Citizenship in the World Merit Badge Pamphlet: Merit Badge ......global partnerships with other countries. 4. Do TWO of the following: a. Explain international law and how it differs

BOYSCOUTSOFAMERICAMERITBADGESERIES

CITIZENSHIPINTHEWORLD

“Enhancingouryouths’competitiveedgethroughmeritbadges”

Requirements

1.Explainwhatcitizenshipintheworldmeanstoyouandwhatyouthinkittakestobeagoodworldcitizen.

2.ExplainhowonebecomesacitizenintheUnitedStates,andexplaintherights,duties,andobligationsofU.S.citizenship.Discussthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentherights,duties,andobligationsofU.S.citizensandthecitizensoftwoothercountries.

3.Dothefollowing:

a.Pickacurrentworldevent.Inrelationtothiscurrentevent,discusswithyourcounselorhowacountry’snationalinterest,history,anditsrelationshipwithothercountriesmightaffectareassuchasitssecurity,itseconomy,itsvalues,andthehealthofitscitizens.

b.Selectaforeigncountryanddiscusswithyourcounselorhowitsgeography,naturalresources,andclimateinfluenceitseconomyanditsglobalpartnershipswithothercountries.

4.DoTWOofthefollowing:

a.Explaininternationallawandhowitdiffersfromnationallaw.Explaintheroleofinternationallawandhowinternationallawcanbeusedasatoolforconflictresolution.

b.Usingresourcessuchasmajordailynewspapers,theInternet(withyourparent’spermission),andnewsmagazines,observeacurrentissuethatinvolvesinternationaltrade,foreignexchange,balanceofpayments,tariffs,andfreetrade.Explainwhatyouhavelearned.Includeinyourdiscussionanexplanationofwhycountriesmustcooperateinorderforworldtradeandglobalcompetitiontothrive.

c.SelectTWOofthefollowingorganizationsanddescribetheirroleintheworld.

(1)TheUnitedNations

(2)TheWorldCourt

(3)WorldOrganizationoftheScoutMovement

(4)TheWorldHealthOrganization

(5)AmnestyInternational

(6)TheInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross

(7)CARE

5.Dothefollowing:

a.Discussthedifferencesbetweenconstitutionalandnonconstitutionalgovernments.

b.Nameatleastfivedifferenttypesofgovernmentscurrentlyinpowerintheworld.

c.Showonaworldmapcountriesthatuseeachofthesefivedifferentformsofgovernment.

6.Dothefollowing:

a.ExplainhowagovernmentisrepresentedabroadandhowtheUnitedStatesgovernmentisaccreditedtointernationalorganizations.

b.Describetherolesofthefollowingintheconductofforeignrelations.

(1)Ambassador

(2)Consul

(3)BureauofInternationalInformationPrograms

(4)AgencyforInternationalDevelopment

(5)UnitedStatesandForeignCommercialService

c.Explainthepurposeofapassportandvisaforinternationaltravel.

7.DoTWOofthefollowing(withyourparent’spermission)andsharewithyourcounselorwhatyouhavelearned:

a.VisitthewebsiteoftheU.S.StateDepartment.Learnmoreaboutanissueyoufindinterestingthatisdiscussedonthiswebsite.

b.Visitthewebsiteofaninternationalnewsorganizationorforeign

government,ORexamineaforeignnewspaperavailableatyourlocallibrary,bookstore,ornewsstand.FindanewsstoryaboutahumanrightrealizedintheUnitedStatesthatisnotrecognizedinanothercountry.

c.VisitwithastudentorScoutfromanothercountryanddiscussthetypicalvalues,holidays,ethnicfoods,andtraditionspracticedorenjoyedthere.

d.AttendaworldScoutjamboree.

e.Participateinorattendaninternationaleventinyourarea,suchasanethnicfestival,concert,orplay.

Contents

Introduction

WhatIsCitizenship?

ComparativePoliticalSystems

NationalInterest

TheWorldOrderofNations

InternationalTradeandCommerce

UnitedNationsSystem

GlobalIssues,Watchdogs,andAdvocates

InternationalLaw

RepresentationAbroad

ExpandYourOwnBorders

Resources

Introduction

Wedon’tliveinourownworld.Wesharetheplanetwithmorethan6billionpeople.Thesepeoplestareatthesamesky,buttheyseeitfromdifferentpositions:coralislands,desertdunes,terracedmountains,rainforests,grasslands,andlandlockedmegacities.Andyetmostofthesepeoplewantthesamethingswewant:goodhealth,personalsecurity,andthefreedomstoworshipasweplease,speakwhatwethink,chooseourlifestyles,andelectourleaders.Wearemorealikethanwearedifferent.TheDeclarationofIndependence

definesthebasicrightsofpeopleintheUnitedStates—andeverywhereelse:“…thatallmenarecreatedequal,thattheyareendowedbytheirCreatorwithcertainunalienableRights,thatamongtheseareLife,Liberty,andthepursuitofHappiness.”

Wemightsharethesameplanetwiththemorethan6billionpeopleworldwide,butwedon’tsharethesamerights,freedoms,oropportunities.

ThedifferenceisthatmanypeopleoutsidetheUnitedStatesarenotallowedtoexercisetheirnaturalrights.Todaytheworldisconnectedthroughcommunicationsnetworksontheoceanfloor,ontheground,inouterspace,andincyberspace.TheInternetandtelevisionallowpeopleallovertheglobetogetinformationpreviouslyinaccessible.Wecannowseewarsfoughtinrealtime.Wetalkonlineinchatroomsfullofpeoplewhosharespecificinterests,yetliveindifferentcountries.WewatchbreakingnewsandliveperformancesonTV.

BeforeyousurftheInternettolearnmoreabouttheworld,besureyouhaveyourparent’spermission.

Peopletendtointerprettheimpactofinternationaleventsfromtheirownculturalornationalperspective.Butasglobaltradeincreases,asnationsformregionaleconomicandmilitaryalliances,andasactivistspointouthumanrightsabusesandenvironmentaldamage,citizensandgovernmentsworldwidemustrecognizethatwearelivinginterdependently.Theeasyaccesstoinstantinformationmakestheworldasmallerplaceandchallengesourviewsaboutothernations.Whatwedoanddon’tdoaffectstheworld,andtheworldaffectsus.

AsyouearntheCitizenshipintheWorldmeritbadge,youwilldiscoverthatyouarealreadyacitizenoftheworld.Howgoodacitizenyouaredependsonyourwillingnesstounderstandandappreciatethevalues,traditions,andconcernsofpeopleinothercountries—inourworld.

WhatIsCitizenship?

Citizenshipismembershipinagovernedcommunity.Thismembershipcomeswithasetofprivileges,freedoms,andduties,whichvariesaccordingtothenation’sformofgovernment.Apersonmayacquirecitizenshipindifferentways:

•“Byblood”ifborntoparentswhoarealreadycitizensofanation

•“Bysoil”ifbornwithinthelegalbordersofanation

•Throughnaturalization

•Throughnaturalizationofparents

Acitizenisanativeornaturalizedpersonwhoowesallegiancetoaspecificnationandisentitledtoitsgovernment’sprotection.Asubjectisacitizenruledbyasovereignauthority,suchasamonarch,andisrequiredtoshowloyaltytoboththerulingauthorityandthenation.Ultimately,thequalityofcitizenshipdependsonthebalancebetweenwhata

governmentdoesforthepeopleandwhatitexpectsoftheminreturn.

Naturalizationisthelegalprocessbywhichanalien,orforeign-bornperson,becomesacitizen.

UnitedStatesCitizenshipUndermostformsofgovernment,citizensareobligatedtoobeythelaw,paytaxes,andserveinthearmedforces;thegovernmentisobligatedtoprovidephysicalsafety,publicservices,andprotectionofproperty.IntheUnitedStates,thegovernmentmustprotectotherrightsandfreedomsaswell:

•Righttovote

•Righttoafairtrial

•Righttobeararms

•Freedomofreligion

•Freedomofspeech

•Freedomofthepress

TheDeclarationofIndependenceisauniquecontractbetweencitizensandgovernment:“…GovernmentsareinstitutedamongMen,derivingtheirjustpowersfromtheconsentofthegoverned….”

Inasense,acitizen’sdutiesarebuiltintotheserightsandfreedoms.Therighttoafairtrial,forexample,obligatesU.S.citizenstoserveonjuries.Therighttovoteobligatesthemtobeinformedaboutimportantissuesandthecandidates’positions.Becausethegovernmentruleswiththeconsentofthecitizens,Americansmustunderstandandexercisetheirconstitutionalrights—orrisklosingthem.

IntheUnitedStates,servingonajurywhencalledisacivicduty;itisalsoonewaythattherighttoafreetrialisprotected.

PermanentResidenceU.S.citizensliveinanopensocietywhereitissafetothinkoutloud.Wefreely

expressouropinions,exchangeideas,andevendisagreeinpublic.Butinsomenations,peoplearenotallowedtodoso.Moderncommunicationssuchaselectronicmailandglobalbroadcastinghave

advancedthespreadofAmericanpopularculture.Throughadvertising,music,andmoviesshownworldwide,aswellashumanitarianoutreacheffortsandinternationaltrade,peopleinmostcountriesnolongerhavetodependontheirgovernmentforinformationabouttheworldbeyondtheirownborders.NowtheycanfindoutforthemselvesaboutwhatitisliketoliveintheUnitedStates.Peopleemigrate,orleavetheirowncountriestosettleelsewhere,forvarious

reasonsincludingfearofpersecution,thedesiretobereunitedwithfamily,andtheopportunitytobetterthemselveseconomically.U.S.CitizenshipandImmigrationServices,underthedirectionoftheDepartmentofHomelandSecurity,issuesimmigrantvisastoqualifiedforeignnationals,oraliens,whowishtobecomelawfulpermanentresidents(LPRs)oftheUnitedStates.

AnimmigrantvisaisanidentificationcardthatallowsanonnativepersontostayintheUnitedStatespermanently.

AsanLPR,animmigrantenjoyscertainrights,includingtherightto

•StayintheUnitedStatesindefinitely.

•Haveajob.

•Sponsorcertainfamilymembersforimmigration.

AnLPRmustpaytaxesbutmaynotvote.Onlycitizenshavethatright.ManypeoplewhochoosetobecomeU.S.citizenswanttofullyparticipateinAmericansociety,electgovernmentleaders,andhaveavoiceindomesticandforeignpolicies.

ToapplyforU.S.residency,animmigrantmustcompletetheI–485form,ApplicationtoRegisterPermanentResidenceorAdjustStatus,andsubmitmanyrequiredsupportingdocuments.

NaturalizationAnapplicantforcitizenshipmusthaveavalidimmigrantvisa,musthavefulfilledresidencyrequirements,mustbepreparedtodemonstrateanunderstandingoftheEnglishlanguage,andmustknowthebasicsoftheUnitedStates’shistoryandhowitsgovernmentworks.Aftersatisfyingtheexamineratthenaturalizationinterviewandpassingthe

Englishandcivicstests,animmigrantmusttaketheoathofallegiance.Theapplicantswearsto

•SupporttheConstitutionandobeythelawsoftheUnitedStates.

•Renounce,orgiveup,anyforeignallegiance.

•BeararmsforthearmedforcesoftheUnitedStatesorperformservicesfortheUnitedStatesgovernmentwhenrequired.

Aftertakingtheoath,theimmigrantreceivesacertificateofnaturalization,whichisproofofU.S.citizenship.ThenheorshemayapplyforaU.S.passport.BecominganofficialU.S.citizenisalonganddifficultprocessrequiringlife-

changingdecisionsandactions.ImmigrantswhodothisknowwhytheywanttoliveintheUnitedStatesandtakenothingforgranted.TheymayknowmoreaboutU.S.governmentandhistorythanpeoplewhosefamilieshavebeencitizensforgenerations.

WorldCitizenshipNationsarelikestand-alonecoloredtiles,eachwithitsowndesign.Eachonehasabeautyallitsown,resultingfromcombinationsofelementsincludingethniccustoms,socialvalues,language,religion,andlegalsystems.Together,nationsformacomplexpattern—aworldmosaic.Eachpersonisnotonlyacitizenofhisorhernation,butalsoacitizenofthe

world.Assuch,weallhavearesponsibilitytorespectculturaldiversityandtherightsofothergovernments.Forthesakeofinternationalsecurity,wemustunderstandanation’srelationshiptoothernations,aswellasitscitizens’relationshiptooneanother.Thenwemustcooperateforthegoodofall.TheUnitedNationsandotherinternationalorganizationstrackinformation

abouthowcountriescarefortheircitizens.Inarichnationwherethewealthisnotconcentratedinthehandsofafew,citizenscanexpecttolivealongand

healthylife,geteducated,exerciseequalrightsunderthelaw,andaccessresourcesneededforadecentstandardofliving.Inpoorcountries,citizenstendtodieyoungerduetomalnutrition,

preventablediseases,andcivilwar.Thepeoplehavelittleaccesstogoodhealthcare,safedrinkingwater,education,pavedroads,electricity,andcommunicationwiththeworldbeyondtheirvillages.

