View
2
Download
0
Category
Preview:
Citation preview
BOYSCOUTSOFAMERICAMERITBADGESERIES
CITIZENSHIPINTHEWORLD
“Enhancingouryouths’competitiveedgethroughmeritbadges”
35872ISBN978-0-8395-3260-6©2012BoyScoutsofAmerica2014DigitalVersion
Requirements
1.Explainwhatcitizenshipintheworldmeanstoyouandwhatyouthinkittakestobeagoodworldcitizen.
2.ExplainhowonebecomesacitizenintheUnitedStates,andexplaintherights,duties,andobligationsofU.S.citizenship.Discussthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentherights,duties,andobligationsofU.S.citizensandthecitizensoftwoothercountries.
3.Dothefollowing:
a.Pickacurrentworldevent.Inrelationtothiscurrentevent,discusswithyourcounselorhowacountry’snationalinterest,history,anditsrelationshipwithothercountriesmightaffectareassuchasitssecurity,itseconomy,itsvalues,andthehealthofitscitizens.
b.Selectaforeigncountryanddiscusswithyourcounselorhowitsgeography,naturalresources,andclimateinfluenceitseconomyanditsglobalpartnershipswithothercountries.
4.DoTWOofthefollowing:
a.Explaininternationallawandhowitdiffersfromnationallaw.Explaintheroleofinternationallawandhowinternationallawcanbeusedasatoolforconflictresolution.
b.Usingresourcessuchasmajordailynewspapers,theInternet(withyourparent’spermission),andnewsmagazines,observeacurrentissuethatinvolvesinternationaltrade,foreignexchange,balanceofpayments,tariffs,andfreetrade.Explainwhatyouhavelearned.Includeinyourdiscussionanexplanationofwhycountriesmustcooperateinorderforworldtradeandglobalcompetitiontothrive.
c.SelectTWOofthefollowingorganizationsanddescribetheirroleintheworld.
(1)TheUnitedNations
(2)TheWorldCourt
(3)WorldOrganizationoftheScoutMovement
(4)TheWorldHealthOrganization
(5)AmnestyInternational
(6)TheInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross
(7)CARE
5.Dothefollowing:
a.Discussthedifferencesbetweenconstitutionalandnonconstitutionalgovernments.
b.Nameatleastfivedifferenttypesofgovernmentscurrentlyinpowerintheworld.
c.Showonaworldmapcountriesthatuseeachofthesefivedifferentformsofgovernment.
6.Dothefollowing:
a.ExplainhowagovernmentisrepresentedabroadandhowtheUnitedStatesgovernmentisaccreditedtointernationalorganizations.
b.Describetherolesofthefollowingintheconductofforeignrelations.
(1)Ambassador
(2)Consul
(3)BureauofInternationalInformationPrograms
(4)AgencyforInternationalDevelopment
(5)UnitedStatesandForeignCommercialService
c.Explainthepurposeofapassportandvisaforinternationaltravel.
7.DoTWOofthefollowing(withyourparent’spermission)andsharewithyourcounselorwhatyouhavelearned:
a.VisitthewebsiteoftheU.S.StateDepartment.Learnmoreaboutanissueyoufindinterestingthatisdiscussedonthiswebsite.
b.Visitthewebsiteofaninternationalnewsorganizationorforeign
government,ORexamineaforeignnewspaperavailableatyourlocallibrary,bookstore,ornewsstand.FindanewsstoryaboutahumanrightrealizedintheUnitedStatesthatisnotrecognizedinanothercountry.
c.VisitwithastudentorScoutfromanothercountryanddiscussthetypicalvalues,holidays,ethnicfoods,andtraditionspracticedorenjoyedthere.
d.AttendaworldScoutjamboree.
e.Participateinorattendaninternationaleventinyourarea,suchasanethnicfestival,concert,orplay.
Contents
Introduction
WhatIsCitizenship?
ComparativePoliticalSystems
NationalInterest
TheWorldOrderofNations
InternationalTradeandCommerce
UnitedNationsSystem
GlobalIssues,Watchdogs,andAdvocates
InternationalLaw
RepresentationAbroad
ExpandYourOwnBorders
Resources
Introduction
Wedon’tliveinourownworld.Wesharetheplanetwithmorethan6billionpeople.Thesepeoplestareatthesamesky,buttheyseeitfromdifferentpositions:coralislands,desertdunes,terracedmountains,rainforests,grasslands,andlandlockedmegacities.Andyetmostofthesepeoplewantthesamethingswewant:goodhealth,personalsecurity,andthefreedomstoworshipasweplease,speakwhatwethink,chooseourlifestyles,andelectourleaders.Wearemorealikethanwearedifferent.TheDeclarationofIndependence
definesthebasicrightsofpeopleintheUnitedStates—andeverywhereelse:“…thatallmenarecreatedequal,thattheyareendowedbytheirCreatorwithcertainunalienableRights,thatamongtheseareLife,Liberty,andthepursuitofHappiness.”
Wemightsharethesameplanetwiththemorethan6billionpeopleworldwide,butwedon’tsharethesamerights,freedoms,oropportunities.
ThedifferenceisthatmanypeopleoutsidetheUnitedStatesarenotallowedtoexercisetheirnaturalrights.Todaytheworldisconnectedthroughcommunicationsnetworksontheoceanfloor,ontheground,inouterspace,andincyberspace.TheInternetandtelevisionallowpeopleallovertheglobetogetinformationpreviouslyinaccessible.Wecannowseewarsfoughtinrealtime.Wetalkonlineinchatroomsfullofpeoplewhosharespecificinterests,yetliveindifferentcountries.WewatchbreakingnewsandliveperformancesonTV.
BeforeyousurftheInternettolearnmoreabouttheworld,besureyouhaveyourparent’spermission.
Peopletendtointerprettheimpactofinternationaleventsfromtheirownculturalornationalperspective.Butasglobaltradeincreases,asnationsformregionaleconomicandmilitaryalliances,andasactivistspointouthumanrightsabusesandenvironmentaldamage,citizensandgovernmentsworldwidemustrecognizethatwearelivinginterdependently.Theeasyaccesstoinstantinformationmakestheworldasmallerplaceandchallengesourviewsaboutothernations.Whatwedoanddon’tdoaffectstheworld,andtheworldaffectsus.
AsyouearntheCitizenshipintheWorldmeritbadge,youwilldiscoverthatyouarealreadyacitizenoftheworld.Howgoodacitizenyouaredependsonyourwillingnesstounderstandandappreciatethevalues,traditions,andconcernsofpeopleinothercountries—inourworld.
WhatIsCitizenship?
Citizenshipismembershipinagovernedcommunity.Thismembershipcomeswithasetofprivileges,freedoms,andduties,whichvariesaccordingtothenation’sformofgovernment.Apersonmayacquirecitizenshipindifferentways:
•“Byblood”ifborntoparentswhoarealreadycitizensofanation
•“Bysoil”ifbornwithinthelegalbordersofanation
•Throughnaturalization
•Throughnaturalizationofparents
Acitizenisanativeornaturalizedpersonwhoowesallegiancetoaspecificnationandisentitledtoitsgovernment’sprotection.Asubjectisacitizenruledbyasovereignauthority,suchasamonarch,andisrequiredtoshowloyaltytoboththerulingauthorityandthenation.Ultimately,thequalityofcitizenshipdependsonthebalancebetweenwhata
governmentdoesforthepeopleandwhatitexpectsoftheminreturn.
Naturalizationisthelegalprocessbywhichanalien,orforeign-bornperson,becomesacitizen.
UnitedStatesCitizenshipUndermostformsofgovernment,citizensareobligatedtoobeythelaw,paytaxes,andserveinthearmedforces;thegovernmentisobligatedtoprovidephysicalsafety,publicservices,andprotectionofproperty.IntheUnitedStates,thegovernmentmustprotectotherrightsandfreedomsaswell:
•Righttovote
•Righttoafairtrial
•Righttobeararms
•Freedomofreligion
•Freedomofspeech
•Freedomofthepress
TheDeclarationofIndependenceisauniquecontractbetweencitizensandgovernment:“…GovernmentsareinstitutedamongMen,derivingtheirjustpowersfromtheconsentofthegoverned….”
Inasense,acitizen’sdutiesarebuiltintotheserightsandfreedoms.Therighttoafairtrial,forexample,obligatesU.S.citizenstoserveonjuries.Therighttovoteobligatesthemtobeinformedaboutimportantissuesandthecandidates’positions.Becausethegovernmentruleswiththeconsentofthecitizens,Americansmustunderstandandexercisetheirconstitutionalrights—orrisklosingthem.
IntheUnitedStates,servingonajurywhencalledisacivicduty;itisalsoonewaythattherighttoafreetrialisprotected.
PermanentResidenceU.S.citizensliveinanopensocietywhereitissafetothinkoutloud.Wefreely
expressouropinions,exchangeideas,andevendisagreeinpublic.Butinsomenations,peoplearenotallowedtodoso.Moderncommunicationssuchaselectronicmailandglobalbroadcastinghave
advancedthespreadofAmericanpopularculture.Throughadvertising,music,andmoviesshownworldwide,aswellashumanitarianoutreacheffortsandinternationaltrade,peopleinmostcountriesnolongerhavetodependontheirgovernmentforinformationabouttheworldbeyondtheirownborders.NowtheycanfindoutforthemselvesaboutwhatitisliketoliveintheUnitedStates.Peopleemigrate,orleavetheirowncountriestosettleelsewhere,forvarious
reasonsincludingfearofpersecution,thedesiretobereunitedwithfamily,andtheopportunitytobetterthemselveseconomically.U.S.CitizenshipandImmigrationServices,underthedirectionoftheDepartmentofHomelandSecurity,issuesimmigrantvisastoqualifiedforeignnationals,oraliens,whowishtobecomelawfulpermanentresidents(LPRs)oftheUnitedStates.
AnimmigrantvisaisanidentificationcardthatallowsanonnativepersontostayintheUnitedStatespermanently.
AsanLPR,animmigrantenjoyscertainrights,includingtherightto
•StayintheUnitedStatesindefinitely.
•Haveajob.
•Sponsorcertainfamilymembersforimmigration.
AnLPRmustpaytaxesbutmaynotvote.Onlycitizenshavethatright.ManypeoplewhochoosetobecomeU.S.citizenswanttofullyparticipateinAmericansociety,electgovernmentleaders,andhaveavoiceindomesticandforeignpolicies.
ToapplyforU.S.residency,animmigrantmustcompletetheI–485form,ApplicationtoRegisterPermanentResidenceorAdjustStatus,andsubmitmanyrequiredsupportingdocuments.
NaturalizationAnapplicantforcitizenshipmusthaveavalidimmigrantvisa,musthavefulfilledresidencyrequirements,mustbepreparedtodemonstrateanunderstandingoftheEnglishlanguage,andmustknowthebasicsoftheUnitedStates’shistoryandhowitsgovernmentworks.Aftersatisfyingtheexamineratthenaturalizationinterviewandpassingthe
Englishandcivicstests,animmigrantmusttaketheoathofallegiance.Theapplicantswearsto
•SupporttheConstitutionandobeythelawsoftheUnitedStates.
•Renounce,orgiveup,anyforeignallegiance.
•BeararmsforthearmedforcesoftheUnitedStatesorperformservicesfortheUnitedStatesgovernmentwhenrequired.
Aftertakingtheoath,theimmigrantreceivesacertificateofnaturalization,whichisproofofU.S.citizenship.ThenheorshemayapplyforaU.S.passport.BecominganofficialU.S.citizenisalonganddifficultprocessrequiringlife-
changingdecisionsandactions.ImmigrantswhodothisknowwhytheywanttoliveintheUnitedStatesandtakenothingforgranted.TheymayknowmoreaboutU.S.governmentandhistorythanpeoplewhosefamilieshavebeencitizensforgenerations.
WorldCitizenshipNationsarelikestand-alonecoloredtiles,eachwithitsowndesign.Eachonehasabeautyallitsown,resultingfromcombinationsofelementsincludingethniccustoms,socialvalues,language,religion,andlegalsystems.Together,nationsformacomplexpattern—aworldmosaic.Eachpersonisnotonlyacitizenofhisorhernation,butalsoacitizenofthe
world.Assuch,weallhavearesponsibilitytorespectculturaldiversityandtherightsofothergovernments.Forthesakeofinternationalsecurity,wemustunderstandanation’srelationshiptoothernations,aswellasitscitizens’relationshiptooneanother.Thenwemustcooperateforthegoodofall.TheUnitedNationsandotherinternationalorganizationstrackinformation
abouthowcountriescarefortheircitizens.Inarichnationwherethewealthisnotconcentratedinthehandsofafew,citizenscanexpecttolivealongand
healthylife,geteducated,exerciseequalrightsunderthelaw,andaccessresourcesneededforadecentstandardofliving.Inpoorcountries,citizenstendtodieyoungerduetomalnutrition,
preventablediseases,andcivilwar.Thepeoplehavelittleaccesstogoodhealthcare,safedrinkingwater,education,pavedroads,electricity,andcommunicationwiththeworldbeyondtheirvillages.
