Cognition and Learning - NJASP 2016/Speakers/McClo… · Reasoning with Verbal Information . better...

Presented by

George McCloskey, Ph.D. Philadelphia College of

Osteopathic Medicine gmccloskz@aol.com or georgemcc@pcom.edu

Cognition and Learning

“Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.”

NJDOE Definition of Dyslexia

Vocabulary Listening Comprehension

Reasoning with Verbal Information better than

Reading Comprehension better than

Word Reading better than

Nonsense Word Decoding equal to

Phonological Processing 3

Classic Dyslexic Cascade

Clinical best practices for determining psychological constructs (processing strengths and weaknesses) affecting academic learning answer four questions:

The 4 Questions of Clinical Assessment: What can the child do effectively? What does the child have difficulty

doing effectively? What needs to be done to improve

effectiveness of learning? Who can do what needs to be

done? 5

Clinical best practices are derived from evidence-based neuropsychologically-oriented assessment and intervention approaches to cognition and learning.

Lack of clear purpose for the use of assessment instruments Lack of specificity in characterizing a

child’s strengths and weaknesses Lack of clear links between

assessment and intervention Outdated/Unsupported conceptions

of the meaning of test scores and test score patterns

Pitfalls in Traditional Assessment Practices

“As for the prevalent procedure of throwing a miscellaneous collection of tests indiscriminately into a single pool this-whether or not justifiable by the theory which gave birth to it-certainly cannot be justified simply by claiming that the results give a “general level,” and “average,” or even a “sample.” No genuine averaging, or sampling, of anybody’s abilities is made, can be made, or even has really been attempted. When Binet borrowed the idea of such promiscuous pooling, he carried it into execution with a brilliancy that perhaps no other living man could have matched. But on the theoretical side, he tried to get away too cheaply. And this is the main cause of all the present trouble.” (1927, p.70-71)

Spearman on general intelligence

Spearman on Global IQ = ?

“… let us compare a person’s mental measurement (his intelligence quotient” or “IQ”) as based on averaging or sampling with his record in any other sphere of activity, say that of sports. Suppose some lad to be the champion of his school in the 100 yards race, the ¼ mile, the ½ mile, and also in the high and broad jumps. Could all this be taken as a representative sample of his sporting ability in general? So far as here indicated, he might perform very badly indeed in countless other branches of sport, such as cricket, lawn tennis, shooting, baseball, rowing, putting the weight, riding, mountaineering or flying. And even if he were to be measured in every one of these also, how could the result be pooled into any sort of average? Shall all sports mainly dependent on the “eye” as cricket, tennis, billiards, etc. be reckoned as one ability? Or as a myriad?... In a rough way, no doubt, a person can be said to have had much success at such sports as he has attempted. But there appears no serious prospect of calculating his “S.Q.” to several places of decimals, and then piling upon this result a mass of higher mathematics.” (1927, p. 69).

“If the different tests were taken to represent generically different entities, one could no more add the values assigned to them in order to obtain an [IQ] than one could add 2 dogs, 3 cats and 4 elephants, and expect the unqualified answer of 9. That, of course, does not mean that their addition is impossible. If instead of being concerned with the characteristics of the dog, the cat and the elephant, which differentiate them from one another, we restrict our interest to those which they all have in common, we can say that 2 dogs, 3 cats and 4 elephants make 9 animals. The reason we can get an answer of 9 here is because dogs, cats and elephants are in fact all animals. The addition would no longer be possible if for cats we were to substitute turnips.” Wechsler, D. (1958). The Measurement and Appraisal of Adult Intelligence, p. 7

Wechsler on Intelligence and FSIQ

WJ-IV GIA Oral Vocabulary Number Series

Verbal Attention Letter-Pattern Matching

Phonological Processing Story Recall Visualization

WISC-V FSIQ Similarities Vocabulary

Matrix Reasoning Figure Weights

Block Design Digit Span

Coding

WISC-V FSIQ vs WJ-IV GIA = ?

My study of these two symposia and of many other equally serious attempts to define “intelligence” in purely verbal terms has convinced me that psychologists are incapable of reaching a consensus on its definition. It has proved to be a hopeless quest. Therefore, the term “intelligence” should be discarded altogether in scientific psychology, just as it discarded “animal magnetism” and as the science of chemistry discarded “phlogiston.” “Intelligence” will continue, of course, in popular parlance and in literary usage, where it may serve a purpose only because it can mean anything the user intends, and where a precise and operational definition is not important. Largely because of its popular and literary usage, the word “intelligence” has come to mean too many different things to many people (including psychologists). It has also become so fraught with value judgments, emotions, and prejudices as to render it useless in scientific discussion.” A.R. Jensen. (1998). The g Factor, p. 48.

Jensen on Intelligence

• Replacing the concept of Intelligence with Cognition

• Recognizing that Cognition is an amalgam of multiple mental constructs including: – Attention, Initial Registration/Encoding,

Working Memory – Long-Term Storage and Retrieval, Executive

Functions, – Language, Visuospatial, Reasoning, Motor

Production • Understanding the role of cognition in

social/emotional functioning and academic skill development

Transitioning from Intelligence Testing to Cognitive Assessment

An Information Processing Model provides a theoretical framework for understanding learning difficulties. An information processing model

represents a dynamic model of cognition and learning rather than a taxonomy of cognitive abilities and academic skills.

Skills Achievement

Knowledge Stores/Lexicons Memory

Abilities

Processes Executive

Functions

Strategies

Basic Constructs

Basic Cognitive Processes are the cognitive capacities used to translate sensory information and perceptions into internal mental representations.

Basic Cognitive Processes

Processes include: Auditory Perception Auditory Discrimination Auditory Attention Visual Perception Visual Discrimination Visual Attention Kinesthetic Perception Kinesthetic Discrimination Kinesthetic Attention

Cognitive Processes

Cognitive Processing integrates sensory information with stored knowledge to generate internal mental representations (perceptions).

Cognitive Processing

Lexicons are knowledge bases from which information can be retrieved and used to inform learning or production.

There are numerous subtypes of Knowledge Bases and Lexicons, including: Auditory-Verbal, Auditory Non-Verbal,

Visual-Verbal, Visual Non-verbal, Gross Motor, Fine Motor, Graphomotor, Procedural, Verbal Emotional, Non-verbal Emotional, Verbal Social, Non-verbal Social.

Defining Lexicons

Cognitive Abilities are the mental constructs that utilize internal mental representations to produce thoughts and actions; they can be used in a conscious or nonconscious manner.

Cognitive Abilities

Abilities include: Visuospatial Motor Language Reasoning/Association Ideation/Generation

Cognitive Abilities

Skills are specific, learned routines; skills are utilized in concert with abilities, processes, lexicons and strategies to perform tasks or increase the knowledge store through new learning.

Defining Skills

Processes and Abilities both refer to mental capacities that enable learning and production Processes are narrower, more

specific mental capacities; Abilities are broader, more overarching mental capacities

Processes vs Abilities

Process deficits obstruct learning and production, but often can be by-passed or compensated for at least to some degree; in some instances their effects can be significantly reduced if addressed during early developmental stages with a good intervention program Severe process deficits result in learning

disabilities and/or producing disabilities involving slowed and/or inconsistent learning and production

Process Deficits

Ability deficits constrain learning and production; the degree of deficit places an upper limit on learning and production; compensatory or by-pass strategies typically are not very effective in countering ability deficits Severe ability deficits result in cognitive

impairments, that greatly constrain learning and production, such as severe language impairment or mental retardation

Ability Deficits

Do you believe it is possible to raise a child’s FSIQ from 70 to 100 through intervention? Can it be done in 6 months? A year?

Two years?

