanliness Representations Disease RepresentationsHistorical Understanding

Values Concepts of Virtues, Mistakes, Sins Linguistic Interaction And Discourse Roles

Leadership Qualities Goal Orientation Industriousness Attitudes Towards Work

Concepts of Order Truth Sense Of Justice Concepts Of Time / Space

Concepts Of Self Proxemics Body LanguageSelf Self-perception Philosophy of Life Naturalness

Plausibility LogicFeelings Unconsciousness Role Of Concepts

Hall and South African IndigenousPeoples

• Uncertainty Avoidance: “average” / lower than whites.

• Individualism: low

• Long term orientation: low

• Evidence is inconclusive regarding the dimensions of Power Distance and Masculinity.

Collectivist Culture

• Personal achievement should be underplayed and more group achievement should be displayed

• Success should be demonstrated by achievement of common social-political agenda

• Official slogans could be used, while keeping controversy as low as possible

• The emphasis should be on the aged, experienced and wise leaders

• Group goals should be emphasised as opposed to individualistic goals

• The emphasis of morality should be on relationships

• Emphasis should be on tradition and history

Uncertainty Avoidance culture (Low context)

•Avoid overprotecting users by offering depth in navigation

•Offer users choice and offer maximum content

•Allow less control of navigation, allow for links leading to different destinations

•Offer users variety in terms of color, sound and features

•HP and Cisco more successful than competitors because of “knowledge,” “persuasion” feedback loops from local channels

Knowledge

Knowledge

Confirm.Implement. Decision

Persuasion

Persuasion

Innovation

Knowledge

Knowledge

Confirm.Implement. Decision

Persuasion

Persuasion

Innovation

Knowledge

Knowledge

Confirm.Implement. Decision

Persuasion

Persuasion

Innovation

Knowledge

Knowledge

Confirm.Implement. Decision

Persuasion

Persuasion

Innovation

Important contrasts emerged across scale of individualism (U.S. sites and visitors) vs.collectivism (Hispanic sites and U.S. Hispanic visitors)

The population trend showing that “we” words decrease and “I” words increase with time appears to hold true for each of the regions independently though at different rates. For instance, North American children used "we" words significantly less than the mean, and increased their use at a rate slightly slower than their peers; meanwhile, children from Central and South America started at a lower point but increased at the same rate.

•best practices – –use language as well as images to foster group membership for collectivist cultures;

–use country-specific design whenever possible (e.g., Telefónica divides its site into 8 country-specific sites) - http://www.telefonica.com/

•Those with English as second language – like those with English as first language – prefer alphabetically-organized links over content-based links and search engines: but – higher preference for content-based links among English as first language users. (Kralisch and Berendt 2004)

• Use of animation to assimilate interpersonal communication (high context)

• Promotion of (collectivist/individualist) values

• Level of transparency

• Navigation around the site

Interpersonal communication - Japan

The use of videos to convey what would be conveyed in gestures in real life conversations

Collectivistic/individualistic valuesCollectivistic/individualistic values

CCollectivistic cultures tend to emphasize being in good physical shape and time spent with family and friends as their dominant values, whereas the notion of freedom and personal time valued in individualist societies implies relaxation and time spent by oneself.

Images of individuals dancing or doing sports are more prominent in HC websites than LC websites, whereas in LC countries, individuals will tend to be portrayed in more relaxed situations, or situations connoting holiday activities, such as a trip to the lake or listening to music.

[see http://www.mcdonalds.co.jp/community/sports_h_f.html for example of sports / community themes in Japan]

IndividualismIndividualism - - Germany, Switzerland

Individualism - Switzerland

“You’re immediately at the centre of attention - your individuality, your everyday life, situations in which you recognize yourself and where you would like to see yourself.”<http://www.mcdonalds.ch>

CollectivisticCollectivistic / / individualisticindividualistic valuesvalues - - India

Transparency

“… the extent to which the user is required to make an extra effort in order to find the information he is looking for. The term is borrowed from the usability field, referring to the apparentness and obviousness of the method of use of a website or other user interface.”