Grossdomesticproduct,orGDP,isthemonetaryvalueofallfinalgoods(suchascars,clothing,andhouses)andservices(suchasdoggrooming,concerttickets,anddoctorvisits)producedwithinacountryinaspecificperiodoftime.AlargeGDPperpersongenerallyindicatesahighstandardoflivingandbetterqualityoflife.AlthoughGDPisconsideredthebestmeasureofanation’seconomichealth,itdoesn’taccuratelyreflectthedistributionofincomeamongthecountry’spopulation.
Whenwejudgehowothernationsrespectorviolatevaluessuchasfreedom,equality,justice,privacy,andhumandignity,wemustjudgeourownnationalcharacteraswell.Howwelldowedealwithracism,sexism,andculturalbiasinsideandoutsideourborders?Beingagoodworldcitizenrequiresspeakingoutandtakingactionagainstviolationsofhumanrights.
Mostdemocraticgovernmentsconsidersuffrage(therighttovote)arightofcitizenship.Manythinkthatparticipationinelectionsisacivicresponsibility.Somethinkitisadutyandmakevotingcompulsory,orrequired.Nonvotersmaybepenalizedorfined.Doyouthinkforcingcitizenstovotewillyieldelectionresultsthatreflectthewillofthepeople?
ComparisonofNationsinTermsofEconomicWell-BeingandQualityofLife
Source:HumanDevelopmentReport2007,UnitedNations.Basedondatafrom2005.
ComparativePoliticalSystems
Asnationsbecomemoreinterdependent,peoplestruggletomakesenseofthechangesandmovementstakingplacethroughouttheworld.Widespreadaccesstoinformationhasraisedawarenessabouttheeffectsoftheglobaleconomy,terrorism,religiousextremism,famines,widespreaddiseases,andthecollapseofgovernments.Educationleadstounderstanding,tolerance,andpeace.
PowertoRuleAgovernmentcomestorulethroughinheritance,revolution,orelection.Whatformagovernmenttakesdependsonwhohassovereignty,orthesupremeauthorityandpowertomake,implement,andenforcelaws,andsettledisputesaboutthoselaws.Thebasicformsofgovernmentare:
•Autocracy.Unlimitedpowertogovernisinthehandsofoneruler:amonarch,dictator,ormilitaryorreligiousleader.
•Oligarchy.Unlimitedpowertogovernisinthehandsofafewpersonsoraminority:asinglepoliticalparty,junta,orself-appointedelite(asagroupofemirs).
•Democracy.Unlimitedpowertogovernisinthehandsofthemajorityofacountry’scitizens.
•Republic.Limitedpowertogovernisinthehandsofelectedrepresentatives.
Atheocracyisagovernmentruledbyoneormorereligiousleaderswhobelievetheyhavedivineauthority.Ajunta(pronouncedHOON-ta)isagroupofpersons—oftenamilitaryleaderbackedbythenation’sarmedforces—whocontrolagovernmentafterseizingpower.AnemiristherulerofanIslamicnation.
Often,peopleinterchangecertaintermssuchasdemocracyandrepublicto
describeaspecificformofgovernment,eventhoughthewordshavedifferentmeanings.Democracymeans“powerofthepeople,”or“governmentof,by,andforthepeople.”Generally,itreferstothefactthatthecitizens—nottherulersorleaders—holdthesovereignpower.Democracydependsonmajorityrule.Adirectdemocracyisrulebythemajorityofcitizens,whichonlyworks
onasmallscale.Forexample,eligiblecitizensvoteonlocalissuesinmassmeetingsandthepeople’swillbecomespublicpolicy.Atthenationallevel,however,adirectdemocracyisimpracticalbecauseeveryeligiblevoterwouldhavetheright(andresponsibility)tovoteoneveryissue,fromwideningahighwaytochangingthestructureofanationalhealthcaresystem.Inarepresentativedemocracy,thepeople’swillisexpressedindirectlythroughelectedrepresentatives,withthewillofthemajoritycontrollingpublicpolicy.TheframersoftheU.S.Constitutionwantedtomakesurethatthewillof
themajoritywouldneveroppresstherightsoftheindividualcitizenorminority.Torestraintheexcessesofdemocracy,thefoundingfathersstructuredarepublic—aformofrepresentativegovernmentthatguaranteestheprotectionoftheindividual’sGod-given“unalienablerights”andfreedomsbylimitingthepowerofmajorityrule.AsacitizenandaScout,you“pledgeallegiancetotheflagoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaandtotherepublicforwhichitstands….”
Usually,powerislimitedbyawrittenconstitution,whichisthefundamentallawofanation.Itdescribesthepurposesofthegovernment,definestherightsofthepeople,explainshowleadersareelectedandhowlongtheycanholdoffice,anddefinesandlimitsthepowersoftheleaders.Incountrieswithconstitutions,boththepeopleandthegovernmentactinaccordancewithauniformsetoflegalprovisions.Somenations,suchastheUnitedKingdom,dependonuncodified
constitutions,whicharebasedonwrittensources(liketheMagnaCarta)aswellaslaws,precedents,andcustoms.Unlikeawrittenconstitution,whichsummarizesthebasiclawinasingledocument,theuncodifiedconstitutionisanunderstandingofhowthegovernmentshouldworkbasedoncertainlegaldocuments,traditions,andlawsupheldovertime.
UnitedKingdom
ConstitutionalGovernmentsMostconstitutionalgovernmentsintheworldtodayarerepresentative
democracies,suchastheTaiwaneseandEthiopiangovernments.Taiwanhasanelectedpresident,aunicameral(one-house)legislature,andfourmainpoliticalparties.TheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopiahasbeenanindependentnationforatleast2,000years.Itsgovernmentconsistsofanelectedpresident,abicameral(two-house)parliament,andseveralpoliticalparties.Somegovernmentsthatwereoncenonconstitutionalandruledbyabsolutemonarchsarenowconstitutionalmonarchies.IntheUnitedKingdom,forexample,thequeenisprimarilyafigurehead,andtherealpoliticalpowerlieswiththebicameralparliamentandtheprimeminister.
ConstitutionalGovernmentsManynationswithconstitutionsarenotnecessarilyconstitutionalgovernments.Evenwhenagovernmentisestablishedanddefinedbyaconstitution,theleaderorleadersmayactasiftheyarenotboundbyit.Forexample,aleadermayusesecretpoliceorapersonalarmytoprofithimself,hisfamily,andhisfriends.Inordertobeconsideredconstitutional,agovernmentmustmeetthreerequirements.Itmustbelimitedinitspower,followahigherlaw,andhaveconstitutionalstability.
LimitedPower.Theconceptoflimitedgovernment,alsocalledtheruleoflaw,holdsthatthegovernmentanditsofficersmaynotexceedthelimitsoftheirpower.Theyaresubjectto—andneverabove—thelaw.Iftheyviolatethelaw,theconstitutionspecifieswaystoremovethemfromoffice.Forexample,theConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesdeclaresthatpresidentswhodonotobeyitslawscanbeimpeachedandremovedfromoffice.
HigherLaw.Inaconstitutionalgovernment,theconstitutionisconsideredthe
highestlawoftheland.Ithastwoimportantcharacteristics.
1.Individualrightsareprotectedfrominfringementbythegovernmentandotherpeople.Forexample,citizensareprotectedagainstillegalsearchandseizure.
2.Itprovideslimitationsonpower.Thisisachievedbyseparatingpowersthroughchecksandbalances.
ConstitutionalStability.Theconstitutioncannotbechangedwithouttheconsentofcitizensandwithoutusingwell-knownestablishedamendmentprocedures.
NonconstitutionalGovernmentsEventhoughanationmaycallitselfa“democraticrepublic,”thisdoesnotmeanthattheactualgovernmentinpracticeisconstitutional.ThisisthecasewiththeDemocraticPeople’sRepublicofNorthKorea,whereKimJongIIrulesasaCommunistdictator.FormerpresidentFidelCastrohadasimilarroleformorethan30yearsinCommunistCuba,wheretheonlypoliticalpartyisthePartidoComunistadeCuba(CubanCommunistParty).NonconstitutionalgovernmentsalsoexistinnationssuchasSaudiArabia,whichisrunbyanabsolutemonarchy.
NonconstitutionalGovernmentsAnauthoritariangovernment—inwhichtheauthoritytoruleisconcentratedinthehandsofanautocraticleaderoranoligarchy—actsarbitrarily.Neitherconstitutionallyboundnorresponsibletothepeople,thegovernmentruleswithoutrestraintorlimitations.Itremainsincontrolaslongasitpleases,oruntilitisoverthrown.Authoritariangovernmentsarenotalwaysheavy-handed.Incertaincases,a
leadermayruleasabenevolentdictator,actingforthegoodofthepeople.However,anextremeformofauthoritarianismistotalitariangovernment.Thisoppressiveformofrulingpowercontrolseveryaspectoflife.
BigBrotheriswatchingyou.Inhisbook1984,GeorgeOrwellwritesaboutafictionaldictatorshipthatkeptitspeopleunderconstantsurveillance.ThetermBigBrothernowreferstoanyrulerorgovernmentthatinvadestheprivacyofitscitizens.
DistributionofPowerInaunitarygovernment,oftencalledacentralgovernment,allthepowersofthegovernmentareheldbyasinglecentralsource,suchasadictator,singlepoliticalpartyorrulinggroup(theCommunistPartyorjunta,forexample),orparliament.Localgovernmentshaveonlythosepowersgiventothembythecentralgovernment.Thosepowersmaybetakenawayatanytime.Aunitarygovernmentisnotalwaysadictatorship.Inaunitarygovernment
suchastheoneintheUnitedKingdom,allthepowersheldbythegovernmentareconcentratedintheparliament,yetthosepowersarelimited.Afederalgovernmentisbasedonthedivisionofpowersbetweenanational
governmentandseverallocalgovernments.Anauthoritysuperiortoboththenationalandlocalgovernments(usuallyawrittenconstitution)describesthepowersdesignatedtoeachlevel.Bothlevelsofgovernmentactdirectlyonthepeopleaccordingtotheirownlaws,officials,andagencies.Neitherlevelofgovernmentactingonitsownmaychangethedivisionofpowers.
YoucanlearnmoreabouttheU.S.governmentbyreadingtheCitizenshipintheCommunityandCitizenshipintheNationmeritbadgepamphlets.
RelationshipBetweenExecutiveandLegislativeBranchesApresidentialgovernmentisbasedontheseparationofpowersbetweentheexecutiveandlegislativebranches.Thebranchesareindependentofeachotherandcoequal.Thechiefexecutive(president)iselectedapartfromthelegislatureforadefinitetermofofficeandhasbroadpowersnotsubjecttothedirectcontrolofthelegislature.TheUnitedStatesinventedthisformofgovernment.Inaparliamentarygovernment,theexecutivechiefandcabinet(the
executivebranch)arethemselvesmembersofthelegislativebranch(parliament).Theleaderofthemajoritypartyinparliamentischosenbythelegislativememberstobetheprimeminister(alsocalledchancellororpremier).Underthissystem,theexecutivebranchissubjecttothedirectcontrolofthelegislativebranch.Variationsoftheserelationshipsarecalledmixed
presidential/parliamentarygovernments.
Somegovernmentshavesimilarformsbutactdifferently.IndiaandtheUnitedStatesarebothcalledfederalrepublics.However,India’spresident,theheadofstate,ischosenbyelectedmembersofparliamentandstatelegislativeassemblies.Theprimeministerholdstherealpowerandisaccountabletoparliament.TheU.S.presidentiselectedbythepeople(throughanelectoralcollege)andisnotdirectlyresponsibletothelegislativebranch.BothSaudiArabiaandJapanhavemonarchies,buttheSaudiArabianrulerhasabsolutepowerandisultimatelyresponsibletonoone.Japanhasanemperorandaconstitution.Themonarchisaceremonialheadofstatewithnopoliticalpower.
