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WO UUF s uJ c qJA w 5* wOUMGdNJ nOD s dOG e wzd* uC bF
Radio wavesdOBI WKuD ud u MicrowavendJO* u Infrared RaysdL( X% WF_
visibleWOzd* WF_ Ultra violetWOHM u WF_
X-raysWOMO WF_
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Gamma RayUU WF Cosmic raysWOuJ WF_
1 1 - 10-3 10-3- 7x10-7 7x10-7 - 4x10-7 4x10-7 - 10-8 10-8 - 10-12 10-12 - ...
d*U Wu* u
r Wu*uMce'UdOJUOO_dJ WUMWF Wu*UUWOMOWOHM uWOzd*dL( X%ndJOud
wOUMGdNJ nOD UuJ qJ
p Wu* u d w UNMO ULO nK Wd fHM dH w dAM WIU Uu* qWO WF V
Ud Wu* u uC Wd
c = f x
YO
WOU d uC Wd cedONU Wu* d f
d*U Wu* u U Ud dOBI Wu*U UNU Ud s q l UOJ VUM Wu* u WF s k
WOOUMGdNJ UUF qJA `{u q UNU qOK Ud WKuD Wu* d UNU
UU WFWOMO WF_WF_WOHM uWOzd* WF_WF_dL( X%UundJOUuud
dOBI Wu*WKuD Wu*U UdqOK Udd UNUq UNU
WUD dU Wu* u jd w WF qJA
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WOzd* WF_
duU wu uD wHMuCU b UeO9 WdA 5F lOD w UUF wqJA w UL (4.28 1014 Hz)duU wu uD dL_ uCU wNM(7.51014 Hz)
w??????H??M??w???????K???????O???????
d???????C???????d?????????H?????????w???U???I???d???d?????????L?????????
400 nm
700 nm
wzd* nOD u qJA
d WU WdA 5F bd_ s UMNM& ULK nOD u_
WU vK uJ qb v dC_ uK bM WdA 5FK`{u dOuU wu* uDWU bI 5 WF qJA
Wu* u 5F
dOuU Wu* u
WU
Wu* u WdA 5F WU 5 WF qJA
WU; UuLK WMU U
u WF_ UL WOzd* WF_ b*WF_ wUF d WOHMq_ d dL( X%
L d UN dL( X% WF_U ULN% tUDU sJ ULN lOD U SqLF YO WOKOK Wd eN vL WOzd WF v dL( X% WF_ qu% q qLF dOU UM budH UN dF S WOHM u WF WMU U U_ s lA w dL( X% WF_ l vK
bK' Ud V b bK' w Ud V WKu
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u??C U??O
uC UO w Wb* bu UOLJ iF wQ ULO
BrightnessuK W uD
Lux
fuK bu UI U{
Lumen suK bu UI uC ob Candela WFLAU UI U{ b
u* U w uCK wzUdNJ d_
u* U w uC dR nO sJ uC WFO s WIUdIH w UMLKJ5O 5dUE b w WKu* W u* vK uC dOH sLJ
(Photoelectric Effect)WOzu{dNJ dUE d e ] 5 w U* d UuuH s e SWOzu{ We( WKu t U idF bMYO uM s bF_ RUJ b w UdJ WU bU U* UdJ l bDBh1 uS WOU uuH s WBL* WUD XU S vK WU u v iHM WU u s dJ qIMpc holeu WuIM WOLU WD UU tUJ d d `B b s XKH dJ c
U U0 dJuWMA U s U uJO WKu* t U* w uu UB SU wMF WOzu{dNJ dUEU e WKu* t U* WOKu S jU uC WU l e WMAuCK UN{dF WO WKu* W u* WOKu
(Photovoltaic Effect)wzu{ dNJ dOQ dU U s WK dF s Yb( r dUE c wk YO uCK (p-n)Vu rOFD U VU rOFDUNd vK WOzUdN WF u bu uCK WKu dF ULKFu UOzUdN UO S d_ c 5 wzUdN qL q
VU WK uK dHM p `O{u dUOzUM b w pF d U vK ULU Vu
WOzu{dNJ dUE
P N
V
wJ UO WU wP-NWK qJA
dF e eM WIDM d S qJA w UL wJ UO WU w WKu XU
WMA U dF YOd( W qFH 5dD w bu* WOK WMA U WKu
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U dF 5 w VU rOFD U* U&U UdJ Vu* rOFD U* w WOK_"UM UO dF Vu* rOFD U* U&U uH VU rOFD U* w WOK_ WMA
(Dark current)E UO Wd( c suC Uuu bDB UbMWUD S Vu VU WdAH V UuuH c s WBL*bu RUJ b UdJ iFuH UdJ s Uwze s q w (Electron hole pair)WMA U b e WdA
.