Questions about Intelligence

The conventional wisdom regarding ability deficits represents a fixed mindset. What is needed is a new perspective

that embraces a growth mindset. A growth mindset suggests that abilities

can be changed through effort.

Ability Deficits

The most critical shifts in educational thinking involve: 1) engendering a strong belief in

the growth mindset that asserts that ability IS malleable.

From Ability to Skill

2) implementing and refining the techniques needed to change abilities into skills so that they are taught instead of only measured.

Marzano, Pickering & Pollock provided a blueprint for turning abilities into skills in their book “Classroom Instruction That Works: Research-based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement.” (2001)

Marzano, Pickering & Pollock (2001)

2nd Edition Dean, Hubbell, Pitler, & Stone (2012)

Strategies discussed include: Teaching Similarities and

Differences Teaching Hypothesis Testing Teaching Vocabulary

If these research-based strategies have been shown to work, why would it not be commonplace to expect to be able to increase “verbal ability” with good teaching practices?

FSIQ 70 99 103 GAI 83 105 108 VCI 73 95 106 PRI/FRI 94 117 112 VSI -- -- 111 WMI/AWMI 62 97 94 PSI 68 85 98

11/2010 4/2013

Martin’s WISC Score Changes

9/2015

Wd Reading 71 94 98

Wd Decoding 81 97 98

Rdg Fluency 66 95 100

Rdg Comp -- 87 82

Rdg Vocab -- 93 112

11/2010 4/2013

Martin’s Achievement Score Changes

9/2015

Executive Functions are mental routines that enable the self-regulation of perceptions, feelings, thoughts and actions. Executive Functions engage

awareness and intention and can cue, direct, and coordinate the use of all other mental capacities.

Defining Executive Functions

Strategies are more general learned or newly generated routines that can be applied to increase the efficiency of the use of abilities, processes and/or skills.

Strategies

Defining Strategies

Memory capacities are distinct from processes, abilities, lexicons, skills, strategies and achievement; they are the essential mental manifestation of time and space, i.e., they provide the temporal and spatial contexts for perception, emotion, cognition, and action.

What is Memory?

Memory capacities are similar to abilities in that they are broader and more overarching in their impact on learning and production Memory capacities are similar to

processes in that while they obstruct learning and production; they often can be by-passed or compensated for at least to some degree.

Memory vs Abilities and Processes

Achievement is the end result (product) of the application of abilities, processes, skills and strategies to a contextually meaningful task. Achievement

Defining Achievement

Skills

Processes

Knowledge Bases/Lexicons

Memory Time Frames

Abilities

Achievement

Strategies

Achievement testing indicates overall level of performance in a very global manner. Diagnostic assessment identifies

specific component strengths and weaknesses in a more specific manner.

Achievement Testing vs Diagnostic Assessment

Achievement testing focuses on composite scores. Diagnostic assessment

focuses on subtest and process scores.

Achievement Testing vs Diagnostic Assessment

A thorough diagnostic assessment needs to examine all of the constructs involved in learning.

Diagnostic Assessment

Balanced Literacy is a term that can be used to define instructional methods and programs that attempt to address ALL (or almost all) of the components defined in a comprehensive, brain-based cognitive neuropsychological model of reading.

What is Balanced Literacy?

All educators involved in teaching reading are encouraged to obtain and read the findings of the National Reading Panel, available at: www.nationalreadingpanel.org/publications

According to the National Reading Panel’s study of Reading (NRP, 2000), Balanced Literacy is defined by “The Big Five.”

The NRP’s Big Five includes: 1. Phonological Awareness 2. Phonics 3. Fluency 4. Vocabulary 5. Comprehension

Skills

Processes

Lexicons

Memory Time Frames

Abilities

Achievement

Strategies

Working Memory

Initial Registration (Immediate Memory)

Retrieval from Long

Term Storage

Executive Functions

Memory

Processes

Lexicons

Abilities

Skills Strategies

Vocabulary Listening Comprehension

Reasoning with Verbal Information better than

Reading Comprehension better than

Word Reading better than

Nonsense Word Decoding equal to

Classic Dyslexic Cascade

Visuospatial Language Reasoning

Decoding Unfamiliar

and/or Nonsense

Comprehending Words and Text

indicate

Executive Function

processing at work

Working Memory

Retrieval from Long

Term Storage

Reading Familiar (Sight) Words

+ Prosody = Reading Rate

aka “Fluency”

General & Specific Knowledge Lexicons

Semantic Lexicon Word & Phrase Knowledge

Orthographic Processing

Oral Motor Functioning Phonological Processing

An Integrative Model Specifying Processes, Abilities, Lexicons, Skills, Memory and Achievement in Reading

Vocabulary (Pronunciation, Semantic Lexicons) Conventions of Spoken Language

(Grammar & Syntax) General Information Phonologic Awareness Morphologic Awareness Orthographic Awareness

Knowledge Stores (Lexicons)

Orthographic Processing Phonological Processing Morphological Processing Oral-motor Functioning

Processing & Functioning (Taught as Skills?)

Receptive Language Expressive Language Visuospatial Language Reasoning

Abilities (Taught as Skills?)

Sight Word Recognition Word Decoding Reading Speed and Prosody

(aka “Fluency”) Reading Comprehension

Reading Skills

Initial Registration/ Immediate Memory

Working Memory Retrieval from Long-Term

Storage

Time Frames of Reference

Children use receptive and expressive language abilities to make meaning of the world around them. Effective use of language abilities reflects an understanding of grammar, syntax and morphology.

Language Abilities

Listening to and telling stories, acting in plays, and engaging in social interactions enhances students’ effective use of language abilities.

Language Abilities

Lexicons are knowledge bases from which information can be retrieved and used to inform learning and/or production

Lexicons

The pronunciation lexicon is a child’s store of all the words he or she has ever heard spoken.

Pronunciation Lexicon

0 12 24 36 48

Age of child (in months)

Cumulative Words Spoken to Child (in Millions)

Professional

Working

Welfare

Creating the Pronunciation Lexicon

The semantic lexicon is a child’s store of all the meanings of words he or she knows.

Semantic Lexicon

The Effects of Weaknesses in Oral Language on Reading Growth (Hirsch, 1996)

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Chronological Age

Low Oral Language in Kindergarten

High Oral Language in Kindergarten

5.2 years difference

6 months difference

Language Development and Reading

The ability to notice, think about, and work with the individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. Many children require direct

instruction to learn how phonemes make up words

Phonological Awareness (PA)

The phonologic lexicon is a child’s store of all the different sounds they hear in spoken words.

Phonologic Lexicon

The orthographic lexicon is a child’s store of the visual images of letters, letter clusters and words and numbers.

Orthographic Lexicon

Vocabulary – Knowledge of words used to communicate effectively Oral Vocabulary – the words we

recognize when listening or use when speaking

Reading Vocabulary – the words we recognize or use in print

Vocabulary

Process deficits obstruct learning and production, but often can be by-passed or compensated for at least to some degree; in some instances their effects can be significantly reduced if addressed during early developmental stages with a good intervention program Severe process deficits result in learning

disabilities and/or producing disabilities involving slowed and/or inconsistent learning and production

Process/Processing Deficits

Attention is required in order for processing to occur.

Attention

Phonological processing integrates verbal auditory information with the pronunciation lexicon to generate internal auditory representations (perceptions) of words.