FormsofGovernment
Othergovernmentshaveaparticularformonpaperbutactdifferently.Theymayclaimtobeademocracybecausecertaindemocraticprocessessuchaselectionsareinplace.Yet,theseelectionsarenotalwaysfreeandfair.ThePeople’sRepublicofChinacallsitselfarepublic,butonlymembersoftheChineseCommunistPartyareallowedtorunforoffice.Infact,thePartyisthegovernment,controllingallmediaandmonitoringcitizens’useoftheInternet.Manygovernmentsaroundtheworldareinastateoftransition.Certain
nationsformerlyruledbyabsolutemon-archsordictatorshavemadeeffortsto
becomedemocraciesorrepublics.Somehaveacaretaker,ortemporary,governmentwhilethenationisintheprocessofcreatingaconstitutionandelectingnewleaders.Othersarecollapsingasrivalfactionswagecivilwars.Yourefforts(alongwiththoseofotherScoutsandcitizensoftheworld)to
understandthepoliticalandeconomicsystemsoftheworld’snationswillleadtogreaterglobaltoleranceandwell-being.
Asyoulearnaboutdifferentpoliticalsystems,youalsowilllearnhowpeoplevaluetheirgovernmentsandhowgovernmentsvaluetheircitizens.
NationalInterest
Agovernmentclassifiesareasofinterestintwoways:publicandnational.Public(domestic)interestsareinternalconcerns—suchaseducation,healthcare,andtaxation—tobeaddressedwithinthecountry’sbordersaccordingtopublicpolicy.National(foreign)interestsrefertothoseissuesthataffectrelationsbeyondacountry’sborders.Thesegoals—suchasmilitaryactions,expansionofinternationaltrade,andhumanitarianefforts—areshapedthroughforeignpolicy.
Anissueofvitalinterestissoimportanttoanation’swell-beingthatitcannotbecompromised.
__________________________
Ablocisagroupofnationsthatacttogetherformilitary,economic,orpoliticalpurposes.
Everynationintheworldactsaccordingtoitsownprincipalinterests.Theconceptofnationalinterestisbasedontheideathatthegovernmentwillprotectitscitizens,property,andboundariesagainstinfringement,ortrespass,byanyothernation.Thekeyareasofnationalinterestarenationalsecurityandsurvival,economicwelfare,andnationalvalues.Nationalsecurityisconsideredanareaofvitalinterest.Defenseofthe
homeland,preservationofterritorialborders,andthehealthandsafetyofthecitizensaresocriticalthatotherareasofnationalinterestaresubordinatetotheseobjectives.Anation’slevelofconcernaboutitsownsecuritydependsonhowitregardsothernations’motives.SouthKoreamaintainsalarge,well-equippedmilitaryforcebecauseitbelievesitsneighbor,NorthKorea,mightattackit.Anation’seconomicwelfareisbasedonthehealthofitseconomy,which
variesaccordingtothenation’sresourcesandhowtheyareproduced,distributed,andconsumed.Theinterestsofonenationareaffectedbyeventsandconditionsinothernationsorregions.Forexample,Cuba’scentralizedeconomyhaslongbeendependentonforeignaidfromtheSovietbloc.Afterthecollapse
oftheSovietUnionin1990,Cubaexperiencedaneconomiccrisis.TheCubangovernmentredirecteditsforeignpoliciestoseeknewtradingpartnersandallowforeigninvestmentsinCuba.
Foreignaidisthetransferofmoney,goods,orservicesfromonenationtoanotherforthebenefitofbothnations.Humanitarianassistanceincludesactsofhelp—providingtemporaryshelter,food,medicalsupplies—inresponsetonaturaldisasters,civilwar,andtheoutbreakofadiseaserestrictedtoaspecificregion,suchasthisfooddistributioneffortinBurundi.Image:ICRC/ThierryGassmann
Nationalvaluesarebasedonanation’straditionalbeliefs,culture,religion,andhistoricalexperiences.Everynationhasaninterestinprotectingand
promotingitswayoflife.Americaspreadsitsnationalvalues—ablendofdiverseimmigrantvaluesanddemocraticprinciples—throughforeignaidandhumanitarianassistance.
InternationalRelationsTheUnitedStates,likemostotherdemocraticcountries,hasanopensociety.People,money,ideas,andproductsmoveeasilyacrossborderswithlittleinterference.Thatencouragesinternationaltradeandtourism,culturalexchanges,andeducationalopportunities.Internationalterrorists,however,haveexploitedthestrengthsofanopen
society—freedoms,mobility,andtrust—tofurthertheircauses.Physicalbordersarebecomingmeaningless—justlinesonamap.Infact,bordersaredisappearingascomputerhackersattackgovernmentsandmultinationalcompaniesincyberspace,roguenationsthreatentolaunchlong-rangenuclearmissiles,andradicalswagebiologicalwarfarethroughthemail.
Aroguenationisaspecificgovernmentthatactsunpredictablyinpursuitofitsowngoals—tothepointofendangeringcitizensinothercountries.
Today,neitheradvantageousgeographicalpositionnorgreatmilitarystrengthcanensurenationalsecurity.Eventsandconditionswithinandacrossbordersaffectothercountriesandregions,threateningthestabilityandfavorablebalanceofnations.Thesetransnationalproblemscannotberesolvedbyanyonenation,butrequireinternationalcooperation.
•Drugtrafficking
•Famine
•Foreigninvestments
•Humanrightsviolations
•Migrationofcivilwarrefugees
•Naturaldisasters
•Pandemics
•Populationexplosion
•Proliferation(spread)ofweaponsofmassdestruction
•Terrorism
•Useofouterspace
Apandemicisadisease—suchasbubonicplagueorHIV/AIDS—prevalentthroughoutalargeregion,country,continent,orthewholeworld.
Nationsthatrecognizetheirdependentandinterdependentrelationshipswithothernationsformgroupscalledalliancesandpledgetosupportoneanotherintimesofconflict.Someformalliancesaroundeconomic,environmental,orhumanitar-ianconcerns.Onenationmaybelongtomanyalliances.Asgovernmentsalterforeignpolicyinresponsetointernationalcrisesor
opportunities,theyoftenbreakawayfrompoliticalfriendsorstrikedealswithformerfoes.Alliesarenotnecessarilyfriendsforlife;theyarefriendsofconvenience.
ForeignPolicyForeignpolicyincludesallthepositionsandactionsanationtakesinitsrelationshipswiththerestoftheworld.Itexiststoprotectandpromotethenationalinterest.Thecontinuityofforeignpoliciesfromyeartoyearreassuresanation’salliesandwinsdomesticsupport.Yetanationmustbecreativeinresponsetothreatsoropportunities.Forexample,aftertheSeptember11,2001,bombingoftheWorldTradeCenterinNewYorkCity,theU.S.governmentcreatedtheDepartmentofHomelandSecurity,anewexecutivecabinetposition.
Beforeanationcanconductforeignpolicy,therestoftheworldmustformallyrecognizeit.Ifonenationrecognizesanother,itacknowledgesthelegalexistenceofthatnationandgovernment.Sometimes,becauseofwarorrevolution,agovernmentcollapsesoristakenoverbyoneormorefactions.Onlythegovernmentthattheworldrecognizeshasthelegitimaterighttoconductforeignpolicy.
IntheUnitedStates,thepresident’sformalpronouncementaboutforeignpolicy
issuesofcrucialimportanceisoftenreferredtoasadoctrine(asintheMonroeDoctrine).
Self-sufficiency,Independence,andInterdependence.Nationsestablishforeignpolicybasedontheirbeliefsaboutwhethertheycansurviveontheirownorneedthehelpofothernations.Governmentsandpolicymakersuseone(oracombination)ofapproaches.
•Isolationism:Anationturnsinward,refusingtogetinvolvedwiththeaffairsoftherestoftheworld.
•Unilateralism:Anationmakesone-sideddecisions,relyingonitsownresourcesandcapabilitiesinpursuitofforeignpolicyobjectives.
•Bilateralismormultilateralism:Anationcoordinatesdeliberateactionswithtwoormorecountriestoachievecertainobjectives,suchasdisarmament(reductionofweapons).
Goodworldcitizenspayattentiontothepoliticaldebateaboutinternationalchallenges,trytounderstandtheprosandconsofabroadornarrowforeignpolicy,andadvisetheirelectedrepresentativeshowtovoteontheirbehalf.
Nationalinterestisneverstatic.Foreignpolicyshiftsinresponsetochangesondomesticandinternationalfronts.Citizenslivingunderanauthoritariangovernmenthavelittlesayaboutrelationswithothernations.Butinapluralisticsociety,manyraisetheirvoices.Individualswhomakenoefforttoinformthemselvesaboutglobalissuesrisklettingspecialinterestgroupsspeakforthem.
Apluralisticgovernmentembracesculturaldiversityandencouragesgeneralparticipationindecisionmaking.
WhoMakesU.S.ForeignPolicyPresident
•Thecentralfigureinmakingandconductingforeignpolicy
•Commander-in-chiefofthearmedforces•AssistedbytheDepartmentofState•WiththeSenate’sadviceandconsent,cannegotiatetreatiesandappointambassadors,consuls,andotherpublicministerstorepresenttheU.S.abroad
DepartmentofState
•OfficialliaisonwithforeignembassiesinWashington,D.C.•Themainsourceofforeign-affairsinformation•ChieflyresponsibleforplanningandimplementingU.S.foreignpolicy•Responsibleforallofficialrelationshipswithgovernmentsofothercountries
•Negotiatestreatiesandagreementswithforeigngovernments•RepresentstheU.S.beforetheUNandotherinternationalorganizations•Ledbythesecretaryofstate,acabinetmemberapprovedbytheSenatetoadvisethepresidentonforeignpolicy
•ThesecretaryofstatedirectstheUSIA,theArmsControlandDisarmamentAgency,theAgencyforInternationalDevelopment,andthePeaceCorps.
NationalSecurityCouncil
•EstablishedbyCongressin1947•Advisespresidentonforeignpolicy•Analyzescomplexissuesofnationalsecurity•Headedbypresidentandthesecretariesofstateanddefense•Mayinviteheadsofotheragencies(suchastheCIAandJointChiefsofStaff)toitsmeetings
•Scopeofdutiesvarieswitheachpresident
Congress
•Givesadviceandconsentontreatiesandambassadorialappointments•Haslegislativecontroloverthebudgetsofforeignaffairsagenciesandactivities
•Makeslawinimmigration,foreigntrade,andinternationalmonetaryarrangements
•ProvidesforthecommondefenseandgeneralwelfareoftheU.S.byregulatinginternationalcommerceanddeclaringwar
•Committees,suchastheHouseInternationalRelations,SenateForeignRelations,andArmedServicesandAppropriationscommittees,guideforeignaffairslegislationthroughCongress.
•Overseesthepresident’sconductofforeignpolicybyconductinghearings,investigations,andoverseason-siteinspections
•SomemembersofCongressserveasdelegatestotheUnitedNationsandinternationalconferences.
TheU.S.ForeignService
•ThecorpsofprofessionalemployeesoftheStateDepartment•RepresentstheU.S.inforeigncountriesandtointernationalorganizations
•Generallyreferredtoasdiplomats•Employeesarechosenbycompetitiveexamandpromotedonmerit.•UseswiderangeofskillstoimplementAmericanforeignpolicy:—internationalprotocols—negotiatingskills—specializedprofessionalortechnicalskills
TheWorldOrderofNations
Youknowthereisahugedifferencebetweenneedingsomethingandwantingit.It’sthedifferencebetweenpokinginthedirtforacarrottoeatandorderingahotfudgesundaewithacherryontop.It’sthedifferencebetweenjustenough(ornotenough)andplenty,betweensurvivalandprosperity.That’sthekindofdifferencebetweenmostpeoplelivinginBangladeshandthoseintheUnitedStates.Anation’seconomicworldviewhaseverythingtodowithitspositioninthe
worldorder,orhierarchyofworldeconomies.Theseeconomiesareclassifiedaccordingtospecificfactors:standardsofliving,economicproductivityandgrowth,anduseofmoderninformationtechnology.
Thecitizensoffirstworldnationshavemanymorerightsandprivilegesthandothoseoflessdevelopedcountries.
Afirstworldnation,alsocalledanadvancedindustrialcountry(AIC),isamoderncountrywithtop-rateindustrialandtechnologicalcapabilities.Itplaysamajorroleininternationalpoliticsorfinance.Canada,France,Germany,Italy,Japan,theUnitedStates,andtheUnitedKingdomaresomeofthefirstworldnations.
ResidentsofruralChina,oneoftheworld’sdeveloping,orsecondworld,nations.
