View
1
Download
0
Category
Preview:
Citation preview
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Composition and origin of the sabkha brines, and theirenvironmental impact on infrastructure in Jizan area, Red SeaCoast, Saudi Arabia
Mohammed H. Basyoni1 • Mahmoud A. Aref1,2
Received: 2 March 2015 / Accepted: 8 August 2015
� Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
Abstract The sulfate evaporite minerals (gypsum and
anhydrite) and brines of Jizan sabkha cause corrosion of the
steel reinforcement and deterioration of the concrete, and
consequently hinder the development activity for building
new urban communities and industrial zones in Jizan area,
Red Sea coastal plain of Saudi Arabia. The sabkha evaporite
minerals below the sediment surface are represented by
displacive and inclusive growth of lenticular and rosette
gypsum, and nodular anhydrite. In small saline pans, halite
precipitates form rafts, chevrons and cornets. The salinity
(TDS) of the groundwater in the sabkha area is highly vari-
able, and ranges from 12,900 to 495,000 mg/l, compared to
the average value of the Red Sea water of 40,366 mg/l. The
low salinity values of the sabkha brines are most probably
caused by localized influx of groundwater of meteoric origin
from direct rain fall and/or temporary floods, in addition to
seepage of sewage water from septic tanks. The electric
conductivity (EC) values range from 20,000 to 199,100 lS/cm which are conformable to the salinity values of the brine.
The dominant cation concentration order in seawater
and brines of the sabkha is Na?[Mg2?[Ca2?[K?, orNa?[Mg2?[K?[Ca2?. The dominant anion concen-tration order is Cl-[ SO4
2-[HCO3-. The dominant brine
type for most samples is sodium chloride, with variable
proportions of the major cations Ca2? and Mg2? and the
major anion SO42-. Most brine samples indicate their source
is of modified marine water having an elevated CaCl2 con-
tent, which may be derived from dissolution of mixed salt
from the Miocene salt dome in Jizan area. The chemical
composition and origin of the brines, and mineralogy and
textures of the evaporite minerals in Jizan sabkha help in
understanding the nature of the corrosive factors to the
foundations in Jizan area.
Keywords Brine chemistry � Genesis � Gypsum �Corrosion � Infrastructure � Sabkha � Saudi Arabia
Introduction
Sabkhas are ubiquitous geomorphic features in arid and
semiarid regions where evapotranspiration potentials are
very high and the hydrological inputs are conducive to the
development of endoreic (internal) drainage systems
(Goudie and Wells 1995; Shaw and Thomas 1997). They
represent flat and barren surfaces that are in dynamic
equilibrium with eolian deflation and sedimentation con-
trolled by local water table level. Major geotechnical and
constructional problems, namely, strength loss, differential
settlement, concrete deterioration, and steel corrosion may
emerge due to the presence of sabkha (Abou Al-Heija and
Shehata 1989; Shehata et al. 1990; Youssef et al. 2012;
Youssef and Maerz 2013). In addition, salt crystallization
usually occurs in the concrete pores above the water
table leading to their slow disintegration due to the high
crystallization pressure that is enhanced by evaporation
(Al-Amoudi and Abduljauwad 1994; Al-Amoudi et al.
1995). There are three different models that explain the
sources of the groundwater and solutes in sabkhas. These
are the ‘‘seawater flooding’’ model that was proposed by
Kinsman (1969), Butler (1969), and Patterson and Kinsman
& Mahmoud A. Arefm1aref@yahoo.com
1 Department of Petroleum Geology and Sedimentology,
Faculty of Earth Sciences, King Abdulaziz University,
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
2 Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University,
Giza, Egypt
123
Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105
DOI 10.1007/s12665-015-4913-6
(1977, 1981). The ‘‘evaporative pumping’’ model was
proposed by Hsü and Siegenthaler (1969); Hsü and Sch-
neider (1973), and McKenzie et al. (1980). The recent
model of ‘‘ascending brine’’ or ‘‘conceptual’’ model was
proposed by Wood and Sanford (2002), Yechieli and Wood
(2002), Wood et al. (2005), and Tyler et al. (2006) for the
recent sabkha and most coastal-sabkha environments. In
this model, capillary forces bring solutes and water to the
surface, where the water evaporates and halite and other
soluble minerals are precipitated. Retrograde minerals,
sensu Wood et al. (2005), such as gypsum, anhydrite,
calcite, and dolomite precipitate and accumulate in the
capillary zone beneath the surface of the coastal sabkha.
Sabkha sediments in Jizan area have a negative impact
on infrastructure causing problems to buildings. The degree
of damage depends on the characteristics of the sabkha, the
amount of subsidence and the bearing capacity of the
sabkha (Shabel 2007). In addition, salt domes offer some
problems related to underground dissolution in the Jizan
area, especially in the old city of Jizan. These include
surface collapse, building failure, fractures, tilting, cracked
roads, undulating ground surface, tilting of posts and
electricity poles or even damage of the old buildings and
infrastructure (Erol 1989; Al-Mhaidib 2002; Youssef et al.
2012; Youssef and Maerz 2013). Most studies carried out
on Jizan sabkha are related to the geotechnical properties of
the sabkha soil and the problems related to construction on
the sabkha (Dhowian et al. 1987; Dhowian 1990; Erol
1989; Al-Shamrani and Dhowian 1997; Al-Mhaidib 2002;
Shabel 2007; Youssef et al. 2012; Youssef and Maerz
2013). Erol and Dhowian (1988) found severe and wide-
spread damage in the settlements of Jizan city, which is
related to sinkholes and to linear depressions associated
with solution channels in the salt dome. The regional
composition of the sediments in the Jizan sabkha is the
interest of Al-Shamrani and Dhowian (1995, 1997),
Youssef et al. (2012), and Youssef and Maerz (2013).
The objectives of the present paper are: (1) identification
of the evaporite mineral composition and textures of the
sabkha sediments, (2) understanding the hydrochemistry,
brine evolution and genesis of Jizan sabkha, and (3)
understanding the effect of brine and evaporite minerals to
building failure in Jizan sabkha. The results can be used to
interpret the chemistry and source of the brines, formation
and textures of gypsum, anhydrite and halite in ancient
sabkha deposits.
Materials and methods
The present paper is based on the results of 10 days of field
work and excavation of several shallow trenches down to
the groundwater table (36–150 cm in depth) in the area of
Jizan sabkha. The water and brine samples were taken in
this area from seawater, groundwater, surface shallow pan
or surface excavations in Jizan sabkha (Fig. 1; Tables 1, 2).
During the field work, the salinity, temperature and pH
value of the brine in trenches dug in the sabkha were
measured. The salinity was determined by glass hydrom-
eters taking into account the measuring of standard sea
water. The hydrometer measures the mass % NaCl in the
brine up to 250 %. Temperatures were measured at thesurface by mercury thermometer ranging from 0 to 100 �Cin 0.1 �C divisions. The density of the brine samples wasmeasured by using two portable glass hydrometers, the first
measures density from 1.00 to 1.10 g/cm3, and the second
measures density from 1.10 to 1.2 g/cm3. The pH value of
the brine was measured in the field by these portable pH-
meters. Thirteen (13) samples (10 samples from sabkha
brines and 3 samples from the Red Sea water) were
chemically analyzed at the Geochemistry Lab, Saudi
Geological Survey, following the procedures given by
Clesceri et al. (1998). The chemical analyses were carried
out for the major cations Na?, K?, Ca2?, and Mg2? and the
major anions HCO3-, CO3
2-, SO42- and Cl-. Total dis-
solved solids (TDS) were measured by sample evaporation
techniques. Calcium (Ca2?) and magnesium (Mg2?) are
determined by compleximetric titration using standard
EDTA solution. Chloride (Cl-) is determined by titration
with standard (0.05 N) AgNO3. Bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)
are determined by titration with standard (0.1 N) HCl.