bF fHM WOK_ Wd_UO S wJ UO WU w WKu uJ WOK_ UM vK d Ue W uJ pcWKu d vK bu WOzUdN WF u S WuH w WKu XU e wJF d
qJA w UL
uC WF
wbF f
rOFD WU U
rOFD Wu U
P-NWK vK uC uI d qJA
UNM UCF UMM w WOzuC WOdJ dUMF s bbF UM - 5dUE 5U vK ULUwQ ULO
(Photo Resistor)
WOzuC WUI* UNLO VUM UND vK WDU U{ bA UF UNLO b WUI w WOzuC WUI*vK ULU p dOH sJ1 uCK UN{dF bM UNLO hUM YO U{ b l UOJUUM
WOzu{dNJ dUEUe dF qJA vKD uCK WU WKu W U s WOzuC WUI* lMBWOzuC WUI* VOdU* Ud qB uC d0 `L UH G nKG WU bU vK uCK dF* WUI* `D
.qJA w UL WOzuC WUILK WOU) qOu d JA 5ObF 5 WKu* t
qOu d
uCK WU U
WU bU
WOzuC WUI* e ?qJA WOzu{ WUI qJA WOzu{ WUI* lDI qJA
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WOK)U WHK UOL0 WOKLF UIOD w dF qJA w 5* edU WOzuC WUILK eduC vK bLF* WUI* (Photo Conductor) wzuC qu* (Photo Electric Cell) WOzu{dNJ
UuO d dO_ bF(Light Dependent Resistor 'LDR')WUI* UNM lMB w U* vK UNOU bLF WHK* uC Uu* WU WOzuC WUI*c CdS uOUJ bOd U s WuMB* pK b Ud WOzuC UUI* dN s WOzuCuK q WOzuC UUI* WUMB qLF d u UM WOzd* WF_ b w WUF WUI*
ULdO Ud bOd UduCU U UL sd w UFOL dA UIOD s dO w WOzuC UUI* qLF
dc UIOD c s EU UO uA U w rJ tb uC u vK bLF* rJ WLE
od uu c tb uC u vK bLF* c WLE
Vu qOGA d YO s WUF WUI*U qUF WOzuC WUI* Q dOc UMuH dOUD_ YO s pc bI UuB UNUd
uC bU wzUdN qL qOGA rJ% 5 qJA U
WOzuC WUI* bU d qOGA w rJ qJA
b qL
WUI* WLO ]S WOU U{ b uJ UbMF b qOGA w rJK wU_ qUF uC bFuJ* WOuH e s ued bU vK wzUdNJ bN' WLO b% YO WCHM uJ WOzuC
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WLOI WCHM WU( c w WOzuC WUI* uJ WOzuC WUI* WLO WU WUI* dOG* WUI* sqLF qB WU w vI c uedK UO dOu U dO WLOI iHM uJ UNOK bN' S
qd*U qB* qL(wzUdNJ bN' WLO b% WOU uJ WOzuC WUI* WLO S WCHM U{ b uJ UbM U
WOzuC WUI* WLO WU WUI* dOG* WUI* s uJ* WOuH e s ued bU vKuedK UO dOu UOU UOU uJ UNOK bN' U WLOI WOU WU( c w WOzuC WUI* uJt qB* qL( qLF pc tU l{ s dOGO qd* nK w UO dLO q WU v u c
R???????????????
s q WHO b
dOG* WUI* (R1)WU WUI* qd* l uu* wzUM
R???????????????
qLF b qL fJ sJ1 nO uC UDI bM qLF qL( oU U* w UME
uC u bM(Photo Diode)wzuC wzUM
wzuC wzUdNJ dOQ dU vK wzUM qLF WOzuC dUMF b wzuC wzUM bFWU w uu* wzUM w U* wJF d UO U vK uC qLF (Photovoltaic Effect)bM WUI hUM U Ud sJ WOU WUI t wJ UO WU w uu* wzUMU wJ UO
tOK WDU U{ b l Ud wJF d UO VUM uC uIWOdJ b w wJ UO WU w tK r wzu{ fL wzuC wzUM s UH
WUM rOC l wzuC wzUM qu wJF d UO WLO dGB dEtA E w UF wzUM qL wzuC wzUM qLFqOGA b UD_ YO s UF wzUM wzuC wzUM
b w t ed hH d wJF qOGA bN bIUqJA w UL edU WOdJ
wzuC wzUM e qJA
u wzuC wzUM eO1 U sJ WOzuC WUI* UNO b w pK UIOD wzuC wzUMK
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uCU WIKF* WIOb UUOIK UUM tKF U2 wD qJA uJ uCK WU
WOzuC ued ?
WbI
tA wzuC uedK lzUA uM uCK WU ued w WOzuC ueduCK U `D b c bUI d b sJ WODI wzUM ued
YO WOzuC WOuH dUE vK bLF t UF ued qL wzuC ued qL tAuCK U( `D vK U{ b l VUM uCU bu bUI UO
UO d1 lD WU w `B E w wzuC ued l{ bM
dOG bU UO d1 uCK U( `D dF bM YU lL* 5ued UC bu UL YU lL* 5 d1 dO UO p s ZMc Wu bN bOu w wzuC dOQ b w WOzuC U* dOQ
(Source)lM* (Drain)dB* UO rJwzuC ued qJA
wzuC ued qL WO
UOzu{ ued qJA 5bN bB l uu WODI wzUM 5dUIU Ud UL YU lL* tOd vKu WODI wzUM ued qL tKL tAbM dO PbUI WI UF NPNl uC Uuu bDB uCK UN{dFU WOU WU UNJ P U* UdJ
lL* WIDM v qB eM WIDM eUc& U Ud Wu Uu UNUJ d NqJA pc WO NYU UdJ UNO
YU v lL* s d1 wzUdN UO
WOzu{ WFu
UdJ
UdJ dO U&tKL WO 5dD wzuC ued e qJA
WOzuC ued u
d W WOzuC ued
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UO vK uBK U bUI w UO bOu vK U dO 5dD WOzuC ued U0XO b c bUI d WU{S d W ued UMN VUM YU lL
qJA uCK tOU w rJ s sJ1 YO ued UOUIOD w d W wzuC ued b sJ1b 5dD WOzuC ued s b jI 5d bU
bUI d bued e qJA
d W wzuC
WOzuC uM ued
WOU s UHO wzu{ ued l U ued qOu sJ1
qL tKL WO tA YO WOzuC WOU) v WU{U uM WKOusJ uCK tOU v WU{U WODI wzUM uM uedUNb bU qd ued c du UO dO WU se
qJA
lL*
YUued e qJA
WOzuC uM
WOzuC uedK WOMH UHu*
vMM qOGA UO bN bF UON bN WUF uedK UL WOzuC uedKUO V vK ued bU vK jU UF WU vK Ic lL* UO bLF UL hzUBd_ WO WOzuC ued w wU) bUI UO vK (Gain)
UO d1 U E WU wUO vL YU lL* 5 dOGsJ1 (dark Current Id) WLKEnA U w U dGB tULhzUB vMM w qJA 55 WF UMO wzuC ued
lL* UO jU UF b0 20 40 60 80
4.0
8.0
12.0
16.0
20.0
Supply voltage VCC
(V)
ICE
(mA)
WODI wzUM wzu{ ued hzUB) vMM qJA
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LASCRwzuC udU