Phonological Processing

Phonological Lexicon -Phonological Rule Knowledge Base

and Pronunciation Knowledge

Auditory Attention to Phonology

Auditory Perception and Discrimination of Phonology

Initial Auditory

Registration of Subword Sound Units

Hearing NONVERBAL Abstract (Not immediately identifiable) Sounds

Hearing NONVERBAL Concrete (Immediately Identifiable) Sounds

Nonverbal Auditory Information

Verbal Auditory Information (Phonology)

Hearing Phonemes as Words

Hearing Phonemes as Number Names

All Auditory Information Input

= Pattern processing neural networks (primarily right hemisphere)

Source of Developmental Phonological Dyslexia: Deficient detail Processing of Phonemes in words

= Detail processing neural networks (primarily left hemisphere)

Auditory Information Processing Neural Networks

The role of working memory in processing information while learning and producing is widely acknowledged

A number of tasks are available that are fairly effective at minimizing the impact of additional processes and abilities, but none of these tasks directly assesses the use of working memory in the completion of academic tasks

Many tasks thought to measure various processes or abilities also are assessing the use of working memory

Working Memory Revisited

A case in point: The assessment of phonological processing must be considered in the context of working memory use. The NEPSY Phonological Processing Subtest is composed of two sections: Part A Word Segment Recognition and Part B Phonological Segmentation Recognition Part A is administered to children ages 3-8 Part B is administered to children ages

Working Memory and Phonological Processing

Directions for NEPSY Phonological Processing Part A:

Look at these three pictures. I will say a word that goes with each picture. Then I will say part of one of the words. Listen carefully because I can only say it once. Point to the picture that goes with it.

Dog … Doll Duck … “og”

Directions for NEPSY Phonological Processing Part B: I am going to say a word and I want you to say it

after me. Say inside. Now I want you to say the word leaving out a part. Say inside. Now say it again, but don’t say side. [in]

This time I am going to say a word and you say it after me. Then I’ll ask you to change a sound in the word to make a new word. Say bike. Now change the /i/ in bike to /a/. The new word is ___ [bake].

It is clear that NEPSY Phonological Processing Part A assesses very basic phonological processing (phonological awareness) with only immediate memory demands while Part B assesses basic phonological processing along with gradually increasing working memory demands.

Phoneme Perception And Discrimination

Rhyming and Phoneme Repetition

Phoneme Blending

Phoneme Segmentation

Phoneme Deletion

Phoneme Substitution

Phonological Awareness

Working Memory Applied

to Subword Sound Unit

Manipulation

Phonological LexiconPhonological Rule Knowledge Base

nd Pronunciation Knowledge

Auditory Attention to Phonology

Auditory Perception and Discrimination of Phonology

Immediate Auditory Memory

for Subword Sound Units

Orthographic processing integrates visual images of letters & numbers with the orthographic lexicon to generate internal visual representations of letters words and numbers.

The role of orthographic processing in reading has been downplayed or even ignored primarily due to common misconceptions about visual processing and reading.

Visual Attention to Orthography

Visual Perception and Discrimination of Orthography

Initial Visual

Registration of Letters,

Letter Clusters & Words

Knowledge Base of Visual Images Representing Letters

& Words and Knowledge Base of Orthographic

Regularity

Perception of this image varies depending on whether you are engaging pattern-oriented perceptual processes or detail-oriented perceptual processes. Patter-oriented processing leads to perceiving the visual image of a young girl. Detail-oriented processing leads to perceiving the visual image of an old woman. Many viewers can consciously or nonconsciously alter the perception process at will, first seeing a young girl, then an old woman or vice versa.

Non-orthographic Visual Processing

rea When viewing orthography, detail processing should be the preferred mode for visual processing rather than pattern processing. Although pattern processing can easily distinguish between “rea” and “ear” because the outer contours are different, pattern processing cannot distinguish “bread” from “beard” because the outer contours are the same. Good readers perceive all of the details of every word, thereby avoiding perceptual errors when reading similar words.

How Brains Process Orthography

Seeing NONVERBAL Abstract (Not immediately identifiable) Images

Seeing NONVERBAL Concrete (Immediately Identifiable) Images

Nonverbal Visual Information

Verbal Visual Information (Orthography)

Seeing Orthographic Images as Letters/Words

Seeing Orthographic Images as Numbers

= Detail processing neural networks (primarily left hemisphere) All Visual Information Input

= Pattern processing neural networks (primarily right hemisphere)

Visual Information Processing Neural Networks

Rayner (1997) summarized 25 year of research on eye movements: Reading involves eye movements called

saccades during which the eyes move very rapidly. Saccades are necessary because of the acuity limitations of the visual system.

Saccades are separated by fixations (periods of time when the eyes are relatively still).

The purpose of eye movements is to place the foveal region on that part of the text to be processed next.

The typical saccade travels about 6-9 letter spaces and generally are not affected by the size of print.

Eye Movements and Reading

The perceptual span (area in which letters can be processed) extends 14-15 character spaces to the right of the fixation point and 3-4 character spaces to the left.

The word identification span is smaller than the total perceptual span, typically not exceeding 7-8 letter spaces to the right of fixation. Saccade movement spacing combined

with perceptual span length assure that every letter of every word enters the visual field for accurate processing, even though 20-30% of words in a text are not the target of a fixation.

Eye Movements and Reading

Subject: soemthnig ncie Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at an Elingsh uinervtisy, it deosn’t mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the only iprmoetnt tihng is taht frist and lsat ltteer is at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae we do not raed ervey lteter by itslef but the wrod as a wlohe.

Reply to something nice:

Subject: too eilsay led atrasy

A mulidutte of cusofend irentent serurfs seem to bilevee taht the oredr of the letetrs in wdros d’esnot mttear wehn you are raindeg as lnog as the frist and lsat leettr are in the crecort pitoison. If so, waht hesiopyeths mghit tehy greanete to epalixn why this citrpyc magesse is etponnexialty mroe dutiflufct to dihecepr by tehm? I’ll bet it took you more than 11 seconds to read the above passage didn’t it?

Assessing Orthographic Processing Related to Reading

Example of an assessment of nonverbal visual processing unrelated to reading: Rey Complex Figure Test (RCFT) Design Copy and Immediate Recall Trials

RCFT directions: Look at this figure. I would like you to copy that figure onto this sheet of paper. Copy it so that I would know that this is the figure you drew.

James Age 10, Rey Complex Figure Copy:

James’ reading scores: WIAT-II Basic Reading 111 WIAT-II Reading

Comprehension 102

Example of assessment of verbal visual (orthographic) processing directly related to reading: Process Assessment of the

Learner (PAL) Receptive Coding task

PAL Receptive Coding directions:

I will show you two words one at a time. If the words are exactly the same, say “yes.” If the words are not exactly the same, say “no.”

quieter

quarter

Example of assessment of verbal visual (orthographic) processing directly related to reading: Feifer Assessment of Reading (FAR) Orthographical Processing

PAL Receptive Coding directions:

“Look carefully at this word and remember it.” [1 second exposure]

“Which letter is in the word you just saw?”

spring

b p h d

Example of assessment of verbal visual (orthographic) processing directly related to reading: Test of Orthographic Competence

(TOC) Letter Choice Subtest

p d b q

1. ___ ed 2. goo___ 3. yar___

Oral-motor functioning enables the quick, efficient and accurate movement of the mouth when saying words.

Oral-Motor Functioning

Oral Motor Functioning

Phonologic Lexicon

Attention to Phonology

Attention to Orthography

Attention to Motor Production

Oromotor Sequencing

Visual-Motor Information Processing Neural Networks

Seeing Colors & Objects

Seeing Orthography as Letters & Words

Oral Motor Production of Language

All Visual Information Input

Internal Mental Representation

Oral Motor Non Language Production

Seeing Orthography

as Numbers

OUTPUT

Nonverbal Visual Information

Verbal Visual Information (Orthography)

Oral-motor functioning can double dissociate based on the stimuli used to assess functioning. Only stimuli involving letters and words directly assess the type of oral-motor functioning involved in the act of reading.