Asecondworldnation,alsocalledamajordevelopingcountry,isan
industrialcountrythatisnotasadvancedorasprosperousasafirstworldnation.Thisclassificationisnotusedoftenassomenationsareonthevergeofbecomingfirstworldnations,andothersaremorelikethirdworldcountries.ExamplesofsecondworldnationsincludecountriesthatwerepartoftheformerSovietbloc,China,Mexico,andAlgeria.Athirdworldnation,alsocalledaless-developedcountry,isapoorcountry
wherehighbirthrates,poorhealthcare,andlackofeducationcontributetoalowstandardofliving.Theeconomyisgenerallybasedonacombinationofagriculturalandlow-levelindustrialactivities.ThirdworldnationsincludeNicaragua,Kenya,Ethiopia,India,andIndonesia.Thesecountriesdependonforeignaidfromfirstworldnationstofundprogramsthathelpdevelopandimproveuponeducationandtechnology.
Inthirdworldcountries,thepoorhealthstandardscontributetothelowstandardofliving.
Infourthworldcountries,famineandhomelessnessarejusttwooftheseriousday-to-dayconcernsmanypeopleface.
Afourthworldnationisonthebottomoftheeconomichierarchy.Peopleliveinextremepoverty.Theagrarian(agricultural)economyisbasedonsubsistencefarming,whichmeansthatthecropsanddairyproductsprovidetheminimumamountoffoodnecessarytosupportthefarmfamily—withnosurpluslefttotrade.ThefourthworldnationsareBangladeshinAsiaandcountriesinthefaminebeltacrossthemiddleofAfrica.Thirdworldnationsthathavebeenravagedbywar(likeAfghanistanandMozambique)canslipintothiscategory.Peopleallaroundtheworldhavethesamebasicneedsintermsoffood,
shelter,safety,andhealth.Oncetheseneedsaremet,thelifestylesofpeoplearoundtheworldstarttolookalike.Inthefourthworldandinsomethirdworldcountries,peopleusebicyclesandmotorbikestogetaround.Therearefewpavedroads.Asincomeperpersonrises,theconsumerdemandforautomobilesrises.Thatnecessitatestheconstructionofmodernhighways,whichultimatelyleadstothedevelopmentofrailtransportationsystemsandaninfrastructuretosupportthegrowthofmajorurbanareas.
Infrastructureisthesystemofpublicworksthatsupportthepeoplelivinginanarea,suchasatown,region,orcountry.Itincludespublictransportationsystems,waterandsanitation,electricpower,communicationsnetworks,andfinance.
Atthepointthatconsumerdemandismoreaboutwantingthanneedingproducts,anationhasachievedalevelofprosperity.Movementuptheladderofdevelopmentdependsonthegovernment’sabilitytoputtherightpolicies,institutions,andinfrastructureinplaceattherighttime.Ifthegovernmentkeepsatightcontroloncurrency,banking,andcommunications,itcreatesabarriertogrowthanditseconomywillstagnate.However,ifthegovernmentisopentoparticipationintheglobaleconomy,thenationcanprosper.
EconomicActivitiesAroundtheWorldAnation’splaceintheworldorderrelatestothekindsofactivitiesthatarethefoundationofitseconomy.Theseeconomicactivitiesareclassifiedintothreesectors.
PrimarySector.ThisfirstlevelofeconomicactivitiesisbasedonextractingrawmaterialsfromEarth’ssurface.Primarysectorindustriesincludeagriculture,forestry,fishing,andmining.Themajorityofpeopleworkinginthirdworldcountriesareinvolvedintheselabor-intensiveactivities.
SecondarySector.Activitiesinthissectorinvolveindustriesthattransformrawmaterialsintofinishedgoods—manufacturingandconstruction.
TertiarySector.Industriesinthissectorproduceintangibles,alsoknownasservices.Theseincludeconsumer-orientedservicessuchasretailtrade,bankingandinvestmentservices,healthcare,communications,transportation,andnonprofitorganizations.Mostoftheeconomicactivitiesinfirstworldcountriesoccurinthetertiarysector.
Intangiblesareproductsthatcannotbeseenortouched.
Ifyoufollowthelifecycleofaproduct,youwillseethatitmovesthroughthesectorsinsequence.Forexample,workersintheprimarysectorcutdowntrees.Inthesecondsector,thetimberisturnedintolumberatamill,andthenusedtobuildhouses.Inthetertiarysector,variousservicesspinofffromthehomeconstructionindustry:realestatepractices,mortgagecompanies,insuranceagencies,furnitureandhomeimprovementstores,aswellaslandscapeand
carpetcleaningbusinesses.Anation’seconomyislikeaproduct.Overtimeitmovesthroughthe
sequenceofeconomicactivities.Dependingonitsforeignpolicyandotherfactors,thenationmaydevelopfromasourceofrawmaterialsandmanpowertoaproviderofservices,fromathirdworldcountryintoafirstworldnation.Todaymostcountries’economiesdependonacombinationoftwoormoresectors.
Historycanplayakeyroleinhowcountriesinteractwitheachother.Forexample,onecountrymighthaveadominantreligionthatconflictswithanothercountry’sdominantreligion.SuchisthecasebetweenIsraelandSaudiArabia.Otherhistoricfactorsthatcouldinfluencetherelationshipbetweentwocountriesaretheirculturalbeliefsandclasssystem.
Geography,NaturalResources,andClimateIfyouaskedseveralrealestateagentstonamethetopthreefactorstoconsiderwhenbuyingahouse,theyprobablywouldallsay,“Location.Location.Location.”Theymeanthatplacematters.That’strueforcountries,too.Whereacountryislocatedmakesahuge
differenceinwhetheritwillprosperorstruggle.
WherePeopleSettleAspeoplegaveupthenomadiclifestyleofhuntingandgathering,manysettleddowntofarmalongfertilestripsoflandincoastalareasandonfloodplainsnearrivers.Theyieldsoftheircropsdependedonafavorableclimate.Farmersintemperateclimates(moderatetemperaturesandrainfall)hadabetterchanceofproducingabundantcropsthanfarmersinotherclimateregions.Thatistruetoday,too.Latitude,elevation,oceancurrents,bodiesofwater,mountains,andwindsall
impacttheclimateofdifferentregions.Naturalhazardsandseasonalweatherpatternsaffectpopulationsandeconomiesworldwide.Earthquakes,volcanoes,hurricanes,tornadoes,torrentialrains,anddroughtscausedeaths,environmentaldamage,foodshortages,andevencivilunrest.Astherealestateagentswilltellyou,locationmatters.
NaturalResources
Whatisaboveandwhat’sunderthesurfaceofacountrymakeadifferenceinhowwellthepeopletherelive.Nationsdependonenergyandmaterialsextractedfromtheenvironment.Thesenaturalresourcesarethebasicelementsofeconomies.Ifacountryhasabundantandavailableresources,thenitcanusethemtomeetthepopulation’sessentialneedsandtakethesurplustomarketforcash.Naturalresourcesarecategorizedas:
•Inexhaustiblesourcesofenergy—sun,tides,water,wind.Thesearecontinuouslygenerated.Theirproductioncannotbereducedorexhaustedbymismanagement.
•Renewableresources—crops,fisheries,forests,soils.Theseresourcesarerenewed,orregenerated,byeitherenvironmentalprocessesorbiologicalreproduction.Climateandterrain(thephysicalfeaturesoftheland)affecttheirabundanceorscarcity.Althoughtheseresourcescanbereplaced,theyalsocanbedepleted—usedup—ordestroyedbymismanagement.
•Nonrenewableresources—fossilfuels(coal,petroleum,naturalgas),industrialminerals(sand,limestone,salt,sulfur,phosphate),land,metals(ores).Thesearemineralsandcannotbereplenished.
Itispossibletorecyclemetalresources,suchasironandcopper.However,coal,oil,andnaturalgas—whichsupply80percentoftheworld’senergy—arecompletelyconsumedwhenused.Becauseoftheimportanceoftheseresources,nationsformstrategicalliancestouseandprotectthem.Thequalityandquantityofnaturalresourcesareunevenlydistributedaround
theworld.Thosecountrieswithabundantresourcesandthemeanstousethem,liketheUnitedStatesandCanada,havethrived.Mostpoorcountrieshavescarcenaturalresourcesandlackthemeanstousewhattheydohave.
PlacetoPlaceIfacountryintendstotradeorsellitssurplusresources,itmustbeabletogetthemtomarket.Manydevelopingnationsarelocatedinthetropicalregionsoftheworld.Foodssuchasrice,fruits,andvegetablescanbegrownthere,butthedenseforestgrowthandheavyrainfallmakeithardtobuildandmaintainroadsneededtomovetheproductstomarket.Sopeopleinthesecountriesrelyonwatertransportandlivenearthebanksofnavigablerivers.Thosenationsthataremostsuccessfultradingwithothercountrieshavelong
coastlineswithdeepwaterportsandprotectedharbors.YetRussia—despiteitslongcoastline—hasnoice-freeportsinwinter,soithasproblemswithshipping
freight.Someofthepoorestcountriesintheworldarelandlocked.(Switzerlandand
Austria,however,havemanagedtobecomefirstworldnationsdespitebeinglandlocked.)Africahas15landlockednations.Withoutdirectaccesstooceans,thesecountrieslackfishingandshippingopportunitiesandareataseriousdisadvantagecomparedtocoastlinecountries.Theydependonbeingallowedtoshiptheirproductsonroadsorriversthatcrossnationalborders.InAfrica,civilwarsandfaminesoccuroftenandrebelsillegallyseizeshipments.Inorderforthesethirdworldnationstodevelopeconomically,theymustfindwaystocooperate.
TakeadvantageofanyopportunityyouhavetospeakwithScoutsfromfarawayplaces.Thisisthemostfascinatingwaytolearnmoreabouttheworld.
Yemen,onthesouthcoastoftheArabianPeninsula,haslargedepositsofnaturalgas,whichitwantstosellworldwide.However,thecostsofgettingthegastomarketarehighbecausethegasislockedinaninlanddesert,withtwomountainrangesseparatingitfromtheRedSeacoast.Ontheotherhand,Yemen’scompetitor—tinyQataronthePersianGulf—
has62timesasmuchnaturalgasbeneaththesea.Thegascanbepumpedout,
chilledintoliquefiednaturalgas,andthenpouredintothehullsofrefrigeratedsupertankers.
PopulationsandProblemsPopulationgrowthisnotalocalproblemuniquetoaparticularcountry,butaglobalissuethathastobetackledbyallnations.Itcannotbeaddressedonitsown,butmustbeconsideredintermsofglobalpoverty,healthandeducation,economicdevelopment,andenvironmentaldamage.Thatrequirescoordinatedeffortsintheglobalcommunity.Almostthree-quartersoftheworld’spopulationlivesinthirdworldnations.
Morethan80percentofthepopulationincreaseistakingplaceinless-developedcountries.Populationgrowth(frombirthsandmigrationofrefugees)putspressureonlandresources,resultinginfoodshortagecrises.ThereisalimittoEarth’scarryingcapacity,orabilitytosupporttheworld’s
population.Yetmanypeoplethinkthatbecauseresourceslikeairandwaterareownedincommon,theydonothavetomakespecialeffortstoprotectandconservethoseresources.Morethan200oftheworld’sriverbasinsaresharedbytwoormorecountries.Soonecountry’stoxicwastedumpingmaycontaminatethewaterusedbyothercountriesdownstream.Airpollutioncausedbychemicalspillsandnucleardisasters,suchasthoseinBhopal,India,andChernobyl,Ukraine,affectedhumanlives,trade,agriculture,andindustrythroughouttheworld.
Sustainabledevelopmentiseconomicgrowththatbalancestheneedsofhumanityandthebenefitsofindustrializationwithenvironmentalcare.Managingnaturalresourcesanddiscouragingthewasteofnonrenewableresourceshelpsensurethehealthoftheplanetforfuturegenerations.
Themainwaytoachievesustainabledevelopmentisthroughresourcemanagement.Thisapproachinvolvesdecisionsaboutwhichnaturalresourcesshould—andshouldnot—bedeveloped,howmuchandinwhatwaytodevelopthem,andforwhom.Thesedecisionsareinfluencedbyeconomic,political,andculturalconcerns.
StrikinganEcologicalBalancePharmaceuticalcompanieshaverealizedthatrainforestsmayholdthecure
forcertaindiseases.Inordertogainaccesstothemicrobes,insects,andplants,somecompaniesareagreeingintradenegotiationstofinancetheeffortsofconservationgroupsthatprotectthebiodiversityofthetropicalecosystems.