dOG UHL qLF UOzu{ qFH udU u wzuC udUV UJ dd9 WU w vI tOK WOzu{ WC uI d0 tUqUJU WcG qBH tUD fJFM V tKL UI tM uC
qJ
bFB
Wu jNwzuC udU e qJA wzuC udU qL WO
qJ WUJ qJA wbM wzuC udU VOd wO{uPNWKu w PVU' vK uC uIs UNMJ9 WU VJ UdJ S
U UO buO NuM v uu eHIw vI qOGA WU v udU qIM.uC bB UDI bF v WU( c
bFB
Wu
jN
bFB
Wu
jN
uCK WU WIDM
wzuC udU VOd qJA
(Solar cells)WOLA U)
dU vK WOLA WOK) qLFPhotovoltaic wzuC wzUdNJ dOQvK WOzUdN WF u bu YO EffectuCK UN{dF bM P-N WK dw wzuC wzUM WOzuC WOK) tAUND WU w tM nK VOdvK dOJ `D qLF YO dOJ dWOU d b d WOLA WOK) qF
qJA dE uCK
UdJ UO
uH UO
UuuwzUdN qL
NWI
PWIWKu
WOL WOK w lDI qJA
qu UH l q s p bb duD qd0 WOLA WOK) d bIw uJKO WOK v mK uOMOK WOK) v_ qd* w XU w tO
WUG qu UH UNO qB
e qJAWOzuC WOK)
q UNK_ XFM w UIOD ULN sd w WOLA U) WOL hKnUN eN UU WU( WOUMB UL_U WOzUdNJ WUDU eN' be
b* WUDK bBL ULNOU qJA w UL WOzUM oUM* w U eN
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bN wDF WOLAWOK)U UUO WOK) bN UL b WOLA WOKKWOK) `D WU vK UO WLO bLF 5 w Uu 5 U UOzUdNq r 5uKD* UO bN' vK uBK UND q WDU U{ bqu d bN vK uBK wu vK qu UUD w UL UU9 U)wzUM qL E w WOLA WOK) qLF d UO vK uBK u vK
qJA w UL WOdJ b w UN ed UFU b qJA
WOLA WUDU qLF
dFA fL bNK bBL WOd b v WOLA U) b.WOLA WUDU qLF UEM wbMB jD* qJA 5 uCK
bN UL b WOLA WOKK
WIdD U) q r UUO WOK)5uKD* UO bN' vK uB( sLCwu vK qu UUD w UL UU9vK qu b bN vK uBK
b UO vK uBK u
UM* UOU qLF qL
ACUM* UOU WcGDCdU* UOU WcG
UUD
WOL U u
DC - ACb fUsU
UO WU
WOzUdN WU v WOLA WUD qu% vK qLF UEM jD qJA
(Optocouplers)wzuC jd
dG uC bU iF ULNCF 5 u dBM UL wzuC eF wzuC jd b sJ1 YO WOzUdNJ d* u; qL dO b v p tA wzUdNJ eF WUL( UNO ud dO dOG b qOGA WOu w 5HK d qLF rJK
wzUdN qK s rJ w UF{u wzu{ fL wzu{ ued uCK bBL LEDwzu{ u U b
wzuC ued qOGA v wzuC ub qOGA R YO rFu% w wzUdNJ eF w oKG* jd b YO wzuC jd u iF qJA 5nAJ fL U lODI eU( UH l jd b UL WOzUdNJ FH* w u*
Wd( nA Wd* dUM w UJF b UL `OUHL e U_uB( s sJ9 wzuC uedU wzuC wzUM Z UNO - WKUJ dzb b c du
qJA w UL Xu s d v qB b wzUdN e vK
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1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
fbB
oKG wzu{ e
fbB
UH l wzu{ ef
bB
wUJF
VKr
WKUJ* wzuC eF UJ iF qJA wzuC eF u iF qJA
wzuC jd eO s
dUF UOuH s WUL( ZOC u iOH
WdA dO WO{ UIM 5 jd
WOzuC UOdJ vK UIOD
wzuC qOFH
p vK UL uC b dOG od s U qOFH WOKL w wzuC ued bRelayl qB ued bUI UO rJO wzuC ued b - U U* qJA w
(Dark Activated)E WU w qOGA qOGAK 5U vK qB wzuC ued lu U qJA w UL (Light Activated)U{ WU w qOGA qJA w UL
+VCC
+VCC
E WU w qOGA qJA WzU{ WU w qOGA qJA
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qOGA dU rJU wzuC ued b sJ1 ULqJA w UL pc wzu{ udU b sJ1 Relay
udU b qJARelay? rJU wzuC
UI
WOzu{ d* UI b wzuC ued b sJ1UU UNO b w RemotecontrolbF s rJ UIOD wUNO b qJA 5 Infra Red dL( X% WF_
ued rC l WOzu{ Wu nUJ wzu{ uedUOI
Wd UOIL wzu{ ued b WOHO qJA 5`L VI tO d b YO b b
b v VI d U* uC R q d d uC d0b b Wd dF b v b qB* wzuC uedwKJ b
+VCC
Vout
wzuC ued qJAUI w wLd bF v
Wd UOIL wzuC ued qJA
7 Segment DisplaysWOLd dF UU
eN_ iF pc UOI eN s bbF w wL dRL WOLd dF UU b
wzUM Q ULK b vK wzUM q WU{S rJ sJ1 uCK tU UOzUM WOUL s uJ WOzUdNJdF UU UM w Ub UuO d u dL_ uK wzUdN bN bB l UOzUM lOL qOu S tOK qJA w wQ UL WLd td UOzUMq1 uN (d. p)wzUMK WMU U 9v 0s U_ WOI WMU cJ WOUL rd dNEO Uu bI
WdAF WU)
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5IdD dF UU UM sJ1
(Common Anode Displays)dA* bFB* WKOu
(Anodes) bUB* lOL UUA c wbB* Wu* dD l Wuu UOzUMK
bN'
`zdA WOU dF b qOu qJ
`zdA WOU d b qJ
V WKOu c w wzUM WU{(a, b, c, d, e, f, g,wzUMU U) jN* qOuqJA w UL Xu dH UbI US d. p)
Vu* bN' bB0 WKOu c j bM (2v, 20 mA) bu* UHu Ud VqJA w UL jN* l WUI WU{ V tOK
cN d WU WUI* WLO uJ tOKq UUILK UU& bu* rOI s WLOI
470
(Common Cathode Displays)dA* jN* WKOu
l Wuu UOzUMK (Cathodes)jUN* lOL UUA c wbBLK dH U bN VU dD
U) bFB* qOu V WKOu c w wzUM WU{U 5F c_ l Vu* bN' bB0 (a,b,c,d,e,f,g,d.p)wzUMU
qJA w UL UOzUMK WUL( WUI
WUL( WUI qOu qJ`zdA d b l
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WOdJ U??L?C*
UNd US rJ s UMMJL w WOdJ _ t vK wdJ rCL dF sJLU U qbL U hzUB lOL rEF vK dL U u YO UNKb U od s
bI bN UO YO s u qbL U s d dL U uJ
rCqbL U dL U
bI ULKJ UNb dOJ v U UMS wzu od s WOJK U U LWOJK U UNFDI sJL w WUL
bI rC
wzuN
UOzu UNU dL U
qOFH vK U dO b dOG qL w dI s UB WOuB U b d ULuB UL wUU WUL qOFH s UNMJL Wb UNLOC eK c WUL
AMPLIFIER
SPEAKER
q???