Measures well-suited for assessing oral-motor functioning directly related to reading use letters and words as the stimuli.

h n o a t f u w h n b d b h u t o h d n w f a n d b n h w u f t a o n h f a n u h b t o h w n d

Measures not well-suited for assessing oral-motor functioning directly related to reading use stimuli other than letters and words (e.g., pictures of objects, shapes and colors).

Skills are “lexicons under construction” that are acquired through formal or informal formal educational experiences. The term skill can be used in a temporal sense to represent what is being learned in the present moment or to represent what was learned in the past or what will be learned in the future.

Skills

Skills can be further delineated by content as:

Basic Complex, or Content Domain Specific.

Skills

Basic skills refer to the skills that form the foundation for all additional skill acquisition. The four broad basic skill domains are: oral communication (listening and speaking), reading, writing, and mathematics. Each of these basic skill domains consists of many subdomains (individual skills).

Basic Skills

Complex skill development and use involves the application of one or more basic skills integrated with the use of one or more abilities and the accessing of one or more lexicons. Complex skills enable a person to take the mental representations formed through the use of basic skills, add additional layers of representation and manipulate all the information to produce relatively complex levels of meaning.

Complex Skills

Sight Word Recognition Word Decoding Reading Fluency Decoding Fluency Reading Comprehension

Reading Skills

Sight word recognition involves: Orthographic processing of

the visual image of a word Linking the visual image of

the word with a word pronunciation

Sight Word Recognition

Rapid automatic naming is the gateway to efficient, automatic sight word recognition.

Sight Word Recognition

Dolch Sight Word Lists Pre-primer – 34/40 – 85%

Primer – 33/52 – 63% Grade 1 – 29/41 71%

Grade 2 – 41/46 – 89% Overall – 137/179 = 76%

Progress Monitoring 106/124 = 85%

The relationships between the letters (graphemes) of written language and the individual sounds (phonemes) of spoken language.

Phonics/Decoding

Phonics/Decoding There are two forms of Phonics: Alphabet principle phonics links each

letter of the alphabet to a specific sound. Synthetic Phonics represents the

scope and sequence of the letter/letter clusters associated with specific sound patterns based on all the different languages from which English was derived.

Examples of decoding patterns taught in synthetic phonics programs: Short vowel sounds long vowel sounds vowel/silent e consonant-le r-controlled

Phonics/Decoding

Word Decoding involves: Orthographic processing of the

visual images of the letters in a word

Linking the visual images of the letters/letter clusters with the pronunciation of a sub-word sound unit (phonology)

Word Decoding

Assessing Decoding Skills

Example of assessment of decoding skills: KTEA-3 Nonsense Word Decoding WJ-IV Word Attack WIAT-III Pseudoword Decoding

heb mib

gritch lirst

unfrodding infrections

Word Decoding Skills teach about: Alphabet principle phonics Synthetic Phonics The gateway to decoding skills is built through Phonological awareness activities that teach sub-word sound analysis and the alphabet principle.

Word Decoding

bat (alphabet principle)

knight

(synthetic phonics)

The ability to read a text accurately and quickly. Oral reading is effortless and done with expression; when reading silently, words are recognized automatically.

Fluency (NRP Definition)

As defined by the NRP, Fluency has multiple components:

Sight word recognition Automaticity of recognition Reading speed Reading accuracy Prosody

Reading Fluency (NRP)

Assessing Fleuncy Skills

Example of assessment of fluency skills: KTEA-3 Word Recognition Fluency WJ-IV Word Reading Fluency FAR Isolated Word Fluency FAR Irregular Word Reading Fluency

Assessing Fleuncy Skills

Example of assessment of fluency skills: KTEA-3 Silent Reading Fluency WJ-IV Sentence Reading Fluency

KTEA-3 Silent Reading

Fluency 7 items

2 minutes 3.5/minute

1-60” – 4 items 61-120” – 3 items

Standard Score 84

WJ-IV Sentence

Reading Fluency 10 items

3 minutes 3.3/minute

1-60” – 4 items 61-120” – 4 items 121-180” – 2 items Standard Score 72

When monitoring reading progress, Reading Fluency often is reduced to words read correctly per minute (word reading speed).

Reading Fluency

Combining the input from basic skills with stored knowledge and the use of language and other abilities to understand what is read.

Reading Comprehension

Reading Comprehension is a complex skill that depends on the use and integration of multiple processes, lexicons, abilities, and skills as well as the use of working memory and executive functions.

Because of the complex nature of reading comprehension it is most effectively taught through the use of cognitive strategies.

Strategies are learned or newly generated routines that integrate the use of abilities, processes, lexicons and/or skills.

Cognitive Strategies

Cognitive abilities are the mental capacities that utilize internally generated mental representations to produce thoughts and actions; they can be used in a conscious or nonconscious manner.

Cognitive Abilities

Reading Comprehension relies on the use of specific cognitive abilities: Receptive/Expressive Language Reasoning with Language Visuospatial translation of

Language

Cognitive Abilities

Executive Functions are inextricably woven into the act of reading.

Executive Functions and Reading

Executive Functions are a specific class of processes distinct from the basic processes used to transform sensory information into internal mental representations Executive Functions cue, direct,

and coordinate the use of all other mental capacities

Executive Functions

Decoding Unfamiliar

and/or Nonsense

indicate

Executive Function

processing at work

Working Memory

Retrieval from Long

Term Storage

aka “Fluency”

Oral Motor Processing Phonological Processing

Executive Function

Processing

7 7 7 7

7 7 7 7 8

Oral Motor Processing

Cueing immediate and sustained attention to orthography for accurate letter/word perception and discrimination

Cueing and coordinating the use of phonological and orthographic processes for accurate word pronunciation

Directing efficient oral motor production, prosody, and rate for reading words and connected text

Cueing and directing the use of attention and immediate memory resources for reading words and connected text

Cueing retrieval of information from various Lexicons to read words and connected text

Cueing and coordinating the use of word recognition, word decoding, and reading comprehension skills

Cueing and coordinating the use of abilities and the retrieval of knowledge from Lexicons to create meaning for text comprehension

Cueing and sustaining the use of working memory resources while reading words and constructing meaning from text

Cueing and directing the oral expression of meaning derived from text comprehension

Cueing and directing the use of strategies for reading words and deriving meaning

from text

To maintain the close connection to development of reading skills and reading achievement, assessment must focus on the use of executive functions to cue, direct, and coordinate the use of processes, abilities, skills and strategies when engaged with reading tasks.

Assessing Executive Functions Related to Reading

the 69 of 38 you 17 are 78

one 91 said 36 been 96 who 83

are 71 you 13 of 67 the 89

who been 38 17 said 69 89 one

been one who 71 83 said 71 36

96 you the 63 19 are 87 of

Construct

Construct + EF

Construct + + EF

Construct+ + + EF Progressive deterioration of performance is observed as executive function demands (+ EF) become greater.

Start here

Cascading Production Decrement

D-KEFS Word Reading

D-KEFS Inhibition/ Switching

Progressive deterioration of performance is observed as executive function demands (+ EF) become greater.

Cascading Production Decrement

D-KEFS Inhibition

Summing Up: Components of Reading

Basic Processes (Phonologic, Orthographic, Oral Motor

Lexicons (Phonologic & Orthographic, Vocabulary, General Information)

Abilities (Language, Reasoning, Visuospatial) Skills (Decoding, Word Recognition, Reading

Rate [aka Fluency], Comprehension Executive Functions (Cueing & Coordinating) Strategies (Word, Sentence, Text Level) Memory Contexts (IR, WM, LTR)

The NRP’s Big Five includes: 1. Phonological Awareness 2. Phonics 3. Fluency 4. Vocabulary 5. Comprehension

How do the Big Five match-up with a Neuro-Cognitive Model of Reading?