Thegrowthoftheworld’spopulationandthehealthoftheworld’senvironmentaffectusall.Nonationcanaffordtoignoreproblemsbeyonditsborders.Thedepletionortightcontrolofnaturalresourcescallsforcooperativeeffortstomanagetheseresourcesresponsiblyandfindnewsourcesofenergy.Globalpollutionrequirescollectiveenvironmentalprotectionmeasures.Askyourselfhowyoucancontributetothewelfareoftheplanetanditspeople.Theworldwillfeellikeamuchsmallerplace.
InternationalTradeandCommerce
Regardlessofhowanationmightchoosetoisolateitselffromworldevents,itisnotentirelyself-sufficient.Nonation’secon-omycanproduceallthegoodsandservicesthatitscitizensdemand,soitmustexchangeresourcesandproductswithothercountries.Thisexchangeamongnationsiscalledbyvariousterms:internationaltrade,globaltrade,foreigntrade,andinternationalcommerce.
Theconceptoftradereferstothebusinessofbuyingandsellingproductsorbartering(exchangingoneitemforanother).Peopletradeface-to-faceatgaragesales,roadsidevegetablestands,intouristspots,andmanyotherplaces.Commerceisorganizedtradeonalargescaleandusuallyinvolvestransportingproductsfromplacetoplace.Allnationscanbenefitfromtradingwithoneanother,butmanyfactors
affecthowthegainswillbedistributedintheinternationalmarketplace.Acountry’sopennesstointernationaltradedependsonitspoliticalandeconomicsystems.
EconomicSystemsandIdeologiesEverynationmustmakedecisionsaboutwhatgoodstoproduce,inwhatquantity,howtomaketheproducts,whattocharge,andwheretodistributethem.Productionmaybeforsubsistenceorforexchange.Itmaybeorganizedforwelfareorforprofits.Differenteconomicsystemsaddresstheseissuesindifferentways—accordingtogovernment’sinvolvement.
CapitalismCapitalismisamarket-basedeconomicsystem,whichmeansthatthedecisionsmentionedabovearemadeinthemarketplacethroughthelawofsupplyanddemand.Thissystem,alsocalledafreeenterprise,privateenterprise,orfree-marketeconomy,hasthefollowingcharacteristics:
•Privateorcorporateownership
•Investmentsdeterminedbyprivatedecisioninsteadofbystatecontrol
•Individualinitiative
•Profit
•Competition
Thelawofsupplyanddemandstatesthatthepriceofanyproduct(orservice)adjuststobringthesupplyanddemandforthatproductintobalance.Whenthesupplyofaparticulargoodorserviceisplentiful,thesellertendstodropthepriceinordertocompete.Whenthesupplybecomesscarceranddemandishigh(manybuyerswanttheproductorservice),thesellertendstoraisetheprice.Ifdemanddrops(fewerbuyerswanttheproduct),thesellerlowerstheprice.
Inafreeenterprisesystem,theentrepreneurdrivestheeconomy.Anyindividualhastherighttostartandrunhisorherownbusiness,aswellastherighttocloseit.Becausetheentrepreneuristheonewhoorganizes,manages,invests,andtakesthefinancialrisksofthebusiness,thatpersonalsoisentitledtobenefitfromanyprofits.Competitionisakeyfeatureofthefreeenterprisesystem.Whenanumberof
companiesofferthesameproductorservice,theyhavetocompeteforcustomers.Theconsumerwantstobuytheproductwiththebestqualityandlowestprice.Ifcompanieswantmoresales,theyhavetokeepqualityhighandpriceslow.Inordertodoboth,companieshavetofindthemostefficientwaytoproducetheproductsorservicessothattheycanstillrealizeprofits.Capitalismletsconsumers,entrepreneurs,andworkersmakefreechoices.
Buyerschoosewhatproductstheywanttobuyandwhichservicestheywanttouse.Entrepreneurschoosewhattypeofbusinesstheywishtoown,andworkerschoosetostay,switch,orquitjobs.ThebasisoftheU.S.economyisthefreemarket,butthegovernmentdoes
regulatecertaineconomicactivitiesinordertoprotectthepublic.Purefoodanddruglaws,antipollutionstandards,andsubsidies(governmentpayments)tofarmerstogrowparticularcropsareexamplesofsuchregulations.Thegovernmentalsopromotesprivateenterprisebybuildinganinfrastructuretosupportbusinesses,grantingmoneyforscientificresearch,anddevelopingforeignmarkets.Thiseconomicsystem,inwhichtheprivatesector(individualsandcompanies)producesgoodsandservicesandthepublicsector(government)regulatesandpromotesbusiness,iscalledamixedeconomy.IntheUnitedStates,thegovernmentactuallyownsandoperatessomeofthe
servicesthatcouldbeprovidedbytheprivatesector.Forexample,Amtrak(thepassengertrainservice)andMedicare(thefederalhealthcareinsuranceprogram),arerunbythegovernment.
TheU.S.andForeignCommercialServiceTheU.S.andForeignCommercialService,intheDepartmentofCommerce,focusesonpromotingtheexportofgoodsandservicesfromtheUnitedStates,particularlybysmall-andmedium-sizedbusinesses,andontheprotectionofU.S.businessinterestsabroad.TheCommercialServiceassistsAmericanbusinessesbynegotiatingfavorabletradingtermsanddevelopingnewmarketsabroad.Thesebusinessesandmultinationalcorporationsspreadcapitalismthroughouttheworld.
SocialismSocialismisaneconomicandpoliticalsystembasedontheideathatallcitizensshouldbeeconomicallyandpoliticallyequal.UnliketheUnitedStates,wherecitizensareallequalunderthelawbutunequalintermsofpersonalwealth,socialistnationstrytodistributewealthequallyandfairlyamongallcitizens.Theyaccomplishthisthroughcollective(public)ownershipoftheprincipalmeansofproducinganddistributinggoodsandservicesandcentralizedplanning.Understrictsocialism,thegovernmentownsandoperatesallbusinessesand
controlsallaspectsofsocialwelfareandplanning.Inmanysocialistcountries,thegovernmentcontrolsthelargeindustriesthataffectallcitizens,suchastransportation,utilities,andcommunications.Inothersocialistsocieties,thegovernmentmayallowindividualstoowncertainbusinesses,yetitmaintainstightcontrol.
Nationalizationisthegovernment’sacquisitionof—orassumptionofcontrolover—privatelyownedbusinesses.Aseconomiesbasedonsocialismorcommunismtrytomakethetransitiontoafree-marketeconomy,theygothroughprivatization,orthereturnofnationalizedbusinessestoprivateownership.
Socialismattemptstoguaranteethepublicwelfarebyprovidingsocialservicesforallcitizensatlittleornocosttotheusers.Theseservicescaninclude
employment,housing,andhealthcare.Countriesthatprovidetheseextensiveservicesareoftencalledwelfarestates.However,theseserviceshavetobefundedthroughtaxes,whichmayamounttoasmuchas50or60percentofaperson’stotalincome.Governmentbureaucratsmakeallthedecisionsabouthowasocialist
economywilldevelopovertime.Theydetermineproductiongoalsanddirectinvestmentsintospecificindustries.Thistypeofeconomy—inwhichthegovernmentcontrolsthefactorsofproductionanddistribution—iscalledacentrallyplannedorcommandeconomy.Manycountries—suchasSwedenandGreatBritain—aredemocraticsocialist
nations.Theycombineafreemarketeconomywithsocialism.These,likemostmoderneconomies,aremixedeconomies.Thesystemsofcapitalismandsocialismhaveprosandcons.Capitalism
encouragestheindividualtoassumerisks,takeadvantageofnewtechnologies,anddecidehowtousepersonalincome.However,manypeoplestilllackthemeanstoaccessserviceslikegoodhealthcare.Undersocialism,mostcitizenshavetheirbasicneedsmetandalsohavesomeinfluencewheretheywork.Yet,withthehightaxesontheirearnings,theyhavelittlediscretionaryincomeandcanmakefewdecisionsabouthowtospendtheirmoney.Criticsofsocialismarguethatwithsomanypublicservicesprovided,theindividualhaslittleincentivetoworkhard.
Discretionaryincomeisthemoneyavailableafterbasicneedshavebeenmet.
__________________________
ThewordcommunismcomesfromtheLatincommunis,whichmeans“common,belongingtoall.”
CommunismInthemid-1800s,KarlMarxdevelopedasocial,political,andeconomictheoryinreactiontocapitalism.Hebelievedthatthroughouthistorysocialclasseshavestruggledforcontroloflaborandproduction.Hethoughtthatbusinessownersoppressedtheworkersandpredictedthatthelaborers(masses)wouldrevoltandoverthrowthecapitalists.Afteratransitionalphaseunderauthoritariancontrol,afreeclasslesssocietywouldemergeandthe“peopleincommon”wouldownall
theproperty.MarxandFriedrichEngelsdefinedtheconceptsofthismultifacetedtheoryinTheCommunistManifesto.KarlMarxiscalledthefatherofmoderncommunism.Manyofhisfollowers
believedthatsocialism(collectiveownership),anearlystageofcommunism,couldbeachievedpeacefullythroughdemocraticprocesses,butMarxcalledfora“violentandbloodyrevolution,”ifnecessary.ThosewhoagreedwithMarxbecameknownascommunists.In1917,acommunistrevolutioninRussialedtothecreationoftheSoviet
UnionandthentothespreadofcommunisminEasternEuropeandChinaafterWorldWarII.Inthelate1980s,communismcollapsedinEasternEuropeandtheSovietUnionaspeopleralliedforgreaterfreedomofthoughtandeconomicopportunity.Today,CubaandNorthKoreaaretwoofthefewremainingcommunist
nations.AlthoughtheCommunistPartyistheonlypoliticalpartyinVietnamandthePeople’sRepublicofChina,thesecentrallyplannedeconomiesareintroducingelementsofthefreemarket.Developingcountrieswithnoexperienceinbuildinglargeindustriesand
infrastructuretendtorelyoncentrallyplannedeconomies.However,governmentsfocusedoninvestinginafewindustriesorproducing
specificgoodsmayneglecttheproductionoffoodorcertainconsumergoods.Atthatpoint,thecitizensmaybecomeresentfulandunruly.Politicalinstabilityinvitesauthoritariancontrol.Inordertoattractforeigninvestment,countriesmustcreateapredictable
environmentthatreassuresentrepreneursandforeigngovernments.Agoodinvestmentclimateoffersaccesstomarkets,stablegovernment,andtransparency.Developingnationsunderauthoritariancontrolarenottransparent,soinvestorsarereluctanttosinkcapitalintoprojectsthatcouldbenationalized.
Transparencyisthequalityofbeingabletoseethroughpublicandforeignpoliciesandgovernmentalactionstodetectcorruption.Atransparentsocietyisanopensociety,whichallowsaccesstoinformation.
ScarcityandSurplusNomatterwhattypeofeconomicsystemanationhas,itdependsoncertain
resourcestoproducegoodsandservices.Herearethebasicresources,calledfactorsofproduction:
•Naturalresources(renewableandnonrenewableresourcesproducedbynature)
•Humancapital(knowledgeandskillsthatworkersacquirethrougheducation,training,andexperience)
•Physicalcapital(stockofequipmentandstructuresusedtoproducegoodsandservices,includingmoney)
•Technicalknowledge(society’sunderstandingofthebestwaytoproducegoodsandservices)
Differentcountrieshavedifferentamountsoftheseresources,sotheyusethemdifferently.Singaporehasfewnaturalresourcesbutmuchhumancapital,soitspecializesinmanufacturinggoods(suchascomputerandofficeequipment)thatrequirealargelaborforce.
WhattoImportorExport?Todeterminewhichgoodsandservicestospecializein,mostnationsconcentrateonproducingwhattheycanmosteasilyandcheaplytransporttoothermarkets.IftheUnitedStatesproducesmorewheatthanitcanuse(asurplus)andJapanproducesmoreelectroniccomponentsthanitcanuse,thentheUnitedStatescanexportitssurpluswheattoJapanandimportJapan’ssurpluscomponents.Throughspecializationandtrade,thetwocountriescangetmoreofbothproducts.
Exportsaregoodsproduceddomesticallyandsoldtoforeignmarkets.Importsaregoodsproducedabroadandsolddomestically.