Grossdomesticproduct,orGDP,isthemonetaryvalueofallfinalgoods(suchascars,clothing,andhouses)andservices(suchasdoggrooming,concerttickets,anddoctorvisits)producedwithinacountryinaspecificperiodoftime.AlargeGDPperpersongenerallyindicatesahighstandardoflivingandbetterqualityoflife.AlthoughGDPisconsideredthebestmeasureofanation’seconomichealth,itdoesn’taccuratelyreflectthedistributionofincomeamongthecountry’spopulation.

Whenwejudgehowothernationsrespectorviolatevaluessuchasfreedom,equality,justice,privacy,andhumandignity,wemustjudgeourownnationalcharacteraswell.Howwelldowedealwithracism,sexism,andculturalbiasinsideandoutsideourborders?Beingagoodworldcitizenrequiresspeakingoutandtakingactionagainstviolationsofhumanrights.

Mostdemocraticgovernmentsconsidersuffrage(therighttovote)arightofcitizenship.Manythinkthatparticipationinelectionsisacivicresponsibility.Somethinkitisadutyandmakevotingcompulsory,orrequired.Nonvotersmaybepenalizedorfined.Doyouthinkforcingcitizenstovotewillyieldelectionresultsthatreflectthewillofthepeople?

ComparisonofNationsinTermsofEconomicWell-BeingandQualityofLife

Source:HumanDevelopmentReport2007,UnitedNations.Basedondatafrom2005.

ComparativePoliticalSystems

Asnationsbecomemoreinterdependent,peoplestruggletomakesenseofthechangesandmovementstakingplacethroughouttheworld.Widespreadaccesstoinformationhasraisedawarenessabouttheeffectsoftheglobaleconomy,terrorism,religiousextremism,famines,widespreaddiseases,andthecollapseofgovernments.Educationleadstounderstanding,tolerance,andpeace.

PowertoRuleAgovernmentcomestorulethroughinheritance,revolution,orelection.Whatformagovernmenttakesdependsonwhohassovereignty,orthesupremeauthorityandpowertomake,implement,andenforcelaws,andsettledisputesaboutthoselaws.Thebasicformsofgovernmentare:

•Autocracy.Unlimitedpowertogovernisinthehandsofoneruler:amonarch,dictator,ormilitaryorreligiousleader.

•Oligarchy.Unlimitedpowertogovernisinthehandsofafewpersonsoraminority:asinglepoliticalparty,junta,orself-appointedelite(asagroupofemirs).

•Democracy.Unlimitedpowertogovernisinthehandsofthemajorityofacountry’scitizens.

•Republic.Limitedpowertogovernisinthehandsofelectedrepresentatives.

Atheocracyisagovernmentruledbyoneormorereligiousleaderswhobelievetheyhavedivineauthority.Ajunta(pronouncedHOON-ta)isagroupofpersons—oftenamilitaryleaderbackedbythenation’sarmedforces—whocontrolagovernmentafterseizingpower.AnemiristherulerofanIslamicnation.

Often,peopleinterchangecertaintermssuchasdemocracyandrepublicto

describeaspecificformofgovernment,eventhoughthewordshavedifferentmeanings.Democracymeans“powerofthepeople,”or“governmentof,by,andforthepeople.”Generally,itreferstothefactthatthecitizens—nottherulersorleaders—holdthesovereignpower.Democracydependsonmajorityrule.Adirectdemocracyisrulebythemajorityofcitizens,whichonlyworks

onasmallscale.Forexample,eligiblecitizensvoteonlocalissuesinmassmeetingsandthepeople’swillbecomespublicpolicy.Atthenationallevel,however,adirectdemocracyisimpracticalbecauseeveryeligiblevoterwouldhavetheright(andresponsibility)tovoteoneveryissue,fromwideningahighwaytochangingthestructureofanationalhealthcaresystem.Inarepresentativedemocracy,thepeople’swillisexpressedindirectlythroughelectedrepresentatives,withthewillofthemajoritycontrollingpublicpolicy.TheframersoftheU.S.Constitutionwantedtomakesurethatthewillof

themajoritywouldneveroppresstherightsoftheindividualcitizenorminority.Torestraintheexcessesofdemocracy,thefoundingfathersstructuredarepublic—aformofrepresentativegovernmentthatguaranteestheprotectionoftheindividual’sGod-given“unalienablerights”andfreedomsbylimitingthepowerofmajorityrule.AsacitizenandaScout,you“pledgeallegiancetotheflagoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaandtotherepublicforwhichitstands….”

Usually,powerislimitedbyawrittenconstitution,whichisthefundamentallawofanation.Itdescribesthepurposesofthegovernment,definestherightsofthepeople,explainshowleadersareelectedandhowlongtheycanholdoffice,anddefinesandlimitsthepowersoftheleaders.Incountrieswithconstitutions,boththepeopleandthegovernmentactinaccordancewithauniformsetoflegalprovisions.Somenations,suchastheUnitedKingdom,dependonuncodified

constitutions,whicharebasedonwrittensources(liketheMagnaCarta)aswellaslaws,precedents,andcustoms.Unlikeawrittenconstitution,whichsummarizesthebasiclawinasingledocument,theuncodifiedconstitutionisanunderstandingofhowthegovernmentshouldworkbasedoncertainlegaldocuments,traditions,andlawsupheldovertime.

UnitedKingdom

ConstitutionalGovernmentsMostconstitutionalgovernmentsintheworldtodayarerepresentative

democracies,suchastheTaiwaneseandEthiopiangovernments.Taiwanhasanelectedpresident,aunicameral(one-house)legislature,andfourmainpoliticalparties.TheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopiahasbeenanindependentnationforatleast2,000years.Itsgovernmentconsistsofanelectedpresident,abicameral(two-house)parliament,andseveralpoliticalparties.Somegovernmentsthatwereoncenonconstitutionalandruledbyabsolutemonarchsarenowconstitutionalmonarchies.IntheUnitedKingdom,forexample,thequeenisprimarilyafigurehead,andtherealpoliticalpowerlieswiththebicameralparliamentandtheprimeminister.

ConstitutionalGovernmentsManynationswithconstitutionsarenotnecessarilyconstitutionalgovernments.Evenwhenagovernmentisestablishedanddefinedbyaconstitution,theleaderorleadersmayactasiftheyarenotboundbyit.Forexample,aleadermayusesecretpoliceorapersonalarmytoprofithimself,hisfamily,andhisfriends.Inordertobeconsideredconstitutional,agovernmentmustmeetthreerequirements.Itmustbelimitedinitspower,followahigherlaw,andhaveconstitutionalstability.

LimitedPower.Theconceptoflimitedgovernment,alsocalledtheruleoflaw,holdsthatthegovernmentanditsofficersmaynotexceedthelimitsoftheirpower.Theyaresubjectto—andneverabove—thelaw.Iftheyviolatethelaw,theconstitutionspecifieswaystoremovethemfromoffice.Forexample,theConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesdeclaresthatpresidentswhodonotobeyitslawscanbeimpeachedandremovedfromoffice.

HigherLaw.Inaconstitutionalgovernment,theconstitutionisconsideredthe

highestlawoftheland.Ithastwoimportantcharacteristics.

1.Individualrightsareprotectedfrominfringementbythegovernmentandotherpeople.Forexample,citizensareprotectedagainstillegalsearchandseizure.

2.Itprovideslimitationsonpower.Thisisachievedbyseparatingpowersthroughchecksandbalances.

ConstitutionalStability.Theconstitutioncannotbechangedwithouttheconsentofcitizensandwithoutusingwell-knownestablishedamendmentprocedures.

NonconstitutionalGovernmentsEventhoughanationmaycallitselfa“democraticrepublic,”thisdoesnotmeanthattheactualgovernmentinpracticeisconstitutional.ThisisthecasewiththeDemocraticPeople’sRepublicofNorthKorea,whereKimJongIIrulesasaCommunistdictator.FormerpresidentFidelCastrohadasimilarroleformorethan30yearsinCommunistCuba,wheretheonlypoliticalpartyisthePartidoComunistadeCuba(CubanCommunistParty).NonconstitutionalgovernmentsalsoexistinnationssuchasSaudiArabia,whichisrunbyanabsolutemonarchy.

NonconstitutionalGovernmentsAnauthoritariangovernment—inwhichtheauthoritytoruleisconcentratedinthehandsofanautocraticleaderoranoligarchy—actsarbitrarily.Neitherconstitutionallyboundnorresponsibletothepeople,thegovernmentruleswithoutrestraintorlimitations.Itremainsincontrolaslongasitpleases,oruntilitisoverthrown.Authoritariangovernmentsarenotalwaysheavy-handed.Incertaincases,a

leadermayruleasabenevolentdictator,actingforthegoodofthepeople.However,anextremeformofauthoritarianismistotalitariangovernment.Thisoppressiveformofrulingpowercontrolseveryaspectoflife.

BigBrotheriswatchingyou.Inhisbook1984,GeorgeOrwellwritesaboutafictionaldictatorshipthatkeptitspeopleunderconstantsurveillance.ThetermBigBrothernowreferstoanyrulerorgovernmentthatinvadestheprivacyofitscitizens.

DistributionofPowerInaunitarygovernment,oftencalledacentralgovernment,allthepowersofthegovernmentareheldbyasinglecentralsource,suchasadictator,singlepoliticalpartyorrulinggroup(theCommunistPartyorjunta,forexample),orparliament.Localgovernmentshaveonlythosepowersgiventothembythecentralgovernment.Thosepowersmaybetakenawayatanytime.Aunitarygovernmentisnotalwaysadictatorship.Inaunitarygovernment

suchastheoneintheUnitedKingdom,allthepowersheldbythegovernmentareconcentratedintheparliament,yetthosepowersarelimited.Afederalgovernmentisbasedonthedivisionofpowersbetweenanational

governmentandseverallocalgovernments.Anauthoritysuperiortoboththenationalandlocalgovernments(usuallyawrittenconstitution)describesthepowersdesignatedtoeachlevel.Bothlevelsofgovernmentactdirectlyonthepeopleaccordingtotheirownlaws,officials,andagencies.Neitherlevelofgovernmentactingonitsownmaychangethedivisionofpowers.

YoucanlearnmoreabouttheU.S.governmentbyreadingtheCitizenshipintheCommunityandCitizenshipintheNationmeritbadgepamphlets.

RelationshipBetweenExecutiveandLegislativeBranchesApresidentialgovernmentisbasedontheseparationofpowersbetweentheexecutiveandlegislativebranches.Thebranchesareindependentofeachotherandcoequal.Thechiefexecutive(president)iselectedapartfromthelegislatureforadefinitetermofofficeandhasbroadpowersnotsubjecttothedirectcontrolofthelegislature.TheUnitedStatesinventedthisformofgovernment.Inaparliamentarygovernment,theexecutivechiefandcabinet(the

executivebranch)arethemselvesmembersofthelegislativebranch(parliament).Theleaderofthemajoritypartyinparliamentischosenbythelegislativememberstobetheprimeminister(alsocalledchancellororpremier).Underthissystem,theexecutivebranchissubjecttothedirectcontrolofthelegislativebranch.Variationsoftheserelationshipsarecalledmixed

presidential/parliamentarygovernments.

Somegovernmentshavesimilarformsbutactdifferently.IndiaandtheUnitedStatesarebothcalledfederalrepublics.However,India’spresident,theheadofstate,ischosenbyelectedmembersofparliamentandstatelegislativeassemblies.Theprimeministerholdstherealpowerandisaccountabletoparliament.TheU.S.presidentiselectedbythepeople(throughanelectoralcollege)andisnotdirectlyresponsibletothelegislativebranch.BothSaudiArabiaandJapanhavemonarchies,buttheSaudiArabianrulerhasabsolutepowerandisultimatelyresponsibletonoone.Japanhasanemperorandaconstitution.Themonarchisaceremonialheadofstatewithnopoliticalpower.