Sodium (Na?) and potassium (K?) are measured by flame
photometry. Sulfate ions (SO42-) are determined colori-
metrically using spectrophotometer technique. The ana-
lytical precision of the ions is determined by calculating
the absolute error in ionic balance in terms of equivalents
per milligram (meq/l), which is found in all samples within
a standard limit of ±5 %. All concentration values were
expressed in milligram per liter (mg/l) unless otherwise
indicated. The chemical data on the major cations and
anions were displayed in graphical forms of the Trilinear
Piper and Sulin diagrams to delineate the composition and
origin of the brines in the sabkha.
Previous studies
In the Red Sea coastal plain of Saudi Arabia, most of the
hydrochemical works are concerned with coastal pollution
that resulted from sewage plants and other human inference
(Turki 2007; Badr et al. 2009; Basaham et al. 2009). Some
works are concerned also with the hydrochemistry of
coastal lagoons and supratidal sabkhas in the Red Sea and
Arabian Gulf coasts (e.g., Bahafzullah et al. 1993; Basyoni
1997; Basyoni and Mousa 2009; Al-Shaibani 2013; Taj and
Aref 2015). Bahafzullah et al. (1993) classified the sabkha
105 Page 2 of 17 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105
123
development around Sulaymaniya lagoon area into four
stages; these are: (1) incipient; (2) slightly developed; (3)
moderately developed; and (4) well developed. They found
that the salinities of the water samples in incipient and
slightly developed sabkhas are very saline and slightly
hypersaline waters, whereas the moderately to well-de-
veloped sabkhas are moderately to highly hypersaline.
Basyoni (1997) found that the groundwater in Al-Lith
sabkha is moderately hypersaline and highly hypersaline,
whereas slightly hypersaline and very saline water exist
south of Al-Lith sabkha. He found positive correlations
between TDS, and Na? and CI-. The TDS values, cations
and anions, except SO42- of the pore water decrease with
depth. The pH values of the groundwater of Al Lith sabkha
range from 6.8 to 7.9, in contrast to the 8.0–8.2 pH values
of the Red Sea water. Serhan and Sabtan (1999) measured a
salinity range of 55–95 % in the groundwater in Al-Nekhaila sabkha, south Jeddah. This water has a high
content of sulfate and chloride that cause corrosive action
on reinforced concrete. Banat et al. (2005) studied
numerous water samples from coastal sabkhas between
Jeddah and Yanbu Al-Bahar, Red Sea coast. They assumed
that the climatic conditions over the Red Sea sabkhas lead
to the formation of ‘‘ …marine brines of magnesium-sodic
to chloride type with neutral pH value …’’. Al-Harbi et al.(2008) studied the hydrogeochemical processes and the
isotopic characteristics of Al-Awshaziyah inland sabkha in
Al-Qaseem region, central Saudi Arabia, as well as the
waters from shallow and deep wells. They compared the
salinity, cations and anions concentrations, and found that
the water types of the sabkha are sodium-magnesium
chloride, magnesium-sodium-chloride and sodium-chlo-
ride, and of meteoric origin. Alsaaran (2008) studied the
brine chemistry of Jayb Uwayyid sabkha, eastern Saudi
Arabia, and found that the average total dissolved solids in
the sabkha brines is 243 %, and the order of cation dom-inance is Na?[Mg2?[Ca2?[K?, and the aniondominance is Cl-[ SO4
2-[HCO3-. He concluded that
sabkha brines have evolved from deep groundwater rather
than from other near surface sources (i.e., direct rainfall,
runoff from the surroundings, or inflow of shallow
groundwater). Al-Dakheel et al. (2009) interpreted the
major hydrodynamic process in Al Asfar Lake, Al Hassa
area, Saudi Arabia, as possibly due to the upward migration
of subsurface brines from groundwater by capillary action
due to evaporation, that precipitate salt on the surface.
Basyoni and Mousa (2009) interpreted the brines of Murayr
sabkha, Arabian Gulf as belonging to chloride type (MgCl2
Quaternary surficial deposits
Pleistocene basalt
Mesozoic & Paleozoic sedimentary rocks
Granite pluton
Proterozoic rocks
Hijaz-Asir complex
0 250 km
NORTH
EGYPT
SUDAN
SUDI ARABIA
Jeddah
Duba
Jizan
RED SEA
RED SEA
13
1
2
35
4
6
7
9
8
1011
12
a
0 3 km
RED SEA
YEMEN
Jizan b
SAUDI ARABIA
Miocene salt dome
Seawater sample
Brine sample
5 Sample number
Wet mudflat/sandflat
Dry mudflat/sandflat
Fig. 1 Surface sediments in Jizan sabkha and geologic setting of Jizan area. (a) Surface sediments and location of seawater and brine samples inJizan sabkha, (b) Geology of Jizan area (After Blank et al. 1986)
Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105 Page 3 of 17 105
123
and CaCl2) that recharged mainly from seepage of recent
marine water from the Gulf side and from marine and
meteoric waters reacted with the surrounding carbonates.
They assumed that the capillary rise of these waters from
the shallow water table to the surface is a consequence of
surface evaporation that led to deposition of evaporite
minerals in the sabkha. Hussein and Loni (2011) studied
the Jizan thermal springs that flowed through fractures
within the Precambrian- Cambrian Arabian Shield rocks.
The thermal springs are characterized by having a lower
(Cl- ? SO42-)/HCO3
- ratio (0.38–0.56), higher
(Na? ? K?)/(Ca2? ? Mg2?) ratio ([4) and Cl-[SO42-.
Al-Shaibani (2013) estimated the concentrations and total
masses of magnesium, potassium, calcium, and sodium
from 20 shallow wells in Jayb Uwayyid sabkha, eastern
Saudi Arabia. His results showed that Jayb Uwayyid sab-
kha contains about 1.4, 0.4, 0.9, and 9.9 million metric tons
of magnesium, potassium, calcium and sodium, respec-
tively. In the south Jeddah area, Taj and Aref (2015) found
that the supratidal saline pans increase in salinity from 80
to 140, and 220–375 % during deposition of gypsum andhalite, respectively. The dominant cations and anions
concentration order in the saline pans is Na?[Mg2?[ -K?[Ca2?, and Cl-[ SO4
2-[HCO3-, respectively.
They indicated that the brines were derived mainly from
recent and old marine waters of MgCl2 and CaCl2 char-
acters, with minor contribution of meteoric water.
Study area
Geologic setting and location of Jizan sabkha
Three topographic zones exist in the Jizan area, which run
for 1800 km parallel to each other in a northwest-southeast
direction (Blank et al. 1986; Hussein and Loni 2011), these
are (Fig. 1b): (1) the dissected highland of Hijaz-Asir
escarpment that forms a narrow belt of strongly eroded
terrain of Precambrian basement complex; (2) the central
plateau is a west-east gently sloping peneplain that pene-
trated by west-east trending wadis which drain the western
highlands. It consists of the Cambro-Ordovician Wajid
Sandstone that rests unconformably on peneplain Precam-
brian basement rocks and below Permian rocks (Powers
et al. 1966); and (3) the Tihama, low-elevation and gently
sloping coastal plain that forms a strip of land that consists
of the Quaternary eolian sands to alluvial terrace deposits.
A Miocene salt dome forms a prominent high land (\50 m)that intersects the monotonous flat coastal plain area.
Recent moist, sabkha sediments are widespread near the
shore of the Red Sea, whereas loess and sand dunes exist in
the dry land to the east of the coastal plain. The Jizan
sabkha is present in- and around Jizan city at theTable
1Concentrationvalues
ofthemajorcationsandanionsin
theseaw
ater
ofJizanarea
S.no.
Unit
Ca2
?Mg2?
Na?
K?