Transparency

In contrast with Low Context / high transparency sites -Most HC sites depend on links and information being described by a limited amount of text, sometimes exchanged with an illustration. This gives a less transparent, more vague overview of the content in the website compared to LC sites, and often requires that the user “chases” the information, through exploration of the site and performing “mouse-overs” (placing the cursor over a link to reveal more content information before finally clicking it).

• This tendency coincides neatly with the idea that in LC cultures, it is the sender that does all the work in clarifying information and getting the point across, while in HC cultures, it is the receiver who has to work to retrieve the information. (Würtz 2004, 118f.)

Transparency: Denmark

Transparency: Japan

Linear (LC) versus parallel (HC) navigation

China Hyperstructure

Implications for Site Design

• Non-verbal communication such as body-language may represent itself on HC websites through imagery and animated effects on the website.

• Thought patterns are especially reflected in the navigation of the site, for instance through the subtle or obscure guidance and opening of new pages in new browser windows common on HC websites. Navigation reflecting the linear thought pattern prevailing in LC cultures is evident in the restricted amount of new browser windows as well as apparent and specific guidance.

Implications for Site Implications for Site DesignDesign

•The collectivism/individualism variable is reflected in the values that are reflected in the imagery the website, such as images of individuals versus groups, products placed together with individuals, the situations that the individuals are placed in and the extent to which emphasis is placed on community work.

•The power distance dimension is apparent in the hierarchical structure of the website. High power distance is reflected in tall hierarchical website structures, either through the implementation of many pages with incoherent layout, or the opening of new browser windows for new pages, instead of in the same browser window. Low power distance is reflected in flat or shallow hierarchical structures, either through the implementation of few pages with coherent layout, or the opening of pages within the same browser window.

Implications for Site Design

• The time perception variable, which is tightly bound with the thought pattern, is also apparent in the navigation of the site. It is also apparent in the transparency of the site, and whether the designer relies on the user’s patience and will to explore the site to seek information.

• The message speed dimension is apparent in the transparency/non-transparency of the site, implying the amount of effort expected from the visitor to understand navigational clues. The inclusion of a virtual, personal representative of the company, as illustrated on the Japanese McDonald’s website, can perhaps also be considered a reflection of slow message speed, in relation to the emphasis on relationships. (Würtz 2004, 120f.)

Matters of …tone

context metaphor

Has the Tone of Online English Become Globalized?

Below-surface differences?

Icons, symbols, colors, graphic design

Information structure; semanticsand syntax

Tone• Varies along multiple dimensions

–We focus on formality

• May influence credibility of a text

• May be judged differently by people from different cultures

• May be related to cultural dimensions

–e.g., power distance

Methodology

• 320 university Web sites from 20 countries–Inner and Outer Circles of English

(Kachru, Gilsdorf)• “About Us” text analyzed

• 3 coders tallied frequencies of tone elements:–Personal pronouns (e.g., I, we, you)–Passive and active voice clauses–Verb contractions (e.g., it’s, you’re, we’re)– Informal punctuation (dashes, ellipses,

fragments)–Friendly language (“Welcome”)

• Overall formality score computed for each site

Formality defined

• Frequencies of individual tone elements were expressed in standard units (z-scores).

• Z-scores were summed into tone formality scores.

• Passive voice contributes positively and other tone elements contribute negatively to the score.

• A related study found that the tone elements influenced perceptions of tone (in the US).

Culture remains influential

• Strong positive correlation between power distance and tone formality– The greater the power distance, the more

formal the tone– Evidence that culture influences online tone

• No correlation between willingness to express emotion and tone formality

Inner and Outer Circles differ

• Tone is significantly more formal in Outer Circle countries (India, Philippines, etc.)– E.g., passive voice significantly more common

• Tone is significantly less formal in Inner Circle countries (UK, Australia, US, etc.)– E.g., informal punctuation, personal pronouns

significantly more common

Context, Metaphors• Context mattersthe context of users - especially if social /

active / collective / performative - can offset “offputting” effects of (Western) computer culture (individualism / literate / text-based) - (Crump 2004)