FormsofGovernment

Othergovernmentshaveaparticularformonpaperbutactdifferently.Theymayclaimtobeademocracybecausecertaindemocraticprocessessuchaselectionsareinplace.Yet,theseelectionsarenotalwaysfreeandfair.ThePeople’sRepublicofChinacallsitselfarepublic,butonlymembersoftheChineseCommunistPartyareallowedtorunforoffice.Infact,thePartyisthegovernment,controllingallmediaandmonitoringcitizens’useoftheInternet.Manygovernmentsaroundtheworldareinastateoftransition.Certain

nationsformerlyruledbyabsolutemon-archsordictatorshavemadeeffortsto

becomedemocraciesorrepublics.Somehaveacaretaker,ortemporary,governmentwhilethenationisintheprocessofcreatingaconstitutionandelectingnewleaders.Othersarecollapsingasrivalfactionswagecivilwars.Yourefforts(alongwiththoseofotherScoutsandcitizensoftheworld)to

understandthepoliticalandeconomicsystemsoftheworld’snationswillleadtogreaterglobaltoleranceandwell-being.

Asyoulearnaboutdifferentpoliticalsystems,youalsowilllearnhowpeoplevaluetheirgovernmentsandhowgovernmentsvaluetheircitizens.

NationalInterest

Agovernmentclassifiesareasofinterestintwoways:publicandnational.Public(domestic)interestsareinternalconcerns—suchaseducation,healthcare,andtaxation—tobeaddressedwithinthecountry’sbordersaccordingtopublicpolicy.National(foreign)interestsrefertothoseissuesthataffectrelationsbeyondacountry’sborders.Thesegoals—suchasmilitaryactions,expansionofinternationaltrade,andhumanitarianefforts—areshapedthroughforeignpolicy.

Anissueofvitalinterestissoimportanttoanation’swell-beingthatitcannotbecompromised.

__________________________

Ablocisagroupofnationsthatacttogetherformilitary,economic,orpoliticalpurposes.

Everynationintheworldactsaccordingtoitsownprincipalinterests.Theconceptofnationalinterestisbasedontheideathatthegovernmentwillprotectitscitizens,property,andboundariesagainstinfringement,ortrespass,byanyothernation.Thekeyareasofnationalinterestarenationalsecurityandsurvival,economicwelfare,andnationalvalues.Nationalsecurityisconsideredanareaofvitalinterest.Defenseofthe

homeland,preservationofterritorialborders,andthehealthandsafetyofthecitizensaresocriticalthatotherareasofnationalinterestaresubordinatetotheseobjectives.Anation’slevelofconcernaboutitsownsecuritydependsonhowitregardsothernations’motives.SouthKoreamaintainsalarge,well-equippedmilitaryforcebecauseitbelievesitsneighbor,NorthKorea,mightattackit.Anation’seconomicwelfareisbasedonthehealthofitseconomy,which

variesaccordingtothenation’sresourcesandhowtheyareproduced,distributed,andconsumed.Theinterestsofonenationareaffectedbyeventsandconditionsinothernationsorregions.Forexample,Cuba’scentralizedeconomyhaslongbeendependentonforeignaidfromtheSovietbloc.Afterthecollapse

oftheSovietUnionin1990,Cubaexperiencedaneconomiccrisis.TheCubangovernmentredirecteditsforeignpoliciestoseeknewtradingpartnersandallowforeigninvestmentsinCuba.

Foreignaidisthetransferofmoney,goods,orservicesfromonenationtoanotherforthebenefitofbothnations.Humanitarianassistanceincludesactsofhelp—providingtemporaryshelter,food,medicalsupplies—inresponsetonaturaldisasters,civilwar,andtheoutbreakofadiseaserestrictedtoaspecificregion,suchasthisfooddistributioneffortinBurundi.Image:ICRC/ThierryGassmann

Nationalvaluesarebasedonanation’straditionalbeliefs,culture,religion,andhistoricalexperiences.Everynationhasaninterestinprotectingand

promotingitswayoflife.Americaspreadsitsnationalvalues—ablendofdiverseimmigrantvaluesanddemocraticprinciples—throughforeignaidandhumanitarianassistance.

InternationalRelationsTheUnitedStates,likemostotherdemocraticcountries,hasanopensociety.People,money,ideas,andproductsmoveeasilyacrossborderswithlittleinterference.Thatencouragesinternationaltradeandtourism,culturalexchanges,andeducationalopportunities.Internationalterrorists,however,haveexploitedthestrengthsofanopen

society—freedoms,mobility,andtrust—tofurthertheircauses.Physicalbordersarebecomingmeaningless—justlinesonamap.Infact,bordersaredisappearingascomputerhackersattackgovernmentsandmultinationalcompaniesincyberspace,roguenationsthreatentolaunchlong-rangenuclearmissiles,andradicalswagebiologicalwarfarethroughthemail.

Aroguenationisaspecificgovernmentthatactsunpredictablyinpursuitofitsowngoals—tothepointofendangeringcitizensinothercountries.

Today,neitheradvantageousgeographicalpositionnorgreatmilitarystrengthcanensurenationalsecurity.Eventsandconditionswithinandacrossbordersaffectothercountriesandregions,threateningthestabilityandfavorablebalanceofnations.Thesetransnationalproblemscannotberesolvedbyanyonenation,butrequireinternationalcooperation.

•Drugtrafficking

•Famine

•Foreigninvestments

•Humanrightsviolations

•Migrationofcivilwarrefugees

•Naturaldisasters

•Pandemics

•Populationexplosion

•Proliferation(spread)ofweaponsofmassdestruction

•Terrorism

•Useofouterspace

Apandemicisadisease—suchasbubonicplagueorHIV/AIDS—prevalentthroughoutalargeregion,country,continent,orthewholeworld.

Nationsthatrecognizetheirdependentandinterdependentrelationshipswithothernationsformgroupscalledalliancesandpledgetosupportoneanotherintimesofconflict.Someformalliancesaroundeconomic,environmental,orhumanitar-ianconcerns.Onenationmaybelongtomanyalliances.Asgovernmentsalterforeignpolicyinresponsetointernationalcrisesor

opportunities,theyoftenbreakawayfrompoliticalfriendsorstrikedealswithformerfoes.Alliesarenotnecessarilyfriendsforlife;theyarefriendsofconvenience.

ForeignPolicyForeignpolicyincludesallthepositionsandactionsanationtakesinitsrelationshipswiththerestoftheworld.Itexiststoprotectandpromotethenationalinterest.Thecontinuityofforeignpoliciesfromyeartoyearreassuresanation’salliesandwinsdomesticsupport.Yetanationmustbecreativeinresponsetothreatsoropportunities.Forexample,aftertheSeptember11,2001,bombingoftheWorldTradeCenterinNewYorkCity,theU.S.governmentcreatedtheDepartmentofHomelandSecurity,anewexecutivecabinetposition.

Beforeanationcanconductforeignpolicy,therestoftheworldmustformallyrecognizeit.Ifonenationrecognizesanother,itacknowledgesthelegalexistenceofthatnationandgovernment.Sometimes,becauseofwarorrevolution,agovernmentcollapsesoristakenoverbyoneormorefactions.Onlythegovernmentthattheworldrecognizeshasthelegitimaterighttoconductforeignpolicy.

IntheUnitedStates,thepresident’sformalpronouncementaboutforeignpolicy

issuesofcrucialimportanceisoftenreferredtoasadoctrine(asintheMonroeDoctrine).

Self-sufficiency,Independence,andInterdependence.Nationsestablishforeignpolicybasedontheirbeliefsaboutwhethertheycansurviveontheirownorneedthehelpofothernations.Governmentsandpolicymakersuseone(oracombination)ofapproaches.

•Isolationism:Anationturnsinward,refusingtogetinvolvedwiththeaffairsoftherestoftheworld.

•Unilateralism:Anationmakesone-sideddecisions,relyingonitsownresourcesandcapabilitiesinpursuitofforeignpolicyobjectives.

•Bilateralismormultilateralism:Anationcoordinatesdeliberateactionswithtwoormorecountriestoachievecertainobjectives,suchasdisarmament(reductionofweapons).

Goodworldcitizenspayattentiontothepoliticaldebateaboutinternationalchallenges,trytounderstandtheprosandconsofabroadornarrowforeignpolicy,andadvisetheirelectedrepresentativeshowtovoteontheirbehalf.

Nationalinterestisneverstatic.Foreignpolicyshiftsinresponsetochangesondomesticandinternationalfronts.Citizenslivingunderanauthoritariangovernmenthavelittlesayaboutrelationswithothernations.Butinapluralisticsociety,manyraisetheirvoices.Individualswhomakenoefforttoinformthemselvesaboutglobalissuesrisklettingspecialinterestgroupsspeakforthem.

Apluralisticgovernmentembracesculturaldiversityandencouragesgeneralparticipationindecisionmaking.

WhoMakesU.S.ForeignPolicyPresident

•Thecentralfigureinmakingandconductingforeignpolicy

•Commander-in-chiefofthearmedforces•AssistedbytheDepartmentofState•WiththeSenate’sadviceandconsent,cannegotiatetreatiesandappointambassadors,consuls,andotherpublicministerstorepresenttheU.S.abroad

DepartmentofState

•OfficialliaisonwithforeignembassiesinWashington,D.C.•Themainsourceofforeign-affairsinformation•ChieflyresponsibleforplanningandimplementingU.S.foreignpolicy•Responsibleforallofficialrelationshipswithgovernmentsofothercountries

•Negotiatestreatiesandagreementswithforeigngovernments•RepresentstheU.S.beforetheUNandotherinternationalorganizations•Ledbythesecretaryofstate,acabinetmemberapprovedbytheSenatetoadvisethepresidentonforeignpolicy

•ThesecretaryofstatedirectstheUSIA,theArmsControlandDisarmamentAgency,theAgencyforInternationalDevelopment,andthePeaceCorps.

NationalSecurityCouncil

•EstablishedbyCongressin1947•Advisespresidentonforeignpolicy•Analyzescomplexissuesofnationalsecurity•Headedbypresidentandthesecretariesofstateanddefense•Mayinviteheadsofotheragencies(suchastheCIAandJointChiefsofStaff)toitsmeetings

•Scopeofdutiesvarieswitheachpresident

Congress

•Givesadviceandconsentontreatiesandambassadorialappointments•Haslegislativecontroloverthebudgetsofforeignaffairsagenciesandactivities

•Makeslawinimmigration,foreigntrade,andinternationalmonetaryarrangements

•ProvidesforthecommondefenseandgeneralwelfareoftheU.S.byregulatinginternationalcommerceanddeclaringwar

•Committees,suchastheHouseInternationalRelations,SenateForeignRelations,andArmedServicesandAppropriationscommittees,guideforeignaffairslegislationthroughCongress.

•Overseesthepresident’sconductofforeignpolicybyconductinghearings,investigations,andoverseason-siteinspections

•SomemembersofCongressserveasdelegatestotheUnitedNationsandinternationalconferences.

TheU.S.ForeignService

•ThecorpsofprofessionalemployeesoftheStateDepartment•RepresentstheU.S.inforeigncountriesandtointernationalorganizations

•Generallyreferredtoasdiplomats•Employeesarechosenbycompetitiveexamandpromotedonmerit.•UseswiderangeofskillstoimplementAmericanforeignpolicy:—internationalprotocols—negotiatingskills—specializedprofessionalortechnicalskills

TheWorldOrderofNations

Youknowthereisahugedifferencebetweenneedingsomethingandwantingit.It’sthedifferencebetweenpokinginthedirtforacarrottoeatandorderingahotfudgesundaewithacherryontop.It’sthedifferencebetweenjustenough(ornotenough)andplenty,betweensurvivalandprosperity.That’sthekindofdifferencebetweenmostpeoplelivinginBangladeshandthoseintheUnitedStates.Anation’seconomicworldviewhaseverythingtodowithitspositioninthe

worldorder,orhierarchyofworldeconomies.Theseeconomiesareclassifiedaccordingtospecificfactors:standardsofliving,economicproductivityandgrowth,anduseofmoderninformationtechnology.

Thecitizensoffirstworldnationshavemanymorerightsandprivilegesthandothoseoflessdevelopedcountries.

Afirstworldnation,alsocalledanadvancedindustrialcountry(AIC),isamoderncountrywithtop-rateindustrialandtechnologicalcapabilities.Itplaysamajorroleininternationalpoliticsorfinance.Canada,France,Germany,Italy,Japan,theUnitedStates,andtheUnitedKingdomaresomeofthefirstworldnations.

ResidentsofruralChina,oneoftheworld’sdeveloping,orsecondworld,nations.