Cl-
HCO3-
SO42-
NH4
FNO2
PO4
TDS
PH
Mg/Ca
Brinetype
1mg/l
680.0
2000.00
12206.0
370.0
19466.0
125.00
4000.00
44.40
1.96
0.23
0.34
38500
7.97
2.94
Mg,Ca,
sodium,SO4,chloride
epm
33.9
164.52
531.0
9.5
557.6
2.05
83.28
2.46
2mg/l
740.0
2083.00
13360.0
462.5
21619.0
129.00
4400.00
68.70
1.38
0.17
0.26
40,700
8.09
2.82
Mg,sodium,SO4,chloride
epm
36.9
171.35
581.2
11.8
609.9
2.11
91.61
3.81
3mg/l
824.0
4000.00
14727.5
480.0
20406.0
137.00
4150.00
6.15
1.95
0.06
0.27
41,900
7.52
4.85
Ca,
Mg,sodium,chloride
epm
41.1
329.04
640.7
12.3
575.7
2.25
86.40
0.34
Maxim
um
824
4000
14727.5
480
21619
137
4400
68.7
1.96
0.23
0.34
41,900
8.09
4.85
Minim
um
680
2000
12,206
370
19,466
125
4000
6.15
1.38
0.06
0.26
38,500
7.52
2.82
Average
748
2694.3
13431.1
437.5
20,497
130.3
4183.3
39.7
1.763
0.15
0.29
40366.6
7.86
3.53
Locationofsamplesisin
Fig.1a
105 Page 4 of 17 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105
123
Table
2Concentrationvalues
ofthemajorcationsandanionsin
thebrines
ofJizansabkha
S.
no.
Brinenature
unit
Ca2
?Mg2?
Na?
K?
Cl-
HCO3-
SO42-
NH4
FNO2
PO4
TDS
PH
Mg/
Ca
Brinetype
4Water
table;depth
36cm
mg/l
3140.0
1633.00
3590.0
168.0
9527.0
87.00
2150.00
0.41
1.20
0.06
0.30
17,700
7.45
0.52
Ca,
Mg,sodium,
chloride
epm
156.7
134.33
171.8
4.3
268.8
1.43
44.76
0.02
5Halitepond
mg/l
15500.0
10390.00
55800.0
2400.0
136981.0
113.00
1950.00
177.00
1.52
0.66
8.65
223,000
6.63
0.67
Mg,sodium,chloride
epm
773.5
854.68
2427.3
61.4
3864.2
1.85
40.60
9.81
6Water
table;depth
150cm
mg/l
4800.0
2340.00
4998.0
132.0
26548.0
69.00
2550.00
135.00
1.64
0.19
1.35
43,200
6.91
0.49
Mg,Na,
calcium,
chloride
epm
239.5
192.49
217.4
3.4
748.9
1.13
53.09
7.48
7Water
table;depth
150cm
mg/l
1332.0
830.00
2292.0
520.0
5367.0
137.00
3200.00
2.50
1.57
0.07
0.28
12,900
7.39
0.62
Ca,
Mg,sodium
chloride
epm
66.5
68.28
99.7
13.3
151.4
2.25
66.62
0.14
8Artificial
excavation
mg/l
1024.0
8350.00
251700.0
11450.0
213023.0
117.00
8950.00
174.00
1.35
0.98
0.19
495,000
7.15
8.15
Mg,sodium,SO4,
chloride
epm
51.1
686.87
10949.0
292.9
6009.4
1.92
186.34
9.64
9Water
table;depth
120cm
mg/l
16500.0
15500.00
87900.0
16050.0
226789.0
45.00
465.00
72.00
0.65
0.58
1.75
363,000
6.01
0.94
Ca,Mg,sodium,SO4,
chloride
epm
823.4
1275.03
3823.7
410.6
6397.7
0.74
9.68
3.99
10
Water
table;depth
150cm
mg/l
6550.0
5000.00
176650.0
617.5
47440.0
95.00
4100.00
117.00
0.77
0.26
1.08
67,400
6.99
0.76
Sodium,chloride
epm
326.8
411.30
7684.3
15.8
1338.3
1.56
85.36
6.48
11
Water
table;depth
70cm
mg/l
1112.0
8800.00
54300.0
1650.0
122748.0
189.00
8950.00
43.00
2.16
0.39
1.80
200,000
6.77
7.90
Ca,
Na,
magnesium
chloride
epm
55.5
723.89
2362.1
42.2
3462.7
3.10
186.34
2.38
12
Artificial
excavation
mg/l
17100.0
15000.00
35280.0
1520.0
132160.0
95.00
2150.00
132.00
2.05
0.19
0.90
129,200
6.60
0.88
Mg,sodium
chloride
epm
853.3
1233.90
1534.7
38.9
3728.2
1.56
44.76
7.31
13
Water
table;depth
80cm
mg/l
18100.0
15000.00
27720.0
1560.0
123660.0
86.00
4150.00
117.00
1.55
0.41
1.30
118,400
6.05
0.83
Sodium
chloride
epm
903.2
1233.90
1208.8
39.9
3488.5
1.41
86.40
6.48
Maxim
um
18,100
15,500
251,700
16,050
226,789
189
8950
177
2.16
0.98
8.65
495,000
7.45
8.15
Minim
um
1024
830
2292
132
5367
45
465
0.41
0.65
0.06
0.19
12,900
6.01
0.49
Average
8515.8
8284.3
70,023
3606.7
104,424
103.3
3861.5
96.99
1.45
0.38
1.76
166,980
6.795
2.176
Locationofsamplesisin
Fig.1a
Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105 Page 5 of 17 105
123
southwestern sector of Saudi Arabia, between latitudes
16�480 and 16�580N and longitudes 42�320and 42�380E(Fig. 1a).
Climate
The Jizan area has a subtropical desert climate, where
several ephemeral wadi systems drain to the Red Sea, such
as Jizan, al Khums, Mais, Bish and others (Abdelrahman
and Ahmad 1995). Jizan city is characterized by sparse rain
storms which vary in intensity and duration. The southern
part of the city is sometimes exposed to the risk of flash
floods due to the heavy rain intensity, and the wadis flow
from the east towards west (Elsebaie et al. 2013). Abdel-
rahman (1997) reported that the average temperature in
Jizan area is 23 �C, the annual precipitation is 1.3 cm, andthe average relative humidity varies between 45 and 65 %
in winter, and 25 and 40 % in summer. The mean rate of
evaporation at Jizan was estimated as 156 cm/year by
Abdelrahman and Ahmad (1995), and 128.72 cm/year by
Al-Subhi (2012). The prevailing winds at Jizan blow from
the west during summer and southwest during winter, with
wind speeds ranging between 2 and 50 km/h. Elsebaie
et al. (2013), in their study on the mangroves of Jizan city,
stated that the average surface temperature of the Red Sea
water in Jizan area ranges between 26 �C in winter and32 �C in summer. The seawater at the southern part of theJizan area has a lower salinity (36–37 %) than the northern
part (37–38.5 %).
Sediment characteristics of the sabkha area
The coastal plain of Jizan area extends approximately
10 km inland to the foothills of the Red Sea escarpment,
and is covered by Quaternary eolian sand, alluvial sand and
gravel, loess and flood plain silt deposits. The prominent
elevated relief on the coastal plain is a salt dome at Jizan
city (Fig. 1a). The recent sediments are represented by
sabkha deposits on the wet, coastal plain of Jizan area, in
addition to sand dunes and loess deposits in the dry land.
The old city of Jizan is situated at an elevated terrain,
5–50 m (above sea level) underlain by the Miocene salt
dome covering an area of 4 km2. The salt dome is covered
by cap rocks of brecciated gypsum, anhydrite, dolomite,
shale and sandstone layers. Several dissolution sinkholes of
a diameter\4 m and depth exceeding 6 m are observed onthe floor of the abandoned salt quarries (Fig. 2). Loess
sediment is distributed over the eastern side of Jizan city.
Loess form small hills,\5 m in height, and is composed ofwell-sorted, silt to fine sand-sized quartz, feldspar, and
mica grains. Sand dunes (barchan) and sand sheets form
most of the eastern part of the coastal plain. Youssef et al.