Onefactoranationconsiderswhendecidingwhethertoexportorimportaproductinthefreemarketisthedomesticpricecomparedtotheworldpriceforthesameproduct.Forexample,ifthedomesticpriceforbroccoliis$1.25perpoundandtheworldpriceis$1.79,thenthenationcouldgain54centsperpoundbyexportingbroccoli.If,ontheotherhand,thedomesticpriceforbroccoliis$1.79perpoundandtheworldpriceis$1.25,thenthenationwouldimportbroccoli.
Thedomesticpriceofaproductorservicenottradedintheinternationalmarketisthepriceconsumerspayathome.Theworldpriceisthepricenationsarepayingintheworldmarketforthatsameproduct.
Whenacountryallowsfreetradeandexportsaproduct,thedomesticproducersofthatproductarebetteroffbecausetheyreceivethehigherworldprice.However,theconsumersofthegoodareworseoffbecausetheynowhavetopaythehigherworldprice.Whenacountryimportsagood,domesticconsumersofthatgoodarebetteroffbecausetheynowpaythelowerworldprice,butdomesticproducersofthegoodareworseoffbecausetheyhavetodropthedomesticpriceoftheirgoodtocompetewiththeworldprice.Eventhoughtradedoesn’tmakeeveryonebetteroffatthesametime,itdoesraiseanation’sstandardofliving.
FreeTrade,Barriers,andEconomicAlliancesAttimes,however,whendomesticproducersarefeelingthenegativeeffectsofimportinggoods,theywilloftenpressurethegovernmenttoprotectthem.Ifthedomesticbroccoliproducersdescribedearlierwantedtocontinuegrowingbroccoliinsteadofswitchingtoanothercrop,theymightaskthegovernmenttolevyatariffonbroccoliimports.Thetaxraisesthepriceofimportedbroccoliabovetheworldpricebytheamountofthetariff.Nowdomesticproducerscansellbroccoliatapriceequaltotheworldpriceplusthetariffandcompetewithforeignproducers.Thistariffreducesthequantityofimportsandgeneratesrevenue(incomefromthetax)forthegovernment.SomeU.S.industriescomplainthatAmericaisfloodedwithlow-costgoods
fromforeignmarkets.Domesticautomobileandclothingmanufacturers,forexample,saythecostoflaborissocheapinthirdworldcountriesthattheycannotcompete.
Whenagovernmentleviesatariff,itimposesatax(orduty)ongoodsproducedabroadandsolddomestically.
Manyindustriestrytocutcostsbyoutsourcing,orsubcontractingjobsto
foreigncompanies.WorkersintheUnitedStatesandotherfirstworldnationsworryaboutlosingtheirjobstoworkersinforeigncountrieswherelaborcostsarecheaper.
ProsandConsofFreeTrade
Economiesofscalemeansthatovertimetheaveragecostofproducingagood
decreasesasthequantityofthegoodproducedincreases.
Theseindustrieslobby(trytoinfluence)thegovernmenttoprotecttheirbusinessesbyimposingquotas,whicharelimitsontheamountofspecificitemsthatcanbeimported.Tariffsandquotasarecalledtradebarriersbecausetheyblockfreetrade.
Manypeopledisagreeaboutwhethertheeconomybenefitsfromeffortstoprotectindustriesandjobsbyrestrictingtrade.
InternationalTradeAgreementsandEconomicAlliancesInternationaltradeagreementsaretreatiestodevelopandpromotetradeamongnations.Nationsoftenagreetobuyspecificproductsfromeachother.Thesetreatiesprovidetheparticipatingcountrieswithspecialtreatmentsuchaseasingoreliminatingtradebarriers.OneofthemostimportantinternationaltradeagreementsistheGeneral
AgreementonTariffsandTrade,whichistheonlymultilateraltreatythatestablishesagreed-uponrulesforworldtrade.Accordingtoaprovisioncalledthemostfavorednationclause,twopartiesthathavesignedaGATTagreementwilloffereachotherthesameadvantagesthattheyhaveofferedto(orplantooffer)thirdparties.Theseadvantagesusuallyapplytotariffs.TodaytheWorldTradeOrganizationoverseescompliancewiththoserules.Morethan144nationsbelongtotheWTO.Itspurposeistoliberalizeinternationaltradebyreducingtariffsandsubsidiesandabolishingquotasoncertainproducts.Oftennationstrytostrengthentheirowneconomiesbyformingaregional
alliancewithothereconomies.Theyintegratetheirmarketsby:
•Reducingbarrierstofreetradeamongcertaincountries
•Creatingcommontradebarrierstooutsidenations
•Coordinatingpoliciesabouttaxesandspecificbusinessactivities
Theseregionaltradeblocstaketheformsoffreetradeareasandeconomicunions.TheNorthAmericanFreeTradeActisatradeagreementamongMexico,
Canada,andtheUnitedStates.NAFTAremovedtradebarriersinordertopromotethefreemovementofgoodsandservicesacrossborders.In2004,CanadaandMexicoweretheUnitedStates’toptwotradingpartnersforcombinedexportsandimports.
TheUnitedStatesextendsmostfavorednationstatustoalmosteveryoneofitstradingpartners.Becausethestatusisnottheexceptionbutthenorm,thetermwaschangedtonormaltraderelationsstatus.
TheEuropeanUnionisaneconomicandmonetaryunionof25membernationsthatshareacommoncurrencycalledtheeuro.TheEUisbecominganincreasinglypowerfulplayerintheworldmarket.Protectionistsarguethatnationshavetogiveupsomemeasureofsovereignty
toparticipateinfreetradeareasandeconomicunionsliketheEuropeanUnion.
BalanceofPaymentsandForeignExchangeNationsarelikebigfamilieswithbudgets.Theyshop,work,buy,andsell.Attheendoftheday,themoneytheyspendshouldequalthemoneytheyearn.Thebalanceoftradeisthedifference—overaperiodoftime—betweenthevalueofacountry’simportsandexports.Ifthevalueofwhatacountryexportsisgreaterthanwhatitimports,thecountryhasatradesurplus.Ifthevalueofitsimportsisgreaterthanthevalueofitsexports,thecountryhasatradedeficit.Anationmustaddseveralotheritemstoitstradebalancetoknowifitreally
hasabalancedbudget:governmentpurchasesabroad,investmentsacrossinternationalborders,andchangesinthevalueofgovernmentholdingsofgoldandforeigncurrencies.Onceanationcalculatesallofitsinternationaltransactionsoveraperiodof
time—includingforeignaidandincomefromtourists—itdeterminesitsbalanceofpayments.Howanationbalancesitsaccountsdependsonforeignpolicies,economicopportunitiesorrisks,andthevalueofitscurrency.
NoReliefInSightCertainthirdworldcountrieshavesuchcrushingdebtstoothernationsthattheyareforcedtotakedrasticactions.Duringaseverefamine,Sudanexportedfoodtopayonitsdebts.InGhana,where50percentofthechildrenaremalnourished,halfofthefarminglandisusedtogrowcocoaforexport.TheInternationalMonetaryFundisaninternationalorganizationthat
encouragesinternationaltradeandforeignexchangeratestability,andoffersbalance-of-paymentsassistancetodebtornations.TheIMFworkswiththe
WorldBanktoaddresstheproblemsofthemostheavilyindebteddevelopingcountries.
IfyoutradedyourfriendfivepairsofnewbasketballshoesforfivenewCDs,wouldyoucalliteven?Probablynot.Youmightcalculatethevalueoftheitemstradedandfigureouthowmuchmoneyyourfriendstillowedyou.Nationshandletheirbalanceofpaymentsinasimilarway.However,becausecountriesusedifferentcurrencysystems,theyneedwaystoadjusthowtheypaytheirdebtstoeachother.Theforeignexchangerateisthepriceofonecurrencyintermsofanother.
Exchangeratesareimportantbecausetheyaffecttherelativepriceofdomesticandforeigngoods.Ifacountry’scurrencyappreciates,orrisesinvalue,comparedtoothercurrencies,thenthecountry’sgoodsabroad(exports)becomemoreexpensiveandforeigngoodsinthatcountry(imports)becomecheaper.Whenacountry’scurrencydepreciates,orlosesvalue,comparedtoothercurrencies,thenitsexportsbecomecheaperandimportsbecomemoreexpensive.Touriststravelingabroadhopetheircurrencyisstrongcomparedwiththe
currencyintheforeigncountrybecausemeals,hotels,andsouvenirswillnotcostasmuch.Forexample,ifanAmericanwenttothePhilippines,thistouristwouldfindthatoneU.S.dollarequalsalmost49Philippinespesos.SoahotelroominManilathatcosts1,200Philippinespesospernightwouldcostabout25U.S.dollars.However,anAmericantouristinEuropemightbesurprisedtofindthatthe
U.S.dollarisweakcomparedtotheeuro.AhotelinBrusselsthatcosts63eurospernightwouldcostabout90U.S.dollars.
Eachnation’scurrencyisuniqueandnotinterchangeable.U.S.dollarsarenotthesameasIndianrupeesorJapaneseyen.Norarecurrenciescalledbythesamename.ThepesosofArgentinaaredifferentfromthepesosusedinMexico.ThedinarsofJordan,Kuwait,andBahrainarenotinterchangeable,either.
Theexchangeratedependsonthesupplyanddemandforthecurrencyintheforeignexchangemarket,sotheratechangeseveryday.Theexchangerateonaparticulardayiscalledthespotrate.Therateofexchangebetweentwocurrenciesforaparticulartransactioniscalledthecrossrate.
Theforeignexchangemarketisnotaplace,butanorganizedgroupofseveralhundreddealers(mostlycentralbanksliketheFederalReserveBankintheUnitedStates)thatconductelectronictransactionstobuyandsellbankdepositsdenominatedindifferentcurrencies.
Foreigncurrenciescanbeboughtorsoldnowanddeliveredinthefuture.Thesetransactionsaredonebypurchasingabuyorsellcontractforaspecificcurrencyintheforeignexchangemarket.Theexchangerateusediscalledtheforwardrate.Youcanfindforeignexchangeratesinthebusinesssectionofmanycity
newspapers.FinancialpublicationssuchastheWallStreetJournalpublishdailylistingsofthespotratesandforwardratesofmajorworldcurrencies.Countrieswillnotallowtheirexchangeratestodroptoolow.Theymaintaina
specialstockofforeigncurrenciesknownasinternationalreserves.Whenacurrencydecreasestoomuch,anationwillinterveneintheforeignexchangemarketandbuysomeofitsowncurrencywithitsinternationalreservesinordertostabilizetheexchangerate.SincetheUnitedStatesistheworld’sleadingtradingnation,mostcountries
maintaintheirinternationalreservesinU.S.dollars.ManynationsalsoacceptU.S.dollarsaspayment.Inthisway,thedollaroftenfunctionsasaninternationalmonetaryunit.SotheforeignexchangerateofthedollarisimportantnotonlytotheUnitedStates,butalsotothosecountriesthatfundtheirinternationalreserveswithdollars.Theglobaleconomyandinternationaltradelinkallnations.Whathappensin
onecountryhasarippleeffectthroughouttheworld.Politicalproblemsoranaturaldisasterinonecountrycoulddelayshipmentsofrawmaterialstoothercountries—causingproductionslowdowns,whichleadtolayoffsorfiringofemployees.Nowthesecountriesareexportingless(creatingatradedeficit),andunemployedworkersarespendinglessintheirowneconomies,causingthedemandfordomesticproductstodrop.Therippleeffectcontinues.
AfloatingmarketinthedevelopingcountryofThailand
Itisimportanttounderstandthebasicconceptsabouttheglobaleconomyandinternationaltradebecauseitleadstoquestionsaboutthepeoplebehindtheproducts.Whyislaborsocheapinthirdworldcountries?Howcanmillionsofpeopleeachliveonlessthan$2aday?Arechildrenworkinginadultjobs?Asyourknowledgeincreases,sodoesyourcompassionforpeoplearoundtheworldandyourappreciationofyourownwayoflife.
UnitedNationsheadquarters,NewYorkCity
UnitedNationsSystem
TheUnitedNationsisamultinationalorganizationestablishedafterWorldWarIItoensurethatnationswouldworktogethertoavoidwarinthefuture.Itisneitheragovernmentnoranation,soithasnosovereignpowerofitsown.Althoughitcannotdeterminethelegitimacyofanation,itcanacceptcredentialsformembership.AsofOctober2013,U.N.membershipincluded193independentnations.
EachmembernationisamemberoftheGeneralAssemblyandhasonevote.Dependenciesarerepresentedindirectlybytheirrulingcountries.They,likeareasofspecialsovereignty,areinvitedtobeobserversatsessionsoftheGeneralAssemblyandtomaintainpermanentofficesatU.N.headquartersinNewYorkCity.