Asecondworldnation,alsocalledamajordevelopingcountry,isan

industrialcountrythatisnotasadvancedorasprosperousasafirstworldnation.Thisclassificationisnotusedoftenassomenationsareonthevergeofbecomingfirstworldnations,andothersaremorelikethirdworldcountries.ExamplesofsecondworldnationsincludecountriesthatwerepartoftheformerSovietbloc,China,Mexico,andAlgeria.Athirdworldnation,alsocalledaless-developedcountry,isapoorcountry

wherehighbirthrates,poorhealthcare,andlackofeducationcontributetoalowstandardofliving.Theeconomyisgenerallybasedonacombinationofagriculturalandlow-levelindustrialactivities.ThirdworldnationsincludeNicaragua,Kenya,Ethiopia,India,andIndonesia.Thesecountriesdependonforeignaidfromfirstworldnationstofundprogramsthathelpdevelopandimproveuponeducationandtechnology.

Inthirdworldcountries,thepoorhealthstandardscontributetothelowstandardofliving.

Infourthworldcountries,famineandhomelessnessarejusttwooftheseriousday-to-dayconcernsmanypeopleface.

Afourthworldnationisonthebottomoftheeconomichierarchy.Peopleliveinextremepoverty.Theagrarian(agricultural)economyisbasedonsubsistencefarming,whichmeansthatthecropsanddairyproductsprovidetheminimumamountoffoodnecessarytosupportthefarmfamily—withnosurpluslefttotrade.ThefourthworldnationsareBangladeshinAsiaandcountriesinthefaminebeltacrossthemiddleofAfrica.Thirdworldnationsthathavebeenravagedbywar(likeAfghanistanandMozambique)canslipintothiscategory.Peopleallaroundtheworldhavethesamebasicneedsintermsoffood,

shelter,safety,andhealth.Oncetheseneedsaremet,thelifestylesofpeoplearoundtheworldstarttolookalike.Inthefourthworldandinsomethirdworldcountries,peopleusebicyclesandmotorbikestogetaround.Therearefewpavedroads.Asincomeperpersonrises,theconsumerdemandforautomobilesrises.Thatnecessitatestheconstructionofmodernhighways,whichultimatelyleadstothedevelopmentofrailtransportationsystemsandaninfrastructuretosupportthegrowthofmajorurbanareas.

Infrastructureisthesystemofpublicworksthatsupportthepeoplelivinginanarea,suchasatown,region,orcountry.Itincludespublictransportationsystems,waterandsanitation,electricpower,communicationsnetworks,andfinance.

Atthepointthatconsumerdemandismoreaboutwantingthanneedingproducts,anationhasachievedalevelofprosperity.Movementuptheladderofdevelopmentdependsonthegovernment’sabilitytoputtherightpolicies,institutions,andinfrastructureinplaceattherighttime.Ifthegovernmentkeepsatightcontroloncurrency,banking,andcommunications,itcreatesabarriertogrowthanditseconomywillstagnate.However,ifthegovernmentisopentoparticipationintheglobaleconomy,thenationcanprosper.

EconomicActivitiesAroundtheWorldAnation’splaceintheworldorderrelatestothekindsofactivitiesthatarethefoundationofitseconomy.Theseeconomicactivitiesareclassifiedintothreesectors.

PrimarySector.ThisfirstlevelofeconomicactivitiesisbasedonextractingrawmaterialsfromEarth’ssurface.Primarysectorindustriesincludeagriculture,forestry,fishing,andmining.Themajorityofpeopleworkinginthirdworldcountriesareinvolvedintheselabor-intensiveactivities.

SecondarySector.Activitiesinthissectorinvolveindustriesthattransformrawmaterialsintofinishedgoods—manufacturingandconstruction.

TertiarySector.Industriesinthissectorproduceintangibles,alsoknownasservices.Theseincludeconsumer-orientedservicessuchasretailtrade,bankingandinvestmentservices,healthcare,communications,transportation,andnonprofitorganizations.Mostoftheeconomicactivitiesinfirstworldcountriesoccurinthetertiarysector.

Intangiblesareproductsthatcannotbeseenortouched.

Ifyoufollowthelifecycleofaproduct,youwillseethatitmovesthroughthesectorsinsequence.Forexample,workersintheprimarysectorcutdowntrees.Inthesecondsector,thetimberisturnedintolumberatamill,andthenusedtobuildhouses.Inthetertiarysector,variousservicesspinofffromthehomeconstructionindustry:realestatepractices,mortgagecompanies,insuranceagencies,furnitureandhomeimprovementstores,aswellaslandscapeand

carpetcleaningbusinesses.Anation’seconomyislikeaproduct.Overtimeitmovesthroughthe

sequenceofeconomicactivities.Dependingonitsforeignpolicyandotherfactors,thenationmaydevelopfromasourceofrawmaterialsandmanpowertoaproviderofservices,fromathirdworldcountryintoafirstworldnation.Todaymostcountries’economiesdependonacombinationoftwoormoresectors.

Historycanplayakeyroleinhowcountriesinteractwitheachother.Forexample,onecountrymighthaveadominantreligionthatconflictswithanothercountry’sdominantreligion.SuchisthecasebetweenIsraelandSaudiArabia.Otherhistoricfactorsthatcouldinfluencetherelationshipbetweentwocountriesaretheirculturalbeliefsandclasssystem.

Geography,NaturalResources,andClimateIfyouaskedseveralrealestateagentstonamethetopthreefactorstoconsiderwhenbuyingahouse,theyprobablywouldallsay,“Location.Location.Location.”Theymeanthatplacematters.That’strueforcountries,too.Whereacountryislocatedmakesahuge

differenceinwhetheritwillprosperorstruggle.

WherePeopleSettleAspeoplegaveupthenomadiclifestyleofhuntingandgathering,manysettleddowntofarmalongfertilestripsoflandincoastalareasandonfloodplainsnearrivers.Theyieldsoftheircropsdependedonafavorableclimate.Farmersintemperateclimates(moderatetemperaturesandrainfall)hadabetterchanceofproducingabundantcropsthanfarmersinotherclimateregions.Thatistruetoday,too.Latitude,elevation,oceancurrents,bodiesofwater,mountains,andwindsall

impacttheclimateofdifferentregions.Naturalhazardsandseasonalweatherpatternsaffectpopulationsandeconomiesworldwide.Earthquakes,volcanoes,hurricanes,tornadoes,torrentialrains,anddroughtscausedeaths,environmentaldamage,foodshortages,andevencivilunrest.Astherealestateagentswilltellyou,locationmatters.

NaturalResources

Whatisaboveandwhat’sunderthesurfaceofacountrymakeadifferenceinhowwellthepeopletherelive.Nationsdependonenergyandmaterialsextractedfromtheenvironment.Thesenaturalresourcesarethebasicelementsofeconomies.Ifacountryhasabundantandavailableresources,thenitcanusethemtomeetthepopulation’sessentialneedsandtakethesurplustomarketforcash.Naturalresourcesarecategorizedas:

•Inexhaustiblesourcesofenergy—sun,tides,water,wind.Thesearecontinuouslygenerated.Theirproductioncannotbereducedorexhaustedbymismanagement.

•Renewableresources—crops,fisheries,forests,soils.Theseresourcesarerenewed,orregenerated,byeitherenvironmentalprocessesorbiologicalreproduction.Climateandterrain(thephysicalfeaturesoftheland)affecttheirabundanceorscarcity.Althoughtheseresourcescanbereplaced,theyalsocanbedepleted—usedup—ordestroyedbymismanagement.

•Nonrenewableresources—fossilfuels(coal,petroleum,naturalgas),industrialminerals(sand,limestone,salt,sulfur,phosphate),land,metals(ores).Thesearemineralsandcannotbereplenished.

Itispossibletorecyclemetalresources,suchasironandcopper.However,coal,oil,andnaturalgas—whichsupply80percentoftheworld’senergy—arecompletelyconsumedwhenused.Becauseoftheimportanceoftheseresources,nationsformstrategicalliancestouseandprotectthem.Thequalityandquantityofnaturalresourcesareunevenlydistributedaround

theworld.Thosecountrieswithabundantresourcesandthemeanstousethem,liketheUnitedStatesandCanada,havethrived.Mostpoorcountrieshavescarcenaturalresourcesandlackthemeanstousewhattheydohave.

PlacetoPlaceIfacountryintendstotradeorsellitssurplusresources,itmustbeabletogetthemtomarket.Manydevelopingnationsarelocatedinthetropicalregionsoftheworld.Foodssuchasrice,fruits,andvegetablescanbegrownthere,butthedenseforestgrowthandheavyrainfallmakeithardtobuildandmaintainroadsneededtomovetheproductstomarket.Sopeopleinthesecountriesrelyonwatertransportandlivenearthebanksofnavigablerivers.Thosenationsthataremostsuccessfultradingwithothercountrieshavelong

coastlineswithdeepwaterportsandprotectedharbors.YetRussia—despiteitslongcoastline—hasnoice-freeportsinwinter,soithasproblemswithshipping

freight.Someofthepoorestcountriesintheworldarelandlocked.(Switzerlandand

Austria,however,havemanagedtobecomefirstworldnationsdespitebeinglandlocked.)Africahas15landlockednations.Withoutdirectaccesstooceans,thesecountrieslackfishingandshippingopportunitiesandareataseriousdisadvantagecomparedtocoastlinecountries.Theydependonbeingallowedtoshiptheirproductsonroadsorriversthatcrossnationalborders.InAfrica,civilwarsandfaminesoccuroftenandrebelsillegallyseizeshipments.Inorderforthesethirdworldnationstodevelopeconomically,theymustfindwaystocooperate.

TakeadvantageofanyopportunityyouhavetospeakwithScoutsfromfarawayplaces.Thisisthemostfascinatingwaytolearnmoreabouttheworld.

Yemen,onthesouthcoastoftheArabianPeninsula,haslargedepositsofnaturalgas,whichitwantstosellworldwide.However,thecostsofgettingthegastomarketarehighbecausethegasislockedinaninlanddesert,withtwomountainrangesseparatingitfromtheRedSeacoast.Ontheotherhand,Yemen’scompetitor—tinyQataronthePersianGulf—

has62timesasmuchnaturalgasbeneaththesea.Thegascanbepumpedout,

chilledintoliquefiednaturalgas,andthenpouredintothehullsofrefrigeratedsupertankers.

PopulationsandProblemsPopulationgrowthisnotalocalproblemuniquetoaparticularcountry,butaglobalissuethathastobetackledbyallnations.Itcannotbeaddressedonitsown,butmustbeconsideredintermsofglobalpoverty,healthandeducation,economicdevelopment,andenvironmentaldamage.Thatrequirescoordinatedeffortsintheglobalcommunity.Almostthree-quartersoftheworld’spopulationlivesinthirdworldnations.

Morethan80percentofthepopulationincreaseistakingplaceinless-developedcountries.Populationgrowth(frombirthsandmigrationofrefugees)putspressureonlandresources,resultinginfoodshortagecrises.ThereisalimittoEarth’scarryingcapacity,orabilitytosupporttheworld’s

population.Yetmanypeoplethinkthatbecauseresourceslikeairandwaterareownedincommon,theydonothavetomakespecialeffortstoprotectandconservethoseresources.Morethan200oftheworld’sriverbasinsaresharedbytwoormorecountries.Soonecountry’stoxicwastedumpingmaycontaminatethewaterusedbyothercountriesdownstream.Airpollutioncausedbychemicalspillsandnucleardisasters,suchasthoseinBhopal,India,andChernobyl,Ukraine,affectedhumanlives,trade,agriculture,andindustrythroughouttheworld.

Sustainabledevelopmentiseconomicgrowththatbalancestheneedsofhumanityandthebenefitsofindustrializationwithenvironmentalcare.Managingnaturalresourcesanddiscouragingthewasteofnonrenewableresourceshelpsensurethehealthoftheplanetforfuturegenerations.

Themainwaytoachievesustainabledevelopmentisthroughresourcemanagement.Thisapproachinvolvesdecisionsaboutwhichnaturalresourcesshould—andshouldnot—bedeveloped,howmuchandinwhatwaytodevelopthem,andforwhom.Thesedecisionsareinfluencedbyeconomic,political,andculturalconcerns.

StrikinganEcologicalBalancePharmaceuticalcompanieshaverealizedthatrainforestsmayholdthecure

forcertaindiseases.Inordertogainaccesstothemicrobes,insects,andplants,somecompaniesareagreeingintradenegotiationstofinancetheeffortsofconservationgroupsthatprotectthebiodiversityofthetropicalecosystems.