(2012) measured the highest point of the barchan dunes as
about 4 m with a slope angle reaching 40�. The high slopeangle of the dunes may be related to the occurrence of
efflorescent gypsum and/or halite cements between the
sand grains at/or near their sediment surface.
Three areas are distinguished in the sabkha that vary in
the composition and mechanism of formation of the
evaporite minerals, and the nature and depth of the brine
that precipitates the evaporite minerals; these are the halite
pan, wet sabkha, and dry sabkha. Few, small halite pans
(\25 m2 in diameter, and 20–50 cm deep) exist in thelowest topographic depressions in the sabkha (Fig. 3a).
They are filled with high salinity brine ([250 %, anddensity 1.26 g/cm3). Halite crystallizes in these pans at the
brine surface as thin rafts and pyramidal hoppers, and on
the floor of the pan as aggregates of chevrons and cornets
(Fig. 3b). The wet sabkha is represented by wet mudflat
and sandflat areas, where the water table ranges from 36 to
150 cm below the surface (Fig. 3c). The sabkha sediments
are composed mainly of moist, loose sand and silt that form
adhesion ripples, in addition to a variable abundance of
gypsum, anhydrite and halite minerals (Basyoni and Aref,
2015). The surface of the wet sabkha is composed of
buckling petee crusts (Fig. 3d). The petee structure is
composed of black and green microbial mats and gypsum
layers that form elongated, hollow, twisted ridges (Fig. 3d).
The dry sabkha is composed of\1 cm thick halite cruststhat form inverted, V-shaped, polygonal tepee structures
(Fig. 3e). The subsurface sediments in all sabkha areas are
composed of interbedded brown, sand and grey, mud lay-
ers. Scattered lenticular and rosette gypsum crystals
(Fig. 3f) are aggregated and form thin layers at the depths
of 10, 40 and 90 (Fig. 3c). Nodular mosaic and enterolithic
folds of milky white, soft anhydrite are recorded at the
depth of 15 cm (Fig. 3g).
Fig. 2 A funnel-shaped sinkhole forms due to recent dissolution ofhalite and its partial filling with clastic sediments
105 Page 6 of 17 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105
123
c
a b
d
e
g
f
Fig. 3 Evaporite deposition in the sabkha area. (a) Shallow, desic-cated pan encrusted with white halite rafts and skeletal crystals.
(b) Bedding plane view showing the variable size of halite cubes thatform the rafts. (c) A general sand mud layering, with gypsumcrystallization at several levels (arrows). (d) Elongated, wavy, ridgeswith smooth upper surface form the petee structure. (e) Inverted,
V-shaped, polygonal ridges (\5 cm in height) of tepee halite crusts,partially covered with eolian sand. (f) Aggregates of lenticular androsette gypsum grow inclusively in brownish silt. (g) Milky whiteanhydrite nodules grow displacively at a certain level in the wet sand
of the sabkha
Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105 Page 7 of 17 105
123
Results and discussion
Chemical composition of seawater and the brines
The distribution of the concentrations of the cations Na?,
K?, Ca2? and Mg2?, the anions Cl-, SO42-, and HCO3
-,
NH4, TDS and pH are presented in Figs. 4 and 5. The
statistical parameters, such as maximum, minimum and
mean of the chemical composition of the brines in Jizan
sabkha are also presented in Tables 1 and 2. Generally, the
concentrations of cations and anions in the seawater are
lower than the concentration values of the sabkha brines in
most samples, except samples Nos. 4 and 7 (Fig. 4), which
have also lower salinity values due to recharge from rain
water, temporary floods and seepage of sewage water from
septic tanks. Na? has the highest concentration with
respect to the cations K?, Mg2? and Ca2? in the brines of
the sabkha (Fig. 4a). Mg2? concentration is next in abun-
dance, followed by Ca2? in most samples, whereas K?
concentration value is the lowest, except in samples Nos.
12 and 13 (Fig. 4a). For the anions, the Cl- concentration
is the highest among all samples, SO42- concentration is
very low, whereas the HCO3- is the lowest (Fig. 4b).
The Cl- concentration in the seawater of Jizan area
ranges from 19,466 to 21,619 mg/l, with an average value
of 20,497 mg/l, whereas the Na? concentration ranges
from 12,206 to 14,727 mg/l, with the average of
13,431.1 mg/l (Table 1). The dominant anion in the brines
of Jizan sabkha is Cl- where its concentration ranges from
5367 to 226,789 mg/l, and the average is 104,424 mg/l,
which accounts for more than 50 % of the charge balance
in the brines. The dominant cation is Na?, where its con-
centration ranges from 2292 to 251,700 mg/l, with the
average concentration value of 70,023 mg/l. Such con-
centrations of Cl- and Na? in the brines of Jizan sabkha
are several times higher than their concentration in sea-
water of Jizan area. They are also slightly higher than the
average concentration values of chloride (96,851 mg/l) and
sodium (45,239 mg/l), measured in the groundwater of
Dahaban sabkha by Banat et al. (2005).
The Ca2? concentration in seawater of Jizan area ranges
from 680 to 824 mg/l, with the average of 748 mg/l, and
the Mg2? concentration ranges from 2000 to 4000 mg/l,
with the average of 2694 mg/l (Table 1). In the brines of
Jizan sabkha, the Ca2? concentration ranges from 1024 to
18,100 mg/l, with the average of 8516 mg/l, and the Mg2?
concentration ranges from 830 to 15,500 mg/l, with the
average of 8248 mg/l (Table 2). The average concentra-
tions of Ca2? and Mg2? in the brines of Jizan sabkha
greatly exceed the values measured from the seawater of
Jizan area. They are also higher than the average concen-
trations of Ca2? (2832 mg/l) and Mg2? (4314 mg/l),
Seawater Brine sample
b
Seawater Brine sample
a
c
Seawater SeawaterBrine sample
d
Brine sample
pH
Fig. 4 Histograms representing the concentration of the cations (Ca2?, Mg2?, Na? and K?), anions (Cl-, HCO32- and SO4
2-) and TDS, and pH
values in seawater and brine samples of Jizan sabkha
105 Page 8 of 17 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105
123
measured by Banat et al. (2005) for Dahaban sabkha, north
Jeddah.
K? ions have a narrow range of 370–480 mg/l in sea-
water of Jizan area, with the average of 437 mg/l (Table 1).
The concentration of K? in the brines of Jizan sabkha
ranges from 132 to 16,050 mg/l, with the average of
3607 mg/l (Table 2). The K? values in the brines exceed
the values in Jizan seawater, and the average value of
1911 mg/l in the groundwater of Dahaban sabkha mea-
sured by Banat et al. (2005).
The SO42- concentration in seawater of the Jizan area
ranges from 4000 to 4400 mg/l, with the average of
4183 mg/l (Table 1). The SO42- concentration in the bri-
nes of Jizan sabkha ranges from 465 to 8950 mg/l, with the
average of 3861 mg/l (Table 2). The average SO42- con-
centration in seawater and brines of Jizan area are similar.
They are also similar to the average concentration value of
3819 mg/l in the Dahaban sabkha, measured by Banat et al.
(2005). However, seven brine samples have SO42- con-
centration less than the average in Jizan seawater, indi-
cating the removal of SO42- due to gypsum precipitation
and/or the reduction of SO42- ions by sulfate-reducing
bacteria, similar to observations by Deng et al. (2010),
Spadafora et al. (2010), and Glunk et al. (2011).
HCO3- ions have low concentration in seawater of the
Jizan area, as well as in the brines of Jizan sabkha
(Tables 1, 2). The HCO3- concentration in seawater of
Jizan area ranges from 125 to 137 mg/l, with the average of
130 mg/l, whereas the HCO3- concentration in the brines
of Jizan sabkha ranges from 45 to 189 mg/l, with the
average of 103 mg/l. The average HCO3- concentration in
Dahban sabkha is 204 mg/l (Banat et al. 2005), which is
slightly higher than the average values measured for the
Red Sea water and sabkha water in Jizan area. The low
concentration values of HCO3- in seawater and brines in
Jizan sabkha are due to their removal during precipitation
of the carbonate minerals.