GedU t ed rCL VJ tKb rCL d sO WM dF
b?????????????????????
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G
Pi
Vi
Ii
P0
V0
I0
pc P0bIL b dL U P
ibIL b qbL U XU qJA w
Gp= p
0
pi
rCLK bI V S
UO V S I0
bIL UO dL U IibIL UO qbL U XU
Gi=I0Ii
rCLK
bN V S V0 bIL bN dL U Vi bIL bN qbL U U
Gi
=V0
Vi rCLK U???
UbI WUL qOFH W U XU 0.5UNb qO s WUM U XU WUL qOGA rCL V V 5
q??????(
u bIK WMU rCL V S pc 5td U 0.5rCL qb U
Gp=
G0
Gi
=5
0.5= 10
Wued U??LC*UNL s UM b v ued rCLK nMB
(Class A ) A n??M r??C
UMU qbL U l UNKJ UNBzUB w dL U oUD ULCL s nMB c wwU qJA w UL qbL U U s d U dL U U uJ YO U
c _ rCL b WcGL bI v dL b sO WM UN vK rCL UH dFWKOK uJ tUH S Xu WKO qLF rCL
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UO WCHM UH rCL c UH U UMMJL pcUIOD w UU b ULCL s uM c _ WuI UNMJ
WO_ rOC qd w UHJU rN w
(Class AB) ABn???M r???C
qbL U s s 51% - 99%s tb UL rCL c qLFUL qJA w UL
bF r UN XuA b dL U qJA s kc dL U s e qbL U qJA w tNUA
c lDI WU w ued u s Z uAK dFdHVCC
IN
R1
R2
VEE
Q1
OUT
ABnM rC
Vcc
IN
R1
R2
VEE
Q1
OUT
AnM rC
nM ULC s qC UNUH QABnM UC ULuB ULC w b U uA UNMJ A
(Class B) Bn??M r???C
qbL U s s 50%bL ULCL s uM c qLFqbL U VuL VU sOze b dL tS pc
WDO BnM rC `{u U qJA`L s lAL bUI vIK UO k qJA se S pc Wu qbL U ULU UO dL uedKdOOG l rCL d vK dNE qbL U s jI VU
tUA nM UH nF{ UF UNUH Q ULCL c ULU w UIOD w uM c b U s nB qLF
UO WOU UHJ qbL U nB rOC v
VCC
IN
R1
R2
VEE
Q1
OUT
VBB
BnM rC
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(Class C) CnM rC
U s s 50 s q WOM bL UMUL s uM c qLFs q UO dL `L YO UL qJA w UL qbL
w qbL U d e UO c lD r ULMO nBN r pc lDI b s q w ued qLF WU cUbM lDI b v ued c UB w qbL U s e
qOuU ued b
+VCC
C2
C L
Tr
R
qbL
dL
CnM rC
rEF lD WU w vI t_ WOUF UHJU ued c ULU uA qUIL w sJ WUD N w du wUU XuUI w bU sO l rCL c qu b dO qJA
U eN w WOzUNM qdL w b udL db rCL Wud
U??OKLF ULC
XU UOMOF_ w WOU WOLUF d Operational Amplifiers UOKLF UC dNWUM w Xb YO qUJ q{UH dD lL q WOU UOKLFU UOI w UNHOb UOKLF ULC dF UOKLF ULCL XOL cN Xu p w uuL VOu
741 WOdJ WUd UOKLF ULC u dN s WKUJL dzb u dNw qJAU UL UOKLF rCL ed
WU WcG
WuL WcG
d
fU qb
fU dO qb
+VCC
-VCC
V0
UOKLF rC
t pc fU dO qb fU qb sOKb UOKLF rCL S qJAU `{ u ULULb sdL bN bBL tcG s b UOKLF rC qLF wJ WcGK b d
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qu -15V 15V? tcG sJL L VccedU t ed VU d +VccedU t ed VuU qJA w UL sdL bN bB sOUD
WcGv
WU
WcG
v
WuL
15 -15
-+ -+
WUD15
Xu
WUD15
Xu
741U UOKLF rC* Typical WOKLF hzUB)
be b d 200.000 v qB b WOU bN dOJ W dO fUF qbL v WKb UO WLO dI YO 2Ms be b dO qbL WFUL
dHB v fUF
75UdI U b dOG dL WFUL UdI 2V? UNM qI UU VCC VCCv qB sJL dL bN
UOKLF rC* Ideal WOU* hzUB)
WUN U U dOJ W t
fUF dO fUF sOKbL w UO S pc
WUN U U b dO qbL WFUL dH UdH U dL WFUL
VCCs qI VCCs be sJL dL bN Vp = Vn fUF dO qbL bN U fUF qbL bN
wU qJA w UL WcG d v U UOKLF rCL ed sJL
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Vn
Vp
V0
WcG d b UOKLF rC
(Comparator)U?????I*
s bNU WLOI dF dO d bN WLOI dF bN WUIL UIL UOKLF rC bdFL bN WLO XU d sbN sO U U sOKbL s sbN WUI u UIL