Thegrowthoftheworld’spopulationandthehealthoftheworld’senvironmentaffectusall.Nonationcanaffordtoignoreproblemsbeyonditsborders.Thedepletionortightcontrolofnaturalresourcescallsforcooperativeeffortstomanagetheseresourcesresponsiblyandfindnewsourcesofenergy.Globalpollutionrequirescollectiveenvironmentalprotectionmeasures.Askyourselfhowyoucancontributetothewelfareoftheplanetanditspeople.Theworldwillfeellikeamuchsmallerplace.

InternationalTradeandCommerce

Regardlessofhowanationmightchoosetoisolateitselffromworldevents,itisnotentirelyself-sufficient.Nonation’secon-omycanproduceallthegoodsandservicesthatitscitizensdemand,soitmustexchangeresourcesandproductswithothercountries.Thisexchangeamongnationsiscalledbyvariousterms:internationaltrade,globaltrade,foreigntrade,andinternationalcommerce.

Theconceptoftradereferstothebusinessofbuyingandsellingproductsorbartering(exchangingoneitemforanother).Peopletradeface-to-faceatgaragesales,roadsidevegetablestands,intouristspots,andmanyotherplaces.Commerceisorganizedtradeonalargescaleandusuallyinvolvestransportingproductsfromplacetoplace.Allnationscanbenefitfromtradingwithoneanother,butmanyfactors

affecthowthegainswillbedistributedintheinternationalmarketplace.Acountry’sopennesstointernationaltradedependsonitspoliticalandeconomicsystems.

EconomicSystemsandIdeologiesEverynationmustmakedecisionsaboutwhatgoodstoproduce,inwhatquantity,howtomaketheproducts,whattocharge,andwheretodistributethem.Productionmaybeforsubsistenceorforexchange.Itmaybeorganizedforwelfareorforprofits.Differenteconomicsystemsaddresstheseissuesindifferentways—accordingtogovernment’sinvolvement.

CapitalismCapitalismisamarket-basedeconomicsystem,whichmeansthatthedecisionsmentionedabovearemadeinthemarketplacethroughthelawofsupplyanddemand.Thissystem,alsocalledafreeenterprise,privateenterprise,orfree-marketeconomy,hasthefollowingcharacteristics:

•Privateorcorporateownership

•Investmentsdeterminedbyprivatedecisioninsteadofbystatecontrol

•Individualinitiative

•Profit

•Competition

Thelawofsupplyanddemandstatesthatthepriceofanyproduct(orservice)adjuststobringthesupplyanddemandforthatproductintobalance.Whenthesupplyofaparticulargoodorserviceisplentiful,thesellertendstodropthepriceinordertocompete.Whenthesupplybecomesscarceranddemandishigh(manybuyerswanttheproductorservice),thesellertendstoraisetheprice.Ifdemanddrops(fewerbuyerswanttheproduct),thesellerlowerstheprice.

Inafreeenterprisesystem,theentrepreneurdrivestheeconomy.Anyindividualhastherighttostartandrunhisorherownbusiness,aswellastherighttocloseit.Becausetheentrepreneuristheonewhoorganizes,manages,invests,andtakesthefinancialrisksofthebusiness,thatpersonalsoisentitledtobenefitfromanyprofits.Competitionisakeyfeatureofthefreeenterprisesystem.Whenanumberof

companiesofferthesameproductorservice,theyhavetocompeteforcustomers.Theconsumerwantstobuytheproductwiththebestqualityandlowestprice.Ifcompanieswantmoresales,theyhavetokeepqualityhighandpriceslow.Inordertodoboth,companieshavetofindthemostefficientwaytoproducetheproductsorservicessothattheycanstillrealizeprofits.Capitalismletsconsumers,entrepreneurs,andworkersmakefreechoices.

Buyerschoosewhatproductstheywanttobuyandwhichservicestheywanttouse.Entrepreneurschoosewhattypeofbusinesstheywishtoown,andworkerschoosetostay,switch,orquitjobs.ThebasisoftheU.S.economyisthefreemarket,butthegovernmentdoes

regulatecertaineconomicactivitiesinordertoprotectthepublic.Purefoodanddruglaws,antipollutionstandards,andsubsidies(governmentpayments)tofarmerstogrowparticularcropsareexamplesofsuchregulations.Thegovernmentalsopromotesprivateenterprisebybuildinganinfrastructuretosupportbusinesses,grantingmoneyforscientificresearch,anddevelopingforeignmarkets.Thiseconomicsystem,inwhichtheprivatesector(individualsandcompanies)producesgoodsandservicesandthepublicsector(government)regulatesandpromotesbusiness,iscalledamixedeconomy.IntheUnitedStates,thegovernmentactuallyownsandoperatessomeofthe

servicesthatcouldbeprovidedbytheprivatesector.Forexample,Amtrak(thepassengertrainservice)andMedicare(thefederalhealthcareinsuranceprogram),arerunbythegovernment.

TheU.S.andForeignCommercialServiceTheU.S.andForeignCommercialService,intheDepartmentofCommerce,focusesonpromotingtheexportofgoodsandservicesfromtheUnitedStates,particularlybysmall-andmedium-sizedbusinesses,andontheprotectionofU.S.businessinterestsabroad.TheCommercialServiceassistsAmericanbusinessesbynegotiatingfavorabletradingtermsanddevelopingnewmarketsabroad.Thesebusinessesandmultinationalcorporationsspreadcapitalismthroughouttheworld.

SocialismSocialismisaneconomicandpoliticalsystembasedontheideathatallcitizensshouldbeeconomicallyandpoliticallyequal.UnliketheUnitedStates,wherecitizensareallequalunderthelawbutunequalintermsofpersonalwealth,socialistnationstrytodistributewealthequallyandfairlyamongallcitizens.Theyaccomplishthisthroughcollective(public)ownershipoftheprincipalmeansofproducinganddistributinggoodsandservicesandcentralizedplanning.Understrictsocialism,thegovernmentownsandoperatesallbusinessesand

controlsallaspectsofsocialwelfareandplanning.Inmanysocialistcountries,thegovernmentcontrolsthelargeindustriesthataffectallcitizens,suchastransportation,utilities,andcommunications.Inothersocialistsocieties,thegovernmentmayallowindividualstoowncertainbusinesses,yetitmaintainstightcontrol.

Nationalizationisthegovernment’sacquisitionof—orassumptionofcontrolover—privatelyownedbusinesses.Aseconomiesbasedonsocialismorcommunismtrytomakethetransitiontoafree-marketeconomy,theygothroughprivatization,orthereturnofnationalizedbusinessestoprivateownership.

Socialismattemptstoguaranteethepublicwelfarebyprovidingsocialservicesforallcitizensatlittleornocosttotheusers.Theseservicescaninclude

employment,housing,andhealthcare.Countriesthatprovidetheseextensiveservicesareoftencalledwelfarestates.However,theseserviceshavetobefundedthroughtaxes,whichmayamounttoasmuchas50or60percentofaperson’stotalincome.Governmentbureaucratsmakeallthedecisionsabouthowasocialist

economywilldevelopovertime.Theydetermineproductiongoalsanddirectinvestmentsintospecificindustries.Thistypeofeconomy—inwhichthegovernmentcontrolsthefactorsofproductionanddistribution—iscalledacentrallyplannedorcommandeconomy.Manycountries—suchasSwedenandGreatBritain—aredemocraticsocialist

nations.Theycombineafreemarketeconomywithsocialism.These,likemostmoderneconomies,aremixedeconomies.Thesystemsofcapitalismandsocialismhaveprosandcons.Capitalism

encouragestheindividualtoassumerisks,takeadvantageofnewtechnologies,anddecidehowtousepersonalincome.However,manypeoplestilllackthemeanstoaccessserviceslikegoodhealthcare.Undersocialism,mostcitizenshavetheirbasicneedsmetandalsohavesomeinfluencewheretheywork.Yet,withthehightaxesontheirearnings,theyhavelittlediscretionaryincomeandcanmakefewdecisionsabouthowtospendtheirmoney.Criticsofsocialismarguethatwithsomanypublicservicesprovided,theindividualhaslittleincentivetoworkhard.

Discretionaryincomeisthemoneyavailableafterbasicneedshavebeenmet.

__________________________

ThewordcommunismcomesfromtheLatincommunis,whichmeans“common,belongingtoall.”

CommunismInthemid-1800s,KarlMarxdevelopedasocial,political,andeconomictheoryinreactiontocapitalism.Hebelievedthatthroughouthistorysocialclasseshavestruggledforcontroloflaborandproduction.Hethoughtthatbusinessownersoppressedtheworkersandpredictedthatthelaborers(masses)wouldrevoltandoverthrowthecapitalists.Afteratransitionalphaseunderauthoritariancontrol,afreeclasslesssocietywouldemergeandthe“peopleincommon”wouldownall

theproperty.MarxandFriedrichEngelsdefinedtheconceptsofthismultifacetedtheoryinTheCommunistManifesto.KarlMarxiscalledthefatherofmoderncommunism.Manyofhisfollowers

believedthatsocialism(collectiveownership),anearlystageofcommunism,couldbeachievedpeacefullythroughdemocraticprocesses,butMarxcalledfora“violentandbloodyrevolution,”ifnecessary.ThosewhoagreedwithMarxbecameknownascommunists.In1917,acommunistrevolutioninRussialedtothecreationoftheSoviet

UnionandthentothespreadofcommunisminEasternEuropeandChinaafterWorldWarII.Inthelate1980s,communismcollapsedinEasternEuropeandtheSovietUnionaspeopleralliedforgreaterfreedomofthoughtandeconomicopportunity.Today,CubaandNorthKoreaaretwoofthefewremainingcommunist

nations.AlthoughtheCommunistPartyistheonlypoliticalpartyinVietnamandthePeople’sRepublicofChina,thesecentrallyplannedeconomiesareintroducingelementsofthefreemarket.Developingcountrieswithnoexperienceinbuildinglargeindustriesand

infrastructuretendtorelyoncentrallyplannedeconomies.However,governmentsfocusedoninvestinginafewindustriesorproducing

specificgoodsmayneglecttheproductionoffoodorcertainconsumergoods.Atthatpoint,thecitizensmaybecomeresentfulandunruly.Politicalinstabilityinvitesauthoritariancontrol.Inordertoattractforeigninvestment,countriesmustcreateapredictable

environmentthatreassuresentrepreneursandforeigngovernments.Agoodinvestmentclimateoffersaccesstomarkets,stablegovernment,andtransparency.Developingnationsunderauthoritariancontrolarenottransparent,soinvestorsarereluctanttosinkcapitalintoprojectsthatcouldbenationalized.

Transparencyisthequalityofbeingabletoseethroughpublicandforeignpoliciesandgovernmentalactionstodetectcorruption.Atransparentsocietyisanopensociety,whichallowsaccesstoinformation.

ScarcityandSurplusNomatterwhattypeofeconomicsystemanationhas,itdependsoncertain

resourcestoproducegoodsandservices.Herearethebasicresources,calledfactorsofproduction:

•Naturalresources(renewableandnonrenewableresourcesproducedbynature)

•Humancapital(knowledgeandskillsthatworkersacquirethrougheducation,training,andexperience)

•Physicalcapital(stockofequipmentandstructuresusedtoproducegoodsandservices,includingmoney)

•Technicalknowledge(society’sunderstandingofthebestwaytoproducegoodsandservices)

Differentcountrieshavedifferentamountsoftheseresources,sotheyusethemdifferently.Singaporehasfewnaturalresourcesbutmuchhumancapital,soitspecializesinmanufacturinggoods(suchascomputerandofficeequipment)thatrequirealargelaborforce.

WhattoImportorExport?Todeterminewhichgoodsandservicestospecializein,mostnationsconcentrateonproducingwhattheycanmosteasilyandcheaplytransporttoothermarkets.IftheUnitedStatesproducesmorewheatthanitcanuse(asurplus)andJapanproducesmoreelectroniccomponentsthanitcanuse,thentheUnitedStatescanexportitssurpluswheattoJapanandimportJapan’ssurpluscomponents.Throughspecializationandtrade,thetwocountriescangetmoreofbothproducts.

Exportsaregoodsproduceddomesticallyandsoldtoforeignmarkets.Importsaregoodsproducedabroadandsolddomestically.

Onefactoranationconsiderswhendecidingwhethertoexportorimportaproductinthefreemarketisthedomesticpricecomparedtotheworldpriceforthesameproduct.Forexample,ifthedomesticpriceforbroccoliis$1.25perpoundandtheworldpriceis$1.79,thenthenationcouldgain54centsperpoundbyexportingbroccoli.If,ontheotherhand,thedomesticpriceforbroccoliis$1.79perpoundandtheworldpriceis$1.25,thenthenationwouldimportbroccoli.