The concentrations of ammonia (NH4) in the brines of
Jizan sabkha and seawater range from 0.41 to 177, and
6.15–68.7 mg/l, respectively, and their mean values are
96.99 mg/l and 39.7, respectively. The concentration of
nitrite (NO2) ranges from 0.06 to 0.98 mg/l, and the mean
value is 0.38 mg/l in the brines of Jizan sabkha. The high
values of NH4 and NO2 may be due to leakage from septic
tanks of the houses in Jizan city, or from fertilizers in
nearby agriculture fields. It is worth to mention that during
excavation of the lands for the foundations of new houses,
high quantities of groundwater having a bad odor have
seeped from nearby old houses. This water may provide the
elevated NH4 and NO2 in the brine of Jizan sabkha.
The concentration of fluoride (F-) in the brine of Jizan
sabkha ranges from 0.65 to 2.16 mg/l, with a mean value of
1.45 mg/l. Fluoride is considered as an essential element in
health problems that may arise from either deficiency or
excess amount (Gopal and Gosh 1985). Fluoride can be
considered as one of the main trace element in ground-
water, where it occurs generally as natural constituent (Al-
Ahmadi 2013). The high concentrations of fluoride are
generally due to rocks containing fluoride minerals (Wen-
zel and Blum 1992; Bardsen et al. 1996).
The concentration of phosphate (PO43-) in the brines of
Jizan sabkha ranges from 0.19 to 8.65 mg/l, with a mean
value of 1.76 mg/l. The phosphate is usually found in
groundwater with a minimal level due to the low solubility
of native phosphate minerals and the ability of soil to retain
phosphate (Rajmohan and Elango 2005).
Total dissolved solids (TDS) in the seawater of Jizan
area range from 38,500 to 41,900 mg/l, with the average of
40,366 mg/l (Table 1). The TDS in the brines of Jizan
sabkha range from 12,900 to 495,000 mg/l, with the
average of 166,980 mg/l (Table 2; Fig. 4c). The TDS
values of seawater in Jizan area are nearly similar to TDS
value that generally recorded for the Red Sea water. Two
brine samples from trenches in Jizan sabkha have a lower
TDS value of 17,700 and 12,900 mg/l in samples 4 and 7,
than the average TDS in seawater of Jizan area. The brines
of these samples may be derived from a mix with rain-
water, groundwater of meteoric origin or seepage of sew-
age water from septic tanks. For the brines of Jizan sabkha
that have higher TDS values than the average TDS of
seawater (40,366 mg/l), are likely related to extensive
evaporation rate with respect to the small groundwater
inflow, rainfall or seawater seepage. The very high salinity
values of 495,000 and 363,000 mg/l (Table 2) of the sab-
kha brines may be related to dissolution of halite in the salt
dome.
The values of electrical conductivity (EC) range from
20,000 to 199,100 lS/cm with a mean value of 99,800 lS/cm. The high values in EC are attributed mainly to evap-
oration process and increase in the salinity of the brine.
Both TDS and EC are affected by the high concentration
values of Na?, Ca2?, Mg2?, Cl-, and SO42-.
The pH values in the seawater of Jizan area range from
7.52 to 8.09, with the average of 7.86 (Table 1). The pH
values in the brine samples of Jizan sabkha range from 6.01
to 7.45, with the average of 6.79 (Table 2), which are lower
than the values recorded from the Red Sea water in Jizan
area (Fig. 4d). Six brine samples have values slightly\7,which indicate neutral or slightly acidic brines. Whereas,
four samples have values more than 7, indicating that all
carbonate alkalinity is in the form of HCO3- (Stumm and
Morgan 1996; Drever 1998).
An isochronal map of the cations in the brines of Jizan
sabkha indicates that Na? increases to[250,000 mg/l inthe halite pans at central western margin of the sabkha area,
while low values of Na? (\10,000 mg/l) dominate the
Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105 Page 9 of 17 105
123
Ca Mg
K Na
105 Page 10 of 17 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105
123
eastern margin of the sabkha (Fig. 5). K? values follow
Na?, where the highest value is 16,000 mg/l in the central
western part of the studied sabkha, and the K? concen-
tration decreases to values less than 2000 mg/l in the north,
east and southeastern sides (Fig. 5). The low values of Na?
and K? concentrations at the eastern margin of the sabkha
is attributed to dilution from the landward side of the
sabkha, less evaporation and lower salinity (up to
12,900 mg/l) compared to the western margin of the sab-
kha area. The Ca2? concentration value is the reverse of the
concentration of Na? and K?. Ca2? concentration is lower
at the southwestern part of the sabkha (\1000 mg/l), andincreases to 2200 mg/l to the northeastern side of the
sabkha (Fig. 5). The Mg2? concentration increases from
1500 mg/l in the southeastern part of the sabkha
to[10,000 mg/l in the central western part of the sabkha,and then increases gradually to 15,000 mg/l in the northern
part of the sabkha (Fig. 5). The isochronal map of the
anions showed that the concentration of Cl- is similar to
Na?, where the highest value of[200,000 mg/l is recordedin the central western margin of the sabkha, and decreases
to the east and north sides (Fig. 5). The SO42- and HCO3
-
concentrations are similar, and they increase to the western
margin of the sabkha, to values of 9000 and 180 mg/l,
respectively (Fig. 5). The concentrations of SO42- and
HCO3- decrease to the northeastern side of the sabkha to
180 and 45 mg/l, respectively. The concentration of NH4shows a narrow range, but it generally increases to the west
and north margins of the sabkha (Fig. 5). High concen-
tration of NH4 and NO2 in Jizan sabkha may indicate
intrusion into the sabkha water from adjacent sewage
waters and agricultural areas which receive excess nitrogen
fertilizers (such as urea and ammonium nitrate) that are
assumed to increase the agricultural production.
Brine types
The ionic concentrations of the seawater and brines in
samples numbers 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11 and 13 (Tables 1, 2)
have the following general pattern: Na?[Mg2?[Ca2?[K?. Some samples, however, (2, 12 and 13) havethe abundance Na?[Mg2?[K?[Ca2?, and threesamples have variable abundances such as Na?[Ca2?[Mg2?[K?, or Ca2?[Na?[Mg2?[K?, orMg2?[Na?[Ca2?[K? (Tables 1, 2). On the otherhand, the abundance of the major anions in all samples is
Cl-[SO42-[HCO3
-. The brine type for most samples
is sodium chloride, with variable proportions of the major
cations Ca2? and Mg2? and the major anion SO42-
(Tables 1, 2). Three samples have Ca2?, Mg2?, sodium
chloride brine type, two samples have the following brine
types Mg2?, sodium, SO42-, chloride, or Mg2?, sodium
chloride, and only one sample has the following brine types
Mg2?, Ca2?, sodium, SO42-, chloride, or Mg2?, Na?,
calcium chloride, or Ca2?, Mg2?, sodium, SO42-, chloride,
or Ca2?, Na?, magnesium chloride (Tables 1, 2).
Despite the dominance of Na? and Cl- ions in most of
the studied brine samples that exhibited a marine-like
chemical character (Herczeg et al. 2001), a broad range of
secondary processes can significantly affect the evapora-
tive pathways and are responsible for the variables brine
types in the Jizan sabkha, similar to the interpretation
proposed by Radke et al. (2002). The secondary processes
may include mineral dissolution, cation exchange reac-
tions, sulfate reduction, brine mixing, brine reflux, mineral
precipitation and recycling of soluble salts within the
sabkha.