UOU UUI vL UIL S dH U WLOI Ideal Comparator wU??* U??I*
WcG WLO s qI +VCCWuL WcG WLO s be sJL dL WLO S UIU Ud UL200.000uJ UF w b WOU UOKLF rC dOJ qUF WLOVCCWU
fUF qbL bM bN fUF dO qbL bM bN dOJ W dL bM bN
Vp
- Vn
=V0
GOLVO= GOL( Vp- Vn)
U W s d v rCL w qB V0 wIOI UOKLF rC hzUB sWcG bN WLO s q U tLO uJ c VsatU bN UbM dL bN vL (Saturation)
2VUI ULWU c w dOJ W WLO V0WLO iuF
V
p- V
nGOL
-Vsat
GOL
+Vsat
Vp- V
n200,000-13
200,000
13
(Vp- V
n)-65 v +65 v
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VuL U WIDM
VU U WIDM
(Vp- V
n)
-65 v+65 v
V
-Vsat
(~13V)
+Vsat
(~13V)
WOD WIDML
wIOI UOKLF rCL hzUB vMM
WUN U U dOJ W S wUL rCL WU w
Vp- V
nGOL
-Vsat
GOL
+Vsat
GOL= sJ
Vp- V
n-Vsat
+VsatV
p- V
n= 0V
p= V
n hzUB vMM qOL sJL t ZM wUL UOKLF rC hzUB b qL Vp= VnWUFL
wU qJA w UL wUL UILK
-Vsat
+Vsat
V0
(Vp- Vn)
wUL UILK hzUB vMM
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dL U `B Vn fUF qbL bN s d Vp fUF dO qbL bN U pcVsatUbI tu
WU dL U `BVn
fUF qbL bN s dGVp
fUF dO qbL bN U VsatUbI
U???
WOO U qbL U XU dL U r w qJA w
Vn
V0+
-
Vp
V0
T2
TT
q??????(
dO qbL vK bN WLO `B pc Wu bN WLO uJ t2
T0 sO U dH w
UbI Wu dL vK WUM U uJ pc fUF qbL vK bN WLO s d fUF+Vsat
qbL vK bN WLO s d B pc WU bN WLO uJ t 0uJ UbM t sLC +13v
w dL WLO uJ wJ Vd= Vi- 2S Vs= 2vU wVd> 0Vi - 2 > 0Vi> 2v +Vsat
dL WLO `B wJ Vd= Vi- 2S Vs= 2vWLO dHM V0= -VsatS Vd< 0uJ UbM Vd< 0Vi - 2 < 0Vi < 2
uJ V-Vsat
? WUV0< +Vsat UbM Vi> 2v V0< -Vsat UbM Vi< 2v
wU dO UIL UOKLF rC bU 2VbI XU bN bBL WOO U WUI `{u qJA
dL bN qbL bN
Vsat
+Vsat
t (s)
(V)
2v
XU bN bBL WOO U WUI
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INVERTING AMPLIFIER fUF rC*gain rOC qUFL rJ r UOKLF rCL WdFL Ub b u fUF rCL
WFd WOJF WcGU vL U w rCLK fUF qbL dL sO WUI q od sU UHU uJ WLCL U bN _ fUF rCLU wL (negative Speedball)WU
UNLOC dL
Vn
VinVp
RiIi
Ip
In
Rf If
Vout
fUF rCL
WcG sOQ r 0vv fUF dO qbL qu YO fU rCL WOU_ b qJA sOUL fUF qbL v dL bN s UMOF e bOF w (Rf)WFd WcG WUI od s WF
wQ U wKOGA wUL rCL hzUB s S UIU UdfUF dO fUF sOKbL w UL WOzUdNJ UO S pc b WOU qbL WFUL
dH U wUL rCL WU w WU sOKbL vK bN WLO
(Ri) WUI* w U* UO
Ii= RiVi- VnIi= Ri
Vi
(If) WOJF WcG UO
If= RfV0- Vn
(Vp= 0)fUF dO qbL bN Vn= 0 (Vn= Vp= 0)fUF dO qbL bN U fUF qbL bN UL
If= RfV0
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Ii= Ip- If UO lu WdE u Ip= 0Ip= - If sJ
=Rf
-V0Ri
Vi=Ri
-RfVi
V0
GiedU t ed fUF rCLK gain dOJ qUF w ViV0 WUFL s
=Ri
-RfGi
U???
UbN U fJ l UF{ dA bIL WOO U dOJ W WOJF WcG WUI V
U qJA w UL rCL bUq?????(=
Ri
-RfVi
V0=Gi WIU UFL V
=Ri
-Rf=Gi -10 -10 =25
-Rf-10 = -250 k-Rf = 250 kRf
qJA w UL b `B pc
V0
Vin
Rf= 250 k
Ri= 25 k
Ri? WUI WOU uJ RfWLO S wU dOJ qUF vK uBK t UL s k
(Non Inverting Amplifier)fUF dO rC*u UL fUF dO rCL b qbL U qUL bN WLC U vK uBKqL U qJA sOKUL dL qbL UU uJ qbL U fJF tS r s `{
uM c qOu WId
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Vi
Rf
Ri
RL
IfIi
fUF dO rCL
dO qbL vKVi
qbL bN oOD r fU dO UOKL rCL WOU_ b qJA sOqbL bN U UNUA dL bN uJ pc UOKLF rCL fUFfUF dO rCL dOJ qUF uJ
=Vi
V0Gn = +Ri
Rf1
U???