Balanced Literacy Revisited

Decoding Unfamiliar

and/or Nonsense

Working Memory

Retrieval from Long

Term Storage

aka “Fluency”

Oral Motor Processing Phonological Processing

1. Phonological Awareness 2. Phonics 3. Fluency 4. Vocabulary 5. Comprehension

Neuro Model clarification of NRP Big 5: Phonemic Awareness and Phonics are

part of a three stage progression of acquiring decoding knowledge and skill: Phonemic Awareness Phonics (Alphabet Principle) Decoding

Orthographic Processing should be recognized and addressed as a separate instructional component.

Balanced Literacy Revisited

Neuro Model clarification of the NRP Big 5: Reading Rate replaces the NRP term

“Fluency” because the NRP definition is actually restricted to speed and prosody and does not refer to the broader use of the term fluency meaning reading quickly and accurately with good comprehension. While vocabulary and comprehension are

included in the NRP Big 5, their precursor, reasoning with language, is not.

Top Down Whole Language Models

Bottom-up Decoding Models

Phonemic and Orthographic Awareness (Grades PreK-2)

Phonics (Alphabet Principle) & Orthography (Grades Late K-2)

Decoding (Synthetic Phonics) & Orthography (Grades 2-12)

Fluency (Speed & Intonation) (Grades PreK -12)

Comprehension (Grades PreK -12)

Reasoning (Grades PreK -12)

Vocabulary (Grades PreK -12

Balanced Reading Instruction Includes:

“Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.”

NJDOE Definition of Dyslexia

A thorough diagnostic assessment needs to examine all components involved in the act of reading. See the handout Tests to Use in Learning Disabilities Identification for suggestions.

Components assessed : Receptive/Expressive Language Reasoning with Language Visuospatial translation of

Language Vocabulary Knowledge

Diagnostic Reading Assessment

Components assessed : Orthographic Processing Phonological Processing Morphological Processing Oral-motor Functioning (Rapid

Automatic Naming)

Components assessed : Word Recognition Word Decoding Reading Fluency Reading Comprehension

Components assessed : Holding information that is

read in working memory Using executive functions to

cue, direct and coordinate reading

Using strategies to comprehend

Visuospatial Oral Discourse Comprehension Reasoning

Pseudo-

Word Decoding

indicate

Executive Function

processing at work

Working Memory

Retrieval from Long

Term Storage

Reading

Oral Reading Fluency

Word Reading & Decoding

Receptive Vocabulary Expressive Vocabulary

PAL-II Rec & Exp Coding

PAL-II RAN/RAS PAL-II Phono/Morpho

Using the WIAT-III & PAL-II

Berninger notes the importance of considering cognitive ability as part of the definition of a learning disability. Important points: Research indicates that ability-achievement discrepancy

IS associated with biologically based learning disabilities whereas low achievement that is not discrepant from reasoning ability is more likely to be environmentally based.

Verbal reasoning measures and cognitive process measures reliably differentiate the faster and slower responders to remedial instruction.

Full Scale IQ scores are based on the aggregation of intellectual abilities that are both spared and affected in children with LDs and therefore are not good single indexes against which expected level of academic achievement is compared.

LD Identification – Ability Matters

Berninger’s Inclusionary Criteria for what constitutes a Reading Disability: Unexpected difficulty in accuracy or rate of decoding, word

reading, or text reading, RELATIVE to the child’s ability to reason with and utilize verbal information (e.g., WISC-IV VCI), i.e., academic skills performance at least one standard deviation below verbal ability.

Academic performance below the mean of age peers (some exceptions needed).

Ability to reason with Verbal content at or above the 25th percentile relative to peers (standard score of 90 or better).

Presence of processing deficits in efficiency of phonological decoding or reading rate, rapid automatic naming of letters, rapid automatic attention switching, difficulties with language inhibition tasks.

LD Identification-Reading

Research conducted by Berninger using her Inclusionary and Exclusionary Criteria for what constitutes a Reading Disability revealed the following: Children with Dyslexia showed impairment on word

reading, phonological decoding, oral text reading, handwriting, spelling, and written composition. In general, comprehension was not as impaired as

the other reading skills. Many of the children had relative strengths in math

problem solving but many had difficulties with pencil and paper arithmetic computations. Mild weakness in oral language and specific

impairments in executive functions were also identified.

LD Identification-Reading

Modified Process-Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Model

Absence of Ability Constraints

Presence of

Process Deficits

Poor Achievement

Inadequate Skill

Development

Resulting in Leading

Presence of Working Memory

Deficits

And/Or

Contrasted with

Adequate Lexicons

Cognitive process assessment is critical to the identification of a learning disability; in the absence of process deficits, skill deficits are much more likely to be due to “instructional disabilities” than learning disabilities.

Modified Process-Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Model Applied to Developmental Phonological Dyslexia

Average or above scores on measures of Verbal Reasoning

Below average

scores on PAL-II or

CTOPP tasks

Below average scores on

measures of Reading

Achievement

Below average

scores on Early Reading

and/or Decoding and/or Word

Reading

Resulting in

Leading to

Below average scores on measures of Phonological Processing involving

Working Memory

And/Or

Contrasted with

(Often Accompanied by Average or above scores on

measures of Vocabulary)

Modified Process-Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Model in a Case of Developmental Phonological Dyslexia

WISC-IV Vocabulary 10

WIAT-III Listening Comprehension 110

WISC-IV Similarities 13 WISC-IV Comprehension 12

WIAT-III Reading Comprehension 108

WIAT-III Pseudoword Decoding 80

WIAT-III Word Reading 94

WIAT-III Oral

Reading Fluency

PAL-II Rimes 5 Phonemes 4 Syllables 5

PAL-II RAN Tasks 10, 9, 9

PAL-II Receptive Coding 10

PAL-II WM Letters 7 WM Words 7

WM Sentences 9

Process-Ability-Achievement Consistency Model

Presence of Ability Constraints

Presence of

Process Deficits

Poor Achievement

Inadequate Skill

Development

Resulting in

Leading to

Deficits

And/Or

Inadequate Lexicons

Process-Ability-Achievement Consistency Model Applied in a Case of Reading Disability

Below average scores on measures of Verbal Reasoning

Below average

scores on PAL-II or

CTOPP tasks

Below average scores on

measures of Reading

Achievement

Below average

scores on Early Reading

and/or Decoding and/or Word

Reading

Resulting in

Leading to

Below average scores on measures of Phonological Processing involving

Working Memory

And/Or

Contrasted with

Process-Ability-Achievement Consistency Model in a Case of Reading Disability

PAL-II Rimes 5 Phonemes 4 Syllables 5

PAL-II RAN Tasks 4, 4, 2

WISC-IV Vocabulary 6

WIAT-III Listening Comprehension 84

WISC-IV Similarities 6 WISC-IV Comprehension 5

WIAT-III Reading Comprehension 72

WIAT-III Pseudoword Decoding 74

WIAT-III Word Reading 78

PAL-II Receptive Coding 8

WIAT-III Oral

Reading Fluency

PAL-II WM Letters 5 WM Words 4

WM Sentences 6

Modified Process-Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Model

Absence of Ability Constraints

Presence of

Process Deficits

Poor Achievement

Inadequate Skill

Development

Resulting in Leading

Deficits

And/Or

Contrasted with

Adequate Lexicons

Process-Ability-Achievement Consistency Model

Presence of Ability Constraints

Presence of

Process Deficits

Poor Achievement

Inadequate Skill

Development

Resulting in

Leading to

Deficits

And/Or

Inadequate Lexicons

Consideration of working memory capacities along with basic phonological processing and executive functions yields a clearer picture of various subtypes of learning and producing difficulties relative to skill development.