Ion inter-relationship
The correlations of the concentration of cations, anions,
TDS and pH are shown in Fig. 6. The correlation between
Na? and Cl- for most samples (except samples 9 and 11
which have very high Na? values) indicates a positive
correlation (R2 = 0.9017) (Fig. 6a). This positive correla-
tion indicates the enrichment of the brines with NaCl
(halite) that may be precipitated at high salinity. The cor-
relation between Ca2? and Mg2? (Fig. 6b) also indicates a
positive correlation (R2 = 0.7237). This is contrary to the
fact that the brine should have lower Ca2? concentration
due to the earlier precipitation of CaCO3 (calcite and/or
aragonite) and CaSO4.2H2O (gypsum). Most probably, the
relatively high Ca2? concentration is due to dissolution of
carbonate grains in the sediments. No pronounced corre-
lation exists between Ca2? and SO42- (R2 = 0.2827)
(Fig. 6c). This is due to the possible precipitation of
CaSO4.2H2O (gypsum) from the brine and dissolution of
carbonate grains. No correlation between Ca2? and HCO3-
(R2 = 0.3519) (Fig. 6d) in two groups of the brines, may
be interpreted as a result of oxidation of organic matter in
the sediments and reduction of sulfate ions, which lead to
the increase in HCO3-. There are strong positive relations
between TDS and Na? (R2 = 0.8653) (Fig. 6e), and
between TDS and Cl- (R2 = 0.8903) (Fig. 6f), and no
pronounced relation between TDS and SO42-
(R2 = 0.1163) (Fig. 6g). The positive relations indicate
that the TDS is mainly represented by Na? and Cl- ions,
whereas changes in SO42- does not affect the TDS of the
brine. Plotting of the values of TDS and pH indicates no
relation between them (R2 = 0.1869) (Fig. 6h). The pH
values of seawater are around 8 that decrease to about 6
bFig. 5 Contour lines representing the distribution of the majorcations and anions in seawater and brine samples of the studied
sabkha, Jizan area
Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105 Page 11 of 17 105
123
NH4
Cl SO4
HCO3
Fig. 5 continued
105 Page 12 of 17 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105
123
with the increases in the salinity of the brine. This result is
in agreement with the data of Bąbel and Schreiber (2014).
The Mg2?/Ca2? ratio of seawater at Jizan area ranges
from 2.82 to 4.85, with the average of 3.53 (Table 1;
Fig. 7a). Whereas for the Jizan sabkha, the Mg2?/Ca2?
ratio of the brines range from 0.49 to 8.15, with the average
of 2.176 (Table 2; Fig. 7a). All brine samples have lower
Mg2?/Ca2? ratio than that measured in Jizan seawater,
except samples numbers 8 and 11, which have exceedingly
high values of 8.15 and 7.90, respectively (Fig. 7). The low
Mg2?/Ca2? ratio in most brine samples is most probably
due to the dissolution of carbonate grains in the sediments
that increases the concentration of Ca2? ions. Whereas the
high Mg2?/Ca2? ratio in samples 8 and 11 is due to the
removal of Ca2? ions through precipitation of calcite and
gypsum. However, the dominant low Mg2?/Ca2? ratio
indicates that the brine has a low potential to dolomitize the
high Mg-calcite and aragonite minerals. Only the brines in
R2 = 0.2827 R2 = 0.3519
R2 = 0.8653 R2 = 0.8903
R2 = 0.7237b
c d
e f
g hR2 = 0.1163 R2 = 0.1869
R2 = 0.9017a
Fig. 6 Scatter diagrams showing the correlations between various anions, cations, TDS and pH values
Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105 Page 13 of 17 105
123
samples 8 and 11 could dolomitize the carbonate grains in
the sediments due to their high Mg2?/Ca2? ratio. Banat
et al. (2005) found that the increases in the Mg?2/Cl-
concentration and decreases in SO42- concentration lead to
the formation of protodolomite in the coastal sabkha sed-
iments between Jeddah and Yanbu Al-Bahar.
Brine evolution
The hydrochemical evolution of the brines of Jizan sabkha
can be understood using the analytical data obtained from
brine samples as a result of plotting the major cations and
anions in the Piper Trilinear diagrams (Fig. 8). The dia-
grams show that all brine samples in Jizan sabkha have
similar affinity and composition, which are similar to the
composition of seawater. The diagrams show two groups of
samples, the first group shows that the majority of the brine
samples of Jizan sabkha fall in the field NaCl type of water.
The second group shows approximately equal percentage
of the alkali metals (Na? ? K?), and the alkaline earth
elements Mg2? and Ca2?, whereas the strong acid (Cl-)
greatly exceeds the weak acid (HCO3- and CO3
2-), and
the strong acid (SO42-) (Fig. 8). Also, from the Piper plot,
the deficiency of Ca2? in the brines of the sabkha is due to
the precipitation of calcite, aragonite and gypsum. The
chemical characters (ionic concentration patterns and brine
types) of the studied brine samples in Jizan sabkha and
seawater are similar, which indicate that the brine chem-
istry of Jizan sabkha has been modified from initial sea-
water composition to the stages of deposition of calcium
carbonate, followed by calcium sulfate and finally to
sodium chloride dominant composition (Fig. 8).
Genesis of the brines
Results of the chemical analyses were recalculated for both
the major cations and major anions and plotted on a Sulin
graph (Fig. 9) to interpret the origin of brine of Jizan
sabkha. It is clear that the seawater samples and four brine
samples of Jizan sabkha are located in the field of recent
marine water origin and of MgCl2 composition (Fig. 9).
However, most of the brine samples in Jizan sabkha are
located in the field of old marine water origin and of CaCl2composition (Fig. 9). Therefore, the main supply to the
brines of Jizan sabkha is through seawater seepage that
may be modified with reaction with the old marine water
from dissolution of the halite crystals of the Miocene salt
dome. This modified seawater is the source of the brines in
Jizan sabkha. The localized formation of sinkholes at the
floor of the abandoned salt quarries (Fig. 2) and collapse of
the buildings of the old Jizan city point to an additional salt
dissolution by rain water and fresh and/or sewage waters
from houses. The possible contribution of fresh water
through Wadi Jizan or occasional rainfall has a minor
effect on those samples that are located close to the field of
meteoric water origin in Sulin graph (Fig. 9). Bagheri et al.
(2014) mentioned three main potential processes that may
cause high salinity values in the Kangan gasfield, these are
halite dissolution, membrane filtration, and evaporation of
water. They indicated that the evaporated ancient seawater
trapped in lagoonal and sabkha carbonates, gypsum, and
clastic rocks is the cause of salinization based on the
concentrations of Cl, Na, and TDS in comparison with Br
concentration.
Environmental impact of the sabkha brines
and minerals
Sabkha evaporite brines and minerals cause severe damage
to buildings and infrastructure in Jizan area. In addition,
partial dissolution of the nearby salt dome can modify the
composition of the brines which increases their corrosive
effect on steel reinforcement and deterioration of the
concrete in the sabkha area. The evaporite minerals gyp-
sum and anhydrite are common in the wet sabkha area.
They are recorded with a variable abundance in the cap-
illary evaporation zone of both shallow (36 cm) and deep
Fig. 7 Relationship between Mg/Ca and sample number, and TDS
105 Page 14 of 17 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105
123
(150 cm) groundwater. In this area halite is only recorded
in saline pans within the sabkha area. These evaporite
minerals reflect the salinity and chemical characteristics of
the brines. Gypsum is displacively grown as lenticular and
rosette crystals in the subsurface sediments of the sabkha
down to the underlying water table. Anhydrite forms
displacive nodules near the sediment surface. Both gypsum
and anhydrite form from brines with salinity\200 %, buthalite is recorded as rafts, chevrons and cornets in those
pans with salinity exceeding 250 %. The crystallizationpressure exerted from displacive growth of gypsum and
anhydrite in pore spaces of the foundations causes their
< 40 g/l
40 – 80 g/l
80 – 220 g/l
220 - 350 g/l
> 350 g/l
Brine salinity
Fig. 8 Piper Trilinear diagramsshowing the brine evolution in
Jizan sabkha
MgCl2Recent Marine Water
CaCl2Old Marine Water
NaHCO3Shallow Meteoric Water
NaSO4Deep Meteoric Water
r(K+ + Na+) – rCl-
rSO42-< 1
= 1
> 1
102030405060708090100
100908070605040302010
r Mg2+
r SO42-
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
2010
r(K
+ +
Na+
) –rC
l-
r(K+ + Na+)
rCl-= 1 rC
l- –r(
K+
+ N
a+)
rCl- – r(K+ + Na+)
rMg2-> 1
= 1
< 1
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90100
Brine sample from the water table of the sabkha
Seawater from tidal flat & mangrove area
Fig. 9 Sulin graph showing theorigin and type of the brines,
Jizan sabkha
Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105 Page 15 of 17 105
123
sever damage. The sulfate nature of the brines causes
corrosion of the steel reinforcement of infrastructure.