Adependencyisasubjectterritorythatisnotanessentialpartoftherulingcountry.Forexample,theFalklandIslandsoffthecoastofArgentinaisoneoftheUnitedKingdom’sdependentterritories.Anareaofspecialsovereigntyisageographical/politicalareawhosestatusofsovereigntyisunresolved.TheWestBankandGazaStripintheMiddleEast,forexample,areareasofspecialsovereignty—pendingfinalstatusnegotiationswithIsrael.
GoalsoftheUnitedNationsTheUnitedStateswasthefirstnationin1945toratifytheU.N.charter,whichis—ineffect—thewrittenconstitutionoftheUnitedNations.Accordingtothecharter,thegoalsoftheUnitedNationsaretomaintaininternationalpeaceandthecollectivesecurityandpromotecooperationinsolvinginternationalpolitical,economic,social,cultural,andhumanitarianproblems.Inordertoachieveitsgoals,theUnitedNationsdevelopedkeyobjectivesfor
the21stcentury:
•Promotingthecreationofindependentanddemocraticsocieties
•Protectinghumanrights
•Savingchildrenfromstarvationanddisease
•Providingreliefassistancetorefugeesanddisastervictims
•Counteringglobalcrime,drugs,anddisease
•Assistingcountriesdevastatedbywarandthelong-termthreatoflandmines
StructureoftheUnitedNationsTheU.N.charterorganizestheUnitedNationsintosixprincipalorgans:GeneralAssembly,SecurityCouncil,EconomicandSocialCouncil,TrusteeshipCouncil,InternationalCourtofJustice,andSecretariat.ExceptfortheInternationalCourtofJustice(alsoknownastheWorldCourt),
whichislocatedinTheHagueintheNetherlands,theotherorgansoperateoutofU.N.headquarters.ThesemainbodiesworkwithandthroughsubsidiaryU.N.organizationsandspecializedagencies.
ThefivepermanentmembersoftheSecurityCouncilareChina,France,RussianFederation,UnitedKingdom,andUnitedStatesofAmerica.Anegativevotefromanyoneofthepermanentmembershasthepowerofaveto.
SpecializedagenciesoftheUnitedNations,suchastheInternationalMonetaryFund,areseparateautonomousorganizations,relatedtotheUnitedNationsbyspecialagreements.
CallforReformMostpeoplethinkoftheUnitedNations’effortsintermsofpeacekeepingandmilitaryconflicts.Historically,however,itsmostvaluablecontributionsareintheareasofinternationallawandthedevelopmentofnations.CitizensofmanynationsbelievethattheUnitedNationsisoutofstepwith
worldchanges.Thebalanceofpowerhasshiftedsince1945.Countriesarenolongerundercolonialcontrol,andalltrustterritoriesarenowself-governingorhavegainedtheirindependence.Somenationsaredemandinganincreaseinthenumberofpermanent
membersintheSecurityCouncil.Others,suchastheUnitedStates,questionhowmuchsovereigntytheyhavetogiveupinordertocooperatewiththeUnitedNations.ThirdworldcountriesformthemajorityofmembersoftheU.N.General
Assembly,wheretheyhaveobjectedtothewideninggapbetweenrichandpoornations.ManyofthesenationsthinktheUnitedNationsistoofinanciallydependentontheUnitedStatesandotherfirstworldcountries.Ifthewealthynationsrefusetopaytheirdues,theycanseverelyhandicaptheUnitedNations’abilitytofulfillitspurpose.
Asyoulearnaboutothernations,amapoftheworldwillhelpyouputthingsintoperspective.Themapwillmostlikelybeapoliticaloraphysicalmapandmayincludefeaturessuchasterritorialboundaries.
UnlessthemajorityofcitizensaroundtheworldseetheUnitedNationsasrepresentingtheirinterests—andnotjusttheinterestsofthepermanentmembersoftheSecurityCouncilandtheirallies—thentheywillnottrusttheUnitedNations.Ifthathappens,theUnitedNationswillnotbeabletofunctionanywhere.
The United Nations General Assembly created UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund) in 1946 t o help "save and protect the world's most vulnerable children" at the time,for those who had been devastated by WWII. Today, UNICEF is a member o f the United Nations Development Group, and it focuses on assistance to children and mothers in more than 190 developing countries and territories around the world. Governments and private donations fund UNICEF in its efforts to
provide clean water, nutrition, immunization, and treatment of diseases like malaria and HIV/AIDS. UNICEF provides resources for education, children with disabilities, and emergency relief such as food crisis, countries in conflict, and in places devastated by earthquakes, hurricanes, and other acts of nature. The organization also is an advocate of Fighting child trafficking, prostitution, and labor, and violence against children.
Jonesd14Highlight
GlobalIssues,Watchdogs,andAdvocates
Globalissuesareboilinginpotsaroundtheworld.Manyofusdon’tliftthelidsbecausewearenothungry,buttheproblemsstillboil.Becauseitiseasytoignoreissuesthatdon’tseemtoaffectusdirectly—orare
toocomplicatedtobesolvedbyoneperson—wetendtoleavetheworld’sproblemstothepoliticians.However,globalissuessuchasenvironmentaldamage,contaminatedfoodproducts,andinfectiousdiseasesaffectusall.Activistssuchaswatchdogsandadvocateskeeptheseproblemsinfrontof
worldcitizens,policymakers,andintergovernmentalagencies.UnitedNationsorganizationsoftenappointcelebritiesasgoodwillambassadorstobringattentiontoglobalissues.
Awatchdogisapersonwhotriestoguardtheintegrityofanorganizationorcausebywatchingoutforillegalorunethicalconduct.Anadvocatesupportsapersonorissueandpleadsthecaseincourtsoflaworpublicopinion.
HumanRightsIssuesAlthoughtodayhumanrightshaveahigherplaceonforeignpolicyagendas,nationsdisagreeaboutwhichkindofrightsaremostimportant.Infirstworldcountries,particularlyintheWest,thecriticalhumanrightsareindividualfreedoms.Inthirdworldcountries,wheremakingendsmeetisacommonproblem,economicandsocialrightsaremoreimportantthanpoliticalandcivilrights.Childrenhavetherightstosurvival,goodhealth,development,and
protection,yetmillionssufferfrompoverty,malnutrition,preventablediseases,andthetraumaofwar.Manyarerecruitedtoserveassoldiersorforcedtoworkinsweatshops.Warsandpandemicshaveorphanedmillionsofchildrenandforcedsurvivorsintorefugeecampsortofendforthemselves.Inpartsoftheworld,womenarestillregardedasproperty.Theyarenot
allowedtofinishschoolandaremarriedoffasgirls.Theirlackofeducationhasadirectimpactonthepopulationexplosionandthepoorhealthoffamilies.Genocide—theexterminationofaracial,ethnic,religious,orpoliticalgroup
—stilloccurs.In1994,extremistscontrollingthegovernmentoftheAfricannationRwandasystematicallykilledahalf-millionpeople.Hownationsdealwiththereportsandfactsofgenocideandotherhuman
rightsabusesdependsonnationalinterestandforeignpolicies.Tragicallyforthevictims,nationsarereluctanttointerveneifthehumanrightsissuesdon’tdirectlythreatenthehigherissuesofnationalsecurityandeconomicinterests.
InternationalHumanRightsandHumanitarianOrganizationsNongovernmentalorganizations,orNGOs,actastheglobalconscience,constantlyremindingtheworld’snationsoftheirhumanandmoralresponsibilities.Theseprivategroups,officiallyorunofficiallylinkedtotheUnitedNations,prodtheUnitedNationstoactionaswellasextenditsinfluence.NGOsusetheInternettoshareinformationwithpeopleallovertheworld,“namingandshaming”corruptindividuals,governments,andgroupsthatcommithumanrightsabuses.Oneofthebest-knowninternationalNGOsisAmnestyInternational.
TheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,adoptedbytheGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNationsin1948,statesthatthe“recognitionoftheinherentdignityandoftheequalandunalienablerightsofallmembersofthehumanfamilyisthefoundationoffreedom,justiceandpeaceintheworld….”Thedeclarationestablishedthestandardforinternationalbehaviorconcerninghumanrights.
AmnestyInternationalAmnestyInternationalisaworldwidemovementdedicatedtoprotectinghumanrightsassetoutintheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights.Thisorganizationworkstogainthereleaseofpeoplewhohavebeenimprisonedfortheirpoliticalorreligiousbeliefs,racialorethnicorigin,orsex—providedtheyhavenotusedorencouragedviolence.Itsmemberscampaigntoabolishthedeathpenalty,torture,anddegradingpunishment.Theyadvocatepromptandfairtrialsforallpoliticalprisoners,andtrytoensurethatabusersarebroughtto
justiceinaccordancewithinternationallaw.AmnestyInternationalcooperateswithotherinternationalagenciesand
organizations,suchastheUnitedNations,tofurthersharedgoals.Eachyearitpublishesglobalreportsonthestateofhumanrightsinmostnationsoftheworld,includingtheUnitedStates.DespitewinningtheNobelPeacePrizein1977,AmnestyInternationalisconsideredbymanytobeacontroversialorganization.
CooperativeforAmericanReliefEverywhere(CARE)Foundedin1945tohelpWorldWarIIsurvivors,CAREhasevolvedintoaninternationalreliefagencydedicatedtoendingpoverty.Inmorethan60countriesaroundtheworld,CAREprovidesfood,disasteraid,healthcaretraining,self-helpdevelopmentprograms,andeconomicopportunities.Asanindependentorganization,CAREpartnerswithotherhumanitariangroupsandbuildsrelationshipswithgovernmentstoinfluencepolicydecisionsaboutovercomingpoverty.
TheICRCpartnerswiththenationalsocietiessuchastheAmericanRedCrossandJordanianCrescentSocietytobringemergencyrelieftodisastervictims.Here,needyfarmersinAfghanistanreceiveseedandfoodrationsfromtheInternationalRedCross.Image:ICRC/FrancoPagetti
InternationalRedCrossTheInternationalRedCrossandRedCrescentMovementistheumbrellaorganizationfortheindividualnationalRedCrossandRedCrescentSocieties,theinternationalfederationofthosesocieties,andtheInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross.Establishedin1863,theInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCrossisaneutral
andindependentorganizationwhosemissionistoprovideprotectionandassistancetovictimsofarmedconflict.TheICRCdirectsandcoordinatesinternationalreliefactivitiesinaccordancewiththeGenevaConventions.Itseffortsincludevisitingprisonersofwar,tracingmissingpersons,andre-establishingcontactbetweenfamilymembersseparatedbywarordisaster.
TheGenevaConventions,amongthemostwidelyratifiedagreementsintheworld,dealwiththeconductofwarfareandthebehaviorofcombatants.Rulesestablishedforthehumanetreatmentofthewounded,sick,andshipwreckedinbattle—aswellasprisonersofwar—arethefoundationofinternationalhumanitarianlaw.TheGenevaConventionshavebeenextendedtoprotectcivilianscaughtupinarmedconflict,suchashostages.
WorldHealthOrganizationTheWorldHealthOrganizationisaspecializedagencyoftheUnitedNations.Itsmainpurposeistocollaboratewithgovernments,healthprofessionals,andinternationalorganizationstoincreasethelevelofhealthofallpeople.WHOhasaglobalstrategytoimproveprimaryhealthcare.WHOalsoworkswithinternationalagenciessuchastheWorldTradeOrganizationandtheWorldBanktoensurethatinternationaltradeagreementsandforeigninvestmentsmaximizehealthbenefitsandminimizehealthriskstopoorandvulnerablepopulations.
InSibiti,Congo,aWHOworkeradministersthepoliovaccinetoachild.
ThePeacePalaceinTheHague,Netherlands,iswheremeetingsoftheInternationalCourtofJusticeareheld.
InternationalLaw
Theworldismadeupofapproximately200nationswithstrongideasaboutsovereigntyandnationalinterests.Asthesecountriesgrowincreasinglyinterdependent,theirrelationshipsarechallengedbyseriousissues,includingthethreatofnuclearwar,terrorism,destructionoftheenvironment,tradeimbalances,famine,anddiseasecontrol.Often,becauseoftheirpolitical,economic,religious,andculturalviews,nationsdonotagreeabouthowtoaddresstheseissues.Byapplyinginternationallawtospecificsituations,countriesmayavoidaconflictthatleadstoaggressionoroutrightwar.