Identification of Learning and Producing Disabilities Related to Decoding Skills

LD Only

LD and PD

PD Only

Skill weaknesses resulting from PA or WM deficits likely to be minimized through compensatory efforts

Skill weaknesses resulting from PA or WM deficits are exacerbated by EF deficits

Inconsistent use of adequately developed decoding skills due to EF deficits

Deficit

Phonological Awareness

Working Memory

Executive Functions

Identification of Learning and Producing Disabilities Related to Decoding Skills

Consideration of the ability to reason with verbal information along with working memory capacities, basic processing related to reading skill development, and executive function processing capacities further clarify the various subtypes of learning and producing difficulties relative to skill development.

Identification of Reading Learning and Producing Disabilities

Ability Deficit

Ability Deficit and LD

LD Only

Achievement constrained by ability deficit

Achievement constrained by ability deficit despite efforts to compensate for process deficits through adequate EFs

Achievement sometimes adequate as skill weakness resulting from process deficits may be minimized through compensatory efforts enabled by adequate EFs

Working Memory

Executive Functions

Basic Processing

(PA, OP, OMP)

Ability to Reason

with Verbal Info

Deficit

LD and PD

PD Only

Achievement often deficient as skill weaknesses resulting from basic process deficits are exacerbated by EF deficits

Inconsistent achievement Likely due to EF deficits

Ability Deficit LD and PD

Achievement severely deficient due to ability deficit and skill weaknesses resulting from basic process deficits that are exacerbated by EF deficits

Deficit

Working Memory

Executive Functions

Basic Processing

(PA, OP, OMP)

Ability to Reason

with Verbal Info

Deficit

Build Lexicons (Phono & Ortho, Vocabulary, General Information) Model/Teach How to Process Text

(Apply Phono & Ortho Lexicons) while seeing, hearing and speaking Teach Skills (Decoding, Word

Recognition, Reading Rate [aka Fluency], Comprehension)

Neuro Model Balanced Literacy Instructional Components

Model Use of Abilities (Language, Reasoning, Visuospatial) Cue, Model & Teach Use of Executive

Functions (Cueing & Coordinating) Model & Teach Strategies (Word,

Sentence, Text Levels) Work within All Memory Contexts (IR,

WM, LTR)

Neuro Model Balanced Literacy Instructional Components

The ability to notice, think about, and work with the individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. Many children require direct

instruction to learn how phonemes make up words.

Phonological Awareness (PA)

The NRP’s review of the research literature led to the following conclusions about PA instruction (p. 2-5): “The results clearly show that PA

instruction is effective in teaching children to attend to and manipulate speech sounds in words.” “Results of the meta-analysis

showed that teaching children to manipulate sounds in language helps them learn to read.”

PA Instruction: Does it Work?

The NRP’s review of the research literature led to the following conclusions about PA instruction (p. 2-5): “Effects of PA training lasted well

beyond the end of training.” “PA instruction produced positive

effects on both word reading and pseudoword reading, indicating that it helps children decode novel words as well as remember how to read familiar words.”

The NRP’s review of the research literature led to the following conclusions about PA instruction (p. 2-5): “PA training was effective in

boosting reading comprehension, although effect size was smaller than for word reading.” page 2-5 “teaching with letters is important

because this helps children apply their PA skills to reading and writing.” page 2-6

Works best when children understand the connection between pa and reading Focused, explicit instruction on 1-2

pa skills is most effective approach Phoneme manipulation with letters

(e.g. segmenting words into phonemes and representing each with a grapheme) is more effective than without letters

PA Instruction: How and When?

Small group instruction is better than 1-1 or large class PA instruction does not need to

consume large amounts of time; 5-18 total hours of instruction produced greatest gains Classroom teachers can be very

effective Computer instruction can

be effective

Effect sizes greater for beginning readers than for older disabled readers Children in lowest grades (pre-K, K)

showed larger gains in acquiring pa than students in 1st grade & above Most effective with children learning

to read English SES level exerted no impact on pa

training effect size

Essential to keep in mind that “one size does not fit all” Children will differ in their PA capacities;

some will need more instruction than others; some will not require instruction at all. Children will differ in the time they need to

acquire PA. Instruction will need to be flexible in order to assure that sufficient time has been devoted to PA instruction for those children who need it.

Essential to keep in mind that “one size does not fit all” Best approach to PA instruction

involves assessing students’ PA capacities before beginning instruction and then tailoring instruction to meet the varying needs of different children within the class (i.e., a differentiated instruction model).

Essential to keep in mind that “one size does not fit all” There are many programs and

techniques for teaching PA; some are better suited than others for teaching specific children. “teachers need to evaluate the methods

they use against measured success in their own students.” NRP, 2000, page 2-7. Teachers need to take account of

motivational aspects of programs – for themselves as well as for students.

The relationships between the letters (graphemes) of written language and the individual sounds (phonemes) of spoken language.

What is Phonics?

The NRP defined Phonics Instruction (PI) as delineating a planned, sequential set of phonic elements that are taught explicitly and systematically. The goal of all PI is to enable learners to acquire knowledge of the use of the alphabetic code.

What is Phonics Instruction?

The NRP identified several approaches to PI: Synthetic Phonics – converting

letter/letter combinations into sounds then blending the sounds together to form recognizable words. Analytic Phonics – analyzing letter-

sound relationships in previously learned words; sounds are not produced in isolation.

The NRP identified several approaches to PI: Analogy-Based Phonics – using

parts of already-known word families to identify unknown words that have similar parts. Phonics Through Spelling –

segmenting words into phonemes and making words by writing letters for phonemes.

The NRP identified several approaches to PI: Onset-Rime Phonics – identifying the

sound of the letter/s before the first vowel (onset) and the sound of the remaining part of the word (Rime). Embedded Phonics – letter sound

relationships are taught during the reading of connected text (not considered systematic or explicit).

Embedded Phonics (nonsystematic and non-explicit) is the form of phonics typically used in whole language programs.

“In whole language programs, the emphasis is upon meaning-based reading and writing activities. PI is integrated into these activities but taught incidentally as teachers decide it is needed” NRP 2000, page 2-90

The NRP’s review of the research literature led to the following conclusions about PI: “Findings provided solid support for the conclusion that systematic PI makes a bigger contribution to growth in reading than alternative programs providing unsystematic or no phonics instruction.” page 2-92

Phonics Instruction: Does it Work?

The NRP’s review of the research literature led to the following conclusions about PI:

“The effect size for synthetic programs was d= .45, for larger-unit programs, d= .34, and for miscellaneous programs, d= .27. The conclusion supported by these findings is that various types of systematic phonics approaches are significantly more effective than non-phonics approaches in promoting substantial growth in reading.” page 2-93

The NRP’s review of the research literature led to the following conclusions about PI:

“These findings should dispel the belief that teaching phonics systematically to young children interferes with their ability to read and comprehend text. Quite the opposite is the case.” page 2-94

PI is effective when delivered through tutoring, through small groups, or through classroom instruction. “…systematic PI in kindergarten and

1st grade is highly beneficial and that children at these developmental levels are quite capable of learning phonemic and phonics concepts.” page 2-93

Phonics Instruction: How and When?