Fluctuation of the water table during summer and winter
months increases the degree of damage and corrosion in the
foundation in the sabkha area.
Conclusions
The concentrations of cations and anions in most of the
sabkha brines exceed their respective values within seawater
due to intensive evaporation. However, two brine samples
have a lower salinity value and a lower concentration of
cations and anions than seawater, and thesemay be related to
the mixing of groundwater with meteoric water, leakage
water from septic tanks in Jizan city, or from fertilizers in
nearby agriculture fields. Concomitant with the increases in
salinity is the increase of Na? and Cl-, and the decrease of
K?, Mg2?, Ca2?, HCO3- and SO4
2- in the residual brines.
These are due to the removal of Ca2?, HCO3- and SO4
2-
ions from the brines due to the precipitation of calcite,
aragonite and gypsum. Whereas the remaining brines are
oversaturated with Na? (?K?) and Cl- ions which favor
halite deposition at higher salinity values, the relatively high
Ca2? concentration relative to low HCO3- and SO4
2- ions,
and the low Mg2?/Ca2? ratio are most probably related to
dissolution of carbonate sediment. The order of cations
dominance in most samples is Na?[Mg2?[Ca2?[K?,or Na?[Mg2?[K?[Ca2?, or Na?[Ca2?[Mg2?[K?. The abundance of the major anions in allsamples is Cl-[ SO4
2-[HCO3-. The dominant brine
type is sodium chloride, with variable proportions of the
major cations Ca2? and Mg2? and the major anion SO42-.
The brines of the sabkha have evolved mainly from seawater
seepage, with localized minor modification from dissolution
of halite in the salt dome, rainfall, floods and leakage from
septic tanks and agriculture fields. Capillary evaporation of
the groundwater and surface evaporation of these waters
have modified the brine chemistry and salinity during
deposition of gypsum and halite. Fluctuation of the
groundwater table with variable salinity values cause
extensive evaporite mineral formation and subsequent cor-
rosion of the steel, deterioration of the concrete and possible
damage of buildings in the sabkha area. The composition and
texture of the evaporite minerals in the sabkha area, and the
brine composition and origin can be used to interpret similar
sabkha sediments in the rock record.
Acknowledgments This project was funded by the Deanship ofScientific Research (DSR), King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, under
grant No. (307/145/1432). The authors, therefore, acknowledge with
thanks DSR technical and financial support. We thank the reviewers
B. Charlotte Schreiber, an anonymous reviewer, and the Editor-in-
Chief Olaf Kolditz for their helpful comments which greatly
improved the manuscript. Thanks also to Mr. Murad Rajab and Mr.
Ali Khofani for their field assistance.
Compliance with ethical standards
Funding This project was funded by the Deanship of ScientificResearch (DSR), King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia,
under Grant No. (307/145/1432).
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflictof interest.
References
Abdelrahman SM (1997) Seasonal fluctuations of mean sea level at
Jizan, Red Sea. J Coast Res 13(4):1166–1172
Abdelrahman SM, Ahmad F (1995) Red Sea surface heat fluxes and
advective heat transport through Bab El-Mandab. J King Abdu-
laziz Univ Mar Sci 6:3–13
Abou Al-Heija MK, Shehata WM (1989) Engineering geological
aspects of Al-Lith sabkha, Saudi Arabia. In: 28th International
Geology Congress, Washington, vol 1, p 1–6
Al-Ahmadi ME (2013) Groundwater quality assessment in Wadi
Fayd, Western Saudi Arabia. Arab J Geosci 6:247–258
Al-Amoudi OSB, Abduljauwad SN (1994) Suggested modifications
to ASTM standard methods when testing arid, saline soils.
Geotech Test J 17(2):243–253
Al-Amoudi OSB, Asi MI, El-Naggar ZR (1995) Stabilization of an
arid, saline sabkha soil using additives. Quater J Eng Geol
28:369–379
Al-Dakheel YY, Hussein AHA, El Mahmoudi AS, Massoud MA
(2009) Soil, water chemistry and sedimentological studies of Al
Asfar evaporation lake and its inland sabkha, Al Hassa area,
Saudi Arabia. Asian J Earth Sci 2:1–21
Al-Harbi O, Hussain G, Khan MM (2008) Hydrogeochemical
processes and isotopic characteristics of inland sabkha, Saudi
Arabia. Asian J Earth Sci 1(1):16–30
Al-Mhaidib AI (2002) Sabkha soil in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia:
characteristics and treatment. J King Abdulaziz Univ Eng Sci
14(2):51 (in Arabic)Alsaaran NA (2008) Origin and geochemical reaction paths of sabkha
brines: Sabkha Jayb Uwayyid, eastern Saudi Arabia. Arab J
Geosci 1:63–74
Al-Shaibani A (2013) Economic potential of brines of Sabkha Jayb
Uwayyid, Eastern Saudi Arabia. Arab J Geosci 6:2607–2618
Al-Shamrani MA, Dhowian AW (1995) Rheological behavior of
Jazan sabkhas. Proceedings, Fourth Saudi Engineering Confer-
ence, King Abdulaziz Univ, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 2: 385–392
Al-Shamrani MA, Dhowian AW (1997) Preloading for reduction of
compressibility characteristics of sabkha soil profiles. Eng Geol
48(1–2):19–41
Al-Subhi AM (2012) Estimation of evaporation rates in the southern
Red Sea based on the AVHRR sea surface temperature data.
J King Abdulaziz Univ Mar Sci 23(1):77–89
Bąbel M, Schreiber BC (2014) Geochemistry of evaporites and
evolution of seawater, In: Holland H, Turekian K (eds)
Sediments, diagenesis and sedimentary rocks, vol. 9, Treatise
on geochemistry, 2nd edn. pp 483–560
Badr NBE, El-Fiky AA, Mostafa AR, Al-Mur BA (2009) Metal
pollution records in core sediments of some Red Sea coastal
areas, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Environ Monit Assess
155:509–526
Bagheri R, Nadri A, Raeisi E, Kazemi GA, Eggenkamp HGM,
Montaseri A (2014) Origin of brine in the Kangan gasfield:
105 Page 16 of 17 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105
123
isotopic and hydrogeochemical approaches. Environ Earth Sci
72:1055–1072
Bahafzullah AAK, Fayed LA, Kazi A, Al-Saify M (1993) Classifi-
cation and distribution of the Red Sea coastal sabkha near
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Carb Evapor 8:23–38
Banat KM, Howari FM, Kadi KA (2005) Water chemical character-
istics of the Red Sea coastal sabkhas and associate evaporite and
carbonate minerals. J Coast Res 21(5):1068–1081
BardsenA,BjorvatnK, SelvigKA (1996)Variability in fluoride content
of subsurface water reservoirs. Acta Odontol Scand 54:343–347
Basaham AS, Rifaat AE, El-Mamoney MH, El Sayed MA (2009) Re-
evaluation of the impact of sewage disposal on coastal sediments
of the southern Corniche, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. J King Abdu-
laziz Univ Mar Sci 20:109–126
Basyoni MH (1997) Sedimentological and hydrochemical character-
istics of Al-Lith sabkha, Saudi Arabia. J King Abdulaziz Univ
Earth Sci 9:75–86
Basyoni MH, Aref MAM (2015) Sediment characteristics and
microfacies analysis of Jizan supratidal sabkha, Red Sea coast,
Saudi Arabia. Arab J Geosci. doi:10.1007/s12517-015-1852-1
Basyoni MH, Mousa BM (2009) Sediment characteristics, brine
chemistry and evolution of Murayr Sabkha, Arabian (Persian)
Gulf, Saudi Arabia. Arab J Sci Eng 34(2A):95–123
Blank HR, Johnson PR, Gettings ME, Simmons GC (1986) Explana-
tory notes to the geological map of the Jizan Quadrangle, sheet
16F, Kindom of Saudi Arabia. Ministry of Petroleum and
Mineral Resources, Jeddah
Butler GP (1969) Modern evaporite deposition and geochemistry of
coexisting brines, the sabkha, Trucial Coast, Arabian Gulf.