SupremeLawTherearetwolegaltheoriesaboutnationalandinternationallaw.Oneisthemonisttheory,whichproposestheunityofnationalandinternationallaws.Itsuggeststhatinternationallawisnotonlypartofanationallegalsystem,butalsosuperiortonationallaw.Germany’slegalsystemisbasedonthemonisttheory.Theothertheoryisthedualisttheory,whichholdsthatthenationaland
internationallegalsystemsareseparateanddifferent.Accordingtothistheory,internationallawcannotbesupremebecauseitisapartfromthenationallegalsystemandhasnoinfluenceondomesticlaw.
Publicinternationallawconsidersstates(nations)tobelegalentities.Thelawconsistsofalltherules,principles,customs,andagreementsthatthesenationsacceptashavingtheforceoflawintheirrelationswitheachother.Internationallawisappliedasfollows.InternationalConventionsandTreaties.Theseareformalpledgesbetweenoramongnations.Conventionsaregeneralagreementsamongnationsregardingmattersofcommonconcern,suchastheGenevaConventions.Treatiesarewrittencontracts,whichareconsideredlegallybindingonthosenationsthatsignedtheagreements.TheUnitedNationscharterisamultilateraltreatythataddressestheagreements,rights,anddutiesofU.N.members.Executiveagreementsarepactsmadebetweenheadsofstate.
InternationalCustoms.Theseareinternationalrulesthathavebeenpracticedsolongthatcourtsregardthemasunwrittenlaws.MostcustomarylawsarebasedonWesterncultureandideas.Thelawsaredifficulttoenforcebecausemanynon-Westernnationsarenotlikelytoagreetothetermsoflawsthatdifferfromtheirowncustoms.
GeneralPrinciplesofLaw.Thesearegeneralprinciplesfoundinthevariouslegalsystemsofmanynations.Oneexampleisanation’srighttodefenditself.TheInternationalCourtofJusticemaybaseitsrulingsongeneralprinciplesoflaw,butitisreluctanttodosobecausemanymembernationsthinktheCourtis“creating”newlawsinsteadofapplyingestablishedlaws.
ComityofNations.Thisisthecourteousandfriendlypracticebetweennationsofmutuallyrecognizingexecutive,legislative,andjudicialacts.Comityallowsonenationtorecognizeanother’slawswhilestillupholdingitsownlaws.Thisformofinternationallawisusedindiplomaticsituations.
Ininternationalterms,anindependentsovereignnationiscalledastateand“country”oftenreferstothegeographicalboundariesofanation.Inthispamphletandingeneralusage,thetermsstate,nation,andcountrymeanthesamething.
InternationalCourtofJusticeTheInternationalCourtofJusticeisthejudicialorganoftheUnitedNations.AllUnitedNationsmembersareautomaticallymembersoftheICJ.Asacivilcourt,itappliestheruleoflawtointernationaldisputesbetweennations.Itsjurisdictionistwofold:settlinginternationaldisputesandgivingadvisoryopinionsonlegalquestions.
Jurisdictionistheauthoritytointerpretandapplythelaw.
OnlynationsmaybepartytocasesbeforetheCourt,butinternationalorganizationscanobtainadvisoryopinions.Infact,theICJwilltryonlythosecasesinwhichbothnationsagreetoacceptthejudgmentoftheCourt.
Unlikenationallaw,whichissupportedbyasystemofcourtsandprisons,internationallawisdifficulttoenforce.ThelackofpowertoenforcethelawhandicapstheCourt.However,nationscanenforceinternationallawthrougheconomicsanctionslikeembargoesandthefollowingcoerciveactions.
Anembargoisagovernmentrestrictionorrestraintontradeofaspecificproductorwithaparticularnation.
Retorsion.Alawfulretaliatoryactusedbyanationtopressureanothernationintoreversinganunfriendlyact.Theactionisidenticalorsimilartotheoffense,suchasimposinghightariffsordiscriminatoryduties.
Reprisal.Anactofforceinresponsetoanillegalactionagainstanation.Inmostcircumstances,theretaliatoryactitselfwouldbeillegal.However,asareprisal,itislawful.Forexample,ifacountryrefusestorepayaloan,thelendingnationcouldlegallyseizeitsproperty.
War.Thelastresort.Becausetheconsequencesofwararesoserious,thethreatofwaroftenissufficienttoforceacountrytochangeitsways.
TheSecurityCouncilhastheauthoritytobacktheCourt’sjudgmentsbuthasneverusedit.ManydevelopingcountriesarecriticaloftheInternationalCourtofJusticebecausetheybelievethattheICJisaninstrumenttofurthertheinterestsofthefirstworldnations.
AmeetingoftheInternationalCourtofJusticeinTheHague’sPeacePalace
TheInternationalCourtofJusticehashadsuccessindefiningtheprinciplesbywhichdisputesarejudged.Someoftheseprinciplesinvolvedrawinglinestoestablishterritorialsovereignty.Theseprinciplesareappliedindisputesaboutterritorialwatersandfishingrights.TheCourt’sactionsincludejudgmentsonhostage-taking,therightofasylum,
rightsofpassage,economicrights,andnationality.Certainadvisoryopinionsdealwiththestatusofhumanrightsinformersandthethreatoruseofnuclearweapons.
InternationalCriminalCourtThispermanentinternationalcriminalcourtofjusticewilltryindividualsaccusedofgenocide,warcrimes,andcrimesagainsthumanity.Itsgoalsaretopromotetheruleoflawandensurethatthosepeopleresponsibleforthemostseriouscrimesdonotgounpunished.TheICC’sjurisdictioniscomplementarytonationaljurisdictions.
Theprincipleofcomplementaritymeansthatnationshavetheprimarydutyto
trythemostseriousinternationalcrimes.TheICC,however,maystepinasalastresortifthenationfailstoactbecauseitslegalsystemhascollapsedorbecauseitisshieldingthepersonfromprosecution.
MistakenIdentityManypeopleconfuseTheHaguewiththeUnitedNations’InternationalCourtofJustice,butTheHagueisactuallyacity.AndtheInternationalCourtofJusticeisjustoneofthemanyinternational,diplomaticinstitutionsthatcallTheHaguehome.LocatedontheeasterncoastoftheNetherlands,nearthenation’scapitalcityofAmsterdam,itistrulyaninternationalcity,with81embassiesand46consulates.Morethanhalfofitsresidentsareactuallyfromothercountries!
LiketheInternationalCourtofJustice,theICCislocatedinTheHague,butthetwocourtsaredifferent.TheICJispartoftheUnitedNationssystem,anditspurposeistotrycivildisputesbetweencountries.TheICCisanindependentcriminalcourtestablishedtoprosecuteindividuals.TheInternationalCriminalCourtdoesnothavethesupportofthewhole
internationalcommunity.Infact,theUnitedStatesdecidednottojoinbecausetheICC’sgeneralrulesofactionconflictwithfundamentalAmericanbeliefsaboutsovereignty,checksandbalances,andnationalindependence.
InternationalCriminalPoliceOrganizationINTERPOListheworld’slargestpoliceorganization.Itmaintainsdatabasesofforensicinformation(suchasDNAandfingerprints)tosharewithnationallawenforcementagenciesandsupportsthemincooperativeeffortstocombatinternationalcrime.Thesecrimesbetweentwoormorecountriesinclude:
•Terrorism
•Financialcrimes(moneylaundering,counterfeiting)
•Traffickinginhumanbeings(smugglingpeopleacrossbordersforprostitution,forcedlabor,removaloforgans)
•Drugtrafficking
•High-techcrimes(computerviruses,identitytheft)
•Theftofartwork(lootingofmuseums,forgeries)
•Intellectualpropertycrimes(softwarepiracyandcounterfeitingofclothing,medicine,andCDs)
Internationallawhashadapositiveimpactonagree-mentsandtreatiesconcerningtelecommunications,mail,health,weatherforecasting,andairandseatransport.Ithasnothadasmuchsuccesswithcontroversialissuesthatinfringeonnationalsovereigntysuchashumanrightslegislationandlawsofpeace.Mostnationsobeyinternationallawmostofthetime.Oneofthemainreasons
theapplicationofinternationallawworksisbecausethecountriesrecognizetheneedfororder,stability,andpredictabilityintheirinternationalrelations.Theyknowthatitisinthemutualinterestofallnationstofollowtherules.
U.S.Embassy,Moscow,Russia
RepresentationAbroad
Anationadvancesitsforeignpolicyobjectivesthroughforeignassistance,officialrepresentation,anddiplomacy.Maintainingapresenceinforeigncountriescommunicatesanation’svaluesandgoalstotheinhabitantsofthosecountries.ParticipationinintergovernmentalorganizationssuchastheUnitedNationsandtheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgencyensuresthatanation’svoiceisheardontheinternationalstage.Representativesarenotlimitedtopeopleactinginanofficialcapacity.
Citizenstravelingabroadastourists,students,businesspeople,artists,activists,athletes,andhumanitariansare,intheeyesofforeignpeoples,representativesoftheircountries.Howthesecitizensconductthemselvesreflectsontheirnations.
OlympicAthletesNationsallaroundtheworldsponsorathletestorepresenttheircountriesatthesummerandwinterOlympicGames,whicharegovernedbyinternationalagreement.Theseambassador-athletesdemonstratethehighestlevelofphysicalskill,discipline,andsportsmanship.Throughtheirparticipationinfairandhonestcompetition,theathletesshowtheworldhowtobegoodcitizens.Byacknowledgingandrespectingthestrengthsofothersandacceptingdifferences,wecanalllearntocompeteandcooperateininternationalarenas.Despitecenturiesofwars,abuses,andevenscandals,theOlympicflamestillburns.
TheU.S.DepartmentofStateTheStateDepartmentistheleadU.S.foreignaffairsagency,providingdirectadvicetothepresidentthroughthesecretaryofstateandsupportingforeignpolicyprogramsinotherU.S.governmentorganizations.Itdevelops,conducts,andcommunicatesforeignpolicy,andcoordinatesU.S.representationabroadthroughForeignServiceemployeesatourembassiesandconsulatesinforeigncountries.TheBureauofConsularAffairsprotectsandassistsU.S.citizensoverseas.
ThewebsitefortheStateDepartmentprovidesinformationaboutforeignpolicyandworldevents,aswellasdescriptionsofeverybureauandoffice,fromCounterterrorismtoOceansandInternationalEnvironmentalandScientificAffairs.
U.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopmentTheUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentisanindependentagencythatreceivesgeneraldirectionandforeignpolicyguidancefromthesecretaryofstate.TheUSAIDmanagesU.S.economicandhumanitarianassistanceprogramstopromotesustainabledevelopmentinmorethan100countries.Theprograms—administeredthroughoverseasmissionsinconjunctionwithU.S.embassies—concentrateonthefollowinginterrelatedareas:
•Improvinghealthandlivingconditions
•Developinghumanabilitiesthrougheducationandtraining
•Promotingeconomicgrowthandagriculturaldevelopment
•Protectingtheenvironment
Theseprogramsadvancedemocraticvalues,encourageinternationalcooperation,andhelptoestablisheconomicconditionsthatcreatemarketsforU.S.goodsandservicesindevelopingcountries.
PublicDiplomacyandPublicAffairsThepublicdiplomacyfunctionsoftheformerUnitedStatesInformationAgency(USIA)havebeenintegratedintotheDepartmentofState.TheBureauofEducationalandCulturalAffairspromotesmutualunderstandingbetweentheUnitedStatesandothercountriesthroughexchangeactivities.Culturalexchangesincreasepeople’sawarenessoftraditionsandaccomplishmentsinart,music,literature,andscience.Educationalexchangesallowstudentstovisitandstudyinforeigncountries.AcademicandprofessionalexchangesincludetheFulbrightExchangeProgramandtheInternationalVisitorsProgram.TheBureauofInternationalInformationProgramsdevelopsstrategic
communicationsfortheU.S.foreignaffairscommunity.Itproduceselectronicandprintpublications,speakerprograms,andresourceservicesthatexplainU.S.policies,society,andvaluesforthemedia,governmentofficials,opinionleaders,andthegeneralpublicinmorethan140countries.
AlthoughtheVoiceofAmericaisnowpartofanindependentagency,itbroadcaststelevisionprogramsthroughWorldnetTelevisionandFilmService,whichispartofIIP.Theprograms—producedinEnglishand13foreignlanguages—includeinternationalandregionalnews,publicaffairsreportsthatreflectAmericanlife,anddiscussionsonUnitedStatesforeignanddomesticpolicies.
DiplomaticRelationsUnderinternationallaw,everynationhastherightoflegation—therighttosendandreceivediplomaticrep
Recommended