Thedomesticpriceofaproductorservicenottradedintheinternationalmarketisthepriceconsumerspayathome.Theworldpriceisthepricenationsarepayingintheworldmarketforthatsameproduct.

Whenacountryallowsfreetradeandexportsaproduct,thedomesticproducersofthatproductarebetteroffbecausetheyreceivethehigherworldprice.However,theconsumersofthegoodareworseoffbecausetheynowhavetopaythehigherworldprice.Whenacountryimportsagood,domesticconsumersofthatgoodarebetteroffbecausetheynowpaythelowerworldprice,butdomesticproducersofthegoodareworseoffbecausetheyhavetodropthedomesticpriceoftheirgoodtocompetewiththeworldprice.Eventhoughtradedoesn’tmakeeveryonebetteroffatthesametime,itdoesraiseanation’sstandardofliving.

FreeTrade,Barriers,andEconomicAlliancesAttimes,however,whendomesticproducersarefeelingthenegativeeffectsofimportinggoods,theywilloftenpressurethegovernmenttoprotectthem.Ifthedomesticbroccoliproducersdescribedearlierwantedtocontinuegrowingbroccoliinsteadofswitchingtoanothercrop,theymightaskthegovernmenttolevyatariffonbroccoliimports.Thetaxraisesthepriceofimportedbroccoliabovetheworldpricebytheamountofthetariff.Nowdomesticproducerscansellbroccoliatapriceequaltotheworldpriceplusthetariffandcompetewithforeignproducers.Thistariffreducesthequantityofimportsandgeneratesrevenue(incomefromthetax)forthegovernment.SomeU.S.industriescomplainthatAmericaisfloodedwithlow-costgoods

fromforeignmarkets.Domesticautomobileandclothingmanufacturers,forexample,saythecostoflaborissocheapinthirdworldcountriesthattheycannotcompete.

Whenagovernmentleviesatariff,itimposesatax(orduty)ongoodsproducedabroadandsolddomestically.

Manyindustriestrytocutcostsbyoutsourcing,orsubcontractingjobsto

foreigncompanies.WorkersintheUnitedStatesandotherfirstworldnationsworryaboutlosingtheirjobstoworkersinforeigncountrieswherelaborcostsarecheaper.

ProsandConsofFreeTrade

Economiesofscalemeansthatovertimetheaveragecostofproducingagood

decreasesasthequantityofthegoodproducedincreases.

Theseindustrieslobby(trytoinfluence)thegovernmenttoprotecttheirbusinessesbyimposingquotas,whicharelimitsontheamountofspecificitemsthatcanbeimported.Tariffsandquotasarecalledtradebarriersbecausetheyblockfreetrade.

Manypeopledisagreeaboutwhethertheeconomybenefitsfromeffortstoprotectindustriesandjobsbyrestrictingtrade.

InternationalTradeAgreementsandEconomicAlliancesInternationaltradeagreementsaretreatiestodevelopandpromotetradeamongnations.Nationsoftenagreetobuyspecificproductsfromeachother.Thesetreatiesprovidetheparticipatingcountrieswithspecialtreatmentsuchaseasingoreliminatingtradebarriers.OneofthemostimportantinternationaltradeagreementsistheGeneral

AgreementonTariffsandTrade,whichistheonlymultilateraltreatythatestablishesagreed-uponrulesforworldtrade.Accordingtoaprovisioncalledthemostfavorednationclause,twopartiesthathavesignedaGATTagreementwilloffereachotherthesameadvantagesthattheyhaveofferedto(orplantooffer)thirdparties.Theseadvantagesusuallyapplytotariffs.TodaytheWorldTradeOrganizationoverseescompliancewiththoserules.Morethan144nationsbelongtotheWTO.Itspurposeistoliberalizeinternationaltradebyreducingtariffsandsubsidiesandabolishingquotasoncertainproducts.Oftennationstrytostrengthentheirowneconomiesbyformingaregional

alliancewithothereconomies.Theyintegratetheirmarketsby:

•Reducingbarrierstofreetradeamongcertaincountries

•Creatingcommontradebarrierstooutsidenations

•Coordinatingpoliciesabouttaxesandspecificbusinessactivities

Theseregionaltradeblocstaketheformsoffreetradeareasandeconomicunions.TheNorthAmericanFreeTradeActisatradeagreementamongMexico,

Canada,andtheUnitedStates.NAFTAremovedtradebarriersinordertopromotethefreemovementofgoodsandservicesacrossborders.In2004,CanadaandMexicoweretheUnitedStates’toptwotradingpartnersforcombinedexportsandimports.

TheUnitedStatesextendsmostfavorednationstatustoalmosteveryoneofitstradingpartners.Becausethestatusisnottheexceptionbutthenorm,thetermwaschangedtonormaltraderelationsstatus.

TheEuropeanUnionisaneconomicandmonetaryunionof25membernationsthatshareacommoncurrencycalledtheeuro.TheEUisbecominganincreasinglypowerfulplayerintheworldmarket.Protectionistsarguethatnationshavetogiveupsomemeasureofsovereignty

toparticipateinfreetradeareasandeconomicunionsliketheEuropeanUnion.

BalanceofPaymentsandForeignExchangeNationsarelikebigfamilieswithbudgets.Theyshop,work,buy,andsell.Attheendoftheday,themoneytheyspendshouldequalthemoneytheyearn.Thebalanceoftradeisthedifference—overaperiodoftime—betweenthevalueofacountry’simportsandexports.Ifthevalueofwhatacountryexportsisgreaterthanwhatitimports,thecountryhasatradesurplus.Ifthevalueofitsimportsisgreaterthanthevalueofitsexports,thecountryhasatradedeficit.Anationmustaddseveralotheritemstoitstradebalancetoknowifitreally

hasabalancedbudget:governmentpurchasesabroad,investmentsacrossinternationalborders,andchangesinthevalueofgovernmentholdingsofgoldandforeigncurrencies.Onceanationcalculatesallofitsinternationaltransactionsoveraperiodof

time—includingforeignaidandincomefromtourists—itdeterminesitsbalanceofpayments.Howanationbalancesitsaccountsdependsonforeignpolicies,economicopportunitiesorrisks,andthevalueofitscurrency.

NoReliefInSightCertainthirdworldcountrieshavesuchcrushingdebtstoothernationsthattheyareforcedtotakedrasticactions.Duringaseverefamine,Sudanexportedfoodtopayonitsdebts.InGhana,where50percentofthechildrenaremalnourished,halfofthefarminglandisusedtogrowcocoaforexport.TheInternationalMonetaryFundisaninternationalorganizationthat

encouragesinternationaltradeandforeignexchangeratestability,andoffersbalance-of-paymentsassistancetodebtornations.TheIMFworkswiththe

WorldBanktoaddresstheproblemsofthemostheavilyindebteddevelopingcountries.

IfyoutradedyourfriendfivepairsofnewbasketballshoesforfivenewCDs,wouldyoucalliteven?Probablynot.Youmightcalculatethevalueoftheitemstradedandfigureouthowmuchmoneyyourfriendstillowedyou.Nationshandletheirbalanceofpaymentsinasimilarway.However,becausecountriesusedifferentcurrencysystems,theyneedwaystoadjusthowtheypaytheirdebtstoeachother.Theforeignexchangerateisthepriceofonecurrencyintermsofanother.

Exchangeratesareimportantbecausetheyaffecttherelativepriceofdomesticandforeigngoods.Ifacountry’scurrencyappreciates,orrisesinvalue,comparedtoothercurrencies,thenthecountry’sgoodsabroad(exports)becomemoreexpensiveandforeigngoodsinthatcountry(imports)becomecheaper.Whenacountry’scurrencydepreciates,orlosesvalue,comparedtoothercurrencies,thenitsexportsbecomecheaperandimportsbecomemoreexpensive.Touriststravelingabroadhopetheircurrencyisstrongcomparedwiththe

currencyintheforeigncountrybecausemeals,hotels,andsouvenirswillnotcostasmuch.Forexample,ifanAmericanwenttothePhilippines,thistouristwouldfindthatoneU.S.dollarequalsalmost49Philippinespesos.SoahotelroominManilathatcosts1,200Philippinespesospernightwouldcostabout25U.S.dollars.However,anAmericantouristinEuropemightbesurprisedtofindthatthe

U.S.dollarisweakcomparedtotheeuro.AhotelinBrusselsthatcosts63eurospernightwouldcostabout90U.S.dollars.

Eachnation’scurrencyisuniqueandnotinterchangeable.U.S.dollarsarenotthesameasIndianrupeesorJapaneseyen.Norarecurrenciescalledbythesamename.ThepesosofArgentinaaredifferentfromthepesosusedinMexico.ThedinarsofJordan,Kuwait,andBahrainarenotinterchangeable,either.

Theexchangeratedependsonthesupplyanddemandforthecurrencyintheforeignexchangemarket,sotheratechangeseveryday.Theexchangerateonaparticulardayiscalledthespotrate.Therateofexchangebetweentwocurrenciesforaparticulartransactioniscalledthecrossrate.

Theforeignexchangemarketisnotaplace,butanorganizedgroupofseveralhundreddealers(mostlycentralbanksliketheFederalReserveBankintheUnitedStates)thatconductelectronictransactionstobuyandsellbankdepositsdenominatedindifferentcurrencies.

Foreigncurrenciescanbeboughtorsoldnowanddeliveredinthefuture.Thesetransactionsaredonebypurchasingabuyorsellcontractforaspecificcurrencyintheforeignexchangemarket.Theexchangerateusediscalledtheforwardrate.Youcanfindforeignexchangeratesinthebusinesssectionofmanycity

newspapers.FinancialpublicationssuchastheWallStreetJournalpublishdailylistingsofthespotratesandforwardratesofmajorworldcurrencies.Countrieswillnotallowtheirexchangeratestodroptoolow.Theymaintaina

specialstockofforeigncurrenciesknownasinternationalreserves.Whenacurrencydecreasestoomuch,anationwillinterveneintheforeignexchangemarketandbuysomeofitsowncurrencywithitsinternationalreservesinordertostabilizetheexchangerate.SincetheUnitedStatesistheworld’sleadingtradingnation,mostcountries

maintaintheirinternationalreservesinU.S.dollars.ManynationsalsoacceptU.S.dollarsaspayment.Inthisway,thedollaroftenfunctionsasaninternationalmonetaryunit.SotheforeignexchangerateofthedollarisimportantnotonlytotheUnitedStates,butalsotothosecountriesthatfundtheirinternationalreserveswithdollars.Theglobaleconomyandinternationaltradelinkallnations.Whathappensin

onecountryhasarippleeffectthroughouttheworld.Politicalproblemsoranaturaldisasterinonecountrycoulddelayshipmentsofrawmaterialstoothercountries—causingproductionslowdowns,whichleadtolayoffsorfiringofemployees.Nowthesecountriesareexportingless(creatingatradedeficit),andunemployedworkersarespendinglessintheirowneconomies,causingthedemandfordomesticproductstodrop.Therippleeffectcontinues.

AfloatingmarketinthedevelopingcountryofThailand

Itisimportanttounderstandthebasicconceptsabouttheglobaleconomyandinternationaltradebecauseitleadstoquestionsaboutthepeoplebehindtheproducts.Whyislaborsocheapinthirdworldcountries?Howcanmillionsofpeopleeachliveonlessthan$2aday?Arechildrenworkinginadultjobs?Asyourknowledgeincreases,sodoesyourcompassionforpeoplearoundtheworldandyourappreciationofyourownwayoflife.

UnitedNationsheadquarters,NewYorkCity

UnitedNationsSystem

TheUnitedNationsisamultinationalorganizationestablishedafterWorldWarIItoensurethatnationswouldworktogethertoavoidwarinthefuture.Itisneitheragovernmentnoranation,soithasnosovereignpowerofitsown.Althoughitcannotdeterminethelegitimacyofanation,itcanacceptcredentialsformembership.AsofOctober2013,U.N.membershipincluded193independentnations.

EachmembernationisamemberoftheGeneralAssemblyandhasonevote.Dependenciesarerepresentedindirectlybytheirrulingcountries.They,likeareasofspecialsovereignty,areinvitedtobeobserversatsessionsoftheGeneralAssemblyandtomaintainpermanentofficesatU.N.headquartersinNewYorkCity.