PI produced substantial reading growth among younger children at risk of developing future reading problems. Page 2-94 PI also “significantly improved the

reading performance of disabled readers (i.e., children with average IQs but poor reading)” page 2-94

“PI failed to exert a significant impact on the reading performance of low achieving readers in 2nd through 6th grades (i.e., children with reading difficulties and possibly other cognitive difficulties explaining their low achievement)” page 2-94 Possible reasons might be that the PI

provided was not sufficiently intense or reading difficulties arose from sources not treated by PI such as poor comprehension. Page 2-94

PI produced much growth in spelling among Kindergarten and 1st grade children, but not among students beyond 1st grade. (But it is pointed out that studies of students in 2nd grade and above focused on poor readers known to have great difficulties with spelling). “Another factor may be that as children

move up in the grades, remembering how to spell words requires knowledge of HIGHER LEVEL REGULARITIES NOT COVERED IN PHONICS PROGRAMS.”

“…remembering how to spell words requires knowledge of HIGHER LEVEL REGULARITIES NOT COVERED IN PHONICS PROGRAMS.” The above statement fails to

differentiate between the various types of PI and does not acknowledge the full scope and sequence of most synthetic phonics programs.

Systematic PI helped children at all SES levels to make significantly greater gains in reading than did non-phonics instruction. Page 2-95 Caution is needed in giving a blanket

endorsement to all kinds of phonics programs. Programs that focus too much on the teaching of letter-sounds relations and not enough on putting them to use are unlikely to be very effective.

“In implementing systematic phonics instruction, educators must keep the end in mind and ensure that children understand the purpose of learning letter-sounds and are able to apply their skills in their daily reading and writing activities.” Page 2-96 “Knowing that all phonics programs are not

the same brings with it the implication that teachers must themselves be educated about how to evaluate different programs, to determine which are based on strong evidence and how they can most effectively use these programs in their own classrooms.” Page 2-96

Unfortunately, the NRP was not able to establish clear guidelines for PI, noting: “Questions needing further answers are…”: How many months or years should a phonics

program continue? If phonics has been taught systematically in K and

1st grades, should it continue in 2nd grade and beyond? How long should single instructional lessons last? How much ground should be covered in a

program, i.e., how many letter-sound relations should be taught and how many different ways of using these relations to read and write words should be practiced for maximum benefit?

Essential to keep in mind that “one size does not fit all” Children will differ in their phonics

capacities; some will need more instruction than others; some will not require instruction at all. Teachers need to assess their students’

phonics needs and select the types and amounts of phonics suited to those needs. “However, it is common for many phonics

programs to present a fixed sequence of lessons scheduled form the beginning to the end of the school year.” Page 2-97

Essential to keep in mind that “one size does not fit all” Best approach to PI instruction involves assessing students’ phonics capacities and then tailoring instruction to meet the varying needs of different children within the class (i.e., a differentiated instruction model).

As was the case with PA instruction, There are many programs and techniques

for teaching phonics; some are better suited than others for teaching specific children. “teachers need to evaluate the methods

they use against measured success in their own students.” NRP, 2000, page 2-7. Teachers need to take account of

motivational aspects of programs – for themselves as well as for students.

The ability to read a text accurately and quickly. Oral reading is effortless and done with expression; when reading silently, words are recognized automatically.

What is Fluency?

The NRP noted that: Fluency depends upon well

developed word recognition skills, but such skills do not inevitably lead to fluency. While it is generally acknowledged

that fluency is a critical component of skilled reading, it is often neglected in classroom instruction.

What is Fluency?

The NRP summarized the research on eye movements and fluency: Fluent readers come to fixate on function

words (of, the, to, etc.) less often than on content words. Fluent readers do not skip function words –

their facility with such words enables them to see these words adequately at the edge of the visual field while fixating on other words. Fluent readers get better at seeing words in

a single fixation thereby evidencing fewer refixations on the same words and fewer short regressions (look-backs).

What is Fluency?

The NRP summarized the research on eye movements and fluency: Fluent readers develop a broader

perceptual span allowing them to take in more information about words in a single fixation. Fluent readers improve the efficiency

of the placement and overlap of fixations, allowing them to integrate more effectively information from each fixation.

What is Fluency?

The NRP noted that: Skilled readers read words accurately, rapidly and efficiently. Children who do not develop reading fluency, no matter how bright they are, will continue to read slowly and with great effort.” Page 3-3

Why is Fluency Important?

What is Fluency Instruction?

The NRP identified two very distinct approaches to Fluency Instruction (FI): The use of guided oral reading

procedures such as repeated reading The use of techniques designed

to encourage students to read more

The NRP identified several approaches to repeated oral reading or guided oral reading practice: Repeated reading Neurological Impress Radio Reading Paired Reading “a variety of similar techniques

aimed at developing fluent reading habits.”

Put Reading First (2001) describes fluency methods: Model fluent reading, then have students

reread the text on their own Have students repeatedly read passages

aloud with guidance Student-adult reading Choral reading Tape-assisted reading Partner reading Reader’s theatre

The NRP’s review of the research literature led to the following conclusions about FI: “An extensive review of the literature indicates that classroom practices that encourage repeated oral reading with feedback and guidance leads to meaningful improvements in reading expertise for students – for good readers as well as those who are experiencing difficulties.” Page 3-3

Fluency Instruction: Does It Work?

The NRP’s review of the research literature led to the following conclusions about FI:

“…a range of well-described instructional approaches to encouraging repeated oral reading result in increased reading proficiency.” Page 3-3 “In contrast, the NRP did not find

evidence supporting the effectiveness of encouraging independent silent reading as a means of improving reading achievement.” Page 3-4

“The results of the analysis of programs that encourage students to read more were much less encouraging. Despite widespread acceptance of the idea that schools can successfully encourage students to read more and that these increases in reading practice will be translated into better fluency and higher reading achievement, there is not adequate evidence to sustain this claim.” Page 3-28

Repeated reading without additional support was as effective as repeated reading with phrasing support for 5th grade students. Page 3-15 Repeated reading with feedback or

guidance was superior to repeated reading alone for 3rd grade students. Page 3-15

Fluency Instruction: How and When?

“The studies found clear improvements across multiple readings regardless of students’ reading levels or age levels although greater gains were sometimes attributed to poor readers.” NRP 2000, Page 3-15

A mean weight effect size of .35 was apparent in studies using comprehension testing as an outcome. A mean weighted effect size of .44 was

found with studies using fluency measures to assess outcomes. A mean weighted effect size of .55 was

found when studies used measures of word recognition to assess outcome. A mean weighted effect size of .50 was

found when aggregate reading achievement scores were the outcome.

“These effect sizes, weighted or not, suggest that guided oral reading procedures have a moderate impact on the reading achievement of the types of students who participated in these studies.” Page 3-17 “Again, the conclusion is that repeated

reading and other related oral reading procedures have clear value for improving reading ability.” Page 3-19

“There were not enough comparisons of guided repeated oral reading procedures to allow for a systematic determination of best procedures.” Page 3-19 “The lack of clear differences

among procedures…suggests the robustness of these procedures for stimulating reading improvement.” Page 3-19

It is possible that good and poor students benefit differentially from fluency instruction with poor readers learning more about the words and good readers developing better command of prosody. For very poor readers, the first thing

that is probably learned from repeated reading is the words; use of passages that contain many of the same words likely facilitates reading growth for poor readers.

Study results indicated that teachers with little or no extra training could successfully use these procedures. Several special education studies

demonstrated that students could provide peer tutoring to their classmates under the direction of a teacher. Teachers, parents, or peer tutors at most

were provided with only 1 to 4 hours of training and usually the procedures did not require special materials.

FI that has students reading passages orally multiple times while receiving guidance or feedback from peers, parents, or teachers are effective in improving a variety of reading skills. “These procedures help improve

students’ reading ability, at least through grade 5, and they help improve the reading of students with learning problems much later than this.” p. 3-20

In most studies, fluency work was relatively brief (15 to 30 minutes per lesson Fluency develops from practicing

reading with a high degree of success; students should be reading text that is reasonably easy for them – at the student’s independent reading level Text passages should be relatively

short; 50-200 words in length Content type should vary –

stories, nonfiction, poetry, etc.