• Metaphors matter“Pipeline vs. river metaphor” vis-à-vis male /

female acceptance / use of computing technologies (Clayton 2004)

• China – websites are more complex, more oriented towards entertainment (high context / collectivist)

--> more complex because of

1. guiding principle of “give the people what they want at once”

--> “…clearness and transparency in Chinese not only means, to ‘get an overview’ but also means ‘ to find quickly what one is looking for’. …In contrast to western website that are characterized by a deep hierarchy and fewer elements on each level, Chinese websites have a flat hierarchy with as many elements on each level as possible. (Bucher 2004, 424)

--> more complex because of – 2) “aesthetics of abundance” –Chinese popular culture, e.g., in New Year’s pictures, calendars, paintings. “…strong and rich color, density, and opulent presentation symbolize happiness and wealth.” (424)

– 3) search patterns:– mainland Chinese prefer vertical layout /

– Hong Kong Chinese prefer horizontal

Yahoo! China Yahoo! US

Yahoo! China Yahoo! US

Main Features

Web Site Directory(14 Main Subjects)

News

Yahoo! Worldwide

Ente

rtai

nmen

t

Search Field

Overview: Yahoo! Services

Main Features

Overview: Yahoo! Services

Web Site Directory(14 Main Subjects)

News

Entertainment

Search FieldSearch Field

Yahoo! Worldwide

SMS Services

Sport: Chinese Soccer League

Advertisement

Music & Email

Film

Headlines

WallpaperDownloads

Film

Shopping

Member Section

Yahoo! Announcement

US Local Yahoo!

Search Field (2)

Other Yahoo! Services

News

Tabloid News

Tabloid News

Tabloid News

Advertisement

Advertisement

Advertisement

Advertisement

Advert

isem

ent

Ads

Service(SMS)

Service (Games)

Service(Search Maschine)

Serv

ice

Navigation

NavigationMember Section

Classified Ads

TV

Pro

gra

mIn

tera

ctiv

e

Poll

Pre

ssR

ele

ase

About Us

Sina´s Customer

News

Tabloid News

Tabloid News

Tabloid News

Advertisement

Advertisement

Advertisement

Advertisement

Advert

isem

ent

Ads

Service(SMS)

Service (Games)

Service(Search Maschine)

Serv

ice

Navigation

NavigationMember Section

Classified Ads

TV

Pro

gra

mIn

tera

ctiv

e

Poll

Pre

ssR

ele

ase

About Us

Sina´s Customer

Yahoo USA: 14 Page elements

Yahoo China: 14 Page elements

Sina 23 Page elements

Comment on Sina.com

I understand that a portal…needs to arrange much information on the front page. But since I’m familiar with Sina, I know where I should go…but for people unfamiliar, this arrangement is messy…[it] will be really confusing.

(Hu, Qiping 2002, 22)

In summary……design indeed is highly culturally specific and …universal principles – for example of website usability – are implausible.-- Bucher 2004, 425

Beyond traditional localization (language, law, appearance, usability) sense-making as a function of worldview vs. “design from nowhere” (Suchman)

…internationalization practices should not be reduced to the interface as the visible part and operable layer of the system, but to a consideration of the whole computing system as the “interface” linking people to their socially constructed and determined activities (Grudin 1993, in Nocera and Hall 2004)

In summary…Soraj Hongladarom: local cultural values may be preserved if our

research agenda becomes: In what way should the ICTs be adopted such that they become merged with the lifeworld of the people?

• Provide education (but how and what kind?).• Develop local content for the locals and let

them do it.• Break the one way flow of information from

the West to Thailand and then to the community.

• Strengthen local values and traditions and at the same time promote active interaction with outside world

In summary…

The democratic potential of the Net for promoting ‘civic pluralism’ will partly rely on its being constructed by those capable of negotiating global differences, creating multiple, complex meanings and crossing boundaries (2003). 

Beverly Bickel, “Voices of Afghan Women”  <http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol8/issue2/bickel.html>