Adependencyisasubjectterritorythatisnotanessentialpartoftherulingcountry.Forexample,theFalklandIslandsoffthecoastofArgentinaisoneoftheUnitedKingdom’sdependentterritories.Anareaofspecialsovereigntyisageographical/politicalareawhosestatusofsovereigntyisunresolved.TheWestBankandGazaStripintheMiddleEast,forexample,areareasofspecialsovereignty—pendingfinalstatusnegotiationswithIsrael.

GoalsoftheUnitedNationsTheUnitedStateswasthefirstnationin1945toratifytheU.N.charter,whichis—ineffect—thewrittenconstitutionoftheUnitedNations.Accordingtothecharter,thegoalsoftheUnitedNationsaretomaintaininternationalpeaceandthecollectivesecurityandpromotecooperationinsolvinginternationalpolitical,economic,social,cultural,andhumanitarianproblems.Inordertoachieveitsgoals,theUnitedNationsdevelopedkeyobjectivesfor

the21stcentury:

•Promotingthecreationofindependentanddemocraticsocieties

•Protectinghumanrights

•Savingchildrenfromstarvationanddisease

•Providingreliefassistancetorefugeesanddisastervictims

•Counteringglobalcrime,drugs,anddisease

•Assistingcountriesdevastatedbywarandthelong-termthreatoflandmines

StructureoftheUnitedNationsTheU.N.charterorganizestheUnitedNationsintosixprincipalorgans:GeneralAssembly,SecurityCouncil,EconomicandSocialCouncil,TrusteeshipCouncil,InternationalCourtofJustice,andSecretariat.ExceptfortheInternationalCourtofJustice(alsoknownastheWorldCourt),

whichislocatedinTheHagueintheNetherlands,theotherorgansoperateoutofU.N.headquarters.ThesemainbodiesworkwithandthroughsubsidiaryU.N.organizationsandspecializedagencies.

ThefivepermanentmembersoftheSecurityCouncilareChina,France,RussianFederation,UnitedKingdom,andUnitedStatesofAmerica.Anegativevotefromanyoneofthepermanentmembershasthepowerofaveto.

SpecializedagenciesoftheUnitedNations,suchastheInternationalMonetaryFund,areseparateautonomousorganizations,relatedtotheUnitedNationsbyspecialagreements.

CallforReformMostpeoplethinkoftheUnitedNations’effortsintermsofpeacekeepingandmilitaryconflicts.Historically,however,itsmostvaluablecontributionsareintheareasofinternationallawandthedevelopmentofnations.CitizensofmanynationsbelievethattheUnitedNationsisoutofstepwith

worldchanges.Thebalanceofpowerhasshiftedsince1945.Countriesarenolongerundercolonialcontrol,andalltrustterritoriesarenowself-governingorhavegainedtheirindependence.Somenationsaredemandinganincreaseinthenumberofpermanent

membersintheSecurityCouncil.Others,suchastheUnitedStates,questionhowmuchsovereigntytheyhavetogiveupinordertocooperatewiththeUnitedNations.ThirdworldcountriesformthemajorityofmembersoftheU.N.General

Assembly,wheretheyhaveobjectedtothewideninggapbetweenrichandpoornations.ManyofthesenationsthinktheUnitedNationsistoofinanciallydependentontheUnitedStatesandotherfirstworldcountries.Ifthewealthynationsrefusetopaytheirdues,theycanseverelyhandicaptheUnitedNations’abilitytofulfillitspurpose.

Asyoulearnaboutothernations,amapoftheworldwillhelpyouputthingsintoperspective.Themapwillmostlikelybeapoliticaloraphysicalmapandmayincludefeaturessuchasterritorialboundaries.

UnlessthemajorityofcitizensaroundtheworldseetheUnitedNationsasrepresentingtheirinterests—andnotjusttheinterestsofthepermanentmembersoftheSecurityCouncilandtheirallies—thentheywillnottrusttheUnitedNations.Ifthathappens,theUnitedNationswillnotbeabletofunctionanywhere.

The United Nations General Assembly created UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund) in 1946 t o help "save and protect the world's most vulnerable children" at the time,for those who had been devastated by WWII. Today, UNICEF is a member o f the United Nations Development Group, and it focuses on assistance to children and mothers in more than 190 developing countries and territories around the world. Governments and private donations fund UNICEF in its efforts to

provide clean water, nutrition, immunization, and treatment of diseases like malaria and HIV/AIDS. UNICEF provides resources for education, children with disabilities, and emergency relief such as food crisis, countries in conflict, and in places devastated by earthquakes, hurricanes, and other acts of nature. The organization also is an advocate of Fighting child trafficking, prostitution, and labor, and violence against children.

Jonesd14Highlight

GlobalIssues,Watchdogs,andAdvocates

Globalissuesareboilinginpotsaroundtheworld.Manyofusdon’tliftthelidsbecausewearenothungry,buttheproblemsstillboil.Becauseitiseasytoignoreissuesthatdon’tseemtoaffectusdirectly—orare

toocomplicatedtobesolvedbyoneperson—wetendtoleavetheworld’sproblemstothepoliticians.However,globalissuessuchasenvironmentaldamage,contaminatedfoodproducts,andinfectiousdiseasesaffectusall.Activistssuchaswatchdogsandadvocateskeeptheseproblemsinfrontof

worldcitizens,policymakers,andintergovernmentalagencies.UnitedNationsorganizationsoftenappointcelebritiesasgoodwillambassadorstobringattentiontoglobalissues.

Awatchdogisapersonwhotriestoguardtheintegrityofanorganizationorcausebywatchingoutforillegalorunethicalconduct.Anadvocatesupportsapersonorissueandpleadsthecaseincourtsoflaworpublicopinion.

HumanRightsIssuesAlthoughtodayhumanrightshaveahigherplaceonforeignpolicyagendas,nationsdisagreeaboutwhichkindofrightsaremostimportant.Infirstworldcountries,particularlyintheWest,thecriticalhumanrightsareindividualfreedoms.Inthirdworldcountries,wheremakingendsmeetisacommonproblem,economicandsocialrightsaremoreimportantthanpoliticalandcivilrights.Childrenhavetherightstosurvival,goodhealth,development,and

protection,yetmillionssufferfrompoverty,malnutrition,preventablediseases,andthetraumaofwar.Manyarerecruitedtoserveassoldiersorforcedtoworkinsweatshops.Warsandpandemicshaveorphanedmillionsofchildrenandforcedsurvivorsintorefugeecampsortofendforthemselves.Inpartsoftheworld,womenarestillregardedasproperty.Theyarenot

allowedtofinishschoolandaremarriedoffasgirls.Theirlackofeducationhasadirectimpactonthepopulationexplosionandthepoorhealthoffamilies.Genocide—theexterminationofaracial,ethnic,religious,orpoliticalgroup

—stilloccurs.In1994,extremistscontrollingthegovernmentoftheAfricannationRwandasystematicallykilledahalf-millionpeople.Hownationsdealwiththereportsandfactsofgenocideandotherhuman

rightsabusesdependsonnationalinterestandforeignpolicies.Tragicallyforthevictims,nationsarereluctanttointerveneifthehumanrightsissuesdon’tdirectlythreatenthehigherissuesofnationalsecurityandeconomicinterests.

InternationalHumanRightsandHumanitarianOrganizationsNongovernmentalorganizations,orNGOs,actastheglobalconscience,constantlyremindingtheworld’snationsoftheirhumanandmoralresponsibilities.Theseprivategroups,officiallyorunofficiallylinkedtotheUnitedNations,prodtheUnitedNationstoactionaswellasextenditsinfluence.NGOsusetheInternettoshareinformationwithpeopleallovertheworld,“namingandshaming”corruptindividuals,governments,andgroupsthatcommithumanrightsabuses.Oneofthebest-knowninternationalNGOsisAmnestyInternational.

TheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,adoptedbytheGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNationsin1948,statesthatthe“recognitionoftheinherentdignityandoftheequalandunalienablerightsofallmembersofthehumanfamilyisthefoundationoffreedom,justiceandpeaceintheworld….”Thedeclarationestablishedthestandardforinternationalbehaviorconcerninghumanrights.

AmnestyInternationalAmnestyInternationalisaworldwidemovementdedicatedtoprotectinghumanrightsassetoutintheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights.Thisorganizationworkstogainthereleaseofpeoplewhohavebeenimprisonedfortheirpoliticalorreligiousbeliefs,racialorethnicorigin,orsex—providedtheyhavenotusedorencouragedviolence.Itsmemberscampaigntoabolishthedeathpenalty,torture,anddegradingpunishment.Theyadvocatepromptandfairtrialsforallpoliticalprisoners,andtrytoensurethatabusersarebroughtto

justiceinaccordancewithinternationallaw.AmnestyInternationalcooperateswithotherinternationalagenciesand

organizations,suchastheUnitedNations,tofurthersharedgoals.Eachyearitpublishesglobalreportsonthestateofhumanrightsinmostnationsoftheworld,includingtheUnitedStates.DespitewinningtheNobelPeacePrizein1977,AmnestyInternationalisconsideredbymanytobeacontroversialorganization.

CooperativeforAmericanReliefEverywhere(CARE)Foundedin1945tohelpWorldWarIIsurvivors,CAREhasevolvedintoaninternationalreliefagencydedicatedtoendingpoverty.Inmorethan60countriesaroundtheworld,CAREprovidesfood,disasteraid,healthcaretraining,self-helpdevelopmentprograms,andeconomicopportunities.Asanindependentorganization,CAREpartnerswithotherhumanitariangroupsandbuildsrelationshipswithgovernmentstoinfluencepolicydecisionsaboutovercomingpoverty.

TheICRCpartnerswiththenationalsocietiessuchastheAmericanRedCrossandJordanianCrescentSocietytobringemergencyrelieftodisastervictims.Here,needyfarmersinAfghanistanreceiveseedandfoodrationsfromtheInternationalRedCross.Image:ICRC/FrancoPagetti

InternationalRedCrossTheInternationalRedCrossandRedCrescentMovementistheumbrellaorganizationfortheindividualnationalRedCrossandRedCrescentSocieties,theinternationalfederationofthosesocieties,andtheInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross.Establishedin1863,theInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCrossisaneutral

andindependentorganizationwhosemissionistoprovideprotectionandassistancetovictimsofarmedconflict.TheICRCdirectsandcoordinatesinternationalreliefactivitiesinaccordancewiththeGenevaConventions.Itseffortsincludevisitingprisonersofwar,tracingmissingpersons,andre-establishingcontactbetweenfamilymembersseparatedbywarordisaster.

TheGenevaConventions,amongthemostwidelyratifiedagreementsintheworld,dealwiththeconductofwarfareandthebehaviorofcombatants.Rulesestablishedforthehumanetreatmentofthewounded,sick,andshipwreckedinbattle—aswellasprisonersofwar—arethefoundationofinternationalhumanitarianlaw.TheGenevaConventionshavebeenextendedtoprotectcivilianscaughtupinarmedconflict,suchashostages.

WorldHealthOrganizationTheWorldHealthOrganizationisaspecializedagencyoftheUnitedNations.Itsmainpurposeistocollaboratewithgovernments,healthprofessionals,andinternationalorganizationstoincreasethelevelofhealthofallpeople.WHOhasaglobalstrategytoimproveprimaryhealthcare.WHOalsoworkswithinternationalagenciessuchastheWorldTradeOrganizationandtheWorldBanktoensurethatinternationaltradeagreementsandforeigninvestmentsmaximizehealthbenefitsandminimizehealthriskstopoorandvulnerablepopulations.

InSibiti,Congo,aWHOworkeradministersthepoliovaccinetoachild.

ThePeacePalaceinTheHague,Netherlands,iswheremeetingsoftheInternationalCourtofJusticeareheld.

InternationalLaw

Theworldismadeupofapproximately200nationswithstrongideasaboutsovereigntyandnationalinterests.Asthesecountriesgrowincreasinglyinterdependent,theirrelationshipsarechallengedbyseriousissues,includingthethreatofnuclearwar,terrorism,destructionoftheenvironment,tradeimbalances,famine,anddiseasecontrol.Often,becauseoftheirpolitical,economic,religious,andculturalviews,nationsdonotagreeabouthowtoaddresstheseissues.Byapplyinginternationallawtospecificsituations,countriesmayavoidaconflictthatleadstoaggressionoroutrightwar.