UbN vK WEUL l UF{ 5bIL WOO U dOJ WOdJ rLB UB wM qLF W WOdJ b rL 50k UNM q WLO UUI l wKOGA rC bU
pq?????(
=Gn +Ri
Rf1 dOJ qUF WUF bU
Gn= 5S R UODF s
= 5+Ri
Rf1Gn = 5 = 4RiRf 4Ri= Rf
WFd WcG WUIL WLO vK uBK u wu vK UUIL qOu sOu G lODsOKJA w UL Rf = 4RiqbL WLO UF{ WF U
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25 kvK uBK u vK sOUI qOu uI 50 K
50 K
= +
Ri
1
50
1
50
1=
Ri
1
50
22Ri= 50 Ri= 25
100 KvK uBK wu vK sOUI qOu uI 50 K 50 K
Rf= 50 + 50 = 100 K
U qJA w UL wzUNM qOu r pc
50 K
50 K
50 K 50 KRi
Rf
Vi
V0
qH_ w UL qJA UB r
Ri= 25 K
Rf= 100 K
V0
Vi
+Ri
Rf1Gn= +1001Gn= 25
Gn= 4 + 1 = 5 pc
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Voltage Follwer b??N' lUUNO r fUF dO rCL s WU WU u bN lU
dL q od s 100%WM WU WF WcG vK uB
WcG WUI WLO `B wUU fUF qbL l dUw qJA w UL dH U RfWOJF
Vi
Vp
Vn
V0
bN lU
+Ri
Rf1Gn= +01Gn= = 1Ri
WUN U UU sJL uu dO Rik=
Vi
V01Gn= V0= Vi
bB sO jdK U b bN lU wL pc qbL bN l U dL bN
b dOG td WFUL b WOU tKb WFUL _ p dOG WFUL qL l WOU WFUL WMJL WFUL d_ WU uJ YO wUL bN UO UN qbL tb sJL UL qO vKFU bO b vK guA r wJ
Adderl?????U??'rU w WFzUA WLNL Ub s w U lU fUF rCL b sJL
lU dJ `{u w qJA UB
Ri1
V0
Ri2
Ri3
Rf
Vi1
Vi2
Vi3
lUUdC fUF qbL vK WuuL UBL uLL UU UOKLF rC d bN kWO WUFLU p qOL sJL t U dOJ qUFL
Ri1
-RfVi1V0= +
Ri2
-RfVi2 +
Ri3
-RfVi3
V0= G1Vi1+ G2Vi2+ G3Vi3
Ri3
-RfG3=
Ri2
-RfG2=
Ri1
-RfG1= YO
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U???
U qJAK dL bN bI V
Vi1 = 10vV0
Vi1 = 0.5v
10 k
20 k
100 k
q??????(
S oU uUI bU
Ri1
-RfVi1V0= + Ri2
-RfVi2
10
-10010V0= +
20
-1000.5
-10.0 - 2.5V0= V0= -12.5 v
V0= G1Vi1+ G2Vi2WUFL b lOD
Subtractor U??????Dpc WFzUA Ub s u U lU fUF rCL b S UIU Ud ULUD dJ `{u w qJA UD u fUF rCLK WFzUA WdFL Ub s
R1V1
V0
V2 R2
R3
R4
U??D
UU uJO UOKLF rC d bN S WU UNK UUIL WLO XU qJA wV0= (V1 - V2)
udU UDK dL bN WLO `{u WO WUFL sOOKb sOU d qU
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U???
U qJA w V2WLO V
Ri= 100kV1= 15v
V0
V2
R2= 100k
R2= 100k
Ri= 100k
q??????(
WIU UD WUF bU U u qJAV0= (V1- V2)
10 = (15 V2)
10 = 15 - V2
V2= 5v
Differentiator q???{UH*qbL vK WuuL U vMML qO US uI YO WO{Ud q{UH WOKLF q{UHL uI
UL nJL qbL WUI bU sJ fUF rCL b WNUA w q{UHL fUFw qJA
V0
Vi
Rf
Ci
V0 = - Rfcidvidt
wQ UL V0q{UHL d WLO YOv_ WIAL vL WO{U WOKL w vMML qO qL dvi
dt YO
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U???
dL vK WUM U qJ r qJAU `{u u UL qb bBLK U
V0
Vi
Rf
Ci
Vi
tT2
T
q??????(
bI s dF XU r u q{UH ZU S sOF OL rOI j s U qb bB U OL
Vi
tT2
T
V0
Vi
Rf
Ci
T2
T
V0
qJA w UL WFd Wu v WKL tuL qu w q{UHL b sJL pc
dH wWU WLO uJ WUM U S pc Uu UU WKb U qO uJ T
2 V 0
WUWu WLO uJ WUM U S pc UU UU WKb U qO uJ T V > T
2
WUYO UIU UNd r w UOKLF rC UIOD s dOG fO q{UHL S UL s `{ u ULU qJ vK kU WO{U WOKL w UNK{UHL uI t_ WOKb U qJ dOG uI t
dL vK bb U ZM
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Integratorq????U??J*WO{Ud qUJ WOKLF qUJ rC uI
U vMML X WUL US uI YO
w qUJL fUF qbL vK WKbWUIL sU qb sJ q{UHL b WNUAUL qJA w u UL nJL
Vi V0
Ri
Cf
qUJL
wK UL V0qUJL d WLO uJ
Vi(t).dtV0 =-1
Ricf
U cN vML X WUL qL Vi(t)U qUJ w Vi(t).dt YO
U???