Knowledge of words used to communicate effectively Oral Vocabulary – store of words

recognized when listening or used when speaking Reading Vocabulary – store of words

recognized or used in print

What is Vocabulary?

The NRP identified 5 main vocabulary instruction (VI) methods: Explicit Instruction: providing students with

definitions or attributes of words Implicit Instruction: exposing students to words or

providing reading opportunities Multimedia: going beyond text to include other

mediums for presentation of word meanings Capacity Method: practicing to make reading

automatic Association Method: drawing connections

between what is known and new words

What is Vocabulary Instruction?

The NRP’s review of the research literature led to the following conclusions about VI:

“There are age and ability effect learning gains that occur from vocabulary instruction. These findings point to the importance of selecting age- and ability- appropriate methods.” Page 4-4

Vocabulary Instruction: Does it Work?

“Vocabulary instruction leads to gains in reading comprehension” “Vocabulary can be learned

incidentally in the context of storybook reading or from listening to the reading of others” Page 4-4

“Repeated exposure to vocabulary items is important for learning gains. The best gains were made in instruction that extended beyond single class periods and involved multiple exposures in authentic context beyond the classroom.” Page 4-4

“Pre-instruction of vocabulary prior to reading can facilitate both vocabulary acquisition and comprehension.” “Computer vocabulary instruction

shows positive learning gains over traditional methods.” Page 4-4

“The restructuring of the text materials for procedures facilitates vocabulary acquisition and comprehension, for example, substituting easy for hard words.” Page 4-4

Put Reading First (2001) offers VI suggestions:

What words should be taught directly? Explicit teaching can help most students

learn about 8-10 new words per week. Explicit teaching should focus on three

types of words: Important Words – those critical to

understanding new text Useful Words – those words likely to be

used often Difficult Words – e.g., words

with multiple meanings

Vocabulary Instruction: How, When?

Teach Word Learning Strategies: How to use dictionaries and other

reference aids How to use word parts to deduce

meaning – knowledge of common prefixes and suffixes, base words, and word roots How to use context clues to deduce

meaning (but note that not all contexts are helpful to deducing word meaning)

Teach Vocabulary Implicitly by: Reading aloud to students; discuss

the reading material before, during, and after you read; talk about new vocabulary and concepts and help students relate words to prior knowledge and experience. Encourage students to read

extensively on their own outside of school.

Understanding what is read.

What is Reading Comprehension?

The NRP noted: “Comprehension is a complex process. There exist as many interpretations of comprehension as there are of reading. This may be so because comprehension is often viewed as ‘the essence of reading” (Durkin, 1993).”

What is Reading Comprehension?

Davis (1942) provided evidence that comprehension comprises two “skills”: word knowledge and reasoning. Reading comprehension involves

“intentional thinking during which meaning is constructed through interactions between text and reader”(NRP, 2000 citing Durkin, 1993) Meaning is influenced by the reader’s

knowledge and experience in addition to the content of the text.

What is Comprehension?

“The idea behind explicit instruction of text comprehension was that comprehension could be improved by teaching students to use specific cognitive strategies or to reason strategically when they encountered barriers to comprehension in reading.” NRP 2000, page 4-5

What is Comprehension Instruction?

The NRP identified 8 kinds of CI that “appear to be most effective and most promising for classroom instruction”:

Comprehension Monitoring – teaching students how to be aware or conscious of the attempt to understand what is being read; procedures for dealing with problems in understanding are learned and applied as needed.

Cooperative Learning – teaching students how to work together to learn comprehension strategies in the context of reading.

Graphic and Semantic Organizers – teaching students how to graphically represent meanings and relationships represented by the words of the text.

Story Structure – teaching students to ask and answer who, what, where, when and why questions about plot, time lines, characters, and events in stories.

Question Answering – teaching students to answer teacher-posed questions and providing feedback about the accuracy or adequacy of responses.

Question Generation – teaching students to ask themselves what, when, where, why, who, and what will happen next, questions.

Summarization – teaching students to identify and write the main/most important ideas that integrate or unite ideas of meanings into a coherent whole.

Multiple-Strategy – teaching students to use several of the other 7 strategies while interacting in discussions of the text.

The NRP’s review of the research literature led to the following conclusions about CI:

“The empirical evidence reviewed favors the conclusion that teaching of a variety of reading comprehension strategies leads to increased learning of the strategies, to specific transfer of learning, to increased retention and understanding of new passages, and, in some cases, to general improvements in comprehension.” Page 4-6

Comprehension Instruction: Does it Work?

The NRP’s review of the research literature led to the following conclusions about CI:

“The focus on what we know about cognition has led to the development of practical strategies for improving students’ comprehension.” Page 4-41 “The cumulative result of nearly 3

decades of research is that “there is ample extant research supporting the efficacy of cognitive strategy training during reading as a means to enhance students’ comprehension.” Baumann, 1992

The NRP noted the evolution in thinking about CI over the last 30 years:

Initial studies focused on the teaching of one comprehension strategy at a time. Subsequent studies focused on teaching

several strategies in combination. Most recent studies have focused on

ways to prepare teachers to deliver instruction of multiple comprehension strategies in the context of general education classrooms.

The NRP’s conclusions about CI:

Strategies for active comprehension are normally acquired informally Explicit or formal instruction of strategies

leads to improvement of comprehension When the strategies have been acquired,

students can apply the strategies independently Students who are not explicitly taught

these strategies are unlikely to learn, develop, or use them spontaneously

Comprehension Instruction: How and When?

The NRP’s cited two major approaches to comprehension strategy instruction:

Direct Explanation (DE) – teachers help students view reading as a problem-solving task that requires the use of strategic thinking and help them learn to think strategically about solving reading problems. DE focuses on developing teachers’ capacities for explaining the reasoning and mental processes involved in successful reading comprehension in an explicit manner.

The NRP’s cited two major approaches to comprehension strategy instruction:

Transactional Strategy Instruction (TSI) – also views reading as a problem-solving task, but focuses on teacher’s capacities to facilitate discussion in which students collaborate to form joint interpretations of text and explicitly discuss the mental processes and cognitive strategies involved in comprehension of text.

Typically, Comprehension Strategy Instruction involves:

Developing of an awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes that are amenable to instruction and learning Guiding and modeling the actions that a

reader can take to enhance the comprehension processes used during reading Practicing strategies with teacher

assistance until students internalize them and use them independently

Applying the findings of the NRP will require a major change in the perspectives of teachers and administrators and a significant investment in training teachers in the methods of strategy instruction.

The NRP cites historical studies on comprehension instruction:

Studies found that teachers spent little time on comprehension instruction. Teachers did not show or teach the

students skills, strategies, or processes that they could use in their efforts to comprehend what they read.

The NRP’s observations on teacher preparation for CI:

“The preparation of teachers to deliver comprehension strategy instruction is important ot the success of teaching reading comprehension.” Page 4-7 “…implementation in the context of

the actual classroom of this promising approach to comprehension has been problematic.” Page 4-7

The NRP’s observations on teacher preparation for CI:

“Thus, teachers must be skillful in their instruction and must respond flexibly and opportunistically to students’ needs for instructive feedback as they read. To be able to do this, teachers must themselves have a firm grasp not only of the strategies that they are teaching the children but also of instructional strategies that they can employ to achieve their goal. Many teachers find this type of teaching a challenge, most likely because they have not been trained to do such teaching.” Page 4-7

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