SupremeLawTherearetwolegaltheoriesaboutnationalandinternationallaw.Oneisthemonisttheory,whichproposestheunityofnationalandinternationallaws.Itsuggeststhatinternationallawisnotonlypartofanationallegalsystem,butalsosuperiortonationallaw.Germany’slegalsystemisbasedonthemonisttheory.Theothertheoryisthedualisttheory,whichholdsthatthenationaland

internationallegalsystemsareseparateanddifferent.Accordingtothistheory,internationallawcannotbesupremebecauseitisapartfromthenationallegalsystemandhasnoinfluenceondomesticlaw.

Publicinternationallawconsidersstates(nations)tobelegalentities.Thelawconsistsofalltherules,principles,customs,andagreementsthatthesenationsacceptashavingtheforceoflawintheirrelationswitheachother.Internationallawisappliedasfollows.InternationalConventionsandTreaties.Theseareformalpledgesbetweenoramongnations.Conventionsaregeneralagreementsamongnationsregardingmattersofcommonconcern,suchastheGenevaConventions.Treatiesarewrittencontracts,whichareconsideredlegallybindingonthosenationsthatsignedtheagreements.TheUnitedNationscharterisamultilateraltreatythataddressestheagreements,rights,anddutiesofU.N.members.Executiveagreementsarepactsmadebetweenheadsofstate.

InternationalCustoms.Theseareinternationalrulesthathavebeenpracticedsolongthatcourtsregardthemasunwrittenlaws.MostcustomarylawsarebasedonWesterncultureandideas.Thelawsaredifficulttoenforcebecausemanynon-Westernnationsarenotlikelytoagreetothetermsoflawsthatdifferfromtheirowncustoms.

GeneralPrinciplesofLaw.Thesearegeneralprinciplesfoundinthevariouslegalsystemsofmanynations.Oneexampleisanation’srighttodefenditself.TheInternationalCourtofJusticemaybaseitsrulingsongeneralprinciplesoflaw,butitisreluctanttodosobecausemanymembernationsthinktheCourtis“creating”newlawsinsteadofapplyingestablishedlaws.

ComityofNations.Thisisthecourteousandfriendlypracticebetweennationsofmutuallyrecognizingexecutive,legislative,andjudicialacts.Comityallowsonenationtorecognizeanother’slawswhilestillupholdingitsownlaws.Thisformofinternationallawisusedindiplomaticsituations.

Ininternationalterms,anindependentsovereignnationiscalledastateand“country”oftenreferstothegeographicalboundariesofanation.Inthispamphletandingeneralusage,thetermsstate,nation,andcountrymeanthesamething.

InternationalCourtofJusticeTheInternationalCourtofJusticeisthejudicialorganoftheUnitedNations.AllUnitedNationsmembersareautomaticallymembersoftheICJ.Asacivilcourt,itappliestheruleoflawtointernationaldisputesbetweennations.Itsjurisdictionistwofold:settlinginternationaldisputesandgivingadvisoryopinionsonlegalquestions.

Jurisdictionistheauthoritytointerpretandapplythelaw.

OnlynationsmaybepartytocasesbeforetheCourt,butinternationalorganizationscanobtainadvisoryopinions.Infact,theICJwilltryonlythosecasesinwhichbothnationsagreetoacceptthejudgmentoftheCourt.

Unlikenationallaw,whichissupportedbyasystemofcourtsandprisons,internationallawisdifficulttoenforce.ThelackofpowertoenforcethelawhandicapstheCourt.However,nationscanenforceinternationallawthrougheconomicsanctionslikeembargoesandthefollowingcoerciveactions.

Anembargoisagovernmentrestrictionorrestraintontradeofaspecificproductorwithaparticularnation.

Retorsion.Alawfulretaliatoryactusedbyanationtopressureanothernationintoreversinganunfriendlyact.Theactionisidenticalorsimilartotheoffense,suchasimposinghightariffsordiscriminatoryduties.

Reprisal.Anactofforceinresponsetoanillegalactionagainstanation.Inmostcircumstances,theretaliatoryactitselfwouldbeillegal.However,asareprisal,itislawful.Forexample,ifacountryrefusestorepayaloan,thelendingnationcouldlegallyseizeitsproperty.

War.Thelastresort.Becausetheconsequencesofwararesoserious,thethreatofwaroftenissufficienttoforceacountrytochangeitsways.

TheSecurityCouncilhastheauthoritytobacktheCourt’sjudgmentsbuthasneverusedit.ManydevelopingcountriesarecriticaloftheInternationalCourtofJusticebecausetheybelievethattheICJisaninstrumenttofurthertheinterestsofthefirstworldnations.

AmeetingoftheInternationalCourtofJusticeinTheHague’sPeacePalace

TheInternationalCourtofJusticehashadsuccessindefiningtheprinciplesbywhichdisputesarejudged.Someoftheseprinciplesinvolvedrawinglinestoestablishterritorialsovereignty.Theseprinciplesareappliedindisputesaboutterritorialwatersandfishingrights.TheCourt’sactionsincludejudgmentsonhostage-taking,therightofasylum,

rightsofpassage,economicrights,andnationality.Certainadvisoryopinionsdealwiththestatusofhumanrightsinformersandthethreatoruseofnuclearweapons.

InternationalCriminalCourtThispermanentinternationalcriminalcourtofjusticewilltryindividualsaccusedofgenocide,warcrimes,andcrimesagainsthumanity.Itsgoalsaretopromotetheruleoflawandensurethatthosepeopleresponsibleforthemostseriouscrimesdonotgounpunished.TheICC’sjurisdictioniscomplementarytonationaljurisdictions.

Theprincipleofcomplementaritymeansthatnationshavetheprimarydutyto

trythemostseriousinternationalcrimes.TheICC,however,maystepinasalastresortifthenationfailstoactbecauseitslegalsystemhascollapsedorbecauseitisshieldingthepersonfromprosecution.

MistakenIdentityManypeopleconfuseTheHaguewiththeUnitedNations’InternationalCourtofJustice,butTheHagueisactuallyacity.AndtheInternationalCourtofJusticeisjustoneofthemanyinternational,diplomaticinstitutionsthatcallTheHaguehome.LocatedontheeasterncoastoftheNetherlands,nearthenation’scapitalcityofAmsterdam,itistrulyaninternationalcity,with81embassiesand46consulates.Morethanhalfofitsresidentsareactuallyfromothercountries!

LiketheInternationalCourtofJustice,theICCislocatedinTheHague,butthetwocourtsaredifferent.TheICJispartoftheUnitedNationssystem,anditspurposeistotrycivildisputesbetweencountries.TheICCisanindependentcriminalcourtestablishedtoprosecuteindividuals.TheInternationalCriminalCourtdoesnothavethesupportofthewhole

internationalcommunity.Infact,theUnitedStatesdecidednottojoinbecausetheICC’sgeneralrulesofactionconflictwithfundamentalAmericanbeliefsaboutsovereignty,checksandbalances,andnationalindependence.

InternationalCriminalPoliceOrganizationINTERPOListheworld’slargestpoliceorganization.Itmaintainsdatabasesofforensicinformation(suchasDNAandfingerprints)tosharewithnationallawenforcementagenciesandsupportsthemincooperativeeffortstocombatinternationalcrime.Thesecrimesbetweentwoormorecountriesinclude:

•Terrorism

•Financialcrimes(moneylaundering,counterfeiting)

•Traffickinginhumanbeings(smugglingpeopleacrossbordersforprostitution,forcedlabor,removaloforgans)

•Drugtrafficking

•High-techcrimes(computerviruses,identitytheft)

•Theftofartwork(lootingofmuseums,forgeries)

•Intellectualpropertycrimes(softwarepiracyandcounterfeitingofclothing,medicine,andCDs)

Internationallawhashadapositiveimpactonagree-mentsandtreatiesconcerningtelecommunications,mail,health,weatherforecasting,andairandseatransport.Ithasnothadasmuchsuccesswithcontroversialissuesthatinfringeonnationalsovereigntysuchashumanrightslegislationandlawsofpeace.Mostnationsobeyinternationallawmostofthetime.Oneofthemainreasons

theapplicationofinternationallawworksisbecausethecountriesrecognizetheneedfororder,stability,andpredictabilityintheirinternationalrelations.Theyknowthatitisinthemutualinterestofallnationstofollowtherules.

U.S.Embassy,Moscow,Russia

RepresentationAbroad

Anationadvancesitsforeignpolicyobjectivesthroughforeignassistance,officialrepresentation,anddiplomacy.Maintainingapresenceinforeigncountriescommunicatesanation’svaluesandgoalstotheinhabitantsofthosecountries.ParticipationinintergovernmentalorganizationssuchastheUnitedNationsandtheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgencyensuresthatanation’svoiceisheardontheinternationalstage.Representativesarenotlimitedtopeopleactinginanofficialcapacity.

Citizenstravelingabroadastourists,students,businesspeople,artists,activists,athletes,andhumanitariansare,intheeyesofforeignpeoples,representativesoftheircountries.Howthesecitizensconductthemselvesreflectsontheirnations.

OlympicAthletesNationsallaroundtheworldsponsorathletestorepresenttheircountriesatthesummerandwinterOlympicGames,whicharegovernedbyinternationalagreement.Theseambassador-athletesdemonstratethehighestlevelofphysicalskill,discipline,andsportsmanship.Throughtheirparticipationinfairandhonestcompetition,theathletesshowtheworldhowtobegoodcitizens.Byacknowledgingandrespectingthestrengthsofothersandacceptingdifferences,wecanalllearntocompeteandcooperateininternationalarenas.Despitecenturiesofwars,abuses,andevenscandals,theOlympicflamestillburns.

TheU.S.DepartmentofStateTheStateDepartmentistheleadU.S.foreignaffairsagency,providingdirectadvicetothepresidentthroughthesecretaryofstateandsupportingforeignpolicyprogramsinotherU.S.governmentorganizations.Itdevelops,conducts,andcommunicatesforeignpolicy,andcoordinatesU.S.representationabroadthroughForeignServiceemployeesatourembassiesandconsulatesinforeigncountries.TheBureauofConsularAffairsprotectsandassistsU.S.citizensoverseas.

ThewebsitefortheStateDepartmentprovidesinformationaboutforeignpolicyandworldevents,aswellasdescriptionsofeverybureauandoffice,fromCounterterrorismtoOceansandInternationalEnvironmentalandScientificAffairs.

U.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopmentTheUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentisanindependentagencythatreceivesgeneraldirectionandforeignpolicyguidancefromthesecretaryofstate.TheUSAIDmanagesU.S.economicandhumanitarianassistanceprogramstopromotesustainabledevelopmentinmorethan100countries.Theprograms—administeredthroughoverseasmissionsinconjunctionwithU.S.embassies—concentrateonthefollowinginterrelatedareas:

•Improvinghealthandlivingconditions

•Developinghumanabilitiesthrougheducationandtraining

•Promotingeconomicgrowthandagriculturaldevelopment

•Protectingtheenvironment

Theseprogramsadvancedemocraticvalues,encourageinternationalcooperation,andhelptoestablisheconomicconditionsthatcreatemarketsforU.S.goodsandservicesindevelopingcountries.

PublicDiplomacyandPublicAffairsThepublicdiplomacyfunctionsoftheformerUnitedStatesInformationAgency(USIA)havebeenintegratedintotheDepartmentofState.TheBureauofEducationalandCulturalAffairspromotesmutualunderstandingbetweentheUnitedStatesandothercountriesthroughexchangeactivities.Culturalexchangesincreasepeople’sawarenessoftraditionsandaccomplishmentsinart,music,literature,andscience.Educationalexchangesallowstudentstovisitandstudyinforeigncountries.AcademicandprofessionalexchangesincludetheFulbrightExchangeProgramandtheInternationalVisitorsProgram.TheBureauofInternationalInformationProgramsdevelopsstrategic

communicationsfortheU.S.foreignaffairscommunity.Itproduceselectronicandprintpublications,speakerprograms,andresourceservicesthatexplainU.S.policies,society,andvaluesforthemedia,governmentofficials,opinionleaders,andthegeneralpublicinmorethan140countries.

AlthoughtheVoiceofAmericaisnowpartofanindependentagency,itbroadcaststelevisionprogramsthroughWorldnetTelevisionandFilmService,whichispartofIIP.Theprograms—producedinEnglishand13foreignlanguages—includeinternationalandregionalnews,publicaffairsreportsthatreflectAmericanlife,anddiscussionsonUnitedStatesforeignanddomesticpolicies.

DiplomaticRelationsUnderinternationallaw,everynationhastherightoflegation—therighttosendandreceivediplomaticrep

Documents

Citizenship in the World Merit Badge Pamphlet: Merit Badge ......global partnerships with other countries. 4. Do TWO of the following: a. Explain international law and how it differs