qUJ ZU qJ b qJAU `{u u UL qb bB U
V0
Vi Ri
Cf
T2
T
Vi
q??????(
j s U uJ qUJL d ZU S qJA w UL XU r s U qb bB U qJA w UL sOF OL rOI
Vi
V0Vi
Ri
Cf
T2
Tt
T2
T
WOJ WOKL w qUJ WOKL qJAU `{u u UL se l UOD e vMML X WUL _q{UHK
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bM VWUD bN v CluL sA YO SUHL oKG UbM cc b qJA wWO WdOQ WOzUdN WF u bu tu wOUMG U QAM LnKL luL dH SUHL `
WUF WOD WMA sAO hUML mdH UO wOUMGL UL QAM UIWOO Wu UuJ cc w UO dL WO_ WODIU nKL mdH c luL b r
w qJA w UL WKLC
WKLC WOO Wu VUML Xu w cc b WUD qOu r WKLC dO WKu Wu vK uBKOFF lDI wU sO qIM ued q wdJ UH pc b sJ Ub UHL oK ` r
WFd WcG bU UHL ` S rJ r YO Saturation
lAwK UL WUM WOO WuL d U sJL
f0 =1
2 LC
(Phase Shift Oscillator)WuD W cc
WOzuAF UdJ Wd s ZM c noise guA u s UNOK uB r WOzb WOuHWCHML WOuH c WOO d q vK UdI u WOuH c b w WbL UUIL wW w w Feed back net work WcGL b v qb dL vK dNE UNLOC rWuD W uJ cc d u b d bM WLO vK b c vK WOuH _ Wus dOF sJL dK WLOI c bM jI WO positive feedback network WuL WcG b
Af =A
1 - AWFU b w VJ bI
WuD W w VJ bI rCL w VJ bI A
UNu bM Ucc qOJA r wUU b s d A VJ bI uJ ccL qOGA bMr wUU b v qBO A VJ bIL pc qI rCL w VJ bI qI VUM b v
WOK Wu W vK uB r V WccK dA c oOI r wJ WU Uc vK uB
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Filters U?????????d*
lML ULMO Ud dLU WMOF d U `L WOdJ dz s U UdL ddL UU b UB rU w dO WOL UdLK dL s d d U
guA U UU uJ b w d_ U lM UN udL U
ddL V Ud* u r
Low pass filter iHML UDM d `d
high pass filter wUF UDM d `d band pass filter UDM d `d
UNOUF V UdL rOI sJLPassive FilterWKU UdL Active Filters WUFH UdL
rJ YO UHK UUO UHJ UUI s U WKU UdL uJ WKU UdL1s UdL c w VJ be UNO udL d UO w UHJL UUIL rO
passive low pass filteriHM* UDM dd9 `d
vK d WHK U WuL XK d u dL u WCHML d d `dWOUF d U dLL uN p w UL WCHML`d `dL c wL c b c d w dNE WCHML d d `d UM sJL iHML ddL
UL qJA w UL nJ WUI bU qU
Vin Vout
R
C
iHML UDM ddL `d
b?????????????????????
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W???UFH U??d*udL d dL `d vK uBK 1s t be qU `dL S d r UL
UOKLF rC b WU V U rC dL s UNO udL dOG d lML UNO
p w(Active low pass filter)UFH iHM* UDM d `d
bU UF WCHM d d `d UM sJL WU{S sJ qU WCML d d d
UL qJA w UL UOKLF rC bU V
Rf
Ri
R
Vi
C
V0
UFH iHML UDM ddL `d
fC= 12 RC
lDI d WUF uJ
1 +
RfRi U t
(Active High pass filter)UFH lHd* UDM d `d
UM sJL UOKLF rC bU V WU{SwK UL sJ WOUF d d `d
Rf
Ri
R
Vi
CV0
UFH WFHdL d ddL `d
fClDI d WUF uJ
1 + RfRi U t fC= 12 RC(Active Band pass filter)UFH UDM d `d
rN wu vK iHM UD d `dL u wU UD d `d s U `dL cd b iHML UDM d `d fC1_ lDI d b wUF d `d YO VOd
wQ UL `dL c uJ fC2wU lDI
Rf1Ri1
R1
Vi1C1
Rf2
Ri2
R2
V0
C2
UFH UDM d ddL `d
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b???????????????u
U???O???d??????J???W??????O??????L??????d??????
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b YO _ WIdD UNM dOF sJ1 UNMO1 vK lI w WUK WMUnF{ U WU qJ wUU b j vK UNKO9 sJ1 U _ s
164 163 162 161 160
U65536 4096 256 16 1
WdAF b_ q u u dAF UEM w UL s b r s dA U UEM uJ b qb FEDCBA d( w WU{U
ABCDEF
101112131415
WHK* b WLE w WdAF b_ qO9 WOHO 5 b wK ULO
dAF UEM w rdwzUM UEMwUL UEMdA U UEM
ABCDEF
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U????????????WOIDM* Uu bU wU d r
F = AB + C + D
q????????????????(
F
A
B
C
D
U????????????WOU dzbK VUM* d V
F
A
B
C
FA
B
CD
F
A
B
C
q????????????????(
F=A. (B + C) qJ F = AB + CD qJ
F = A +B + CB + A B C qJ
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K
J
Q
Q
CLK
Q
Q
CLK
D
UUDM l WU WC b qJA
tU vK UDM qb qb vK b c dOOG qIM WC UD r qb* c sWLO v vLE WLO s WKb WCM UNU WLO w dOG b UbM UDMK dOOG qFH tU WC
qJA w UL fJF UO
Wu* WU(1
0
WU WU(1
0
Wu* WU( b qJA WU WU( b qJA
v vLEF WLOI s dOOG b bM UDM VO bI s uM c w WU WU( bI tU vK dOOG b( UR WU WCM UOb WLOI
v UOb WLOI s dOOG b bM UDM VO bI s uM c w Wu* WU( bI tU vK dOOG b( UR WU WCM vLEF WLOI
b WU WU( b 5 eOOLK UUDM w WCM qb l b w ud q1 qJAWu* WU(
CLK CLK CLK
UDMK Wu* WU( b qb e qJA UDMK WU WU( b qb e qJA
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INb qb OUT0,OUT1,OUT2,OUT3 U l UN U* bF UO q1 qJA.4-Output Multiplexer r b c vDF A,BUO UD s UNKLF rJ r
U oDM* q9 WU UU U* bF UO w INqb* WcG UML t dcU db'
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uB b U* bF UO qJA
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WM UNbU w Y b FMUu Y UE duD r Uq s WOJd_ bL Uu w WMb w WKIML nuNK Wb qOGA r U w