J Sediment Petrol 39:70–81
Clesceri LS, Greenberg AE, Eaton AD (1998) Standard methods for
the examination of water and wastewater, 20th edn. American
Public Health Association, Washington
Deng S, Dong H, Lv G, Jiang H, Yu B, Bishop ME (2010) Microbial
dolomite precipitation using sulfate reducing and halophilic
bacteria: results from Qinghai Lake, Tibetan Plateau, NW China.
Chem Geol 278:151–159
Dhowian AW (1990) Compressibility characteristics of sabkha
complex. Arab J Sci Eng 15(1):47–63
Dhowian AW, Erol AO, Sultan S (1987) Settlement prediction in
complex sabkha soil profiles. Bull Eng Geol Env 36:11–27
Drever JI (1998) The geochemistry of natural waters: surface and
groundwater environments. Prentice-Hall, Upper SaddleRiver, p 436
Elsebaie IH, Aguib ASH, Al Garni D (2013) The role of remote sensing
and GIS for locating suitable mangrove plantation sites along the
southern Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast. Inter J Geosci 4:471–479
Erol AO (1989) Engineering geological consideration in salt dome
region surrounded by sabkha sediments, Saudi Arabia. Eng Geol
26:215–232
Erol AO, Dhowian AW (1988) Foundation failures associated with
dissolution of a salt dome at Jazan, SW Saudi Arabia. Case history
25. http://www.iaeg.info/totalgeology/histories/case25.htm
Glunk C, Dupraz C, Braissant O, Gallagher KL, Verrecchia EP,
Visscher PT (2011) Microbially mediated carbonate precipita-
tion in a hypersaline lake, Big Pond (Eleuthera, Bahamas).
Sediment 58:720–738
Gopal R, Gosh PK (1985) Fluoride in drinking water-its effects and
removal. Defence Lab, Jodhpur 35(1): 71–88
Goudie AS, Wells GL (1995) The nature, distribution and formation
of pans in arid zones. Earth Sci Rev 38:1–69
Herczeg AL, Dogramaci SS, Leaney FW (2001) Origin of dissolved
salts in a large, semi-arid groundwater system: Murray Basin.
Mar Freshw Res 52:41–52
Hsü KJ, Schneider J (1973) Progress report on dolomitization—
hydrology of Abu Dhabi sabkhas, Arabian Gulf. In: Purser BH
(ed) The Persian Gulf. Springer, New York, p 471
Hsü KJ, Siegenthaler C (1969) Preliminary experiments on hydrody-
namic movement induced by evaporation and their bearing on
the dolomite problem. Sediment 12:11–25
HusseinMT, Loni OA (2011)Major ionic composition of Jizan thermal
springs, Saudi Arabia. J Emerg Trends EngAppl Sci 2(1):190–196
Kinsman DJJ (1969) Modes of formation, sedimentary associations,
and diagnostic features of shallow-water and supratidal evapor-
ites. Amer Assoc Petrol Geol Bull 53:830–840
McKenzie JA, Hsü KJ, Schneider JF (1980) Movement of subsurface
waters under the sabkha, Abu Dhabi, UAE, and its relation to
evaporative dolomite genesis. Soc Econ Paleont Miner Spec Publ
28:11–30
Patterson RJ, Kinsman DJ (1977) Marine and continental groundwater
sources in a Persian Gulf coastal sabkha. Stud Geol 4:381–397
Patterson RJ, Kinsman DJ (1981) Hydrologic framework of a sabkha
along Arabian Gulf. Amer Assoc Petrol Geol Bull 65:1457–1475
Powers RW, Remirez LF, Redmond CD, Elberg EL (1966) Geology
of the Arabian Peninsula: sedimentary geology of Saudi Arabia.
US Geological Survey Professional Paper 560D, p 150
Radke LC, Howard KWF, Gell PA (2002) Chemical diversity in
south-eastern Australian lakes I: geochemical causes. Mar
Freshw Res 53:941–959
Rajmohan N, Elango L (2005) Nutrient chemistry of groundwater in an
intensively irrigated region of southern India. J Environ Geol
47:820–830
Serhan TN, Sabtan AS (1999) Geotechnical and geochemical
properties of Al-Nekhaila sabkha, south of Jeddah. J King
Abdulaziz Univ Earth Sci 11:161–176
Shabel IM (2007) Stabilization of Jizan sabkha soil using cement and
cement kiln dust. M. Sc. thesis. King Saud Univ, College Eng
Shaw PA, Thomas DS (1997) Pans, playas and salt lakes. In: Thomas
D (ed) Arid zone geomorphology: process, form and change in
dry lands. Wiley, New York
Shehata WM, Al-Saafin AK, Harari ZY, Bader T (1990) Potential
sabkha hazards in Saudi Arabia, 6th international congress
international association of engineering Geology 3, 2003–2010
Spadafora A, Perri E, Mckenzie J, Vasconcelos C (2010) Microbial
biomineralization processes forming modern Ca:Mg carbonate
stromatolites. Sediment 57:27–40
Stumm W, Morgan JJ (1996) Aquatic chemistry: chemical equilibria
and rates in natural waters. Wiley, New York
Taj R, Aref MAM (2015) Hydrochemistry, evolution and origin of
brines in supratidal saline pans, south Jeddah, Red Sea Coast,
Saudi Arabia. Arab J Geosci. doi:10.1007/s12517-015-1799-2
Turki AJ (2007) Metal speciation (Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) in sediments
from Al Shabab Lagoon, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. J King Abdu-
laziz Univ Mar Sci 18:191–210
Tyler SW, Munoz JF, Wood WW (2006) Response playa and sabkha
hydraulics mineralogy to climate forcing. GroundWater 44:329–338
Wenzel WW, Blum WEH (1992) Fluoride speciation and mobility in
fluoride contaminated soil and minerals. J Soil Sci 153:357–364
WoodWW,SanfordWE (2002)Hydrogeology and solute chemistry of the
coastal-sabkha aquifer in the Emirate ofAbuDhabi. In: BarthH, Boer
B (eds) Sabkhaecosystem, v. 1—the sabkhasof theArabianPeninsula
and adjacent countries. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, p 354
Wood WW, Sanford WE, Frape SK (2005) Chemical openness and
potential for misinterpretation of the solute environment of
coastal sabkhas. Chem Geol 215:361–372
Yechieli Y,WoodW (2002) Hydrogeologic processes in saline systems:
playas, sabkhas, and saline lakes. Earth Sci Rev 58:343–365
Youssef AM, Maerz NH (2013) Overview of some geological hazards
in the Saudi Arabia. Environ Earth Sci 70:3115–3130
Youssef AM, Pradhan B, Sabtan AA, El-Harbi HM (2012) Coupling
of remote sensing data aided with field investigations for
geological hazards assessment in Jazan area, Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia. Environ Earth Sci 65(1):119–130
Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105 Page 17 of 17 105
123
Recommended