bu WOK UE b XUAT&TWdbF dN U Bell LabsWd tdJ u bF uOK nU UE dN U w
WHK WLE biF q s duD Y s uM dA t XF{ bF GSMUE dN U
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l v rUF U lOL w WOL UA Ud UB WLE b s WU UB bFdBF UKD Vu uD XU WU UB WOuO UMUO w qIM* nUN WLE u
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ATM SDH ISDN q WLE_ s bbF dN YO bOu uD u fO cWOuO UMUO s e X dO qJA Xd WJ dA td uU( UJ uD UL
d_ bF WOUMB UL_ WOzUCH UD; b wueHK UI WLE dA UL
uOK) nUN r dG v w WKUJ* dzb uD GSMUNM WuOK) WLE_ UA bF
UdO WAP GPRS GPS SMSdOBI qzUd q Udu w Ub) UYU qO' CDMAONEqGSM D-AMPS AMPS WLE XK Wb WLE dN UL
WO{_ UD; s b WOUMB UL_ b U UNM q UuKF* u nK qI vK be* VKD
UIOuL ubOH UUO uB
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10-6nm
10-5nm
10-4nm
10-3nm
10-2nm
10-1nm
1 nm
10 nm
10 nm
100 nm
103nm
10 m
100 m
1000 m
10 mm10 cm
100 cm
10m
100 m
1000 m
10 km
100 km
1 Mm
10 Mm
100 Mm
1 A
1 m
1 mm
1 cm
1 m
1 km
Radio
Microwave
Far Infrared
Near Infrared
Visible Light
Ultraviolet
X-Rays
Gamma-Rays
Violet
Indigo
Blue
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red
UHF
VHF
HF
MF
LF
Audio
UVIS EUV - 55.8-118nm
UVIS FUV - 110-190nm
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
nm=nanometer, A=angstrom, m=micrometer, mm=millimeter,
cm=centimeter, m=meter, km=kilometer, Mm=Megameter
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(Modulation)5LC uNH
WUM uJ WOuB UU WHKL UuKFL UB s WUM U rEF WuLL UU vL UuKFL qL w U c qOL uI pc qUM ju d qIMK(Carrier)WKU UU vL WHKL qIM jzU d qIMK WUM u d U vK
(Modulation)sOLCU WOKLF c dFUF WKU U u dOOG UNDu r w WOKLF pK t vK sOLC ndF lOD pc
sLCL b dF WOdJ bU WOKLF c r WuLL U dOG
sLCL
WKU U
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WLEM U d U UNQ WKU U ULdz bU U c bOu r U UU WOO UU
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se
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wQ UL UO{U U c qOL sJL
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WKU WuL u w WKU WuL d w fc WKU WuL U uAc YOWO sOLC u b vK qB hzUB c b qbF s
dOG UF WKU WuL U dOOG s U u (AM "Amplitude Modulation") U sOLC U sOLC U vb bb U ZM UuKFL U WuLL U
dOG UF WKU WuL d dOOG s U u (FM Frequency Modulation) d sOLC d sOLC U vb bb U ZM UuKFL U WuLL U
U dOG UF WKU WuL u dOOG s U u (PM "Phase Modulation" )uD sOLC
uD sOLC U vb bb U ZM UuKFL U WuLL
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dOJ WKU U sOLC nA w b w U sOLC nA dz b qL U qJA. (Large Carrier Amplitude Modulation Detector)dOJ WKU U sOLC nUJ b c dF
WUI wzUM s uJ b S k u ULU s WuL e_ ddL uI wzUMU lu
U WU e_ d lML sO w UNHA dLmdH sA b UuI ULNS luL WUILX Ue p UO WOU WUIL WLO uJ Ud bN vK uBK p luL WM mdHqLF UL WuLL U dOG tA WIdD dOGlML wUU WKU U WMU dB b luL
UMd b uJ pc dL v U c djI WuLL U
WuL; UWMLC* U C R
dOJ WKU U sOLC nA
(Frequency Modulation: FM)d 5LC WuLL U dOG UF WKU U d dOOG UN s r w WOKLF pK u d sOLCU u WOKLF s ZUM uJ pc UU WKU U U vK WEUL l UuKFL Uc b WuLL WKU U s u (Frequency Modulated Signal)Ud WMLC
ULdO UHK UcL WLE w sOLC s uM
YO vc(t)=Vccos(2fct) w WKU U XU WKU U vB_ U u Vc
WKU U d u fc YO vm(t)=Vmcos(2fmt) w WuLL U XU
WKU( U
WuL; U
Ud WMLC* U
WKU U vB_ Uu Vm
WKU U d u fm
UL qJA w UL d sOLC WOKL ZU S
hUM hUM WuLL U U Ue e WKU U d qJA s kVuL vB_ U bM sJL U d Ud WMLCL U d uJ YO WuLL U U
WuLL U
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jO sLCL c qL `{u w qJAUuKFL U
VCO
WMLC UWd
(Frequency Modulation Demodulation)d 5LC nA
X uL U WKUJL dzb UUM bI d sOLC nAJ bb d bd sOLC nAJ IL UM w b WKUJL dzb
nU b r s UU dOG v d dOG qu od s d sOLC nA U rqJA Ud WMLCL U s WuLL U wUU dOG pK nAJ U sOLC
d sOLC nA WO `{u U
`d wU sLC
WMLC UUd
WMLC UUOU UuKF* U
(Frequency Division Multiplexing)d rOI bU bF* U
u U c S qbF b dU WOuB UNU Y WO UDL s b dtH Xu w WO UM s d Y sJLL s uJ sK c tH UDM qGA d UNHO _ qb
s UH p b qI UM vK U b U (Multiplexing)bFL U b
r YO UNKI dL U d UDM s dOJ d U uJ w qIM UMI d UDM WFUOU UUDM c s UD q uJ YO UNM dG UUD b v WKUM UMIK d UDM rOIseL qIM w d rOI b U WOI l UNKb b WuKDL U qIM qIMlML bU WHK d qu u WOuB U sOLC od s p U bFLWuKDL WDL U UO dOOGK qU wUD d `d qLF UI UN w qb
d rOI bU bFL U qL b `{u U qJA
Vm1(t)
Vm2(t)
Vm3(t)
ddL `diHM UD
ddL `diHM UD
ddL `diHM UD
ddL `dUD
ddL `dUD
ddL `dUD
fC1
fC2
fCn
1 2 3
fC1 fC2 fC3
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